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CHAPTER 1

CLASSIFICATION OF GANTRY CRANES

This section addresses the types of overhead cranes used in nuclear power plants, their

applications, and the variations in their usage and demand requirements.

1.1. Principal Crane Service Types

1.1.1. Type I Crane

A Type I crane is one that is used to handle a critical load. It is designed and constructed so

that it remains in place and supports the critical load during and after a seismic occurrence,

but it does not have to be operational after this occurrence. “In place” means remaining on

the runway and retaining all components on the crane. Single-failure-proof features are

included so that failure of a single component does not result in the loss of capability to stop

and hold the critical load. The containment building polar crane is typically a Type I crane.

1.1.2.Type II Crane

A Type II crane is not used to handle a critical load, but it is designed and constructed so that

it remains in place with or without a load during a seismic occurrence. However, the crane

need not support the load and need not be operational during and after such an occurrence.

Single failure-proof features are not required. The new-fuel crane or spent-fuel cask crane is

typically a Type II crane.

1.1.3. Type III Crane :

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A Type III crane is one that is not used to handle a critical load and for which seismic

considerations and single-failure-proof features are not required. A Type III crane would

typically be designed in accordance with CMAA specification.

1.2. Crane Service Classifications

1.2.1. Class A (Standby and Infrequent Service) – This service class covers cranes used in

installations such as power houses, public utilities, turbine rooms, nuclear reactor buildings,

motor rooms, and nuclear fuel handling and transfer stations, where precise handling of

valuable machinery at slow speeds with long idle periods between lifts is required. Rated

loads may be handled for the initial installation of machinery and for infrequent maintenance.

These types of cranes are also used in installations such as small maintenance shops, pump

rooms, testing laboratories, and similar operations, where the loads are relatively light, the

speeds are slow, and a low degree of control accuracy is required. The loads may vary

anywhere from no load to full rated load with a frequency of a few lifts per day or month.

1.2.2.Class B (Light Service) - This classification covers cranes such as those used in repair

shops, light assembly operations, service buildings, and light warehousing, where the service

requirements are light and the speed is slow. Loads may vary from no load to full rated load

with an average load of 50% of rated load with two to five lifts per hour, averaging 15 feet

(4.6 m), not over 50% of the lifts at rated load.

1.2.3.Class C (Moderate Service) - This class covers cranes such as those used in machine

shops and paper mill machine rooms, where the service requirements are medium. In this

type of service the crane will handle loads that average 50% of the rated load with 5–10 lifts

per hour averaging 15 feet (4.6 m), not over 50% of the lifts at rated load.
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1.2.4.Class D (Heavy Duty) - This classification covers cranes, usually cab operated, such as

those used in heavy machine shops, foundries, fabricating plants, steel warehouses, and

lumber mills, and standard duty bucket and magnet operation cranes, where heavy duty

production is required but with no specific cycle of operation. Loads approaching 50% of the

rated load are handled constantly during the working period. High speeds are desirable for

this type of service with 10–20 lifts per hour averaging 15 feet (4.6 m), not over 65% of the

lifts at rated load.

1.2.5.Class E (Severe Duty Cycle Service) - This type of service requires a heavy-duty

crane capable of handling the rated load continuously, at high speed, in repetition throughout

a stated period per day, in a predetermined cycle of operation. Applications include magnet,

bucket, magnet bucket combination cranes for scrap yards, cement mills, lumber mills, and

fertilizer plants with 20 or more lifts per hour at rated load.

1.2.6. Class F (Continuous Severe Service) – Cranes in this type of service should be

capable of handling loads near its rated capacity continuously under severe service conditions

for its operational life. These cranes are required to have high reliability and design features

that facilitate maintenance efforts. Class F cranes may be used in specialty applications that

support a production facility or other specialized tasks.

1.3. Service Use Classifications In addition to the design service classes

established by CMAA, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers B30 series (an

American National Standard) has established a group of three service-use classifications for

use in inspection of lifting equipment, as follows:

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Normal Service – That service which involves operating at less than 85% rated load

and not more that 10 lift cycles per hour, except for isolated instances

Heavy Service – That service which involves operating at 85–100% of rated load or

in excess of 10 lift cycles per hour as a regular specified procedure

Severe Service – That service which involves normal or heavy service with abnormal

operating conditions.

2.1. INTRODUCTION:

For a crane to operate properly and reliably, crane components must be in proper alignment.

Structural connections associated with the following components generally use bolts to

accommodate field installation and shipping limitations:

• Girders and end trucks

• Girders and end ties

• Τ trolley frame members

These connections should utilize close-tolerance body structural bolts, in close fitting drilled

or reamed holes, to fulfill the need for alignment integrity of these connections.

2.2. Frame :

The frame basically consists of the two trucks and the one or two load girt. Where shipping

limitations do not govern, the frame is welded into a one-piece unit of plates and structural
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shapes. If the size of the finished trolley necessitates dismantling for shipment, the load girt

are secured to the trucks with tolerance-body bolts in reamed holes.

The load girt support makes up a large percentage of the overhead bridge crane live load

because it contains the upper block and the running and equalizer sheaves. The trolley trucks

support the load-girt reactions and, in most cases, the hoist-gear units and the drum-

supporting bearings. They also contain the wheel assemblies.

2.3. Girders :

Girders provide the main structural support for a crane. Girders support the trolley and the

end trucks that provide crane lateral movement. There are three types of girders typically

found in crane construction: single-web, box, and latticed. Single web or wide-flange beams

are used for bridge girders with comparatively short spans.

This girder resembles a typical I-beam except that the upper and lower flanges are

considerably wider than a typical I-beam. The allowable stress for a wide-flange beam

decreases as the span increases. The capability of a single web can be improved by welding

flat plate across the beam span from flange to flange. This procedure will tend to stiffen the

beam.

Also, a capping plate can be welded to top flange to increase the useful span of the beam and

its load rating. The box girder is the most widely used girder for overhead traveling cranes.

This girder is just an adaptation of the single-web with welded plate. The key difference is

that there are quite a few plates welded in the web portion of the beam.
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These welded plates are then covered by a full-length cover plate along the beam. The weld

plate and the cover plate give the girder excellent rigidity.

The latticed girder is typically used when there is a long span on outdoor cranes. This girder

has several design factors that make it especially useful for particular applications. Making

the beam a lattice reduces the dead load of the crane and lowers the surface area (wind

impact). This girder design allows the weight of the girder to be more evenly distributed over

the entire crane. The primary drawback to latticed girders is that they are labor intensive to

manufacture.

Solid model of girder of 30T EOT crane

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2.4. Girder End Connections (End Tie) :

End connectors or end ties are typically provided between crane girders to provide a more

rigid and stable crane . The girder end connections also assist in providing frame squareness

and assist with load transfer to the girders. Girder loads enter the truck structure as direct

bearing loads through the end diaphragm plates and shelf angles. An additional means of

holding the girder square with the truck is provided by the large gusset plate welded to the

bottom of the truck and attached to the girders with tolerance body bolts in reamed holes. A

substantial end tie must be provided to give horizontal fixed-end rigidity to the girders. This

end tie may be a separate member or may be part of the truck itself.

2.5. Trucks :

Crane trucks (often referred to as end trucks) are assemblies that contain wheels, bearings,

axles, Structural members, and other components that support crane locomotion. There are

typically Two sets of trucks on a crane: bridge trucks and trolley trucks.

