SEMICON Solutions

Introduction Verilog

TRUNG TM O TO VI MCH SEMICON

Using HDLs
Althought HDLs are like code, you will still be using the
techniques you used when creating custom-level design
Hierarchy , Hierarchy , Hierarchy
Employ that OO paradigm!
Extremely similar to C
Many functions based on C
Unlike aprogram which executes serial , HDLs execute
concurrently
That is independently based on each blocks individual program
counter
Model is really just communicating between blocks
In fact, many ideas have been incorporated in communication systems
(SPW)
Introduction and Basic Concept
WHAT is Verilog?
Hardware Description Language(HDL).
Why use Verilog?
Because 60% of US companies use it.

Why Verilog?
Why use an HDL?
Describe complex designs (millions of gates)
Input to synthesis tools (synthesizable subset)
Design exploration with simulation
Why not use a general purpose language
Support for structure and instantiation
Support for describing bit-level behavior
Support for timing
Support for concurrency
Verilog vs. VHDL
Verilog is relatively simple and close to C
VHDL is complex and close to Ada
Verilog has 60% of the world digital design market (larger share in US)
Why Verilog?
VHDL created by US govemment (or at least, funed by it)
Verilog is very much like C
We will be using Verilog in this class
Both are standardized by the IEEE
Very much similar nowadays although I prefer Verilog due to
its easy implementation
Sue generates Verilog from Schematic
Why Verilog?
Start by creating functional description of higher end blocks
(e.g. 1-bit adder)
Models a piece of combination logic
Uses C-like syntax (Duh!)
Defined by module
module and2 (Output1, Output2, Input1, Input2, Input3;
- blah, blah
endmodule
Verilog HDL and Verilog-XL
Verilog HDL
Hardware design language that allows you to
design circuit.
Verilog-XL
High speed, event-driven simulator that reads
Verilog HDL and simulates the behavior of
hardware.


Modern Project Methodology




Always
inst1
inst2
inst3

Synthesis
clb 1
clb 2
Place and
Route
Introduction to Verilog only
Objectives
Understand the design methodologies using
Verilog
Target audience
Have basic digital circuits design concept
Knowledge of VHDL for design of digital systems
Verilog description for logic synthesis
NOT in the talk
a full coverage of Verilog
Contents
Verilog HDL
Structured modeling
RTL modeling
Example combinational circuits
Structured description (net-list)
RTL
Example sequential circuits
RTL
FSM
Combinational circuits
Sequential circuits
Verilog history
Gateway Design Automation
Phil Moorby in 1984 and 1985
Verilog-XL, "XL algorithm", 1986
A very efficient method for doing gate-level simulation
Verilog logic synthesizer, Synopsys, 1988
The top-down design methodology is feasible
Cadence Design Systems acquired Gateway
December 1989
A proprietary HDL
Verilog history
Open Verilog International (OVI), 1991
Language Reference Manual (LRM)
Making the language specification as vendor-independent
as possible.
The IEEE 1364 working group, 1994
To turn the OVI LRM into an IEEE standard.
Verilog became an IEEE standard
December, 1995.
Hardware Description Languages
The functionality of hardware
concurrency
timing controls
The implementation of hardware
structure
net-list
ISP
C. Gordon Bell and Alan Newell at Carnegie Mellon
University, 1972
RTL (register transfer level)
Different Levels of Abstraction
Algorithmic
the function of the system
RTL
the data flow
the control signals
the storage element and clock
Gate
gate-level net-list
Switch
transistor-level net-list
Verilog for Digital System Design
Structural description
net-list using primitive gates and switches
continuous assignment using Verilog operators
RTL
functional description
timing controls and concurrency specification
procedural blocks (always and initial)
registers and latches
C + timing controls + concurrency
Verilog Procedural Descriptions
Can use procedural or behavior level style descriptions of your logic
This may mean that you have to define things sequentially instead of
concurrently
Use the keyword, always, to provide this functionality
Inside an always block, can use standard control flow statemets
if-then-else; case case default
Statements can be compounded (use begin-end to from blocks)
always @(Activation List)
begin
if (x == y) then
out = in 1;
else
out = in 2;
end

Verilog Variables
There are two types:
Wires (all outputs of the assign statements must be wires)
Regs (all outputs of the always blocks must be regs)
Both variables can be used as inputs anywhere
Wires can be used in combinatorial devices, whereas
regs in sequential style devices
Wires used in initial parameter list of module
input
output
wire
inout
Tricky Delay
Suppose you wanted to wait 10 delta cycles after an input
changes, then check to see if phi == 1, and then update the
output
always @(phi or in)
#10 if (phi) then out = in
Can be confusing!
Suppose you wanted to sample the input when it changes and
then update the output later
always @(phi or in)
if (phi) then #10 out = in
This code runs the code every time the input changes and just
delays the output 10 delta cycles
Tricky Block
Another procedural statement that can be used (we will use
this next time in our testing) is the initial block
Dose not need an Activation list
Run just once, when simulator starts
Not practical for implementations
Most often used in testing
Can Initialize simulation environment
Best to use for non-hardware statements
$ display
$ gr_waves
Verilog Usage
An HDL provdes a means for the user to specify a design at a
higher level than just gates (different level of abstraction)
We have been talking mostly about from and not content
We described how to represent logic and not methodology
The question that should be asked is: what should my code
look like?
Separate control and datapath sections of logic
Always do control last!!!
Why?
You can define your control signals effectively
Different States
Two very different views of states
Datapath
Storage is used to hold data that is going to be
manipulated or computed.
Logic computation is most important and not current
state
Control
The storage is used to hold your place is some decision
making process
Indicates where you are! Brains!
Amount of states is finite and static
Procedural Statements
Procedural Statement are nothing more than behavioral level statements
always @(event-expression [or event-expresent*])
(assignment) or (block)
can have multiple always blocks
if-then-else
for
while
case
Interpretations og logic can be many
How do we choose what we want to do behaviorally and structurally?
Do we use both?
Still a Problem?
Remember; our goal is produce logic from a language
a language is only as powerful as its compiler
How do we tell our synthesis program that the logic we want is
going to produce the logic we need
A +/- B => ALU
or do I get a finite state machine
choice is obvious for us, not as easy for compiler
Look at D flip flop
How about D latch
Hierarchical structure and
Modules
Represent the hierarchy of a design




modules
the basic building blocks
ports
the I/O pins in hardware
input, output or inout

Event Driven Simulation
Verilog is really a language for modeling event-driven
systems
Event : change in state




Simulation starts at t = 0
Processing events generates new events
When all events at time t have been processed simulation time
advances to t+1
Simulation stops when there are no more events in the queue

0 t t+1

Event
queue
Events
Modeling Structure: Modules
The module is the basic building block in Verilog
Modules can be interconnected to describe the structure of your digital
system
Modules start with keyword module and end with keyword endmodule







