X INTRODUCTION

TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

6.1.1 Definition of Strategy
A strategy is a tool or method used to accomplish a task. For example, we may
use a crane to lift heavy objects or bake a cake. A teaching strategy is a method or
technique to enhance learning performance.
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Teaching and
Learning
Strategies
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of teaching strategies;
2. Explain the behaviourist, cognitive and constructivist teaching strategies;
3. Apply the various teaching strategies in instruction.
4. Discuss the concept of thinking skills;
5. Discuss the importance of thinking skills;
6. Discuss types of thinking skills;
7. Discuss how learning problems could be overcome by understanding
thinking skills;
8. Accurately explain the use of thinking tools;
9. Discuss three types of thinking tools; and
10. Discuss how thinking skills could be improved by using thinking tools.
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Strategies are goals intended to facilitate a performance. Strategies are processes
that when matched to task requirements, improve performance.

Below are some examples of teaching strategies:
Table 6.1: Teaching Strategies
Teaching Strategy Definition
Brainstorming A learning event in which a group of learners spontaneously
contribute ideas. Example: A group of students giving their
opinions on the danger of smoking.
Computer
Simulation
Computer-based representation of real situations or systems.
Example: Using acid-base titration to determine end-points. Or a
simulator for pilots to train before being allowed to pilot an
aircraft.
Cooperative
Learning
A learning technique in which learners are members of an
interdependent problem-solving group in which they collaborate,
share and delegate responsibilities, practise with others of
varying abilities, and practise communicating with others.
Demonstration A learning event in which an individual demonstrates how to do
something.
Dialog Journals Logs or notebooks used by more than one person for exchanging
experiences, ideas, or reflections used most often in education
as a means of sustained writing interaction between students and
teachers at all educational levels and in second language and
other types of instruction. Example: A logbook to keep track of
students supervision.
Discovery Learning An inquiry-oriented learning event in which the learner
discovers. Example: An experiment with acids and bases to
discover their characteristics.
Discussion Oral, and sometimes written, exchange of opinions usually to
analyse, clarify or reach conclusions about issues, questions or
problems.
Drill & Practice A learning event in which a learner repeats a skill in order to fix it
in his or her mind.
Experiential
Learning
Learning by doing Includes knowledge and skills acquired
outside of book\lecture learning situations through work, play
and other life experiences. Experiential education includes
adventure education, environmental education and service
learning.
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Field Trip A learning event that typically takes place outside school
grounds.
Game Typically a competition or contest that involves demonstration of
understanding of content or skill.
Guided Design Reasoning-centred instructional method developed by Charles E.
Wales and Robert A. Stager that uses small-group techniques and
a prepared outline of decision-making steps to guide students
through the process of resolving open-ended problems.
Hands-on A learning event that engages learners in a practical application
of content and skills.
Inquiry Also referred to as scientific inquiry; refers to activities in which
learners develop knowledge and understanding of how scientists
study the natural world.
Laboratory A learning event that involves practising science skills and using
scientific equipment.
Lecture A learning event in which one person explains a topic to the rest
of the group or class, and this audience takes notes and listens.
Model & Simulation A learning event in which an educator and/or learner models or
simulates a natural or physical phenomenon.
Multimedia
Instruction
Integration of more than one medium in a presentation or module
of instruction.
Peer Coaching A learning event in which one learner helps another learner.
Peer Response A learning event in which one learner gives written or verbal
feedback to another learner.
Play Typically refers to the manner in which a lot of early learning
occurs.
Presentation Typically refers to when a student explains or shows some
content to a learning audience; similar to a lecture.
Problem Solving Occurs when learners work to determine the solution to a
question raised for inquiry.
Role Playing The deliberate acting out of a role (possibly a role that one would
not normally occupy), as part of group learning session directed
towards understanding that role or the situations.
Simulation and
Games
The use of role playing by actors during the operation of a
comparatively complex symbolic model of an actual or
hypothetical social process; usually includes gaming and may be
all-man, man-computer, or all-computer operations.
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DIRECT INSTRUCTION
Direct instruction (DI) is a popular behaviourist instructional strategy for
classroom teaching initially developed in the 1960s by Siegfried Engelmann. It
grew out of the work of Siegfried Englemann and Carl Bereiter with
disadvantaged children (Bereiter & Engelmann, 1966).
This method is somewhat related to mastery learning, but it is more explicit
regarding curriculum design and effective planned instructional delivery (lesson
planning). Some call this method "teacher proof" under the condition that he
really is willing to learn a teaching script developed by professional instructional
designers. Direct instruction is available as commercial instructional programmes
that include materials and teacher training/ in-classroom coaching.

Features
The following are features of direct instruction:
x Scripted Lesson Plans. Such lesson plans relieve the teacher from time-
consuming preparation tasks. These are explictly tested examples and
sequences made by professional instructional designers.
x Signal-based teachers. Teachers frequently send signals to learners to which
they should respond.
x Skill focused: Skills are taught in sequence until students have them
automated.
x Appropriate pacing: Teacher-directed instruction followed by small collective
or individual learning/ repeating activities. Pacing of different teaching
methods is rather fast but children must have space to respond.
x Frequent probing/ testing and assessments with appropriate corrective
feedback/ differential praise.
x Direct instruction is not just drill & practice. Learners can engage in more
complex tasks during certain activities.