2.5.1 Bridge Trucks :

The bridge trucks are designed to move a crane along the runway. The crane runway is a

Horizontal beam that is attached to building columns or walls and supports a runway rail on

Which the crane travels. The design of structural members, bearings, and axles of the bridge

trucks is primarily Determined by the maximum wheel load. This load can be computed by

adding the fixed(Dead) load and the rated load.

2.6 Wheel Assemblies :

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Wheels are designed to carry the maximum wheel load under normal conditions without

excessive wear. Larger wheels on the same rail have a greater load carrying ability than

smaller wheels. The constants used for various classes of service have been established to

give reasonable wheel life for each class. Rolled steel or forged steel is recommended for

crane wheels.

These materials have good strength and good ductility to withstand the concentrated

loading that occurs at the line contact between the railhead and the tread of the wheel.

Untreated wheels having tread hardness of approximately 262 BHN are recommended for

service classes A, B, and C. Rim-toughened wheels having a tread hardness of approximately

600 BHN can be used under special circumstances of severe service, but such extreme

hardness results in a loss of tread ductility and can increase rail wear.

Bridge wheels may be designed with tapered or straight treads. Tapered tread of 3°40′ is

recommended for bridge wheels. Tapered tread wheels have the advantage of keeping a crane

square with the runway. Should one end of a crane with tapered tread wheels tend to skew or

advance ahead of the opposite end, the leading wheel would tend to rotate on its large

diameter. This action causes the leading wheel to slow down and the trailing wheel to speed

up, bringing the crane square with the runway. The large diameter of the taper must be

toward the center of the span. In order to minimize rail wear, the driver and the idler wheels

are usually tapered.

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Girders with wheel assembly

2.7. Crane Stops :

Stops are devices that are attached to the crane runway and bridge rails to physically limit the

bridge and trolley travel. Early design stops were designed to come in contact with the actual

drive wheel and stop bridge or trolley motion. This method is not recommended due to the

possibility of bridge or trolley impacting these stops and causing the bridge or trolley to

derail. Cranes are typically supplied with bumpers or buffers that are designed to impact a

stop, absorb the force of the impact, and limit the bridge or trolley travel.

Wheel stops are located at the allowable bridge or trolley travel limits. These devices

are intended to prevent the movement of the bridge or trolley beyond a designated place of

travel. In most cases, the bridge stops are designed to contact a device that is mounted on the

bridge truck. The stop is typically welded to the support girder. Bridge stops are typically

designed to withstand the force equivalent to about 40% of rated bridge speed.
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These values are allowable because typically at or near the end of the operating limits

of the bridge or trolley, a crane is operated at slow speeds. Some applications require a crane

to operate at normal operating speeds at or near its operating limits of its runway. Under

these conditions, it may be advisable to design a stop that is capable of withstanding the

impact of the crane at full speed.

2.8. Sheaves :

Sheave grooves should be smooth and free from surface defects that could cause wire rope

damage. The cross-sectional radius at the bottom of the groove should form a close-fitting

saddle for the size of wire rope used, and the sides of the groove should taper outward to

facilitate entrance of the rope into the groove. Flange corners should be rounded, and the

rims run true about the axis of rotation.

2.9. Hooks :

Hooks should meet the manufacturer’s recommendations, and should not be overloaded.

Swiveling type hooks should be able to rotate freely, Hooks should be equipped with latches

unless the application makes the use of a latch impractical. When required, a latch should be

provided to bridge the throat opening of the hook so that slings, chains, and similar devices

are retained under slack conditions All hooks are made from ductile material so that the hook

gives visible evidence of overloading by slowly opening at the throat.

Hooks with deformation or cracks should never be used. When used, crane hooks

should have visual inspections daily and monthly inspections with signed reports. Hooks

with cracks or that have more than 15% in excess of normal throat opening or more than a

10° twist from the plane of the unbent hook should be replaced.
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Crane hook
2.10. Auxiliary Hoist :

The usefulness of many cranes is increased by providing the trolley with one or more

auxiliary hoists in addition to the main hoist. There are occasions when loads of considerably

less weight than the rated load of the crane must be lifted frequently. Because the load rating

of an auxiliary hoist is normally about 10–25% of the main hoist, hoisting speeds can be

much faster and stilluse an equal or smaller auxiliary hoist motor. Because the difference

between main and auxiliary hoists is a quantitative one, the previous discussions regarding

load blocks, wire rope, drums, and gear units apply equally well to auxiliary hoists. In

general, an auxiliary hoist may have a more severe service class rating than the main hoist.

2.11. Hoist Wire Rope :

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Replacement rope should be the same size, grade, and construction as the original rope

furnished by the crane manufacturer unless otherwise recommended by a wire rope or crane

manufacturer due to actual working condition requirement. Wire rope used for overhead and

gantry cranes is usually of the six strand, 36 wires per strand, classification. The six strand,

19 wire classification can be used where abrasive problems are severe.

Because it has a greater number of smaller diameter wires, the six strand, 36wire class of

rope is a more flexible construction so it is more often considered for general crane service.

Although crane rope is classified as 6 x 36 construction, the actual number of wires per

strandcan vary from 27 to 49, depending on the nominal diameter of the rope, the

manufacturer, and the grade of steel used. The greater the number of wires per strand, the

greater the flexibility of the rope, but with reduced resistance to abrasion. The number of

wires per strand does not affect the nominal breaking strength.

Wire crane ropes can be obtained with either fiber or wire core. Fiber core has been the usual

choice in the past because of its alleged lubricant-holding property. With the increased trend

toward higher strength ropes, however, wire core is becoming much more common because

it provides greater support to the six outer strands.

2.11.1. Wire Rope Splicing and Socketing :

Eye splices in wire rope should be made as recommended. Rope thimbles should be used in

the eye. Rope clips attached with U-bolts should have the U-bolts on the dead or short end of

the rope. Spacing and number of all types of clips should be in accordance with the clip

manufacturer’s recommendations. Nuts on clip bolts should be tightened evenly to the

manufacturer’s recommended torque.

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After the initial load is applied to newly installed rope and the rope is under tension, the

nuts of the clip bolt should be tightened again to the required torque in order to compensate

for any decrease in rope diameter caused by the load. Swaged or compressed fittings should

be applied as recommended by the rope or crane manufacturer. Socketing should be done in

the manner specified by the manufacturer of the assembly or the rope manufacturer. Rope

should be secured to the drum.

2.11.2. Wire Rope Reeving :

As can be seen from the reeving diagrams, a crane uses the principal of the block and tackle

in that the drum pull is multiplied by the reeving reduction to obtain the pull at the hook and

is divided by the reeving reduction to obtain the hook speed. Doubling the number of parts of

rope occurs in the two lead lines from the drum during hoisting and in the two lines from the

equalizer sheaves when lowering. The actual load in one of these lines can be found by use of

the lead line factor, a function of the reeving efficiency, taken from and multiplied by the

sum of the rated load and the weight of the block.

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This value is always somewhat greater than that obtained by dividing the sum of the rated

load and the weight of the block by the number of parts of reeving. Again, referring to the

various reeving diagrams, the two lines attached to the drum are called lead lines, and the

two lines going to the equalizer sheaves are called tow lines. Each lead and tow line has an

additional load beyond that supported by the other lines, due to the friction of the sheaves.