Modules have ports for interconnection with other modules
Module CPU <port list>











endmodule
Module AND <port list>











endmodule
Modeling Structure: Ports
Module Ports
Similar to pins on a chip
Provide a way to communicate with outside world
Ports can be input, output or inout

i0
i1
o
Module AND (i0, i1, o);
input i0, i1;
output o;











endmodule
Modeling Structure: Instances
Module instances
Verilog models consist of a hierarchy of module instances
In C++ speak: modules are classes and instances are objects

AND3
i0
i1
i2
o
Module AND3 (i0, i1, i2, o);
input i0, i1, i2;
output 0;

wire temp;

AND a0 (.i0(i0), .i1(i1), .o(temp));
AND a1 (.i0(i2), .i1(temp), .o(0));
endmodule
Logic Values
0: zero, logic low, false, ground

1: one, logic high, power

X: unknown

Z: high impedance, unconnected, tri-state
Data Types
Nets
Nets are physical connections between devices
Nets always reflect the logic value of the driving device
Many types of nets, but all we care about is wire
Registers
Implicit storage unless variable of this type is modified it
retains previously assigned value
Does not necessarily imply a hardware register
Register type is denoted by reg
- int is also used
Variable Declaration
Declaring a net
wire [<range>] <net_name> [<net_name>*];
Range is specified as [MSb:LSb]. Default is one bit wide
Declaring a register
reg [<range>] <reg_name> [<reg_name>*];
Declaring memory
reg [<range>] <memory_name> [<start_addr> : <end_addr>];
Examples
reg r; // 1-bit reg variable
wire w1, w2; // 2 1-bit wire variable
reg [7:0] vreg; // 8-bit register
reg [7:0] memory [0:1023]; a 1 KB memory
Ports and Data Types
Correct data types for ports

Module
net
input
Register/net
register/net
output
net
net
inout
net
Structural Modeling
Structural Verilog describes connections of modules (netlist)

and a0(.i0(a), .i1(b), .o(out));
Modules
The principal design entity
Module Name &
Port List
Definitions
Ports, Wire, Reg,
Parameter
Module Statements &
Constructs
Module
Instatiations
Example
4-bit adder
Simpler than VHDL
Only Syntactical
Difference
a0 a1 a2 a3
c3 ci
module add4 (s,c3,ci,a,b)
input [3:0] a,b ; // port declarations
input ci ;
output [3:0] s : // vector
output c3 ;
wire [2:0] co ;
add a0 (co[0], s[0], a[0], b[0], ci) ;
add a1 (co[1], s[1], a[1], b[1],
co[0]) ;
add a2 (co[2], s[2], a[2], b[2],
co[1]) ;
add a3 (c3, s[3], a[3], b[3], co[2]) ;
endmodule
Data types
Net
physical wire between devices
the default data type
used in structural modeling and continuous assignment
types of nets
wire, tri : default
wor, trior : wire-ORed
wand, triand : wire-ANDed
trireg : with capacitive storage
tri1 : pull high
tri0 ; pull low
supply1 ; power
supply0 ; ground
Simpler than VHDL
Only Syntactical
Difference
Verilog Simulator

Circuit Description Testfixture
Verilog Simulator
Simulation Result
Sample Design

module fadder ( sum, cout, a, b , ci );
// port declaration
output sum, cout;
input a, b, ci;
reg sum, cout;
// behavior description
always @( a or b or ci )
begin
sum = a ^ b ^ ci;
cout = ( a&b ) | ( b&ci ) | ( ci&a);
end
endmodule
1-bit full adder
Simpler than VHDL
Only Syntactical
Difference
SEMICON Solutions
Basic Instructions
Lexical Conventions in Verilog

Type of lexical tokens :
Operators ( * )
White space
Comment
Number ( * )
String
Identifier
Keyword ( * ) Note : * will be discussed
Reg and Parameters
Reg
variables used in RTL description
a wire, a storage device or a temporary variable
reg : unsigned integer variables of varying bit width
integer : 32-bit signed integer
real : signed floating-point
time : 64-bit unsigned integer
Parameters
run-time constants
Special Language Tokens
$<identifier>: System tasks and functions
$time
$stop
$finish
$monitor
$ps_waves
$gr_waves
$gr_regs
#<delay specification>
used in
gate instances and procedural statements
unnecessary in RTL specification
Modeling Structures
Net-list
structural description for the top level
Continuous assignments (combination circuits)
data flow specification for simple combinational
Verilog operators
Procedural blocks (RTL)
always and initial blocks
allow timing control and concurrency
C-like procedure statements
primitives (=truth table, state transition table)
function and task (function and subroutine)
A full-adder
module add (co, s, a, b, c)
input a, b ,c ;
output co, s ;
xor (n1, a, b) ;
xor (s, n1, c) ;
nand (n2, a, b) ;
nand (n3,n1, c) ;
nand (co, n3,n2) ;
endmodule
Simpler than VHDL
Only Syntactical
Difference
Verilog Primitives
Basic logic gates only
and
or
not
buf
xor
nand
nor
xnor
bufif1, bufif0
notif1, notif0
Primitive Pins Are Expandable
One output and variable number of inputs







not and buf
variable number of outputs but only one input
nand (y, in1, in2) ;
nand (y, in1, in2, in3) ;
nand (y, in1, in2, in3, in4) ;
Continuous Assignments
Describe combinational logic
Operands + operators
Drive values to a net
assign out = a&b ; // and gate
assign eq = (a==b) ; // comparator
wire #10 inv = ~in ; // inverter with delay
wire [7:0] c = a+b ; // 8-bit adder
Avoid logic loops
assign a = b + a ;
asynchronous design
Logical and Conditional Operators
Logical, bit-wise and unary operators
a = 1011; b = 0010
logical bit-wise unary
a || b = 1 a | b = 1011 |a = 1
a && b = 1 a &b = 0010 &a = 0

Conditional operator
assign z = ({s1,s0} == 2'b00) ? IA :
({s1,s0} == 2'b01) ? IB :
({s1,s0} == 2'b10) ? IC :
({s1,s0} == 2'b11) ? ID :
1'bx ;
assign s = (op == ADD) ? a+b : a-b ;
Operators
{} Concatenations
?: Conditional Operators
>>, << Shift Operators
&, ~&, |, ~|, ^, ~^ Unary Reduction
~, &, |, ^, ~^ Bit-Wise Operators
!, &&, || Logical Operators
==, !=, ===, !== Equality Operators
<, <=, >, >= Relational Operators
+, -, *, /, % Arithmetic Operators
Operator Precedence
[ ] bit-select or part-
select
( ) parentheses
!, ~ logical and bit-wise
negation
&, |, ~&, ~|, ^, ~^, ^~
reduction operators
+, - unary arithmetic
{ } concatenation
*, /, % arithmetic
+, - arithmetic
<<, >> shift
>, >=, <, <=
relational
==, != logical equality
& bit-wise AND
^, ^~, ~^
bit-wise XOR and
XNOR
| bit-wise OR
&& logical AND
|| logical OR
? : conditional