Kenny (1980) lists the following features:
(a) Goals are clear to the students;
(b) Time allocated for instruction is sufficient and continuous;
(c) Content covered is extensive;
(d) Students' performance is monitored;
(e) Questions are at a low cognitive level and produce many correct responses;
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(f) Feedback to students is immediate and academically oriented;
(g) The teacher controls the instructional goals;
(h) The teacher chooses material appropriate for the student's level;
(i) The teacher paces the teaching; and
(j) Interaction is structured but not authoritarian.

Koslov et al. (1999) identify the following typical phases of a lesson (see also
Gagne's nine events of instruction.
(a) Attention and Focus: Short wake-up
(b) Orientation or Preparation: Teacher presents goal of the lesson and
demonstrates how the lesson builds on prior work.
(c) Model: Teacher demonstrates concepts, propositions, strategies and/or
operations. This can include repetitions, variations with different examples
in order to help generalisation. Teacher also can ask short questions and
accept focused questions from learners.
(d) Lead: Teacher organises some guided practice. Firstly, all together (choral
responding) and then more individually. If necessary, he goes back to
model.
(e) Test: Students have to practise individually (written).
(f) Feedback: Students are corrected (using positive rewards)
(g) Error correction: Persistent errors are identified and if necessary, teacher
has to start over with model/lead/ test.
(h) Additional material: Learners are engaged with different materials where
the same strategies have to be applied to a common feature (more
generalisation).
(i) Problem solving and strategy discrimination skills are introduced in future
lessons (once students master a certain vocabulary of basic strategies).

More generally, there is probably wide consensus in the instructional design
community that the structure of programme sequences should lead to shifts from
overt to covert problem solving, from simple contexts to complex contexts that
include irrelevant stimuli, from immediate to delayed feedback, from teacher-
oriented presentation to the learner as chief form of information, etc. (Kenny,
1980).
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INDIRECT INSTRUCTION
Indirect instruction is more student centered. It involves student involvement in
observing, investigating, drawing inferences from data, or forming hypothesis.
6.3.1 Needham Model
One example of the indirect instructional strategy is the Needham Model.
Needham has identified five phases in the learning process based on the
fundamentals of constructivism. These phases are:
Table 6.2: Needham Five Phases in Learning Process
Phases Purpose Example of Activities
Orientation
x Gain students interest and
attention.
x Provide motivation
x Provide events that contradict
each other
x Give problems for the
students to think about
Elicitation of
Idea
x Identify students previous
ideas.
x Concept mapping
x Q&A sessions that lead to
thinking
Restructuring of
Idea
x Expand or modified previous
ideas based on scientific ideas
x Investigate using scientific
skills
x Hands-on and minds-on
activities
x Activities that utilised
science-process skills
x Group communication
Application of
Idea
x Apply the idea into new
situation
x Solving new problems
x Designing projects
Reflection
x Value how far the ideas have
transform
x Reflective questioning
x Help students to their change
of ideas and the processing
skill that they have achieved
6.3.2 Laurillard Conversational Framework
Laurillard (1993, 2002) claims there are four main aspects of the teaching-learning
process and that different educational media can be analysed (and used) in terms
of these dimensions.

6.3
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This framework can be considered both learning theory and a practical
framework for designing educational environments. Higher education, according
to Laurrillard, is much about acquiring "ways of seeing the world." Associated
pedagogic strategy has to consider different forms of communication and
associated mental activities: Discussion, adaptation, interaction, reflection.
Design of learning environments

Laurillard's framework includes four important components:
x Teacher's concepts;
x Teacher's constructed learning environment;
x Student's concepts; and
x Student's specific actions (related to learning tasks).

Figure 6.1: Laurillard's Conversational Framework

Each (larger) pedagogical scenario should include all four kinds of activities
(communication forms) that happen in eight kinds of "flows" in the model.

(a) Discussion
between the teacher and the learner
(i) Teachers' and learners' conception should be mututally accessible
(ii) Both should agree on learning objectives

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(b) Adaptation
of the learners actions and of the teacher's constructed environment.
(i) Teacher must adapt objectives with regard to existing conceptions
(ii) Learners must integrate feedback and link it to his own conceptions

(c) Interaction
between the learner and the environment defined by the teacher
(i) Teacher must "adapt to world," i.e. create an environment adapted to
the learning task given to the learner
(ii) Teacher must focus on support for task and give appropriate feedback
to the learner.

(d) Reflection
of the learner's performance by both teacher and learner
(i) Teacher should support the learner to revise his conceptions and to
adapt the task to learning needs
(ii) Learner should reflect at all stages of the learning process (initial
concepts, tasks, objectives, feedback, ...)

Learning Styles Model

The Felder design model is an instructional design model based on learning style
consideration. While some learning style people argue that pedagogical designs
(in particular, electronic learning environments) should accommodate different
learning paths, Felder (in the context of class teaching) argues that it is sufficient
to incorporate a variety of teaching modes.