The actual maximum load in the various parts of rope occurs in the two lead lines during

hoisting and in the two tow lines when lowering. The lead angle, or fleet angle, of the ropes

relative to the drum and to the various sheaves does not affect the strength of the reeiving

system, but it should be considered in relation to wear of the rope and resultant useful life. In

general, satisfactory rope life can be obtained in Class A, B, or C service if the lead angle

does not exceed a ratio of 1:12 or 4.75°.

For Class E service, the lead angle should probably not exceed approximately 3° for

good rope life, and Class D service should be somewhere between the two. The lead angle

between the ropes and the drum approaches its maximum value only near the upper and

lower extremes of hook travel. The lead angle passes through zero degrees and reverses

direction somewhere between the extremes. The lead angle between the ropes and the upper

sheaves reaches its maximum value at the upper extreme of hook travel and is essentially

zero degrees at the lower extreme.

2.12. Bumpers (Buffers)

Bridge bumpers, also known as buffers, are used to protect the crane from damage due to

hitting the stops at the end of the runway or due to contacting other cranes on the same

runway. Their secondary function is to minimize swinging of the load. Since the adoption of
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the OSHA requirement for bumpers on practically all trolleys, wheel stops are seldom used.

A solid stop, welded to the girder, is provided to contact a bumper mounted on the trolley

Bumpers can be of the compression-coil, torsion, coned-disc or flat spring type and can be

made of steel, bronze, rubber, polyurethane, or similar resilient material. Buffers can be

hydraulic or pneumatic shock absorbers. A crane is provided with bumpers or other

automatic means to provide an equivalent effect. Bumpers are not required if:

The crane travels at a slow rate of speed and has a faster deceleration rate due to the use of

sleeve bearings. The crane is not operated near the ends of the bridge. The crane is restricted

to a limited distance by the nature of the crane operation, and there is no hazard of striking

any object in this limited distance.

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End buffer :

Bumpers can be used for rated bridge speeds up to 350 feet (91 m) per minute (FPM). Above

that speed, bumpers are recommended. Bumpers are designed in accordance with ASME

guidance and OSHA requirements. A bumper is selected, usually from a standard table, that

has a spring rate soft enough to meet the deflection requirement and strong enough to meet

the energy requirement. Note that the weight of the load is not considered in determining the

bumper force.

The load is free to swing. Therefore, the energy of the moving load is absorbed over a

longer and different time period than the energy of the moving crane. The forces are

relatively small because of the longer time and greater stopping distance. The maximum

force occurs later and usually acts to retard the bounce-back of the crane. Bumpers are

mounted so that there is no direct shear on the bolts. Bumpers are designed and installed to

minimize parts falling from the crane in case of breakage.

In general, this means that bumpers should have restraining cables. In addition to the

above requirements, polyurethane bumpers and hydraulic or pneumatic buffers are designed

to cushion the impact at 100% of rated full load speed, but at higher decelerating values. The

comments regarding bridge bumpers also apply to trolley bumpers except that OSHA

specifies different criteria for trolley bumper design.

A trolley is provided with bumpers or other automatic means to achieve an equivalent effect

unless the trolley:

• Travels at a slow rate of speed

• Is not operated near the ends of the bridge

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• Is restricted to a limited distance and there is no hazard of striking any object in

this limited distance

• Is used in similar operating conditions

Trolley bumpers and buffers are designed in accordance with the following OSHA

requirements, Section 1910.179 [3]:

The bumpers shall be capable of stopping the trolley (not including the lifted load) at an

average rate of deceleration not to exceed traveling in either direction at one-third of the

rated speed. When more than one trolley is operated on the same bridge, each shall be

equipped with bumpers or equivalent on their adjacent ends.

2.13. Footwalks and Handrailing :

A foot walk with handrail and toe boards is required along the drive girder on all cab-

controlled Cranes. Such a foot walk is recommended for floor-controlled cranes, per OSHA

regulations. The footwalk should have a walking surface of raised-tread floor plate or other

slip-resistant walking surface. Expanded metal or subway grating is sometimes used for

crane footwalks. In addition to the footwalk along the drive girder, a footwalk approximately

twice the length of the trolley is provided along the idler girder to give access to the opposite

side of the trolley, the bridge conductors, or other equipment on the side of the crane.

If the crane is not equipped with Such a walk, then an equivalent footwalk or platform

should be provided on the end of the Building. Where a footwalk is provided on the driver

and idler girders of a crane, a crosswalk with standard handrailing should be included across

one or both end trucks. The inner edge of the footwalk must extend at least to the line of the

outside edge of the lower cover plate or flange of the girder.

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The 1978 National Electrical Code recommends that 2.5 feet (76 cm) clearance be

provided between the live parts of any control panels (mounted along the footwalk) and the

nearest handrail or other member.

2.14. Cabs :

The general arrangement of the cab and the location of the control and protective equipment

is such that all operating devices such as levers and buttons are within convenient reach of

the operator when facing the area to be served by the load block or when facing the direction

of travel of the cab. The arrangement of the cab should allow the operator a full view of the

load block in all positions.

This is an important condition, but it is recognized that there are physical arrangements that

can make this impossible. When the load block is in these positions, such as behind a large

fabricated member or lowered into a hatchway, the operator should be aided by other means

of communication, such as a signal person, telephone, or two-way radio. The standard

location of the operator’s cab is at one end of the crane bridge on the drive girder side with

the operator facing the opposite end of the bridge.

However, operating conditions usually determine the best location of the cab. In selecting

the desired cab location, consider that the operator can best position the load when lowering

when the operator has a good side view of the load. Side views are not possible with the cab

on the trolley, overhanging the idler girder, or with a trailer cab traveling with the trolley.

It is also not possible with a center cab for loads handled near the center of the span. With

these cab locations, the operator is looking down on itsposition accurately. When a large load

is being handled, the load itself will block the operator’s view of the area beneath the load.

Crane cabs can be either the open type for indoor service or the enclosed type for outdoor
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service or where indoor conditions make an enclosed cab desirable for operator comfort.

Open cabs imply cabs that require no enclosure beyond that required for structural and

protective purposes.

The pulpit-type cab is popular because of the high angle of visibility furnished an operator

when seated. A complete handrail or equivalent enclosure with protected opening for access

must be supplied, as well as a ladder or other means of access to the crane footwalk. The

ladder must meet OSHA requirements.

An enclosed cab should be provided with shatter-resistant glass or an equivalent, similar to

ANSIStandard 7.26.1 [8]. Provision should be made for cab ventilation by opening of

windows or by a mechanical ventilating system. If an integral outside platform is provided,

the door must be of a sliding type or open outward. In the absence of an outside platform, the

door must be of the sliding type or open inward and in either case shall be self closing. The

cab construction should offer protection from falling objects, if this possibility exists.

The protection should be of sufficient strength to support a 50 lb per square foot (2.3 kPa)

static load. All cabs must be equipped with a warning device such as a mechanical gong or

electrical bell. The cab should also be equipped with a light and/or heater for operator

comfort where conditions necessitate

2.15.Rails :

Crane bridge runway and trolley runway rail sizes will be governed by the wheel diameter

and crane design load.