Operators
{ } concatenation
+ - * /
arithmetic
% modulus
> >= < <=
relational
! logical NOT
&& logical AND
|| logical OR
== logical equality
!= logical inequality
? : conditional
~ bit-wise NOT
& bit-wise AND
| bit-wise OR
^ bit-wise XOR
^~ ~^ bit-wise XNOR
& reduction AND
| reduction OR
~& reduction NAND
~| reduction NOR
^ reduction XOR
~^ ^~ reduction XNOR
<< shift left
>> shift right
Numbers
Format : <size><base><value>
Example : 8d16
8h10
8b00010000
8o20
Keywords
Note : All keywords are defined in lower case
Examples :
module, endmodule
input, output, inout
reg, integer, real, time
not, and, nand, or, nor, xor
parameter
begin, end
fork, join
specify, endspecify
Value Set in Verilog

4-value logic system in Verilog:
0
X
1
0
Z
Major Data Type Class
Nets
Registers
Parameters
Nets
Net data type represent physical connections
between structural entities.
A net must be driven by a driver, such as a
gate or a continuous assignment.
Verilog automatically propagates new values
onto a net when the drivers change value.
Registers & Parameters
Registers represent abstract storage
elements.
A register holds its value until a new value is
assigned to it.
Registers are used extensively in behavior
modeling and in applying stimuli.
Parameters are not variables, they are
constants.
Assignments
Assignment : drive values into nets and
registers.
Continuous Assignments Any changes in the
RHS of continuous assignment are evaluated
and the LHS is update.
Example : (1) assign out = ~in;
(2) assign reg_out; = reg_in << shift
Assignments ( cont. )

Blocking procedural assignment.
rega = regb + regc;
Non-blocking procedural assignment.
rega <= regb * regc;


RTL Modeling
RTL Modeling
Describe the system at a high level of abstraction
Specify a set of concurrently active procedural blocks
procedural blocks = digital circuits
Procedural blocks
initial blocks
test-fixtures to generate test vectors
initial conditions
always blocks
can be combinational circuits
can imply latches or flip-flops
Procedural blocks have the
following components
procedural assignment statements
timing controls
high-level programming language constructs
initial c
c statement
c
c
c
c
c
always c
c statement
c
c
c
c
c
RTL Statements
Procedural and RTL assignments
reg & integer
out = a + b ;
begin . . . end block statements
group statements
if. . . else statements
case statements
for loops
while loops
forever loops
disable statements
disable a named block
Combinational Always Blocks
A complete sensitivity list (inputs)
always @(a or b or c)
f = a&~c | b&c ;
Simulation results
always @(a or b)
f = a&~c | b&c ;
Parentheses
always @(a or b or c or d)
z = a + b + c + d ; // z = (a+b) + (c+d) ;
Sequential Always Blocks
Inferred latches (Incomplete branch specifications)
module infer_latch(D, enable, Q);
input D, enable;
output Q;
reg Q;
always @ (D or enable) begin
if (enable)
Q <= D;
end
endmodule
the Q is not specified in a branch
a latch like 74373
Combinational Circuit Design
Outputs are functions of inputs



Examples
MUX
decoder
priority encoder
adder
comb.
circuits
Outputs inputs
Multiplexor
Net-list (gate-level)
module mux2_1 (out,a,b,sel) ;
output out ;
input a,b,sel ;
not (sel_, sel) ;
and (a1, a, sel_) ;
and (b1, b, sel) ;
or (out, a1, b1) ;
endmodule
Multiplexor
Continuous assignment
module mux2_1 (out,a,b,sel) ;
output out ;
input a,b,sel ;
assign out = (a&~sel)|(b&sel) ;
endmodule
RTL modeling
always @(a or b or sel)
if(sel)
out = b;
else
out = a;
Multiplexor
4-to-1 multiplexor
module mux4_1 (out, in0, in1, in2, in3, sel) ;
output out ;
input in0,in1,in2,in3 ;
input [1:0] sel ;
assign out = (sel == 2'b00) ? in0 :
(sel == 2'b01) ? in1 :
(sel == 2'b10) ? in2 :
(sel == 2'b11) ? in3 :
1'bx ;
endmodule
Multiplexor
module mux4_1 (out, in, sel) ;
output out ;
input [3:0] in ;
input [1:0] sel ;
reg out ;
always @(sel or in) begin
case(sel)
2d0: out = in[0] ;
2d1: out = in[1] ;
2d2: out = in[2] ;
2d3: out = in[3] ;
default: 1bx ;
endcase
end
endmodule
out = in[sel] ;
Decoder
3-to 8 decoder with an
enable control
module decoder(o,enb_,sel) ;
output [7:0] o ;
input enb_ ;
input [2:0] sel ;
reg [7:0] o ;
always @ (enb_ or sel)
if(enb_)
o = 8'b1111_1111 ;
else

case(sel)
3'b000 : o = 8'b1111_1110 ;
3'b001 : o = 8'b1111_1101 ;
3'b010 : o = 8'b1111_1011 ;
3'b011 : o = 8'b1111_0111 ;
3'b100 : o = 8'b1110_1111 ;
3'b101 : o = 8'b1101_1111 ;
3'b110 : o = 8'b1011_1111 ;
3'b111 : o = 8'b0111_1111 ;
default : o = 8'bx ;
endcase
endmodule

Priority Encoder
always @ (d0 or d1 or d2 or d3)
if (d3 == 1)
{x,y,v} = 3b111 ;
else if (d2 == 1)
{x,y,v} = 3b101 ;
else if (d1 == 1)
{x,y,v} = 3b011 ;
else if (d0 == 1)
{x,y,v} = 3b001 ;
else
{x,y,v} = 3bxx0 ;
Parity Checker
always @ (data)
begin: check_parity
reg partial;
integer n;
partial = data[0];
for ( n = 0; n <= 7; n = n + 1)
begin
partial = partial ^ data[n];
end
parity <= partial;
end
endmodule
module parity_chk(data, parity);
input [0:7] data;
output parity;
reg parity;

Adder
RTL modeling
module adder(c,s,a,b) ;
output c ;
output [7:0] s ;
input [7:0] a,b ;
assign {c,s} = a + b ;
endmodule
Logic synthesis
CLA adder for speed optimization
ripple adder for area optimization
Tri-State
The value z
always @ (sela or a)
if (sela)
out = a ;
else
out = 1bz ;