Felder-Silverman model

According to Felder (1996, 1993), this model classifies students along the
following dimensions:
(a) What type of information does the student preferentially perceive?
(i) Sensing learners (concrete, practical, oriented towards facts and
procedures) or
(ii) Intuitive learners (conceptual, innovative, oriented towards theories
and meanings).
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(b) Through which modality is sensory information most effectively perceived?
(i) visual learners (prefer visual representations of presented material--
pictures, diagrams, flow charts) or
(ii) verbal learners (prefer written and spoken explanations).
(c) With which organisation of information is the student most comfortable?
(i) Inductive learners (prefer presentations that proceed from the specific
to the general) or
(ii) Deductive learners (prefer presentations that go from the general to
the specific).
(d) How does the student prefer to process information?
(i) Active learners (learn by trying things out, working with others) or
(ii) Reflective learners (learn by thinking things through, working alone);
(e) How does the student progress towards understanding?
(i) Sequential learners (linear, orderly, learn in small incremental steps)
or
(ii) Global learners (holistic, systems thinkers, learn in large leaps).
6.3.3 Active Learning
What is meant by active learning?

According to Boyer, E. (1990):
Great teachers stimulate active not passive learning, and they encourage
students to be critical, creative thinkers, with the capacity to go on learning after
their college days are over.

According to Bonwell and Eison (1991). active learning involves:
x Less emphasis on transmitting information and more on developing students'
skills;
x Higher-order thinking (analysis, synthesis, evaluation);
x Activities (e.g. reading, discussing, writing); and
x Greater emphasis on students' exploration of their own attitudes and values.

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According to Meyers and Jones (1993):
x Research literature suggests that students must do more than just listen. They
must read, write, discuss or be engaged in solving problems.
x Most important, to be actively involved, students must engage in such
higher-order thinking tasks as analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Thus, active learning is:
x A class teaching and learning techniques that involves students in learning
activities other than passively listening to lectures;
x Can be defined as instructional activities relating students to doing things
and then reflecting on what they are doing or what problems they are
solving;
x Can occur in class or outside of class (e.g. computer simulations, Internet
assignments or discussion, independent study research).
x Can be used with all levels of students from first year to graduate level.
6.3.4 Cooperative Learning
Cooperative Learning (CL) is an instructional paradigm in which teams of
students work on structured tasks (e.g. homework assignments, laboratory
experiments or design projects) under conditions that meet five criteria: positive
independence, individual accountability, faceto-face interaction, appropriate
use of collaborative skills and regular self-assessment of team functioning
(Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1998).

Models used in Cooperative Learning
Below are some models in cooperative learning:

THINK-PAIR-SHARE
THINK
x Assign a topic.
x Students think.
PAIR
x Students move to assigned partners.
Please move to your partner that we assigned earlier.
x Students discuss with partners.
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SHARE
x Teacher calls on students to share with class.
Student #4, Derick, what did you and your partner say about how to best
solve word problems?

(a) Modification: Timed Pair Share
(i) If you want to prevent one person from monopolising the
conversation, set a time limit and students take turns talking.
(b) Modification: Rallyrobin
(i) If the discussion is supposed to generate a list from the pair of
students, the students can take turns writing.
(c) Modification: Think-Write-Pair-Share
(i) Slows pace of discussion. All students write their ideas so teacher can
monitor the participation.

(d) Managing student behaviour
(i) Assign partners to avoid issues of popularity.
(ii) Change partners to allow students to experience each others
communication styles.
(iii) Require quiet think time.
(iv) Monitor discussions.
(v) Ask students to share what their partner said to emphasise that
listening skills are important.

NUMBERED HEADS TOGETHER
x Place students in groups of four.
x Number students in each group 1 4.
x Present information to students.
x Require students to think about answer in groups and develop a consensus.
x Call on number 1, 2, 3 or 4, and ask any student with that number to raise
their hand.
x Call on one student or several students for answers.

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Modification: Involving the Class
(a) After students present their answers, you can call on the entire class to
show agreement or disagreement. Every student must answer.
Who agrees with this answer? Show me a thumbs-up sign if you agree or
thumbs down if you think another answer is correct.
(b) If you want justification, ask Why?

JIGSAW
x Students are part of a learning group and research team.
x Students meet in their LEARNING GROUP and define goals.
x Each student from the group joins a separate RESEARCH TEAM to research
their part of the goal.
x Students return to the LEARNING GROUP to share results and teach group
members.
x The LEARNING GROUP shares with entire class.
Modification: Individual Experts
(a) Instead of joining a research team, students work independently and
become an expert before sharing with the LEARNING GROUP.
Each of you will now become an expert in your topic. Here are the
resources you can use

GROUP INVESTIGATION
x Teacher introduces a unit.
x Students list topics to be investigated.
x LEARNING GROUP chooses a topic.
x LEARNING GROUP determines subtopics for members to investigate.
x Members prepare report on subtopic for LEARNING GROUP.
x Subtopics combined into information on topic.
x LEARNING GROUP presents their topic to class.

Managing Student Behaviour
(a) Coach learning groups on equitable distribution of subtopics and work-
load.
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(b) Listen to students as they respond to the reports presented by individuals.
Encourage sensitivity and demonstrate examples of respectful
disagreement.
I sense that you are displeased with your teammates research. Talk to me
about what you would have done with that subtopic. Well figure out how
we can work with him.
6.3.5 Problem-based Learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) is the process of acquiring new knowledge based
on recognition of a need to learn. In problem-based learning, small groups of
students are presented with contextual situations and asked to define the
problem, decide what skills and resources are necessary to investigate the
problem and then provide possible solutions (Duch, Groh & Allen, 2001).
Therefore, ill-structured problem-based learning has been chosen as the
instructional material strategy. Ill-structured Problem-based Learning provides
students with opportunities to learn in situations that are similar to those they
will encounter in the real world. Students work together in small groups guided
by tutors who are responsible for ensuring that the learning objectives for each
case are identified.

