SNS COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

COIMBATORE-35
DEPARTMENT OFMECHATRONICS ENGINEERING
Subject : MT3401 MEDICAL MECHATRONICS
Prepared By R.Yasodharan, AP/ Mechatronics
1.Define cell.
A cell is the basic living unit of the body.
2.The entire body contains above 100 trillion cells.
3.) What is a tissue?
A group of cells of the same type is called tissue.
4. How energy is released for cell function?
In all cells, oxygen combines with carbohydrate, fat or protein to release the energy required for cell
function.
5. Discuss briefly about cell.
Each cell consists of a centrally located nucleus (cell core) surrounded by the cytoplasm (cell body). The
nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane.
6. About 75 percent of cell is water.
7. The principle fluid medium of the cell is water.
8. What is protoplasm?
Different substances that make up the cell are collectively called protoplasm. It consists of water,
electrolytes, proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.
9. The mitochondria organelles are called power houses of the cell.
10. What is DNA?
DNA is nothing but deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) similar to that found in the nucleus. DNA is the basic
substance of the nucleus that controls replication of the cell.
11. The structure which is present inside the nucleus is called nucleolus.
12. What is ECF?
Extra cellular fluid (ECF) is the fluid which lies outside the cell membrane.
13. What is ICF?
Intra cellular fluid (ICF) is the fluid which lies inside the cell membrane.
14What is active transport?
When a cell membrane moves molecules or ions uphill against a concentration gradient, then the process
is known as active transport.
15. What is passive transport?
The transport of the substances through the cell membrane occurs by diffusion is called passive transport.
16. Define membrane potential.
The diffusion and drift processes give rise to membrane potential. The various ions seek a balance
between the inside and outside of the cell by diffusion and drift.
17. Give the approximate value of the resting potential for living cell.
The approximate value of the resting potential for living cell is 70mV.
18. What is the range of resting potential?
The resting potential ranges from -60 to -100nV.
19. List the characteristics of resting potential.
The value of the resting potential is maintained as a constant until some kind of disturbance occurs.
It is strongly depending on the temperature.
Since the permabilities of the different cell types vary, the corresponding resting potentials vary.
20. When the cell is said to be polarized?
When the cell is in resting state, then it is said to be polarized.
21. Define depolarization.
The process of changing from the resting potential state to the action potential state is called
depolarization.
22. State all-or nothing law.
Regardless of the method of excitation of cells or the intensity of the stimulus, which is assumed to
greater than the threshold of stimulus. The action potential is always- the same for any given cell. This is
known as all- or nothing law.
23. Define absolute refractory period.
Absolute refractory period is the time duration of the cell non response to further stimuli. It is about 1
millisecond in nerve cell.
24. Define relative refractory period.
Following the absolute refractory period there is a brief period of time during which another action
potential can be triggered but a much stronger stimulation is required. This period is called relative
refractory period.
25. Define conduction velocity.
The rate at which an action potential moves down a fiber of a nerve cell or is propagated from cell to cell
is called the propagation rate or conduction velocity.
26.Give the range of nerve conduction speed.
The conduction velocity varies in nerves depending on the type and diameter of the fiber and is from 20
n/s to 140 m/s. But in heart muscle, it is very slower ranging from 0.2 to 0.4 m/s.
27. Define depolarization and repolarization.
When the cell fires however, the outside of the cell becomes momentarily negative with respect to
the interior. A short time later, the cell regains the normal state in which the inside is again negative
with respect to outside. The discharging and recharging of the cell is known as depolarization and
repolarization.
28. A long is called axon.
29. The nerve cell with its dendrites and fiber is called neuron.
30. A connection between two excitable cells, in the form of a contact surface between
two neurons is called synapse.
31. Discuss briefly about organ.
The organ of the body is composed of various tissues. The organ contains tissue that furnishes some
mechanical strength and specialized tissue that gives a particular function. There are five sense organs of
the body. They are eye, nose, ear, tongue and skin.
32. The skeleton consists of 206 bones.
33. The skeletal bone are completely enclosed by a membrane called periosteum.
34. At the top of the skeleton cranium skull is placed.
35. Define inspiration and expiration.
Breathing IN is called inspiration, and breathing OUT is called expiation.
36. The central nervous system is made up of brain and spinal cord.
37. The peripheral nervous system consists of all the nerves and group of neurons
outside the brain and spinal cord.
38. Bio signal amplifier should be at least a differential amplifier.
39. List the conditions satisfied by a bio-signal amplifier.
The gain and the frequency response should be more than 100 db. So as to amplify the bio-signal
property to drive the recorder.
It should have 10 W frequency response from d.c. to required frequency of the particular bio-signal.
The gain and the frequency response should be uniform throughout the required bandwidth.