Another block
always @(selb or b)
if(selb)
out =b ;
else
out = 1bz ;
assign out = (sela)? a: 1bz ;
Registers (Flip-flops) are implied
@(posedge clk) or @(negedge clk)
a positive edge-triggered D flip-flop
always @ (posedge clk)
q = d ;
Procedural Assignments
Blocking assignments
always @(posedge clk) begin
rega = data ;
regb = rega ;
end

Non-blocking assignments
always @(posedge clk) begin
regc <= data ;
regd <= regc ;
end




Sequential
Circuit Design
Sequential Circuit Design




a feedback path
the state of the sequential circuits
the state transition
synchronous circuits
asynchronous circuits
Combinational
circuit
Inputs
Outputs
Memory
elements
Finite State Machine
Moore model




Mealy model
comb.
circuit
inputs
memory
elements
next
state
current
state
comb.
circuit
outputs
comb.
circuit
next
state
memory
elements
current
state
comb.
circuit
outputs
inputs
Examples
D flip-flop
D latch
register
shifter
counter
pipeline
FSM
Flip-Flop
Synchronous clear
module d_ff (q,d,clk,clr_) ;
output q ;
input d,clk,clr_ ;
reg q ;
always @ (posedge clk)
if (~clr_) q = 0 ;
else q = d ;
endmodule
Asynchronous clear
always @ (posedge clk or negedge clr_)
if (~clr_) q = 0 ;
else q = d ;
Register
module register (q,d,clk,clr_, set_) ;
output [7:0] q ;
input [7:0] d ;
input clk,clr_, set_ ;
reg [7:0] q ;
always @ (posedge clk or negedge clr_ or negedge set_)
if (~clr_)
q = 0 ;
else if (~set_)
q = 8b1111_1111 ;
else
q = d ;
endmodule
D Latches
D latch
always @ (enable or data)
if (enable)
q = data ;
D latch with gated asynchronous data
always @ (enable or data or gate)
if (enable)
q = data & gate ;
D Latches
D latch with gated enable
always @ (enable or d or gate)
if (enable & gate)
q = d ;

D latch with asynchronous reset
always @ (reset or data or gate)
if (reset)
q = 1b0
else if(enable)
q = data ;
Concept of State Machine
Example : Old Parity Checker
Assert output whenever input bit stream has odd # of 1s




Present State Input Next State Output
Even 0 Even 0
Even 0 Odd 0
Odd 1 Odd 1
Odd 1 Even 1
Symbolic State Transition Table
Present State Input Next State Output
Even 0 Even 0
Even 0 Odd 0
Odd 1 Odd 1
Odd 1 Even 1
Encode State Transition Table
Concept of FSM in Verilog
Timing:
When are inputs sampled, next state computed, outputs,
asserted?
State Time: Time between clocking events
Clocking event causes state/outputs to transition, based on inputs
For set-up/hold time considerations:
Inputs should be state before clocking event
After propagation delay, Next State entered, Outputs are state
Note: Asynchronous signals take effect immediately
Synchronous signals take effect at the next clocking event
E.g., tri-state enable: effective immediately
sync.counter clear: effective at next clock event

Vending Machine Example












Step 4: State Encoding

Present State
Q1 Q0
Inputs
D N
Next State
Q1 Q0
Output
Open
0 0 0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
X
0
1
0
X
0
0
0
X
0 1 0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
X
1
0
1
X
0
0
0
X
1 0 0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
X
0
1
1
X
0
0
0
X
1 1 0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
X
1
1
1
X
1
1
1
X
Parity Checker Example














Present State
Q1 Q0
Inputs
D N
Next State
D1 D0
J1 K1 J0 K0
0 0 0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
X
0
1
0
X
0
0
1
X
X
X
X
X
0
1
0
X
X
X
X
X
0 1 0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
X
1
0
1
X
0
1
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
1
0
X
1 0 0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
X
0
1
1
X
X
X
X
X
0
0
0
X
0
1
1
X
X
X
X
X
1 1 0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
X
1
1
1
X
X
X
X
X
0
0
0
X
X
X
X
X
0
0
0
X
Step 5:
Choosing
FF for
Impleme
ntation
J-K FF
Shifter
module shifter (so,si,d,clk,ld_,clr_) ;
output so ;
input [7:0] d ;
input si,clk,ld_,clr_ ; // asynchronous clear and synchronous load
reg [7:0] q ;
assign so = q[7] ;
always @ (posedge clk or negedge clr_)
if (~clr_)
q = 0 ;
else if (~ld_)
q = d ;
else
q[7:0] = {q[6:0],si} ;
endmodule

shifter
ld_ d
si
clk
so
Counter
module bcd_counter(count,ripple_out,clr,clk) ;
output [3:0] count ;
output ripple_out ;
reg [3:0] count ;
input clr,clk ;
wire ripple_out = (count == 4'b1001) ? 0:1 ; // combinational
always @ (posedge clk or posedge clr) // combinational + sequential
if (clr) ;
count = 0 ;
else if (count == 4'b1001)
count = 0 ;
else
count = count + 1 ;
endmodule

Memory
module memory (data, addr, read, write);
input read, write;
input [4:0] addr;
inout [7:0] data;
reg [7:0] data_reg;
reg [7:0] memory [0:8'hff];
parameter load_file = "cput1.txt";
assign data = (read) ? memory [addr] : 8'hz;
always @ (posedge write)
memory[addr] = data;
initial
$readmemb (load_file, memory);
endmodule

Inefficient Description
module count (clock, reset, and_bits, or_bits, xor_bits);
input clock, reset;
output and_bits, or_bits, xor_bits;
reg and_bits, or_bits, xor_bits;
reg [2:0] count;
always @(posedge clock) begin
if (reset)
count = 0;
else
count = count + 1;
and_bits = & count;
or_bits = | count;
xor_bits = ^ count;
end
endmodule

Six implied registers


Efficient Description
Separate combinational and sequential circuits

module count (clock, reset,
and_bits, or_bits, xor_bits);
input clock, reset;
output and_bits, or_bits,
xor_bits;
reg and_bits, or_bits, xor_bits;
reg [2:0] count;
always @(posedge clock) begin
if (reset)
count = 0;
else
count = count + 1;
end





// combinational circuits
always @(count) begin
and_bits = & count;
or_bits = | count;
xor_bits = ^ count;
end
endmodule
Three registers are used


Mealy Machine Example

module mealy (in1, in2, clk, reset,out);
input in1, in2, clk, reset;
output out;
reg current_state, next_state, out;
// state flip-flops
always @(posedge clk or negedge
reset)
if (!reset)
current_state = 0;
else
current_state = next_state;
// combinational: next-state and
outputs
always @(in1 or in2 or current_state)
case (current_state)
0: begin
next_state = 1;
out = 1'b0;
end
1: if (in1) begin
next_state = 1'b0;
out = in2;
end
else begin
next_state = 1'b1;
out = !in2;
end
endcase
endmodule
Pipelines



