1

Mobile Radio Propagation: Small-scale Fading and Multipath

Fading is rapid fluctuations of the amplitude of a radio signal over a
short period of time or travel distance.


Fading is caused by interference between two or more versions of
transmitted signal, which arrives at the receiver at slightly different
times.


These multipath waves combine at the receiver antenna to give a
resultant signal, which can vary in delay, in amplitude and phase.


2



Multipath Effects

Rapid changes in signal strength over a small distance or time
interval.


Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shift on
different multipath signal.


Time Dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath propagation delay.


3
Causes of Fading

In urban areas, fading occurs because the height of mobile is <<
height of surrounding structures such as buildings, trees


Existence of several propagation paths between transmitter and
receiver.

4
Factors influencing small signal fading

Multipath propagations

Speed of mobile (Doppler Shift)

received frequency = f +/- fd
+ If mobile is moving towards base station.
- If mobile is moving away from base station.

Speed of Surrounding objects

This is considered only if the speed of the surrounding objects
is greater than the mobile

Transmission bandwidth of signal and bandwidth of
channel.
5




Analysis methods of Multipath Channel




Transmitter Receiver





Spatial Position
d

6


Convolution model for multipath propagation

-
-
-
-
-





Received Signal: y (t) = x(t) + A
1
x(t -
1
) + A
2
x(t -
2
) + ...........


T R
A
2
x(t-
2
)
A
1
x(t-
1
)
7

8
Time varying system model for channel

For a fixed position d, the channel between transmitter and
receiver can be modulated as a linear time varying system(LTV
system)


Impulse response of the LTI system can be given as h(d,t)

If x(t) is the transmitted signal, the received signal can be
represented as:

y(d,t) = x(t) * h(d,t)

* denotes convolution
h(d,t) is impulse response of the system
9
Time varying system model for channel

y(d,t) = x(t) * h(d,t)

t
y(d,t) = x() h(d,t -) d
-
distance d= v.t where v is constant velocity of the receiver.

t
y(vt,t) = x() h(vt,t -) d
-

t
y(t) = x() h(t,) d
-
This is a time varying system with impulse response of h(t,)
10



System Definition

Linear time varying (LTV) system



x(t) y(t)




h(t,)
11
Signal definitions

Transmitted signal

C(t)


j2f
c
t
x(t)= Re { c(t) e }

Received signal
j2 f
c
t
y(t) = Re {r(t) e }

Impulse response
jf
c
t
12
h(t,)= Re {h
b
(t,) e }

Base band equivalent channel Impulse Response Model





h
b
(t,)
c(t)
r(t)
13
Modeling of the Base band Impulse Response Model


Mathematical model


r(t) = c(t) * h
b
(t,)



h
b
(t,)
t
3


t
2

t
1


t
0


o

1

2

N-2

N-1

14

Excess Delay concept

The delay axis ,
o
<= <=
n-1
is divided into equal time delay
segments called excess delay bins


i+1

i
=

0
= 0

1
=

2
= 2
.

N-1
= (N-1)
All multipath signals received within the bins are represented by a
single resolvable multipath component having delay
i.


15
This modal can analyze transmitted signals having bandwidths less
than 1/ (2).
Mathematical Model for Base band Impulse Response


N-1 j2f
c

i
(t) j
i
(t,)
h
b
(t,) = a
i
(t,) e e * [
i
(t)]
i=0

a
i
(t,) = Real Amplitude

i
(t) = Excess delays

2f
c

i
(t) = Phase shift due to free space propagation

i
(t,) = phase shift encountered in channel
16


17
Simplified Mathematical Model for Baseband Impulse Response

If the channel is assumed to be time invariant, over a small period
of time or over small distance interval

N-1 j
i
h
b
() = a
i
e [
i
]
i =0

Since r(t)= c(t) * h
b
(t)

N-1 j
i
r(t) = a
i
e c[t
i
]
i =0
For measuring or predicting the impulse response a probing pulse
c(t)= [T-t] is used.
18
Relationship between bandwidth and received power -Wideband
signals




j2f
c
t
Transmitted signal x(t)=Re{p(t) e }

N-1 j
i
Received signal r(t) = a
i
e p[t
i
]
i =0


p(t) is a pulse train.

19
Instantaneous Multipath received power amplitude


max

|r(t)|
2
=(1/
max
) ?r(t) r *(t) dt
0

N-1
= |a
k
|
2

k = 0



=>Total received power = sum of the power of individual
multipath components.
20


Average small-scale received power

N-1
E
a,
[P
wB
] = E
a,
[ |a
i
exp
jI
|
2
]
i = 0
N-1 ---
= a
i

2

i = 0

E
a,
= average overall possible values of a
i
and
I
in a local area.
__
a
i

2
= sample average area local measurement area, generally
measured using multipath measurement equipment.