The output impedance of the amplifier should be very small.
The common mode rejection ratio(CNRR) should be at least a differential amplifier.
40. For what purpose isolation amplifier is used?
Isolation amplifier is used to increase the input impedance of the monitoring system in order to isolate the
patient from the biomedical instrument.
41.Define noise figure.
The amount of degradation of the signal can be defined in terms of the noise figure. (nj) as defined as
Noise figure = signal to noise ratio at the input signal to the output signal.
42. For what purpose line driving amplifier is used?
Whenever a transducer has high impedance and its output voltage is so low and if want to couple this
transducer output to a load having low impedance, we can use line driving amplifier.
43. Define CMRR.
The ability of the differential amplifier circuit to ignore common mode inputs like 50 HZ interference
from mains is known as common mode rejection ratio. (CNRR).thus CMRR = amplification of the
differential voltage amplification of the common mode voltage.
44. Define early receptor potential. (AU June 06)
When light falls on the retina, the absorption of photons by photo pigments localized in the outer segment
of the retinas photoreceptors is taking place. This causes the change in the membrane potential. This in
turn results in the development of action potential that is transmitted down the optic nerve. The first part
Aof the response to a brief flash light is due to early receptor potentials.
45. Define Later receptor potential (LRP).
The second component B with a delay of 1 to 5 milliseconds is due to the Later receptor potential
(LRP).
46. Define Electrooculogram.
A record of corneal- retinal potentials associated with eye movements is called electrooculogram.
47.Define Electroretinography(ERG).
The recording and interpreting the electrical activity of eye is called electrorectinography.
48. What is BRONCHOSPIROMETER?
A bronchospirometer is a dual Spirometer that measures the volumes and capacities of each lung
individually. The air-input device is a double luman tube that divides for entry into the airway
to each lung, and thus provides isolation for differential measurement. The main function of the
bronchospirometer is preoperative evaluation of oxygen consumption of each lung.
49. Define pattern recognition.
Pattern recognition is the detection of specific waveforms by some means. Human beings are often more
efficient at recognizing specific waveforms in the bio-signals than electronic analyzers designed for this
purpose.
50. List the factors to be considered for designing medical instrument.
Accuracy, frequency response, hysteresis, isolation, linearity, sensitivity, signal-to- noise ratio, simplicity,
stability and precision.
51. Define signal processor.
Signal processor is an important part of the instrument system which amplifies, modifies or changes the
electrical output of the transducer in a suitable manner to run the recording or display ratio, simplicity,
stability and precision.
52. What are electrodes?
Electrodes are devices which are employed to pick up the electrical signals of the body.
53. For what purpose electrode paste is used?
The dry outer skin of the body is highly non-conductive, and will not establish a good electrical contact
with an electrode. The skin should therefore be washed thoroughly and rubbed briskly to remove some of
the outer cells. This area should then be coated with an electrode paste. The purpose of the electrode paste
is to make the skin electrically conductive.
54. List the types of electrodes.
There are three types of electrodes. They are
Microelectrodes
Depth electrodes
Needle electrodes
55. Discuss about microelectrodes.
Microelectrodes are used to measure the bioelectric potential near or within a single cell. These are also
called as intracellular electrodes. They are divided into metallic and non-metallic electrodes.

56.For what purpose depth and needle electrodes are used?
Depth and needle electrodes are used to measure the bioelectric potential of the highly localized extra
cellular regions in brain or bioelectrical potentials from a specific group of muscles.

57. List the uses of surface electrodes.
Surface electrodes are used to measure the potentials available from the surface of the skin and are used to
sense the potentials from heart, brain and nerves.
58. List the types of surface electrodes.
Metal plate electrode
Suction cup electrode
Adhesive tape electrode
Multipoint electrode
Floating electrode.
59. Define electro pointing.
Electrically etching the tip of a fine tungsten or stainless steel wire to a fine point is known as
electrpointing.
60. What is the major advantage of floating type skin surface electrodes?
Floating type skin surface electrodes eliminate movement artifact by avoiding any direct contact of the
metal with skin.
61.Give the uses of silver-silver chloride electrode.
Silver-Silver chloride electrodes are used in bio-medical instrumentation.
62. Define half-cell potential.
Half cell potential is defined as the voltage developed at an electrode- electrolyte interface. It is also
called as electrode potential.
63.Define electrocardiogram (ECG)
The electrocardiogram is a graphic recording or display of the time variant voltage display produced by
myocardium during cardiac cycle.
64.Electrocardiography (ECG) deals with the study of electrical activity of heart
muscles.
65.What is arrhythmia?
Arrhythmia is the disturbances in the heart rhythm.
66.What does the ECG reflect?
The ECG reflects the rhythmic electrical depolarization and repolarization of the myocardium
68.List the types of electrodes systems for ECG lead configurations.