2.15.1.Rail Dimension Outline :

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The bridge rails support the trolley wheels, while the runway rails support the bridge. As

stated Rails should be arranged so that joints on opposite runway girders are staggered with

respect to each other and the wheelbase of the crane. Rail joints should not coincide with

runway girder splices. Rails are furnished with standard drilling for commercial rail splices.

Rails purchased for crane runways should be specified “for crane service” to obtain proper

hardness. Rails should be held firmly in all directions.

Improperly secured rails can cause rapid wheel wear and overheating of Crane drive motors.

Do not paint the railhead (top of rail) because this can cause the wheels to slip, resulting in

Skewing of the bridge and possible damage to the drive gearing. Paint on the railhead can

also Interfere with the proper electrical grounding of the crane. Rails should be fastened

securely to the runway with adjustable bolted clips. Several patented types are available or

standard clips with slotted holes can be used. Floating clamps should not be used because

they do not maintain proper rail alignment.

Hook bolts are also not recommended because the bolts stretch and the nuts loosen under

the lateral forces produced by the crane. Where used, they must be frequently inspected and

adjusted to maintain rail alignment. Bridge rails are attached to the bridge girders by means

of alternately spaced rail clips that are welded to the girder or attached with welded studs.

The welding of clips is preferred. There should be no need for future realignment of bridge

rails, which is in contrast to the occasional realignment needs of runway rails.

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Rail design

2.15.2.Bridge Rail Attachments :

On cranes over 30 tons (27 metric tons) rated load, it is recommended that the bridge rails be

Supported on bars welded on top of the top cover plate and positioned above each girder

Diaphragm, so that the bending stress produced in the rail by the trolley wheel loads is not

transmitted into the top cover plate.

2.15.3. Rail Sweeps :

Rail sweeps are provided in front of each leading wheel to brush away any objects that might

fall on the runway rail. Rail sweeps are not provided in situations where such brushing would

cause the object to fall to the floor and possibly injure people below the runway.

2.16. Axles :

Wheel assemblies are generally supported and centered by either the fixed-type axle (pin-and

keeper) or rotating-type axle. The fixed-type axle is rarely used and is now considered

obsolete due to problems of properly lubricating and enclosing the gearing and due to

problems in uniformly hardening the axle for use with antifriction bearings. The rotating-type

axle is mounted on antifriction bearings in a fixed housing and is more commonly seen. In
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this design, the axle is driven directly from the cross shaft through a flange coupling. The

rotating-type axle can also be driven by a gear, mounted on and keyed to the axle.

2.17. Couplings :

Flexible couplings of the elastomer, disc, or gear type are used for connecting the motor to

the Gear drive when the two are directly coupled. A flexible coupling is used because it

facilitates Motor alignment with the crane during initial installation and simplifies

realignment of the motor When it is removed the specific type of flexible coupling to be used

depends on the Specific service condition, such as service class, motor horsepower, and

environment.

Solid couplings of the flange type with halves connected by bolts in machined holes are

recommended for connecting sections of the cross shaft and for connecting the cross shaft to

the bridge drive and to the axles. Couplings having shrouded bolts are preferred. Coupling

bolts should be in shear to minimize stretching of the bolts and loosening of the nuts.

2.18. Bearings :

Antifriction bearings have replaced bronze bearings in most of the crane applications. Longer

service life, reduced maintenance and inspection, less frequent lubrication, accurate and

permanent alignment of vital parts, and smaller horsepower motors are some of the

advantages made possible by the use of ball and roller bearings. Antifriction bearings are

selected to give a minimum life expectancy based on full load rated speed as follows:
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Coupling

Anti-Friction Bearing Life :

Class A 2500 hours

Class B 2500 hours

Class C 5000 hours

Class D 10000 hours

Class E 20000 hours

Class F 40000 hours

The loading on antifriction bearings varies greatly, depending on the actual load on the crane

hook. For typical applications, bearing loads for life-computation purposes may be assumed
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equal to 75% of maximum for bridge bearings and 65% of maximum for trolley and hoist

bearings. The basic load rating “C” for a ball bearing is that loading the ball bearing can

endure for a base of one million revolutions.

For example, a bearing with a given load rating of 28,000 lb. C90 means that the bearing

can endure a 28,000-lb load for 90 million revolutions. Short-term load capability for the

bearing may be a multiple of 28,000 lb. Bronze sleeve bearings have a maximum allowable

unit bearing pressure of 1,000 psi (6,900 kPa) of projected area. Lifetime lubricated bearings

with a long life grease are normally recommended and used. Bearing enclosures are designed

as far as practical to exclude dirt and minimize grease leakage.

2.19.Pillow Block Bearings :

Pillow block bearings found on overhead bridge cranes are self-aligning and are equipped

with either roller or ball bearings. The housings for ball bearings are one-piece cast iron

constructionPillow blocks equipped with roller bearings are held in a split-type cast iron

housing both types are lubricated with grease through grease fittings mounted on the housing.

Ball bearings are secured to the shaft by the use of set screws through the extended inner

race. The roller bearings are attached to the shaft through use of a tapered split adapter sleeve

and nut. Installation of the ball type bearing involves sliding the entire pillow block assembly

over the shaft.

2.20.Trolley :
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The trolley travel is accomplished through gearing and cross shaft to a driving wheel at each

sideof the trolley in a manner similar to a bridge drive. Because the gauge of a trolley is short

Compared to the span of a bridge, it is not necessary that the trolley drive be symmetrically

Mounted to proportion (twist) angular deflection twist of the cross shaft, as is done on a

bridge.In fact, many small trolleys have the drive unit mounted outboard of one bridge rail

due to space Limitations.

For the same reason, the diameter of the trolley cross shaft is determined on a

torqueBasis, not on the angle of twist. The slower the speeds selected that will perform the

given job, the less horsepower is required. This in turn permits the use of smaller gear drives,

which all tend toward a lighter-weight trolley with the subsequent savings in bridge and

runway initial cost plus the operating savings due to lower power consumption for all

motions of the crane.

Trolley truck

CHAPTER 3
 2

DESIGN MEMORANDUM OF 30/7.5 TONNES EOT CRANE

Description of the component

Serial No Parameters of the EOT crane
in design synthesis
1 General classification IS : 3177 - 1999
2 Type of EOT crane Double-girder EOT crane
3 Type of service Indoor
4 Runway conductors DSL Festoon cable
5 Design ambient temperature 50o C
6 Capacity / main hoist
7 Main hoist – Rated SWC 30 ton
8 Test load - 37.5 tonnes
9 Capacity / auxiliary hoist
10 Rated SWC 7.5 tonnes
11 Test load 9.375 tonnes
12 Type of hooks
Ramshorn type swiveling hook with locking
13 Main hoist
device as per IS 5749
Standard type swiveling hook with locking device
14 Auxiliary hoist
as per IS 3815
15 Number of trolleys One(1)
Two (2) 1 main
16 Number of hoists on trolley
1 auxiliary hoist
17 Crane span As per requirement
18 Carne runway length As per requirement
Highest point of main hook from Preferably in line with top of runway rail but not
19
top of gantry rail exceeding 1000mm
20 Power supply 415 V +/- 10 % 3 phase, 4 wire, 50 Hz, +/- 5%
 3

AC
Totally enclosed, fan cooled, class B/F Insulation,

Slipping induction motor. For creep speed –

21 Motors planetary gear and point brake arrangement will

be provided on hoisting drive to achieve 10 %

speed of main speed.