Savery and Duffy's (1994) model of the PBL process proposes some steps that a
facilitator could follow:
(a) Facilitator identifies or designs an ill-structured problem or task relevant to
the learner.
(b) Facilitator presents the problem to the learners.
(c) Learners, in their own groups, collaboratively:
(i) Generate working ideas or possible;
(ii) Identify available information related to the problem;
(iii) Identify learning issues;
(iv) Identify resources to look up or consult;
(v) Assign tasks to the various group members;
(vi) Gather information; and
(vii) Propose solution(s).

Steps two through five may be repeated and reviewed as new information
becomes available and redefines the problem.

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THINKING SKILLS
6.4.1 What are Thinking Skills?
The statement by Rene Descartes (1596-1650), I think, therefore I am, expresses
the meaning of thinking for us as humans. Our brain is the most important thing
we have but people usually do not bother to think about thinking. According to
De Bono, thinking skills are not about intelligence or high IQ. Intelligence is like
the horsepower of a car while thinking is the driving skills with which an
individual drives his or her intelligence (De Bono, 1995, p. 6).

So, what are thinking skills? Alvinoo, in his 1990 "Glossary of Thinking-Skills
Terms," offers a set of definitions which is widely, though not universally,
accepted by theorists and programme developers. These include (Cotton, 1991):

(a) Bloom's Taxonomy
This is a popular instructional model developed by prominent educator
Benjamin Bloom. It categorises thinking skills from the concrete to the
abstract knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation. The last three are considered higher-order skills.

(b) Cognition
This focuses on mental operations involved in thinking; the biological/
neurological processes of the brain that facilitate thought.

(c) Creative Thinking
This is a novel way of seeing or doing things that is characterised by four
components fluency (generating many ideas), flexibility (shifting
6.4
Teaching/ learning strategies are selected in the design phase when
designing instructional materials for effective instruction. The
strategies chosen may be based on behaviourist, cognitive or
constructivist perspectives depending on the learning outcomes.
Discuss and design using a specific teaching/ learning model, for
example, the Needham Model, Problem-based Learning Model
(constructivist) or Gagnes Nine Events of Instructions (cognitive), a
lesson plan for classroom use. You may include some snapshots of
your storyboard.
ACTIVITY 6.1
TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES W 89
perspectives easily), originality (conceiving something new) and
elaboration (building on other ideas).

(d) Critical Thinking
The process of determining the authenticity, accuracy or value of
something; characterised by the ability to seek reasons and alternatives,
perceive the total situation, and change one's view based on evidence. It is
also called logical thinking and analytical thinking.

(e) Infusion
Integrating thinking skills instruction into the regular curriculum; infused
programmes are commonly contrasted with separate programmes, which
teach thinking skills as a curriculum in itself.

(f) Metacognition
This is the process of planning, assessing and monitoring one's own
thinking; the pinnacle of mental functioning.

(g) Thinking Skills
This is a set of basic and advanced skills and subskills that govern a
person's mental processes. These skills consist of knowledge, dispositions,
and cognitive and metacognitive operations.

(h) Transfer
This is the ability to apply the thinking skills taught separately to any
subject.
6.4.2 Importance of Thinking Skills
Why do we need thinking skills? According to Teacher Net of United Kingdom
(2008), thinking skills will lead to:
Children building their own internal planning systems;
Developing attention;
Increased perception;
Enhanced memory skills;
Intellectual development; and
Motivation.

They also think that thinking skills will help to prevent overload due to the
quantity of knowledge in the curriculum and solve the problem of difficulty in
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learning. Curriculum Development Centre Malaysia (2008) gave five reasons
why we should develop thinking skills:
(a) We need to produce Malaysian citizens who can think skilfully in order to
achieve the goals of Vision 2020;
(b) As stated in our National Philosophy of Education, we need to develop
individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically
balanced and harmonious;
(c) One of the objectives of the Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools
(ICPS) is to develop pupils ability to think critically and creatively as well
as make decisions and solve problems;
(d) Thinking skills help in the better understanding of a language; and
(e) Thinking skills are also lifelong skills.
6.4.3 Categories of Thinking Skills
Although various definitions and types of thinking skills have been proposed in
the world of education, most of them are similar as they contain the following
terms (Kizlik, 2008):

(a) Thinking
Thinking refers to the process of creating a structured series of connective
transactions between items of perceived information.

(b) Metacognition
Metacognition refers to awareness and control of one's thinking, including
commitment, attitudes and attention.

(c) Critical thinking
Critical thinking refers to reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on
deciding what to believe or do. Critical thinkers try to be aware of their
own biases as well as be objective and logical.

(d) Creative thinking
Refers to the ability to form new combinations of ideas to fulfil a need, or to
get original or otherwise appropriate results by the criteria of the domain in
question.