Bipolar limb leads or standard leads
Augmented unipolar limb leads
Chest leads 9or) pericardial leads.
Frank lead system (or) corrected orthogonal leads.
Among these four systems, the first three are widely used.
69. How the leads taken in bipolar limb leads?
In standard leads, the potentials are tapped from 4 locations of our body. They are (i) right arm (ii) let
arm (iii) right leg (iv)left leg. Usually the right leg electrode is acting as ground reference electrode.
70. List the colour codes used for identifying ECG potentials.
White right arm
Black left arm
Green right leg
Red Left leg.
Brown- chest.
71. the graphic record of the heart sounds is called Phonogram.
72. Define phonocardiograph.
Phonocardiogram is an instrument used to measure the heart sounds. The basic aim of phonocardiograph
is to pick up the different heart sounds, filter out the heart sounds and to display them or record them.
73.Define heart sounds.
Heart sounds are acoustic phenomena resulting from the vibrations of cardiac structures.
74.List the classifications of heart sounds.
Heart sounds are classified into four group on the basis of their mechanism of origin. They are
Valve closure sounds
Ventricular filling sounds
Valve opening sounds
Extra cardiac sounds.
75. Acoustic events of the heart can be divided into two categories as heart sounds and
murmurs.
76. How the heart sounds and murmurs characterized?
Heart sounds and murmurs are usually characterized by three physical properties. They are
Frequency
Amplitude
Quality
77.List the three augmented lead connections.
The three augmented lead connections are
Augmented voltage right arm (aVR)
Augmented voltage left arm (VL)
Augmented voltage foot (aVF).
The corrected orthogonal leads system (or) frank lead system is used in vector cardiography
79. How many lead selections are required for electrocardiograms?
Twelve lead selections are required to record the electrocardiogram. i.e. 3 standard bipolar leads, 3
augmented leads and 6 chest leads.
80. List the practical considerations for ECG recording.
Artifacts, wandering of base line, solid base line, frequency response.
81.Define heart murmurs.
Heart murmurs are sounds related to non-laminar flow of blood in the heart and great vessels.
82.Give the origin of heart sounds.
There are four basic separate heart sounds that occur during the sequence of one complete cycle.
First heart sound: it is produced by the sudden closure of the mitral and tricuspid valves associated with
myocardial contraction.
Second heart sound : it is due to the vibration set up by the closure of semilunar valves. i.e. the closure
of arotic and pulmonary valves.
Third heart sound : It arises as the ventricles relax and the internal pressure drops below the pressure in
the atrium.
Fourth heart sound : it is also called an atrial sound. It is caused by an accelerated flow of blood into
ventricles or due to atrial contraction.
83.List the conditions that causes turbulence in blood flow.
Local obstructions to the blood flow
Abrupt changes n the diameter of the blood stream.
Pathologic communications in the cardio vascular system.
Ruptured cardiac structures
Valve insuffiency
84. For what purpose condenser microscope is used in ECG recording set up?
The condenser microscope is used for conversion of the heart sounds into electrical signals.
85.List the special applications of phonocardiogram.
Fetal phonocardiogram
Esophagear phonocardiogram.
Tracheal phonocardiogram.
86.Define echocardiography.
Echocardiography is also a useful technique for diagnosis of heart diseases. Echocardiogram displays the
time verses motion information about the intra cardiac structures on slow speeds
87.What is vectrocardiography?
In the case of electrocardiography, only the voltage is generated by the electrical activity of the heart is
recorded. But in vectrocardiography, the cardiac vector is displayed along with its magnitude and spatial
orentaion.
88. What is EEG?
The abbreviation of electroencephalograph is called EEG. It deals with the recording and study of
electrical activity of the brain.
89. How EEG is recorded?
By means of electrode attracted to the skull of a patient the brain waves can be picked up and recorded.
90. What are brain waves?
The brain waves are the summation of neural depolarization in the brain due to stimuli from the five
senses as well as from the thought process.
91. What are graded potentials?
Graded potentials are variations around the average value of the resting potential. Thus the EEG
potentials originate with in the dendrite.
92 Define inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP).
If the transmitter substance in inhibitory, the membrane potential of the receptor neuron increases in a
negative direction. So that it is less likely to discharge, this induced potential change is called inhibitory
post synaptic potential.
93. Define excitory post synaptic potential(EPSP).
If the transmitter substance is excitatory, the receptor membrane potential increases in a positive
direction. So that the receptor neuron is more likely to discharge and produces a spike potential. This
induced change is called excitory post synaptic potential(EPSP).

94.What are Evoked potentials?
Evoked potentials are the potentials developed in the brain as the responses to external stimuli like light,
sound etc. the external stimuli is detected by the sense organs, which cause changes in the electrical
activity of the brain. Nowadays the term event related potential has been used instead of evoked potential.