110/ 240 +/- 10% 1 phase 50 hz +/- 5% AC as per
22 Control voltage
manufacturer`s standard.
Brakes
23 Hoist (Main/ auxiliary) 2 No’s DC electromagnetic shoe brakes
24 Bridge travel 2 No’s DC electromagnetic shoe brakes
25 Crab travel 2 No’s DC electromagnetic shoe brakes
26 Emergency brake Parking brake opera table from operator’s cabin
27 Operating speeds
28 Main hoist 3 meters/min
29 Auxiliary hoist 6 meters/min
30 Trolley travel 10 meters/min
31 Longitudinal bridge travel 10 meters/min
Creep speeds Required for all motions and rated for 10% of full
32
speed of all motions
33 DSL (Runway) MS angle
34 Operator`s cabin
Fixed open type of size (2.5 x 2 x 2 meters) –

steel fabricated open type for indoor service with

35 Type
4 to 6 mm shatter proof glass above 1m height of

cabin on 3 sides.
36 Location On one side of the bridge
6 x 36 / 6 x 37 with factor of safety as per IS :
Rope
37 3177
 4

Rope drums shall be spur / helical gear type and

Rope drum should be fabricated from MS as per IS : 2062

38
and should be stress relieved.
Forged steel double flanged with minimum
39 Cross travel & long travel wheels
wheels hardness 300 – 350 BHN
40 Bearings for the wheels Anti friction bearings
Fabricated from MS to IS: 2062, weight not
41 Lifting beams
exceeding 25 tonnes.
42 Lubricant grease
43 Arrangement of lubrication Through grease nipple
44 End stops Fabricated (4)
45 Material MS
46 Crane rails IS 3443
deflection of main girders with
47 maximum 1 / 1000 of span
load at the centre
48 shafts and axles carbon steel
49 runway conductors : DSL
50 cross travel conductors flexible trailing cable
51 power conductors minimum 6 mm² aluminum
 5

CHAPTER 4

DESIGN calculations of 30/7.5 T EOT Crane

Hoist motion :

Auxiliary
Hoist motion Main hoist
hoist

Load Q 30 T 7.5 T
Load Q1

(Bottom Block) 1T 0.2 T

Velocity V

(m/min) 3 6
 6

Coefficient Of
1.5 1.5
Reserve (S)

Speed (N) 975 rpm 700 rpm

Torque required = 975×Q+Q1×V×S×10006120×N

For main hoist = ( 975×(30+1)×3×1.5×1000)/(6120×975)

= 22.794Kg-m

For auxiliary hoist = (975×(7.5+0.2)×6×1.5×1000)/(6120×700)

= 15.978 Kg-m
 7

For Travel Motion : Main Hoist

Travel motion(main hoist) cross travel Longitudinal travel

Safe Working Load ( Q ) 30 T 30 T

Weight of Trolley ( G ) 8T 15 T

Rated Speed ( V ) 10 m/min 10 m/min

Coefficient of Reserve ( S ) 1.25 1.25

Average acceleration ( a ) 7cm/sec2 8 cm/sec2

Static Resistance ( Wst` ` ) in Kg/t 8 8
Torque Factor ( T ) 1.7 1.7
Motor Speed ( N ) 930 rpm 930 rpm
 2

Number of Motors ( n ) 2 2

Torque Required = 975×Q+G×V×S6120×T×N×n×1100×a981+Wst

For cross travel = (975×(30+8)×10×1.25)/(6120×930×1.7× 2)×(((1100×7))/981+8)

= 0.379 Kg-m

For Longitudinal Travel =975×30+15×10×1.256120×930×1.7×2×1100×8981+8

=0.480 Kg-m
 3

For Travel Motion : Auxiliary Hoist

Travel motion cross travel Longitudinal travel

(auxiliary hoist)

Safe Working Load ( Q ) 7.5 T 7.5 T

Weight of Trolley ( G ) 0.2 T 0.5 T

10 m/min
Rated Speed ( V ) 10 m/min

Coefficient of Reserve ( S ) 1.25 1.25

Average acceleration ( a ) 7 cm/sec2 8 cm/sec2

Static Resistance ( Wst )

8 8
in Kg/t

Torque Factor ( Tvf ) 1.7 1.7

Motor Speed (N) 700 rpm 700 rpm

Number of Motors 2 2
 2

Torque Required = 975×Q+G×V×S6120×Tvf×N×n×1100×a981+Wst

For cross travel = 975×7.5+0.2×10×1.256120×700×1.7×2×1100×7981+8

= 0.102 Kg-m

For Longitudinal Travel = (975×(7.5+0.2)×10×1.25)/(6120×700×

1.7×2)×(((1100×8))/981+8)

= 0.113 Kg-m
 1

For Hoist Motion at Micro Speed :

Hoist motion Auxiliary

Main hoist
(micro speed) hoist

Safe Working Load Q 30 T 7.5 T

Weight of bottom
1T 0.2 T
block(Q1)
Q+Q1 31 T 7.7 T

V 0.25 0.5

Cv 0.67 0.67

Cdf 1.5 1.5

Overall efficiency (E) 0.918 0.918

Camb 0.95 0.95

Power Required (kW) = (M×V×Cv×Cdf)/(6.12×E×Camb)

For Main Hoist = (31×0.25×0.67×1.5)/(6.120.918×0.95)

= 1.45 kW

For Auxiliary Hoist = (7.7×0.5×0.67×1.5)/( 6.12×0.918×0.95)

= 0.724 kW

Wheel load calculations :

 2

LT Wheel load (without Impact) is given by

(SWL+Hoistweight / 2 X [ Span – Hook approach / span ] +

(crane weight – hoist weight / 4 )

= 30+42×18-0.7518

= 20 T

LT Rail size=105Lbs/yd

LT wheel diameter = (1.5×Wheel load)/( Top width of Rail)

= (1.5×20000)/132 = 250 mm

Selected wheel diameter = 250mm

Wire rope :

Selection of wire rope for MH:Load/fall

= (SWL+BBWT+Rope weight)/(number of falls)×Factor of safety

= (30+1+0.20)/4×6

= 46.8 T/fall

Selected rope= 26mm diameter, 6×36 construction, Fiber core, R.H lay with

Ultimate Tensile Strength =320 Kg/mm2

Rope Drum and Pulleys :

Main Hoist
 3

Pulley diameter at root = 17×26= 442 mm

Selected pulley diameter is 450 mm

Selection of wire rope for AH :

Load/fall = (SWL+BBWT+Rope weight)/(number of falls)×Factor of safety

= (7.5+0.13+0.07)/4×6

= 11.5Ton/fall

Selected rope= 14mm diameter, 6×36 construction, Fiber core, R.H lay with

Ultimate Tensile Strength =180 Kg/mm2

Auxiliary hoist :

Pulley diameter at root = 17×14=238mm

Selected pulley diameter is 250mm

Ropes drum selection :

Selected rope drum dia. 320 mm with LH & RH Grooves.

Rope drum length= [((lift × no. of falls)/(2×3.14×pcd of rope drum)) +

3]× 2 pitch of rope + 420

= 2142.96

Selected drum 320 dia & 2200 mm long.