An example





assign n_sum = a+b
assign p = sum * d_c
// plus D flip-flops
always @ (posedge clk)
sum = n_sum ;
comb.
circuits
flip-
flops
comb.
circuits
flip-
flops
comb.
circuits
flip-
flops
Dff
sum
d_c
Dff
Dff
p out
n-sum
b
a
c
A FSM Example


Picture of Highway/Farmroad Intersection:
Highway
Highway
Farmroad
Farmroad
HL
HL
FL
FL
C
C
Traffic Light Controller
Specifications


Traffic Light Controller
? Tabulation of Inputs and Outputs:
Input Signal
reset
C
TS
TL

Output Signal
HG, HY, HR
FG, FY, FR
ST
Description
place FSM in initial state
detect vehicle on farmroad
short time interval expired
long time interval expired

Description
assert green/yellow/red highway lights
assert green/yellow/red farmroad lights
start timing a short or long interval
? Tabulation of Unique States: Some light configuration imply others
State
S0
S1
S2
S3
Description
Highway green (farmroad red)
Highway yellow (farmroad red)
Farmroad green (highway red)
Farmroad yellow (highway red)
The block diagram


Comb.
circuits
n_state
FFs
state
Comb.
circuits
HR
HG
HY
FR
FG
FY
C
TS
TL
State transition diagram


S0: HG

S1: HY

S2: FG

S3: FY
S0
Reset
TL + C
TLC/ST
S3 S1
TS
S2 S2
TL + C/ST
TL C
TS/ST
TS/ST
TS
Verilog Description

module traffic_light(HG, HY, HR, FG, FY, FR,ST_o,
tl, ts, clk, reset, c) ;
output HG, HY, HR, FG, FY, FR, ST_o;
input tl, ts, clk, reset, c ;
reg ST_o, ST ;
reg[0:1] state, next_state ;
parameter EVEN= 0, ODD=1 ;
parameter S0= 2'b00, S1=2'b01, S2=2'b10, S3=2'b11;
assign HG = (state == S0) ;
assign HY = (state == S1) ;
assign HR = ((state == S2)||(state == S3)) ;
assign FG = (state == S2) ;
assign FY = (state == S3) ;
assign FR = ((state == S0)||(state == S1)) ;
// flip-flops
always@ (posedge clk or posedge reset)
if(reset) // an asynchronous reset
begin
state = S0 ;
ST_o = 0 ;
end
else
begin
state = next_state ;
ST_o = ST ;
end
always@ (state or c or tl or ts)
case(state) // state transition
S0:
if(tl & c)
begin
next_state = S1 ;
ST = 1 ;
end
else
begin
next_state = S0 ;
ST = 0 ;
end
S0
TL + C
Reset
TLC/ST
TS/ST
S3
TL + C/ST
S2
TL C
S1
TS
TS/ST
TS
S1:
if (ts) begin
next_state = S2 ;
ST = 1 ;
end
else begin
next_state = S1 ;
ST = 0 ;
end
S2:
if(tl | !c) begin
next_state = S3 ;
ST = 1 ;
end
else begin
next_state = S2 ;
ST = 0 ;
end
S0
TL + C
Reset
TLC/ST
TS/ST
S3
TL + C/ST
S2
TL C
S1
TS
TS/ST
TS
S3:
if(ts)
begin
next_state = S0 ;
ST = 1 ;
end
else
begin
next_state = S3 ;
ST = 0 ;
end
endcase
endmodule
S0
TL + C
Reset
TLC/ST
TS/ST
S3
TL + C/ST
S2
TL C
S1
TS
TS/ST
TS
Efficient Modeling Techniques
Separate combinational and sequential circuit
always know your target circuits
Separate structured circuits and random logic
structured: data path, XORs, MUXs
random logic: control logic, decoder, encoder
Use parentheses control complex structure
.....
VERILOG Coding Styles
Synthesizable
Behavioral
Register Transfer Level (RTL)
Structural




Behavioral
modeling
Conditional Instructions
if (<condition>)
<statement1>
else
<statement2>
if (a[2:0]==3b010 && cy)
...
case (ir[7:4])
4b0001: ...
4b0010: ...
default: ...
endcase;
casex (ir[7:4])
4bxx01: ...
4bxx10: ...
default: ...
endcase;
acc=(ir[7:0]==4b0011) ?
0:255;
case (<expression>)
expr1: <statement1>;
expr2: <statement2>;
default: <statement3>;
endcase;
casez (Z considered dont care)
casex (Z and X considered dont care)
(expression)?(true):(false)
Loops
for (<start>;<end_exp>;<update>)
<statement>;
for (i=0;i<8;i=i+1)
...
while (i<8)
...
repeat (10)
begin
a[i]=a[i+1];
i=i+1;
end;
forever
a = b;
while (<condition>)
<statement>;
repeat (<loop_count>)
<statement>;
forever <statement>;
Subroutines
task multiply
input [15:0] a, b;
output [31:0] prod;
begin
...
end
endtask
function [1:0] testDF;
input [1:0] Duab, Dvab;
begin
...
testDF=2b01;
end
endfunction
Modeling Behavior
Behavioral Modeling
Describes functionality of a module
Module Behavior
Collection of concurrent processes
1. Continuous assignments
2. Initial blocks
3. Always blocks
Behavior: Verilog Operators

Arithmetic: +, = , *, /, %
Binary bitwise: ~, &, |, ^, ~^
Unary reduction: &, ~&, |, ~|, ^, ~^
Logical: !, &&, ||, ==, ===, !=, !==
== returns x if any of the input bits is x or z
=== compares xs and zs
Relational: <. >, <=, >+
Logical shift: >>, <<
Conditional: ?:
Concatenation: {}
Behavior:Continuous Assignment


Module half_adder(x, y, s, c)
input x, y;
output s, c;

assign s = x ^ y;
assign c = x & y;

endmodule
Module adder_4(a, b, ci, s, co)
input [3:0] a, b;
input ci;
output [3:0]s;
output co;

assign {co, s} = a + b + ci;

endmodule
Continually drive
wire variables
Used to model
combinational logic
or make
connections
between wires
Behavior: Initial and Always
Multiple statements per block
Procedural assignments
Timing control
Initial blocks execute once
at t = 0
Always blocks execute continuously
at t = 0 and repeatedly thereafter
initial
begin








end
always
begin








end
Behavior: Procedural assignments
Blocking assignment =
Regular assignment inside procedural block
Assignment takes place immediately
LHS must be a register