95. List the parts of the brain.
The brain consists of three parts, such as cerebrum, cerebellum and the brain stem..
96. Give the classifications of the brain waves.
Brain waves are classified into our types. They are
Alpha wave
Beta wave
Theta wave
Delta wave
97. How many electrodes are used in modern EEG unit?
12 electrodes are used in modern EEG unit.
98. How the EEG can be recorded?
EEG may be recorded by picking up voltage difference between an active electrode on the scalp with
respect to a reference electrode on the ear lobe or other part of the body. This type o recording is called
monopolar recording.
99.What are brain tumors?
The tumor displaces, the cortex, and if it is large enough, the electrical activity will be absent in that part
of hemisphere, since no electric potentials originate in the tumor itself. Thus a extinguished or damped
EEG over a certain part of cortex can thus be due to brain tumor.
100. Define Epilepsy.
Epilepsy is a system for brain damage. This may be due to defects in the birth delivery or head injury
during accident or boxing. It may also be due to brain tumor.
101. In what way EEG helps physicians?
EEG helps physicians to diagnose the level of consciousness, sleep disorders brain death, brain tumors,
epilepsy and multiple sclerosis.
102.What is EMG?
EMG- electromyography is the science of recording and interpreting the electrical activity of muscles
action potentials.
103.How EMG is recorded?
EMG is usually recorded by using surface electrodes or more often needle electrodes may be disposable
adhesive types or the ones which can be used repeatedly.
104. List the diseases which affect the steady potential of the eye.
The effects of certain drugs on the eye movement system can be determined.
The state of semicircular canalizes analyzed by EOG.
Diagnosis of the neurological disorders may be possible.
The level of anesthesia can be indicated by characteristic eye movements.
105. Discuss about the electrodes for offline analysis.
The online recorders are directly connected with the input. Therefore one can get the live recording at
the spot itself. In the case of off-line analysis, the input equipment system is used to prepare data for
further analysis using computers which may be located at the same location of the input or remote.
157. What is IPP?
IPP means intermittent positive pressure.
Positive pressure ventilators are used to inflate the lungs with IPP.
158. What is meant by monophasic waveform?
Monophasic means most of the excursion of curve is above the base line.
159. What is the need for ventilator?
It is used to provide artificial respiration. Artificial respiration should be applied to the patient, whenever
respiration is suspended due to reasons like gas poisoning, electric shock etc.
160. What is meant by defibrillation?
Ventricular fibrillation can be converted into a more efficient rhythm by applying a high energy shock
to the heart. This sudden surge across the heart causes all muscle fibers to contract simultaneously. The
fibres may then respond to normal physicological pace making pulses. the instrument administering the
shock is known as defibrillator. This process is known as defibrillation.
161. What is the need for pre-amplifier?
Isolation amplifiers are used as pre-amplifiers. It is used to increase the input impedance of the
monitoring system, so that the stray currents can be reduced. The isolation amplifiers are used in ECG
measurement.
162. What is the need for earthing of medical instruments?
Grounding is needed in medical equipments to avoid the macro and micro shocks. The leakage current is
also reduced by proper grounding.
163. What is diathermy? List its types.
Diathermy is the treatment process by which cutting, coagulation of tissues are obtained. Its various types
are:
Shortwave diathermy.
Microwave diathermy
Ultrasonic diathermy.
Ultrasonic diathermy.
164. Distinguish between microshock and macroshock.
A physiological response to a current applied to the surface of the body that produces unwanted
stimulation like tissue injury or muscle contractions is called as macro shock.
A physiological response to a current applied to the surface of the heart that results in unnecessary
stimulation like muscle contractions or tissue injury is called as microshock.
165. What is a defibrillator? State its use.
The condition of heart at which the necessary synchronism is lost is known as fibrillation. Defibrillation
is the application of an electric shock to the area of the heart. that is, it is an electronic device that creates
a sustained myocardial depolarization of a patients heart in order to stop ventricular fibrillation and atrial
fibrillation.
166. What is angiography?
Angiogram: It is a special- x-ray imaging technique through which high contrast can be obtained. The
outlines of the blood vessels also visible in angiogram.
167. State the principle by which body organs could be visualized by radioisotope method.
The body organs could be visualized in X-ray by using the principle of energy absorption. Two types of
radiations are used.
168. Name the principal ions involved in the phenomena of producing cell potentials.
Sodium and potassium ions.
169.Why glass electrode is very much preferred as active electrode in a pH meter?
The glass electrode provides a membrane interface for H+ ions. so that, it is preferred as an active
electrode in pH measurement. The pH meter with hydroscopic glass observes the water readily and
provides best pH value.