 4

Sheave :

Material: cast steel / forged steel / rolled steel.

(D d) = 12 x d x C df x C re x C rr

d- Calculated diameter of the rope , in mm.

C df - Duty factor for hoisting.

C re – Factor dependent for hoisting for the appropriate mechanism class as per IS.

C rr – Factor dependent upon the type of receiving system.

For main hoist:

Diameter of sheave = 12 x 26 x 1.2 x 1 x 1.12

= 419. 328 mm

For auxiliary hoist:

Diameter of sheave = 12 x 14 x 1.2 x 1 x 1.12

= 225.792 mm

Bearing :

Static load is the most important criteria for the design of bearing.

F sb = P x C df
 2

P = Maximum static load on the bearing under any load condition.

C df = Duty factor.

Hoist weight = 4000 kg

Fsb = 4000 x 1.4 = 5600 kg.

Permissible Stress :

Fp = F ult/ (C df x C bf x C sf)

Fp = permissible stress, N/mm2

F ult = ultimate tensile stress N/mm2

C df = duty factor of the mechanism

C bf = basic stress factor of the loading

C sf = safety factor of the material used

Fp = 180/ (2.5 x 1.12 x 1.06) (Horizontal)

= 60.64 N/ mm2.

Fp = 180/ (2.5 x 1.12 x 1.25) = 51. 428 N / mm2 (Vertical)

 3

Load on Girder

The load is assumed to be a central load and acts uniformly at the centre of the span.

Pd = Maximum vertical uniform load.

 4

Md = maximum Bending moment = Pd L / 8.

L = span of girder.

MI = (L – C/2)2 x PI / 4L

C = Wheel base of the trolley = 2meters.

P I = Vertically concentrated load , PI

M V = Md + Mi

Md = BM max = Pd L / 8

= 30 x 10^3 x 18 / 8 = 67500 kg – meters.

Mi = (L – C / 2)2 P I / 4L

= (18-2/2)2 x 30 x 10^ 3 / 4 x 18

= 3333.33 kg – meters.

MT = M d + M I = 70833.33 kg-meters.
 5

CHAPTER 5

WEAR PARTICLE ANALYSIS

5.1. Ferrography : Ferrography is a means of microscopic examination used to analyze

particles separated from fluids. A ferrographic analysis of wear particles starts with magnetic

separation of machine wear debris from the lubricating or hydraulic media in which it

becomes suspended. It was developed in 1971, the success of this technique in monitoring

the condition of military aircraft engines lead to further developments for practical uses.

Today in many industries, ferrography is valuable in maintenance of machinery. The Wear

particle Analysis is a Pro-active Predictive maintenance system. Wear Metals Particles are

extracted from an oil sample, then magnified up to 1000X for wear identification.

Many industrial plants feature varieties of gearboxes and hydraulic systems that are amenable

to lube analysis monitoring. Typical basic packages, however, don't always provide a

window to fully assess machinery condition. One reason is because medium to slow speed

rotating units often do not generate very small [<5microns] wear particles proportionate to

large.

If the large particles are not monitored, failure may occur without prior warning, if only basic

lube analysis is in use. Wear particle analysis, on the other hand, addresses these larger

particles. In the case of ferrography or patch analysis, microscopic analysis is available to

 6

observe particles directly. Pictures can be taken, as well, as visual support of the Evaluator’s

conclusions.

Wear particle analysis is a technique of microscopic examination used to analyze particles

separated from fluids, developed in 1971,it was initially used to precipitate wear particles

from lubricating oils.

The success of this technique in monitoring the condition of military air craft engines led to

further developments for other practical uses. One such development was a modification to

precipitate nonmagnetic particles from lubricants and other fluids. Today in a wide range of

industries, WPA can valuable in helping to determine the maintenance needs for machinery

by identifying the specific conditions of machine wear.

5.2. What is W P A?

WEAR PARTICLE ANALYSIS is a predictive maintenance tool. IT is a technique for

analyzing the particles present in fluids that indicate mechanical wear. It uses microscopic

examination and was developed in the 1970’s for predictive maintenance, initially analyzing

ferrous particles in lubricating oils

Predictive and reliability-centered maintenance programs are far more apparent today than

even five years ago. At the heart of these progressive trends are technologies such as

ferrography. Ferrography, or wear-particle analysis, is the identification of all particles

suspended in the lubricating fluids of any oil-wetted machinery. This technology was

developed by the U.S. Navy in the 1970s. Today, it is available worldwide through

commercial laboratories.
 7

Ferrography provides a non-invasive look at historic, current and future conditions of a

machine's lubricated components. This is all accomplished without the time and expense of

physical examination.

Analytical methods identifying the size, shape, composition and concentration of particles is

the core of ferrography. Once a trained analyst determines these factors, an association

between the wear particles and the specific component of origin can be determined. This is

done through direct examination of the particles.

Glass substrate, or ferrogram analysis, is one common method of particle identification.

Predict/DLI of Cleveland developed a method of particle distribution that uses a magnetic

gradient field. A combination of incline, sample preparation and a magnetic field ensure all

particles present in the lubricant sample are deposited on the substrate for examination.

Particles ranging in size from less than 1 micron to greater than 2,000 microns are released

on the substrate.

To further aid particle categorization, this method establishes consistent ferrogram patterns or

maps. Ferrous wear particles are deposited in strings between the poles of the magnetic

assembly positioned below the substrate, perpendicular to the flow of the sample. They are

released in a general order of size, with the largest ferrous particles being collected at the

entry end of the substrate.

Non-ferrous wear particles are released in a random manner throughout the length of the

substrate, often appearing between the strings of ferrous particles. Contaminants, such as

sand and dirt, fibers and friction polymers also are distributed in an irregular fashion

throughout the length of the substrate.

 8

Chemicals fix the particles to the slide and aid dispersal of the lubricant. Reduction of sample

surface tension through the use of diluents, increased sample temperatures and mechanical

means further aids in the release of particles from the sample.

This method of ferrographic examination provides a complete picture of the internal

components of a piece of machinery. An analyst can identify all particles-from ferrous wear

particles to contaminants such as insect parts-and evaluate the effect of their presence.

Cumulatively, the particles present in a sample carry with them the story, or fingerprint of the

internal workings of an individual piece of equipment. Identifying these particles and the

wear mechanisms that generated them can effectively demonstrate the equipment's operating

history and current state of performance, as well as generate alarms to future wear conditions.

Normal rubbing wear produces platelet particles typically ranging in size up to a major

dimension of 15 microns . They are generated by two sliding surfaces and are usually of a

benign nature, unless concentrations are substantial enough to affect lubricant quality.

Bearing platelet wear has a flaked appearance and is easily misidentified as normal rubbing

wear. Bearing wear typically occurs in larger formations than normal rubbing wear. The

morphology of these particles may be of greater significance than their size. The difference

between a case-hardened bearing platelet and a low-alloy steel bearing platelet is indicative

of the severity of bearing wear.

The concentration of bearing platelets from abnormal wear is significantly lower than the

number of particles generated by other wear mechanisms, making the verification of their

composition a crucial alarm in noting abnormal wear patterns.

 9

Gear wear is a combination of rolling and sliding wear. The rolling action produces an

irregular shaped particle with a generally smooth surface .The sliding motion produces

striations very similar to those produced by severe sliding wear.