Nonblocking assignment <=
Compute RHS
Assignment takes place at end of block
LHS must be a register
always
begin
A = B;
B = A;
end
A = B, B= B
always
begin
A <= B;
B <= A;
end
swap A and B
Behavior:Timing Control
Delay #
Used to delay statement by specified amount of simulation time



Event Control @
Delay execution until event occurs
Event may be single signal/expression change
Multiple events linked by or
always
begin
#10 clk = 1;
#10 clk = 0;
end
always @(posedge clk)
begin
q <= d;
end
always @(x or y)
begin
s = x ^ y;
c = x & y;;
end
Behavior: Conditional statements
If, If-Else




Case





Could also use casez (treats z as dont cares ) and casex ( treats z and x as
dont cares)

if (branch_flg)
begin
PC = PCbr;
end
else
PC = PC + 4;
case(opcode)
6b001010: read_mem = 1;
6b100011: alu_add = 1;
default:
begin
$display (Unknown opcode %h, opcode);
end
endcase
Behavior: Loop Statements
Repeat




While

For











i = 0;
repeat (10)
begin
i = i + 1;
$display( i = %d, i);
end

i = 0;
while (i < 10)
begin
i = i + 1;
$display( i = %d, i);
end

for (i = 0; i < 10; i = i + 1)
begin
i = i + 1;
$display( i = %d, i);
end

Verilog Coding Rules
Coding rules eliminate strange simulation behavior
When modeling sequential logic, use nonblocking
assignments
When modeling combinational logic with always block, use
blocking assignments. Make sure all RHS variables in block
appear in @ expression
If you mix sequential and combinational logic within the
same always block use nonblocking assignments
Dont mix blocking and nonblocking assignments in the
same always block
Dont make assignments to same variable from more than
one always block
Dont make assignments using #0 delays











Verilog Coding Rules: Sequential
Blocks


always @(posedge clk)
begin
q = d;
end

always @(posedge clk)
begin
q1 = q;
end

always @(posedge clk)
begin
q <= d;
end

always @(posedge clk)
begin
q1 <= q;
end

WRONG RIGHT
clk
d q q q1
183 Verilog Synthesizable
coding rules

Always keep in mind what sort of implementation your design could map
to. If you dont know, chances are synthesis doesnt either.
The only allowed storage is instantiated dff
No always @ posedge statements
No case statements without default case
No if statements without an else case
If you assign to a net in one case it must be assigned to in all cases (no
implicit storage)
No loops
No initial blocks
Limited operators
+ and are the only arithmetic operators allowed
Try to avoid relational operators (>, ==) in favor of simpler logic
Use assign statements when possible











System and Compiler

System tasks
$time - returns the current simulation time
$display - similar to printf in C
$stop - stops simultion
$finish - ends simulation
$readmemh - load memory array from text file in hex format
Many more
Compiler directives
A compiler directive is preceded by `
`define - defines a compiler time constant or macro
`ifdef, `else, `endif - conditional compilation
`include - text inclusion











Verilog
Example: ASM
Chart
idle
input
0
s1
input
s2
input
s3
input
1
0
1
1 0
1 0
s3
output
input
1 0
Want to match pattern
1011
Verilog Example (cont)
module sequence (dataIn, found, clock, reset);

//Input and Output Declarations
input dataIn;
input clock;
input reset;
output found;
reg found;

//DataInternal Variables
reg [3:0] state;
reg [3:0] next_state;
wire found_comb;

//State Declarations
parameter idle = 4'b0001;
parameter s1 = 4'b0010;
parameter s2 = 4'b0100;
parameter s3 = 4'b1000;



Verilog
Example














//Next State Logic
always @(state or dataIn)
case (state)
idle:
if (dataIn)
next_state = s1;
else
next_state = idle;
s1:
if (dataIn)
next_state = s1;
else
next_state = s2;
s2:
if (dataIn)
next_state = s3;
else
next_state = idle;
s3:
if (dataIn)
next_state = s1;
else
next_state = s2;
default:
next_state = idle;
endcase // case(state)



Verilog
Example














//State Transition
always @(posedge clock)
if (reset == 1)
state <= idle;
else
state <= next_state;

//Output Logic
assign found_comb = (state[3] & dataIn);

//Register Output Logic
always @(posedge clock)
if (reset == 1)
found <= 0;
else
found <= found_comb;

endmodule // sequence

Verilog Example : Simulation
Verilog Example: Synthesis
Top Level








Technology view (Altera 10K)














Technology view (Altera 10K)
Verilog Example Xilinx Foundation
Verilog Example Xilinx Foundation
Binary Multiplier Example
Counter P
n-1
Register B
multiplicand
IN
Shift register Q Shift register A
OUT
product
Adder
C 0
C
out

Behavioral modeling













Learning behavioral modeling by exploring some examples
module DFF ( Din, Dout, Clock, Reset );
output Dout;
input Din, Clock, Reset;
reg Dout;
always @( negedge Reset or posedge Clock )
begin
if ( !Reset )
Dout <= 1b0;
else
Dout <= Din;
end
endmodule
DFF
Din
Clock
Dout
Reset
Behavioral modeling ( cont. )













module MUX4_1 ( out, i0, i1, i2, i3, sel );
output [3:0] out;
input [3:0] i0, i1, i2, i3;
input [1:0] sel;

assign out = ( sel == 2b00 ) ? i0 :
( sel == 2b01 ) ? i1 :
( sel == 2b10 ) ? i2 :
( sel == 2b11 ) ? i3 :
4bx;
endmodule
MUX
sel
4
4
i0
i1
i2
i3
2
Behavioral modeling ( cont. )













`define pass_accum 4b0000
`define pass_data 4b0001
`define ADD 4b0010

always@ ( opcode ) begin
case ( opcode )
`pass_accum : alu_out <= accum;
`pass_data : alu_out <= data;
`ADD : alu_out <= accum + data;
`AND : alu_out <= accum ^ data;
default : alu_out <= 8bx;
endcase
end
Module Instantiation













module Top ( Data0, Data1, Data2,
out0, out1 );
input Data0, Data1, Data2;
output out0, out1;
wire A_to_B;
A a1 ( .i0( Data0 ), .i1( Data1 ),
.out( A_to_B ) );
B b1 ( .a0( A_to_B ), .a1( Data2 ),
.b0( out0 ), .b1( out1 ) );
endmodule
out0
out1
A
B
Top
i0
i1
out
Data0
a1
a0 b0
b1
Data1
Data2
A to_B
Port mapping
Verilog:
wire Valid = VL1 & !Illegal;
wire Valid2Sched = !SchedFreeze_ & (Valid_D | Valid);
wire [16:0] LinkIdOMaskL1 = 1'b1 << LinkIdL1;



Netlist:
not(n1, Illegal)
and(n2, n1, VL1)
...