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Kizlik (2008) listed other terms of thinking skills based on the functions of
instruction. He stated that instruction is a conglomeration of decisions and
activities that are made and carried out in order to procure the desired outcomes
for learners. Some of these decisions and activities are as follows:
Activating prior knowledge
Analysing skills
Attention
Attitudes
Classifying
Commitment
Comparing
Composing
Comprehending
Concept formation
Conditional information
Core thinking skills
Creative thinking
Critical thinking
Curriculum
Decision making
Declarative information
Defining problems

In this topic, we will only discuss three of the most important and common
thinking skills critical and creative thinking, problem solving and decision
making.

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6.4.4 Critical and Creative Thinking
Curriculum Development Centre Malaysia (PPK, 2008) noted that critical
thinking skills are required in order to skilfully assess and analyse data and
information. Making an analysis means breaking up data and information into
parts and studying each part in more detail.

Skilful analysis involves the skills of comparing and contrasting, classifying,
arranging and sequencing, identifying facts and opinions, identifying biased
statements, giving causes, predicting, making inferences and generalisations,
interpreting and summarising.

Creative thinking skills are the skills of generating many, varied and new ideas.
The skills involved in making inventions and innovations may be classed under
creative thinking skills. PPK suggested a model for critical and creative thinking
skills as shown below:

Figure 6.2: Model of critical and creative thinking skills

Based on the model of Critical and Creative Thinking Skills as shown above, PPK
(2008) created the types of thinking skills as the following:
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Figure 6.3: Types of thinking skills
6.4.5 Problem Solving
Foshay and Kirkley (2003) stated that for much of the 20th century, educators
have devoted their attention to defining and teaching problem-solving skills. In
the early 1900s, problem solving was viewed as a mechanical, systematic, and
often abstract (decontextualised) set of skills, such as those used to solve riddles
or mathematical equations. These problems often have correct answers based on
logical solutions with a single correct answer (convergent reasoning).

However, under the influence of cognitive learning theories, problem solving
shifted to represent a complex mental activity consisting of a variety of cognitive
skills and actions. Garofalo & Lester (1985) stated that problem solving included
higher-order thinking skills such as "visualisation, association, abstraction,
comprehension, manipulation, reasoning, analysis, synthesis, generalisation
each needing to be managed and coordinated."

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There are various problem-solving models now. One example of a general
problem-solving model in the 1960s and 1970s is Bransford's IDEAL model:
Identify the problem;
Define the problem by thinking about it and sorting out relevant information;
Explore solutions by looking at alternatives, brainstorming and checking out
different points of view;
Act on the strategies; and
Look back and evaluate the effects of your activity.

The problem-solving model given by Kreger (2002) consisted of seven steps:
(a) Read and analyse the problem scenario;
(b) List what is known;
(c) Develop a problem statement;
(d) List what is needed;
(e) List possible actions;
(f) Analyse information; and
(g) Present findings.

Cognitive research done in the last 20 years has led to a different model of
problem solving. Today, we know problem solving includes a complex set of
cognitive, behavioural and attitudinal components (Foshay and Kirkley, 2003). In
1983, Mayer defined problem solving as a multiple-step process where the
problem solver must find relationships between past experiences (schema) and
the problem at hand and then act upon a solution. Mayer suggested three
characteristics of problem solving:
(a) Problem solving is cognitive but is inferred from behaviour;
(b) Problem solving results in behaviour that leads to a solution; and
(c) Problem solving is a process that involves manipulation of or operations on
previous knowledge (Funkhouser and Dennis, 1992).

Figure 6.4 (Gick, 1986) shows a problem-solving model which is frequently used,
according to Foshay and Kirkley (2003):
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Figure 6.4: Problem solving model
6.4.6 Decision Making
According to the Oxford Dictionary (2004), decision is a choice or judgement that
a person makes after thinking and talking about what is the best thing to do; and
decision making is the process of deciding about something important especially
in a group of people or in an organisation.

So, when do we need to make a decision? Some conditions must exist before we
could claim that a decision is required. First, there must be two or more possible
consequences of a taken action. Secondly, there are values added as the result of
the taken action. Thirdly, there are variations in effectiveness of the taken action.

How to make a good decision? Decision making consists of complicated stages
owing to its characteristic as a process leading to an event. Since decision
making is a process, we must be clear on what is the problem. Then, we need to
list all possible alternatives and ask ourselves what we are going to do. Then, we
must state the factors that we have to weigh in making the decision. There are
many types of frameworks or processes to simplify the process of making
decisions. The most common decision making consists of five stages, as
presented in the Figure 6.5:

Figure 6.5: Decision making process
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The five stages of decision making are:
(a) Define the problem;
(b) Analyse the problem;
(c) Identify available alternatives;
(d) Choose the best alternative after appraising all the alternatives; and
(e) Implement the alternative in the situation.
THINKING TOOLS
Thinking tools are used to assist learners in organising their thinking. There is a
significant relationship between the type of tool and the way that a skill, concept,
process or disposition is best learned. In this module, we will discuss three types
of thinking tools mind map, graphic organiser and CoRT I.
6.5.1 Mind Map
A mind map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks or other items
linked to and arranged radially around a central key word or idea. It is used to
generate, visualise, structure and classify ideas, and as an aid in studying,
organisation, problem solving, decision making and writing (Wikipedia, 2008).