Gear wear particles are typically very large compared with other particles. Their composition

may often be of greater significance than their size. The progression from high-carbon alloy

steels to low-carbon alloy steels indicates wear severity.

Cutting wear is created by one surface penetrating another .It is perhaps the easiest particle to

identify and indicates the most devastating types of wear. There are two classifications of this

wear: two- and three-body.

Two-body cutting wear results when the softer of two surfaces is gouged by the harder

surface, leaving relatively long, wire-like cutting wear. Three-body cutting wear occurs when

the softer surface becomes imbedded by very hard particles, such as sand or dirt, and cuts the

adjacent hard surface, creating short curly particles.

Severe sliding wear is identified by parallel striations on the particle surface and sharp

fractured edges. These become more prominent with wear severity . Excessive load or speed

are common root causes of these particles.

Spheres are associated with rolling bearing fatigue . The magnified surface of these particles

appears dimpled like a golf ball. Their presence, depending on quantity and size, can indicate

impending abnormal bearing wear long before any actual spalling occurs. However, it is

possible that in higher-than-normal loads and in clean lubricating systems, these spheres may

not be produced in significant quantities to alarm on their own.

 10

Sand and dirt are some of the most common contaminants found in lubricating fluids and can

also be the most damaging. The very fluid designed to protect component surfaces can carry

with it the most devastating contaminants. These particles often cause cutting wear.

Other commonly noted particles include red oxides, which are associated with water

contamination. They are a form of iron oxide and can be used to identify a current moisture

problem and historic difficulties.

Black oxides indicate periods of marginal lubrication. These particles are heavily oxidized in

appearance, which proves an obstacle in identifying their original composition.

Corrosive debris is most often found in heavily concentrated amounts at the exit end of the

ferrogram. It is generally smaller than 1 micron. These particles may be used to monitor a

change in overall lubricant quality. Corrosive debris in large enough quantities can be

associated with a rise in lubricant acidity.

Quantifying ferrous wear In any machine, one of the two surfaces in contact must be ferrous.

Plain bearings are always in contact with a ferrous shaft, and brass bevel gears have steel

worm gears as meshed contact. Although the non-ferrous surface may wear first,

corresponding ferrous wear is always seen.

There are statistical databases for virtually every type of equipment in use today that can be

used to cross reference the amount of ferrous wear in a particular component against that of

similar, if not identical components. Through these information systems, industry averages

(normal wear rates) have been established.

Various methods of quantifying ferrous wear are used by different laboratories. One method

uses optical density. A powerful magnetic field causes particle deposition into a glass
 11

precipitator tube. The tube is then subjected to two channels of the optical density emission

source .

Particles larger than 5 microns, up to a maximum of approximately 2,000 microns, are

deposited at the beginning of the magnetic field, directly under the first optical emission

source. Particles smaller than 5 microns are released several millimeters down the tube under

the second light source.

As the particles are distributed throughout the length of the tube, the change in light density

is measured and reported in two categories:

DL-density of particles larger than 5 microns; and

DS-density of particles smaller than 5 microns.

From these totals, a wear particle concentration (WPC) is calculated: DL + DS = WPC. The

WPC, indicative of the rate of wear, is compared to industry >averages for the specific type

of equipment being tested.

Abnormal wear usually manifests in the appearance of particles larger than 10 microns. The

percentage of large particles (PLP) can be calculated:

PLP = ((DL-DS) / WPC)

The PLP is often used to indicate the onset of abnormal wear conditions.

The whole picture assembling all the elements of the analysis allows an evaluation of

equipment condition to apply a rating of critical, marginal or normal. Often, laboratories

provide graphic images of significant particles.

 12

Physical recognition of wear patterns is the primary key to this technology, however, in many

instances, the particle morphology is as, if not more, important. Various composition

verification methods are used.

Subjecting a ferrogram to a controlled heat source at different temperatures for a specified

length of time is a common procedure. Oxidation of the particles determines composition.

Applying the heat source in stages makes the effects of oxidation readily apparent.

Introduction of acids and bases can be particularly useful identifying non-ferrous particles.

Support tools such as viscosity measurements are routinely taken and can further aid the

analyst in rating existing conditions. This measurement, when compared to the lubricant

manufacturer's specifications, can also be an indicator of lubricant condition.

Contamination testing for the presence of water, glycol or fuel (dependent upon the

equipment being tested) is also commonly performed.

Trending the rate (WPC) and severity (PLP) of wear indicates significant changes. In

conjunction with the subjective analytical overview of all the particles present in a sample, an

analyst is able to assess equipment condition, pinpoint current and potential problems, and

make recommendations for corrective measures. Having the ability to identify and monitor

component deterioration provides the time and opportunity to cost effectively schedule

necessary maintenance. Expensive and unexpected failures can be virtually eliminated. Used-

oil analysis or ferrography. Used-oil analysis (spectrographic analysis) has been around for

decades and is a common maintenance tool. Spectrographic analysis generally identifies the

presence of predetermined elements in a lubricant and reports this information in parts per

million. Through other routine testing, it can also demonstrate the current physical properties

of lubricating oil.
 14

A typical used-oil analysis includes:

Viscosity measurement by vibrating cylinder or oil bath;

Elemental analysis;

Spectrometer;

Total acid number;

Total base number;

Presence of water (crackle);

Quantity of water in parts per million; and

Particle count.

Combining these tests provides an invaluable tool for determining lubricant condition. They

afford the opportunity to extend drain intervals and monitor the remaining serviceable life of

a lubricant. In the case of a lube system containing several thousand gallons, this can be a

substantial saving.

Routine testing for contaminants such as glycol, water and fuel may alarm to, and prevent a

catastrophic event. Monitoring lubricant condition also can ensure that component surfaces

are not subjected to insufficient lubrication protection for extended periods of time. In effect,

deterring the overuse of a lubricating fluid can reduce the rate and severity of wear.

Unfortunately, oil analysis cannot detect particles indicative of impending component failure.

Abnormal wear is generally indicated by particles larger than 10 microns. Knowing the

composition of the normal wear particles (smaller than 10 microns) present in a lubricant is

of no value when equipment condition is a concern.

5.3. Ferrographic Instruments and Techniques :

 16

Advances in ferrographic instrumentation have paved the way for broader study and for

classifying wear particles produced by many different metals and substances, both magnetic

and nonmagnetic. To establish accurate baselines for the running condition of a machine ,

samples are taken at regular intervals from carefully selected locations within the machine

system preferably during normal operation.

Two basic types of ferrographs are:

Direct reading ferrograph

Analytical ferrograph

The direct reading ferrograph is used to obtain numerical baseline values for normal wear.

When sudden increase in direct readings occurs, the analytical ferrograph allows us to

visually analyze the wear particles to identify the site and nature of wear in time to prevent

catastrophic damage.

5.3.1. Direct reading ferrograph

The direct reading ferrograph measures the concentration of wear particles in a lubrication oil

or hydraulic fluid. The particles are subjected to a powerful magnetic gradient field and are

separated by order of decreasing size.