21
Relationship between bandwidth and received power -
Narrowband signals




Transmitted signal: c(t)= K (constant)

N-1 j
i
(t,)
Received signal r(t) = K a
i
e
i = 0
22
Instantaneous Multipath received power amplitude




N-1 j
i
(t,)
|r(t)|
2
= | a
i
e |
2
i = 0


Average Power over a local area


N-1 j
i
(t,)
E
a,
[P
wB
]= E
a,
[ | a
i
e |
2
]

i = 0
23



Conclusions

When the transmitted signal has a wide bandwidth >>
bandwidth of the channel multipath structure is completely
resolved by the receiver at any time and the received power
varies very little.


When the transmitted signal has a very narrow bandwidth
(example the base band signal has a duration greater than the
excess delay of the channel) then multipath is not resolved by
the received signal and large signal fluctuations occur (fading).


24
Example

Assume a discrete channel impulse response is used to model
urban radio channels with excess delays as large as 100 s and
microcellular channels with excess delays not larger than 4 s .
If the number of multipath bins is fixed at 64 find:
(a)
(b) Maximum bandwidth, which the two models can accurately
represent.

Solution:

Delays in channel , 2 .N

Maximum excess delay of channel
N
= N = 100 s.

N = 64
25

=
N
/N = 100 s /64 = 1.5625 s

Maximum bandwidth represented accurately by model = 1/ (2 )

= 0.32 MHz
For microcellular channel

Maximum excess delay of channel
N
= N = 4 s.

N = 64

=
N
/N = 4 s /64 = 62.5 ns

Maximum bandwidth represented accurately by model = 1/ (2 )

= 8 MHz
26


27
Example:

Assume a mobile traveling at a velocity of 10m/s receives two
multipath components at a carrier frequency of 1000MHz. The
first component is assumed to arrive at = 0 with an initial phase
of 0 and a power of 70dBm. The second component is 3dB
weaker than the first one and arrives at = 1s, also with the
initial phase of 0. If the mobile moves directly to the direction of
arrival of the first component and directly away from the
direction of arrival of the second component, compute the
following

(a) The narrow band and wide band received power over the
interval 0-0.5s

(b) The average narrow band received power.

28

29
Narrow band instantaneous power.


N-1 j
i
(t,)
|r(t)|
2
= | a
i
e |
2
i = 0
_______
Now 70dBm => 100 pw so a
1
= v 100 pw
_______
and -73dBm => 50 pw so a
2
= v 50 pw

i
= 2d/ = 2vt/
= (3*10
8
)/(100*10
6
)=0.3 m

1
=2*10*t/0.3 = 209.4 t rad.
30

2
= -
1
= -209.4 t rad.
t=0
___ ___
|r(t)|
2
= | v100 + v50 |
2
= 291pw

t=0.1
___ ___
|r(t)|
2
= v100. e
j209.4 x 0.1
+ v50. e
-j209.4 x 0.1


= 78.2pw
t=0.2
___ ___
|r(t)|
2
= v100. e
j209.4 x 0.2
+ v50. e
-j209.4 x 0.2

= 81.5pw

31



t=0.3

|r(t)|
2
= 291pw

t=0.4

|r(t)|
2
= 78.2pw

t=0.5

|r(t)|
2
= 81.5pw


32
Wideband Instantaneous Power

N-1
|r(t)|
2
= |a
k
|
2
= 100 + 50 = 150 pW
k = 0

Average Narrow band received power

E
a,
[P
CW
] = [2(291) + 2(78.2) +2(81.5)] /6

=150.233pw

The average narrow band power and wideband power are almost
the same over 5m. while the narrow band signal fades over the
observation interval, the wideband signal remains constant.


33

Small-scale Multipath measurements.




Direct Pulse Measurements

Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlate Measurement

Swept Frequency Measurement


34
Types of Small scale fading













2 main propagation mechanisms ----Multipath time delay spread
and Doppler spread

Multipath time
delay
Doppler Spread
Flat Fading
Frequency
Selective
Fading
Flat Fading
Frequency
Selective
Fading
35
Two types of fading are independent of each other.
Multipath Terms associated with fading

T
s
= Symbol period or reciprocal bandwidth

B
s
= Bandwidth of transmitted signal

B
c
= coherence bandwidth of channel


B
c
= 1/50

where

is rms delay spread
__ _

2
=
2
- ( )
2

_
= ( a
k
2

) / ( a
k
2
) = mean Excess delay
__
36

2
= ( a
k
2

2
) / ( a
k
2
)
37
Fading effects due to Doppler spread

f
c
= frequency of pure or transmitted sinusoid

Received signal spectrum = f
c
+/- f
d
, f
d
= Doppler shift




f
c

S




V

38

Doppler spread and coherence time



Doppler frequency shift : f
d
= ( v / ) cos , Where

Wavelength = c / f
c
meters

Doppler Spread B
D
= f
m
= Maximum Frequency deviation = v /

coherence time = T
c
= 0.423 / f
m

39


Types of fading

Flat Fading

Mobile channel has constant gain and linear phase response

spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal are maintained
at receiver.