Basically, a mind map is an image-centred diagram that represents semantic or
other connections between portions of information. According to Buzan (2002), a
mind map is the ultimate organisational thinking tool. Figure 10.1 shows the
uses and users of mind map. It is usually used for learning, brainstorming,
memory, visual thinking and problem solving. The target group of mind map
users includes educators, engineers, psychologists and people in general.
6.5
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Discuss what are thinking skills.
2. State the steps in a simple problem-solving method
TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES W 97

Figure 6.6: Uses and Users of Mind Map

According to Wikipedia (2008), some of the earliest mind maps were developed
by Porphyry of Tyros, a noted thinker in the third century. He graphically
visualised the concept categories of Aristotle. Ramon Llull also used structures of
the mind map form. But it was British popular psychology author Tony Buzan
who popularised the use of mind maps.

The characteristics of mind map are as follows:
Use key words or images;
Use a lot of colours;
Use interesting forms, shapes, styles and patterns;
Use arrows or codes; and
Are very creative and delightful.
6.5.1a Roles of Mind Map
According to Buzan (2002, p9), a mind map will:
Give an overview of a large subject or area;
Enable you to plan routes or to make choices and will let you know where
you are going and where you have been;
Gather large amounts of data in one place;
Encourage problem solving by allowing you to see new creative pathways;
and
Be enjoyable to look at, read, muse over and remember.

According to Buzan (2002), those who use mind maps will be more creative, save
time, solve problems, concentrate, organise and clarify their thinking. They will
remember better, study faster and more efficiently, thereby passing exams with
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good grades. In short, mind maps make studying a breeze. Mind maps also
enable people to see the whole picture, plan, communicate, survive and save
trees.

Simply, mind map is used as a:
Technique of writing notes for speeches, briefings, lectures or reading
materials;
Technique of forming the framework for writing reports, essays or
presentations;
Technique of writing synopses or summaries after literature review;
Tool for presentations (more simple and interactive); and
Guideline to remember something without referring to the original material.
6.5.1b How to Do a Mind Map
Four important things are required in order to create a mind map (Buzan, 2002):
Blank unlined paper;
Coloured pens and pencils;
Your brain; and
Your imagination.

Buzan suggests using the following foundation structures for mind mapping
(Wikipedia, 2008):
(a) Start in the centre with an image of the topic, using at least three colours;
(b) Use images, symbols, codes and dimensions throughout the mind map;
(c) Select key words and print using upper or lower case letters;
(d) Each word/ image must be alone and sitting on its own line;
(e) The lines must be connected, starting from the central image. The central
lines should be thicker, organic and flowing, becoming thinner as they
radiate out from the centre;
(f) Make the lines the same length as the word/ image;
(g) Use colours your own code throughout the mind map;
(h) Develop your own personal style of mind mapping;
(i) Use emphasis and show associations in your mind map; and
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(j) Keep the mind map clear by using radial hierarchy, numerical order or
outlines to embrace your branches.

The following is a simple way to do a mind map:
(a) Write the title in the centre of the paper. Form a unique shape;
(b) Draw a few lines that match the title and write the important subtitle on the
drawing lines; and
(c) Create a few characters in categories at the end of each line.

Figure 6.7 is an example on types of television programmes:

Figure 6.7: Mind Map on Types of Television Programmes
6.5.2 Graphic Organiser
Graphic tools and organisers help students to organise their ideas and present
information. They also help students to clarify their thinking and to process,
organise and prioritise information. Visual organisation of information supports
students by revealing patterns and relationships. Consequently, they can
understand concepts by describing and remembering the relationships between
different ideas and concepts (LTAG, 2006).
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Graphic organisers can help to motivate, increase recall, assist understanding,
create interest, combat boredom and organise thoughts. So, what is a graphic
organiser? According to Gotoscience.com (2008), a graphic organiser is a:
Visual representation of knowledge;
Semantic map;
Structured overview;
Concept map;
Semantic organiser;
Story map;
Scaffolding;
Way of structuring information into organisational patterns;
Way to facilitate pre-reading, post-reading, pre-writing, revising, discussing
and reasoning;
Way to promote active learning;
Highly effective tool for improving social interaction and collaboration;
Framework for what is to be learned; and
Way to access students previous experience and knowledge.
6.5.2a Guidelines to Help Students in Creating Graphic
Organisers
Gotoscience.com (2008) provides some guidelines to help students in creating
graphic organisers. These guidelines are given below:
Discuss with students what are graphic organisers and how to use them;
Show students examples and non-examples of graphic organisers;
Use a completed graphic organiser to teach a lesson or fill in graphic
organisers while teaching a lesson;
Let students help the teacher fill in a blank on the overhead projector;
Give students a partially completed graphic organiser. The teacher has the
same graphic organiser on the overhead. Teacher and students fill in together
or students may fill in by working in small groups or individually;
Students are given a blank graphic organiser to fill in by working in small
groups or individually;
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Give students opportunities to create their own graphic organiser. Let them
design their own format. They may work individually or in small groups;
and
Let students present their graphic organiser to the class to teach a mini-lesson
or to explain why they chose a particular format.
6.5.2b Types of Graphic Organisers
There are many types of graphic organisers used to illustrate a students or class'
prior knowledge about a topic or section of text, such as a star, a tree, a Venn
diagram or a flowchart. The process of converting a mass of data, information or
ideas into a graphic map gives the student increased understanding and insight
into a topic. Thus, in choosing a graphic organiser, we must know the functions
of each type of organiser. Table 10.1 shows some examples of graphic organisers
and their functions.