Technology view (Altera 10K)
Synthesizable Verilog #3 FSMs













parameter IDLE=0, SET_HOURS=1, SET_MINUTES=2;
reg [1:0] CURRENT_STATE, NEXT_STATE; // State
reg HOURS, MINS; // Outputs

always @ (CURRENT_STATE or ALARM_BUTTON or HOURS_BUTTON or
MINUTES_BUTTON) // ADD Clock for synchronous FSM
begin
HOURS = 0; MINS = 0; NEXT_STATE = CURRENT_STATE;
case (CURRENT_STATE) //synopsys full_case parallel_case
IDLE: begin
if (ALARM_BUTTON & HOURS_BUTTON & !MINUTES_BUTTON)
begin
NEXT_STATE = SET_HOURS;
HOURS = 1;
end
else if (ALARM_BUTTON & !HOURS_BUTTON & MINUTES_BUTTON)
...
modules













module RegLd(Q, D,
load, clk);

parameter N = 8;
input [N-1:0] Q;
output [N-1:0] D;
input load, Clk;

always @(posedge clk)
if (load)
Q = #`dh D;

endmodule
RegLd reg0(q0, d0, l, clk);

RegLd #16 reg1(q1, d1, l, clk);

RegLd reg2(q2, d2, l, clk);
defparam reg2.N = 4;
Sensitivity lists













always @(posedge clk or negedge rst_)
...

always @(a or b or c)
if (opcode == 32h52A0234E)
a = b ^ (~c);

always @(posedge a or posedge b)
...
!
Behavioral (1)













simulation

Test benches

initial begin
// reset everything
end

always @(posedge clk) begin
case (opcode)
8hAB: RegFile[dst] = #2 in;
8hEF: dst = #2 in0 + in1;
8h02: Memory[addr] = #2 data;
endcase

if (branch)
dst = #2 br_addr;
end
Behavioral (2)













integer sum, i;
integer opcodes [31:0];
real average;

initial
for (i=0; i<32; i=i+1)
opcodes[i] = 0;

always @(posedge clk) begin
sum = sum + 1;
average = average + (c / sum);
opcodes[d] = sum;
$display(sum: %d, avg: %f ,
sum, average);
end
!
Verification of Design
Can put blocks together
However, question is how they can be tested efficiently
Testbeches
Ridiculous to test individual wires: amateurs























Technology view (Altera 10K)




Differences
between Tasks
and Functions
Tasks versus Functions in Verilog

Procedures/Subroutines/Functions in SW programming
languages
The same functionality, in different places

Verilog equivalence:
Tasks and Functions
Used in behavioral modeling
Part of design hierarchy Hierarchical name











Differences between...













Functions
Can enable (call) just
another function (not task)
Execute in 0 simulation
time
No timing control
statements allowed
At lease one input
Return only a single value
Tasks
Can enable other tasks
and functions
May execute in non-zero
simulation time
May contain any timing
control statements
May have arbitrary
input, output, or inouts
Do not return any value
Differences between (contd)

Both
are defined in a module
are local to the module
can have local variables (registers, but not nets) and events
contain only behavioral statements
do not contain initial or always statements
are called from initial or always statements or other tasks
or functions











Differences between (contd)

Tasks can be used for common Verilog code
Function are used when the common code
is purely combinational
executes in 0 simulation time
provides exactly one output
Functions are typically used for conversions and commonly
used calculations


















Tasks

Tasks

Keywords: task, endtask
Must be used if the procedure has
any timing control constructs
zero or more than one output arguments
no input arguments










Tasks (contd)

Task declaration and invocation
Declaration syntax

task <task_name>;
<I/O declarations>
<variable and event declarations>
begin // if more than one statement needed
<statement(s)>
end // if begin used!
endtask










Tasks (contd)

Task declaration and invocation
Task invocation syntax
<task_name>;
<task_name> (<arguments>);
input and inout arguments are passed into the
task
output and inout arguments are passed back to the
invoking statement when task is completed










Tasks (contd)

I/O declaration in modules vs. tasks
Both used keywords: input, output, inout
In modules, represent ports
connect to external signals
In tasks, represent arguments
pass values to and from the task










Task Examples
Use of input and output arguments













module operation;
parameter delay = 10;
reg [15:0] A, B;
reg [15:0] AB_AND, AB_OR, AB_XOR;

initial
$monitor( );

initial
begin

end

always @(A or B)
begin
bitwise_oper(AB_AND, AB_OR,
AB_XOR, A, B);
end

task bitwise_oper;
output [15:0] ab_and, ab_or,
ab_xor;
input [15:0] a, b;
begin
#delay ab_and = a & b;
ab_or = a | b;
ab_xor = a ^ b;
end
endtask


endmodule

Task Examples
Use of module local variables













module sequence;
reg clock;

initial
begin

end

initial
init_sequence;

always
asymmetric_sequence;

task init_sequence;
begin
clock = 1'b0;
end
endtask

task asymmetric_sequence;
begin
#12 clock = 1'b0;
#5 clock = 1'b1;
#3 clock = 1'b0;
#10 clock = 1'b1;
end
endtask

endmodule







Functions
Functions

Keyword: function, endfunction
Can be used if the procedure
does not have any timing control constructs
returns exactly a single value
has at least one input argument










Functions (contd)

Function Declaration and Invocation
Declaration syntax:

function <range_or_type> <func_name>;
<input declaration(s)>
<variable_declaration(s)>
begin // if more than one statement needed
<statements>
end // if begin used
endfunction










Functions (contd)

Function Declaration and Invocation
Invocation syntax:
<func_name> (<argument(s)>);










Functions (contd)

Semantics
much like function in Pascal
An internal implicit reg is declared inside the function with
the same name
The return value is specified by setting that implicit reg
<range_or_type> defines width and type of the implicit
reg
type can be integer or real
default bit width is 1










Function Examples
Parity Generator













module parity;
reg [31:0] addr;
reg parity;

Initial begin

end

always @(addr)
begin
parity = calc_parity(addr);
$display("Parity calculated = %b",
calc_parity(addr) );
end
function calc_parity;
input [31:0] address;
begin
calc_parity = ^address;
end
endfunction

endmodule
Function Examples
Controllable Shifter













module shifter;
`define LEFT_SHIFT 1'b0
`define RIGHT_SHIFT 1'b1
reg [31:0] addr, left_addr, right_addr;
reg control;

initial
begin

end

always @(addr)begin
left_addr =shift(addr, `LEFT_SHIFT);
right_addr =shift(addr,`RIGHT_SHIFT);
end
function [31:0] shift;
input [31:0] address;
input control;
begin
shift = (control==`LEFT_SHIFT)
?(address<<1) : (address>>1);
end
endfunction

endmodule

Tasks and Functions Summary

Tasks and functions in behavioral modeling
The same purpose as subroutines in SW
Provide more readability, easier code management
Are part of design hierarchy
Tasks are more general than functions
Can represent almost any common Verilog code
Functions can only model purely combinational
calculations

