B
s
< < B
c
=> T
s
>=

40
Frequency Selective Fading:

Mobile channel has a constant gain and linear phase response
over a bandwidth

B
s
> B
c
=> T
s
< 10

Received signal includes multiple versions of transmitted waveform
so received signal is distorted.

41


Fast Fading Channel

The channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol
duration. This causes frequency dispersion due to Doppler
spreading, which leads to signal distortion.

T
s
(Symbol period) > T
c

B
s
< B
D
42
Slow Fading Channel

The channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than
the transmitted signal s(t).


T
s
<< T
c

B
s
>> B
D

Velocity of mobile (or velocity of objects in channel) and base band
signaling determines slow fading or fast fading.


43
Rayleigh and Ricean Distributions

Rayleigh Fading Distribution

In mobile radio channels, the Rayleigh distribution is commonly
used to describe the statistical time varying nature of the received
envelope of an individual multipath component.
Pdf (Probability density function)

p(r) = (r/
2
) e
(r
2
/2
2
)
(0 = r = )
= 0 r < 0

rms value of received voltage before envelope detection.
44
Cumulative distribution function (cdf)
R
P (R) = P( r R) = p(r ) dr
0

= 1 e
(R
2
/2
2
)
8
Mean Value E[R] = r p(r ) dr
0
___
= /2

= 1.25336
45

R
2
= E[R
2
] - {E(R)}
2

8

= r
2
p(r ) dr -
2
/2
0
= 0.4292
2

Median value for r => =?pr dr => r (median) = 1.77

r
median

Median value for r = p(r ) dr => r
median
= 1.77
0
46
Ricean Fading Distribution

When there is a dominant (non fading) signal component present
such as line-of-sight propagation path, the small scale fading
envelope distribution is Ricean.

This can be modeled as random, multipath components arriving at
different angles superimposed on a stationary dominant signal.
p(r) = (r/
2
) e
(r
2
+ A
2
)/ (2
2
)
I
o
(Ar/
2
)


for A 0, r 0
= 0 for r < 0
I
o
Modified Bessel function of first kind and zero order
47


Ricean Factor
K(dB) = 10log(A
2
/2
2
) dB

= 10 log(Deterministic signal power/variance of multipath)
48
Level crossing and Fading statistics
Level crossing rate (LCR) is defined as the expected rate at which
the Rayleigh fading envelope, normalized to the local rms signal
level, crosses a specified level in a positive going direction.
8
N
R
= r p(R, r) dr
0

r = d/dt r(t) slope

P(R, r) Joint density function of r and r at r = R.


49
Simplified equation for level crossing rate LCR



__
N
R
= r p(R, r) dr = 2 f
m
e
-2



f
m
= Maximum Doppler frequency


= R/R
ms
is the value of the specified level R, normalized to the
local rms amplitude of the fading amplitude


50
Example
For a Rayleigh fading signal, compute the positive going level
crossing rate for = 1, when the maximum Doppler frequency
(f
m
) is 20 Hz. What is the maximum velocity of the mobile for this
Doppler frequency if the carrier is 900 MHz?

Solution
= 1
f
m
= 20 Hz
The number of zero level crossings is:
N
R
= 2 (20) e
-1

= 18.44 Crossings/Sec
Maximum velocity of mobile = f
d
= 20 (3 X 10
8
)/(900X10
6
)
51
= 6.66 m/s
52
Average Fade Duration
Average period of time for which the received signal is below a
specified level R. For a Rayleigh fading channel, this is given by:
__
= (1/N
R
) P
r
[r R]
R
P
r
[r R] = p(r)dr
0
= 1 e
-
2
= 1 e
-2
/ (pf
m
2) e
-2
= e

2
1
__
f
m
2
53

Example
Find the average fade duration for threshold level = 0.01, = 0.1
and = 1, when the Doppler frequency is 20Hz.

Solution

= e
2
1
f
m
2

0.01 19.9s
54
0.1 200s
1.0 3.43ms
Statistical methods for multipath Fading channels

Clarks model for Flat Fading
Two-Ray Rayleigh Fading Model
Saleh and Valenzuela Indoor statistical Model
SIRCIM (Simulation of Indoor Radio Channels Impulse Response
Models)
SMRCIM (Simulation of Mobile Radio Channel Impulse-Response
Models)
55