Table 6.3: Examples of Graphic Organisers

Describing
Comparing
Contrasting
Classifying Sequencing Causal
Decision
Making

Webbing
Brainstorming
Web
Money Web
Double Cell
Diagram
Hierarchy
Diagram
Research
Cycle
Cluster
Diagram
Desktop
Folder
System
Squirrels
Web


Concept
Mapping
Concept Map Simile
School is

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Matrix
Venn
Venn
Expanded
Comparison
Matrix
KWHL Thinking
grids

Flow
Chart
Desktop
Folder
System
Linear
String
Expanded
Linear
String
Domino
Effect

(Cited from: http://www.graphic.org/goindex.html)

Besides knowing the functions of each type of graphic organiser, we need to
identify our purpose or the skills we want our students to develop. Generally,
graphic organisers could be used to develop the following skills:
Comparison
Categorise
Explain
Investigate
Prediction
Assumption
Decision making
Problem solving

The daily practice of the majority of teachers during the teaching and learning
process is to use a verbal organiser. A verbal organiser involves putting key
information in text form on a piece of paper. The difference between a verbal
organiser and a graphic organiser is that a verbal organiser will state the
information in text form or sentences while a graphic organiser presents
information in figures with some key words. Figure 10. 3 shows how a verbal
organiser and a graphic organiser have been applied for the purpose of
comparing. Figure 10.4 shows how a verbal organiser and a graphic organiser
have been applied for the purpose of categorising.
TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES W 103

Figure 6.8: Graphic and Verbal Organisers for Comparisons


Figure 6.9: Graphic and Verbal Organisers for Categorisation
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6.5.3 CORT
CoRT is the short form for Cognitive Research Trust, which was proposed by
Edward de Bono, a cognitive researcher. He was the proponent of lateral
thinking. He also advocated the teaching of thinking as a skill. According to de
Bono, there are six parts in a CoRT lesson:
CoRT I - Breadth
CoRT II Organisation
CoRT III Interaction
CoRT IV Creativity
CoRT V Information and Feeling
CoRT VI - Action

However, in this topic, we will only discuss tool CoRT I. CoRT I consists of seven
techniques to guide us in the thinking process. These techniques are shown in
the figure 10.5:

Figure 6.10: Seven Techniques in CoRT I (Module HBEF3103, OUM)
6.5.3a CoRT I
Below are the details of CoRT I techniques:
PMI (Plus, Minus, Interesting) The treatment of ideas
CAF (Consider All Factors) The factors involved
C&S (Consequence and Sequel) Focus on the consequences
AGO (Aims, Goals, Objectives) Focus on the purpose
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FIP (First Important Priorities)
APC (Alternatives, Possibilities, Choices) Focus on alternatives
OPV (Other People's Views) The other people involved

(a) PMI
P stands for Plus, which refers to good things about an idea and why you
like the idea. M stands for minus, which refers to bad things about an idea
and why you do not like it. I is interest, which refers to what you find
interesting about an idea. The steps of using PMI are:
(i) Listen to the issue or problem;
(ii) Say: Lets do a PMI;
(iii) Give the good points;
(iv) Give the bad points;
(v) Give the points which are neither good nor bad, but are interesting;
and
(vi) Make a decision based on the collected information.

(b) CAF
CAF is the short form for consider all factors. You use CAF when you have
to choose, make a decision or think about something and there are many
factors that you have to consider. If you leave out some of these factors in
making a decision, it might seem right at the time but later turn out wrong.
Thus, before making a decision, you could see what factors have been left
out. The steps of CAF are:
(i) Listen to the issue or problem;
(ii) Say: Lets do a CAF;
(iii) State all the factors that have to be considered;
(iv) Make a judgement for each factor; and
(v) Make a decision.

(c) C&S
C&S means consequence and sequel. This technique helps us to identify the
effect if we take some actions. There are four types of consequence:
Immediate consequence;
Short-term consequence (15 years);
Medium-term consequence (525 years); and
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Long-term consequence (over 25 years).

The steps of C&S are:
(i) Listen to the chosen action;
(ii) Say: Lets do a C&S;
(iii) State the immediate consequence;
(iv) State the short-term consequence (5 years);
(v) State the long-term consequence;
(vi) Repeat C&S for other alternative action; and
(vii) Evaluate the consequence and make decision.

(d) AGO
AGO stands for aims, goals and objectives. According to De Bono (1973),
AGO can help your thinking if you know exactly what you want to achieve.
It also helps you to understand other peoples thinking if you can see their
objectives. The steps of AGO are:
(i) State the issue or problem;
(ii) Say: Lets do a AGO;
(iii) Start the discussion session;
(iv) Remind yourself or all the members of group discussion by repeating
What are our AGO?; and
(v) Continue until the decision is made.