Arithmetic Functions
and Circuits

5-1 Iterative Combinational Circuits













Figure 5-1
Block Diagram of an Iterative Circuit
5-2 Binary Adders
Arithmetic Circuit
a combinational circuit for arithmetic operations
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
with binary numbers or decimal numbers in a binary code






Addition of 2 binary inputs, Half Adder
0+0=0, 0+1=1, 1+0=1, 1+1 = 10










Table 5-1
Truth Table of Half Adder
Figure 5-2 Logic Diagram
of Half Adder
5-2 Binary Adders
Addition of 3 binary inputs, 'Full Adder'




















Figure 5-3 Logic Diagram of Half Adder
Table 5-2
Truth Table of Full Adder
Figure 5-4
Logic Diagram
of Full Adder
5-2 Binary Adders
Binary Ripple Carry Adder
sum of two n-bit binary numbers in parallel
4-bit parallel adder
A = 1011, B = 0011


















Figure 5-5 4-Bit Ripple Carry Adder
5-2 Binary Adders
Carry Lookahead Adder
The ripple carry adder has a long circuit delay
the longest delay: 2 n + 2 gate delay
Carry Lookahead Adder
reduced delay at the price of complex hardware

a new logic hierarchy
Pi: propagate function
Gi: generate function


















5-2 Binary Adders



















Figure 5-6
Development
of a Carry
Lookahead
Adder

5-3 Binary Subtraction
Subtraction



a borrow occurs into the most significant position
M - N ==> M - N + 2n
==> 2n - (M - N + 2n) = N - M
1) Subtract the subtrahend N from the minuend M
2) If no end borrow occurs, then M > N
3) If an end borrow occurs,
then N-M is subtracted from 2
n

& minus sign is appended to the result
Subtraction of a binary number from 2
n

"2's complement form"


















10 end borrow
63
-72
--------
91 100-91
-9
5-3 Binary Subtraction



















Ex 5-1) 01100100 - 10010110
5-3 Binary Subtraction
Complements
2 types:
radix complement: r's complement
diminished radix complement: (r-1)'s complement
2's & 1's for binary numbers
10's & 9's for decimal numbers
1's complement of N (binary number): (2
n
- 1) - N
1's comp of 1011001 ==> 0100110
1's comp of 0001111 ==> 1110000


















5-3 Binary Subtraction
2's complement of N: 2
n
- N for N != 0, 0 for N = 0
1) add 1 to the 1's complement
2's comp of 101100 ==> 010011 + 1 ==> 010100

2) leaving all least significant 0's and the first 1 unchanged
then replacing 1's with 0's, 0's with 1's
2's comp of 1101100 ==> 0010100

2's complement of N is 2
n
N
& the complement of the complement is 2
n
- (2
n
-N) = N


















5-3 Binary Subtraction



















Subtraction with Complements
(M - N)
1) add 2's comp of the
subtrahend N to the minuend
M
M + (2
n
-N) = M - N + 2
n

2) if M > N, the end cary is
discarded
3) if M < N, the result is 2
n
-
(N - M)
take the 2's complement of
the sum & place a minus sign
avoid overflow problem to
accommodate the sum

Ex 5-2) X=1010100 Y=1000011
5-4 Binary Adder-Subtractors



















A - B = A + (-B) in 2's complement form

with exclusive-OR gate (B0=B; B1=B')
adder if S = 0; subtractor if S = 1
Figure 5-8 Adder-Subtractor Circuit
5-4 Binary Adder-Subtractors
Signed Binary Numbers
sign bit: 0 for positive numbers
1 for negative numbers
-9 (=-1001) using 8 bits
1) signed-magnitude representation: 10001001
2) signed 1's complement representation: 1111 0110
3) signed 2's complement representation: 1111 0111

positive numbers are identical(Table 5-3)
signed-magnitude -7 ~ -1, -0, 0, 1 ~ 7 (2 zeros)
signed 1's comp -7 ~ -1, -0, 0, 1 ~ 7 (2 zeros)
signed 2's comp -8 ~ -1, 0, 1 ~ 7

signed 1's comp : useful as a logical operation
signed 2's comp : popular in use


















5-4 Binary Adder-Subtractors



















Table 5-3
Signed Binary Numbers
5-4 Binary Adder-Subtractors
Signed Binary Addition and Subtraction



















Ex 5-4) Signed Binary Adding Using 2s Complement
Ex 5-5) Signed Binary Subtraction Using 2s Complement
5-4 Binary Adder-Subtractors

Overflow



















Figure 5-9 Overflow Detection Logic for Addition and Subtraction
5-5 Binary Multipliers
a 2-Bit by 2-Bit Binary Multiplier



















Figure 5-10 A 2-Bit by 2-Bit Binary Multiplier
5-5 Binary Multipliers
a 4-Bit by 3-Bit Binary Multiplier



















Figure 5-11 A 4-Bit by 3-Bit Binary Multiplier
5-5 Binary Multipliers




Ex 5-6) Contraction of Full Adder Equations



















Contraction
making a simpler circuit for a specific
application


5-6 Other Arithmetic Functions
Ex 5-6) Contraction of Full Adder Equations

S = A + B + C
0
S = A + 111 + C
0

= A - 1 + C
0
(in 2s complement)
if C
0
= 0, S is a decrement of A

Incrementing
adding a fixed value(ex, 1) to an arithmetic variable
N-bit incrementer
S = A + 1 from S = A + B + C
0
by setting B to 00..01 and
C
0
to 0




















5-6 Other Arithmetic Functions
Incrementing( 0 , X because of 3-bit
incrementer)





















Figure 5-12 Contraction of Adder to Incrementer
5-6 Other Arithmetic Functions






















Multiplication by
Constants

Figure 5-13 Contractions of
Multiplier
(a) For 101 X B
(b) For 100 X B, and
(c) For B / 100
5-7 HDL Representations-VHDL






















Ex 5-7)Hierarchical
VHDL for
a 4 Bit Ripple
Carry Adder
V C(3) XOR
C4
5-7 HDL Representations-VHDL






















Figure 5-15 Hierarchical
Structure/Dataflow Description
Of 4-Bit Full Adder(continued)
5-7 HDL Representations
Ex 5-8) Behavioral VHDL for a 4 Bit Ripple Carry Adder




















Figure 5-16 Behavioral Description of 4 bit Full Adder
5-8 HDL Representations-Velilog










Ex 5-10) Behavioral VHDL for a 4 Bit Ripple Carry Adder
Figure 5-18 Behavioral Description of 4 bit Full Adder Using Verilog


Thanks!

References by:
Jong Won Park
[email protected]