(e) FIP
FIP stands for first important priorities. This technique helps you to pick
out the most important points, the ones you have to give priority to and
deal with first after doing the PMI, CAF, AGO and C&S. The steps of FIP
are:
(i) Make the decision according to priority. Voice out the issue or
problem;
(ii) Say: Lets do a FIP; and
(iii) List all the important things.

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(f) APC
APC stands for alternatives, possibilities and choices. This technique trains
us to search for more alternatives and choose before we make a decision. It
also trains us to think together with the choices and possibilities we have.
The steps of APC are:
(i) Voice out the problem;
(ii) Say: Lets do an APC;
(iii) Generate as many alternatives as you can; and
(iv) Choose and make the decision.

(g) OPV
OPV stands for other points of view. Many thinking situations involve
other people, who may have very different viewpoints. This technique is
very effective when a discussion cannot end with a decision. However,
when we use this technique, we must be open minded and listen to other
peoples opinions and ideas because they could be our guide in making
decisions. The steps of OPV are:
(i) State the problem;
(ii) Mention the alternative which will be taken;
(iii) Identify the individuals whose priorities could be affected because of
the taken alternative;
(iv) Ask the individuals for their opinion on the alternative that will be
taken;
(v) Decide after investigating the viewpoint of the individuals; and
(vi) Repeat the process if the decision is not applicable.
6.5.4 Question and Questioning
Effective questioning is considered a vital component of adult education and an
integral part of teaching in the medical profession. Questioning can do the
following (UAB, 2008; cited from www.uab.edu):
Clarify concepts;
Reinforce student understanding;
Arouse curiosity;
Emphasise key points;
Stimulate interest; and
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Promote higher-order thinking in students.

The process of skilful questioning includes (UAB, 2008; cited from
www.uab.edu):
Establishing an appropriate environment by creating a climate that is
conducive to learning;
Using the right mix of questions;
Accurately phrasing questions;
Allowing sufficient time for responses; and
Using probes to further explore students responses.

There are many types of questions and questioning skills. In this topic, we will
only discuss Blooms Taxonomy questions. According to the taxonomy, there are
six levels of questions, as shown below:
(a) Basic Order Question: KNOWLEDGE
(b) Basic Order Question: UNDERSTANDING/ COMPREHENSION
(c) Middle Order Question: APPLICATION
(d) Middle Order Question: ANALYSIS
(e) Higher Order Question: SYNTHESIS
(f) Higher Order Question: EVALUATION

The table below shows the definition of each level and the trigger words or
activities that could be used for that particular level.

Table 6.4: Trigger Words or Activities According to Blooms Taxonomy
Levels Definition
Trigger Words or
Activities
KNOWLEDGE Ability to remember
something previously learned
Tell, Recite, List, Memorise,
Remember, Define, Locate
COMPREHENSION Demonstrate basic
understanding of concepts &
curriculum
Translate to other words
Restate, Give Example,
Explain, Summarise,
Translate, Show symbols,
Edit
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APPLICATION Transfer knowledge learned
in one situation to another
Demonstrate, Use guides,
maps, charts etc., Build,
Cook
ANALYSIS Understand how parts relate
to a whole
Understand structure and
motive
Note fallacies
Investigate, Classify,
Categorise, Compare,
Contrast, Solve
SYNTHESIS Re-form individual parts to
make a new whole
Compose, Design, Invent,
Create, Hypothesise,
Construct, Forecast,
Rearrange parts, Imagine
EVALUATION Judge value of something vis-
-vis criteria
Support judgment
Judge, Evaluate, Give
opinion or viewpoint,
Prioritise, Recommend,
Critique
(Cited from: http://www.hoover.k12.al.us/dves/Enrichment/new_page_2.htm)

Below are examples of each level:

(a) KNOWLEDGE
Name the states in Malaysia.

(b) COMPREHENSION
Match the vocabulary with the correct pictures.

(c) APPLICATION
Sketch the face of the thief as described in the story.

(d) ANALYSIS
Compare animals and plants; in what ways are they similar and different?

(e) SYNTHESIS
Design your own instruction for Lesson 1 in English Language class.

(f) EVALUATION
Defend the results of your research.

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x Some examples of teaching strategies that are based on behaviourist or
constructivist principles are Nine Events of Instructions and Direct
Instructions.
x Other examples of Constructivist strategies are Needham Model, Laurillards
Conversational Framework, Active Learning, Cooperative Learning and
Problem-based Learning.
x This topic discusses various definition, importance and categories of thinking
skills.
x There are three most important thinking skills discussed in the topic critical
and creative thinking, problem solving and decision making.
x There are various problem solving models but the general one is Brainsfords
IDEAL model.
x The most common decision-making methods consists of five stages define,
analyse, identify alternatives, choose and implement.
x There are three types of thinking tools discussed in the topic mind map,
graphic organiser and CoRT I.
x Also discussed is about questions and questioning techniques based on
Blooms Taxonomy.

ACTIVITY 6.3
Mind map is one of the powerful thinking tools nowadays.
(a) Discuss how mind maps can help in the thinking process.
(b) Design a mind map on the importance of critical and creative
thinking.
TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES W 111

Active Learning
Cooperative Learning
CoRT I
Critical and creative thinking
Decision making
Graphic organiser
IDEAL model
Laurillards Conversational
Framework
Mind map
Problem solving
Problem-based Learning.
Questioning techniques