Particle concentrations are sensed at two locations- at the entry deposit and at a point

approximately 4mm further down the tube. A value based on the amount of light measured

at the two locations is then determined. Based on the measurements of the density of large

particles and the density of small particles we can derive the values for wear particle

concentrations and percentage of large particles. With these measurements machine wear

base lines can be established and trends in wear condition can be monitored.
 2

5.3.2. Analytical ferrographic system

When direct ferrograph readings indicate abnormal wear, analytical ferrographic techniques

can be used to study the wear pattern. The purpose is to pinpoint the difficulty and identify

the nature of potential machine problems. The ferrographic system includes:

A ferroscope for measurement and analysis

The FM3 ferrograph, which accurately prepares ferrograms or slides on which wear

particles have been deposited.

The FAST Systems for data management and reporting

5.4. Ferroscope

The ferroscope is a 3power bichromatic microscope with instant and 35mm cameras. Under

magnification of 100X, 500X and 800X, the ferroscope utilizes both the transmitted and

reflected light sources with red, green and polarizing filters to distinguish the size,

composition, shape and texture of both metallic and nonmetallic wear particles.
 3

5.5. The Ferrogram Maker

The FM3 ferrogram maker is designed with two independent stations to permit two samples

to be prepared at the same time. Each station includes a holder that accurately positions a

slide at slight incline over the machine assembly .Ferrogram as depicted can be prepared

automatically, semi-automatically or manually. In automatic mode the oil sample is

deposited on the glass slide at a carefully controlled rate. At the end of sample deposition

cycle the wash cycle is automatically initiated and an audio and visual signal indicate when

the ferrogram is complete.

A sample of used fluid, which can be a lubricant preparation, and hydraulic fluid, or an

aqueous solution, is prepared by diluting with tetrachloroethylene as a fixer to improve

particle precipitation and adhesion. The prepared sample is allowed to flow down the

inclined slide, passing across the magnetic field. Wear particles arrange themselves along the

slide, with the largest particles deposited first. Ferrous particles line up in strings that follow

the magnetic field lines of the instrument, nonferrous particles and contaminants travel

down in a random distribution pattern not oriented by the magnetic field. This long

deposition pattern spreads the wear particles out, providing good resolution of large and

small particles. Good resolution is important in diagnosing wear problem.

When the sample has been run, a wash cycle automatically washed away the lubricant.

When the slide is dry, the wear particles remain tightly adhered to the ferrogram and are

ready for ferrographic examination. The FAST system. The automated mode features the

FAST analytical system for enhanced date management, comparative analysis and reporting.
 4

The system features a video camera that projects the image through a personal computer to a

high-resolution video monitor. The system also incorporates an optical disk drive for data

storage and retrieval

5.6. Modes of wear in Gear Boxes

The modes of gear wear considered in a gear system are;

Pitch line fatigue

Scuffing or scoring

Severe sliding wear

Overload wear

Wear from abrasive contaminants

5.6.1 Pitch Line Fatigue

Fatigue particles from a gear pitch line have much in common with rolling element bearing

fatigue particles. They generally have smooth and frequently irregularly shaped. Depending

on the gear design the particles may have a ratio of major dimension to thickness between 4:1

and 10:1. A high ratio of large particles to small particle is also found as in rolling element

bearing fatigue. This ratio is indicated by direct reading ferrograph.

5.6.2. Scuffing or Scoring

Scuffing of gears is caused by too high a load or a too high a speed. Excessive head breaks

down the lubricant film and causes adhesion of the mating gear teeth. Roughening of the

wear surfaces ensures with the subsequent increase in wear rate. The regions of gear teeth
 5

affected are between the pitch line and both gear root and tip. Once initiated, scuffing

usually affects each tooth on gear resulting in a considerable volume of wear debris.

The ratio of large to small particles in a scuffing situation is small all particles have a rough

surface and a jagged circumference. Because of the thermal nature of scuffing, quantities of

oxides are usually present W and some of the particles may show evidence of partial

oxidation. The degree of oxidation depends the lubricant and the severity of scuffing.

5.6.3. Sliding wear and overload wear

Severe sliding wear begins when the wear surface stresses become excessive from high loads

or speeds. The shear mixed layer becomes unstable, and large particles break away, causing

an increase in wear rate. If the stresses applies to surface are increased even more, a second

transition point is reached at which the complete surface breaks down and a catastrophic

wear rate ensues ratio of large to small particle depends on how far the surface stress is

exceeded.

The higher the stress the higher the ratio becomes. Severe sliding wear
particles are 15 or greater in diameter. Some of these particles

have surface striations as a result of sliding. They frequently have

straight edges and the ratio of major dimension to thickness is
approximately 10:1. As the wear becomes more severe within wear
mode, the striations and straight edges on particles become more
prominent.
5.7. Gear wear mode in relation to load and operating

Wear occurs where heavy loads are carried at low speeds because the oil film is broken. At

higher speeds the allowable load increases because the oil film survives for this shorter time

of contact.

5.8. Case Study of Gear wear modes

 6

These cases are:

Combining severe sliding and overload arising from ineffective lubrication.

Water in the oil

Abrasive wear

5.8.1. Severe Sliding and overload from lubricant

Shows the entry view in dichromatic light at low magnification of a ferrogram made from an

oil sample obtained from a reduction gearbox. A cursory examination of the ferrogram at low

magnification using dichromatic light makes the large number of large metal particles

immediately obvious this condition indicates that abnormal wear is taking place.

What is often done in manufacture of gears, particularly for industrial users, is that a gear

will be case hardened. That is it will be made of steel and then heated in a carbon

atmosphere so that carbon will diffuse into outer layers of the gear. Subsequent quenching

and tempering of the gears makes the outer case with the high carbon content hard, but it

leaves the steel core soft.

The result hard, where resistant surface with a core resistant to tough shocks to prevent teeth

from breaking. In heat treated ferrogram from such a gear, the particles will range blue to

straw colored depending on the carbon content.

The problem was solved by using a gear box oil with EP additive. This oil arrested the

excessive wear.
 7

5.8.2. Wear in Oil

The samples are taken from the vertical gear box of rope drum of EOT crane. The sample

taken after one month of operation however reflected a wear situation that had deteriorated.

The photo shows the entry of the ferrogram in polarized reflected light. This figure shows

the many red oxides and tortured morphology of the metal particles, many of which were

oxide coated.

Not only does water in the lubricant cause an oxidative attack, but it also compromises the

ability of the lubricant to carry a load. The consequence is large abnormal wear particles. In

the oil were many red oxides, which are characteristic of water attack. Practically no free

metal wear particles were found in this sample, which could because of the oxidative attack

caused by the water during the two week storage time before the ferrogram was prepared.

The sample resulted in direct reading ferrograph values of DL=40.6 and DS=2.6, which gives

an usually high ratio of large to small particles. Water in oil, at least in concentrations above

a few tenths of a percent, may be easily detected by placing a drop of oil on a hot plate heated

to about 200-250 C. If there is water in it the water will boil causing the oil drop to sputter.

In this case oil sample was cloudy because the water has formed an emulsion. It sputtered

vigorously when a drop was put on hot plate.

 9

5.8.3. Abrasive Wear

A base line was established by taking one sample from each of several machines the

following ferrogram shows heavy strings of ferrous wear particles and many non metallic

crystalline particles. Compared with the base line sample this ferrogram deposit it extremely

heavy. A closer examination showed that large cutting wear particles dominate the

ferrogram. The recommendation was to change the oil and oil filter and to examine the

machine for possible base in which contaminants could be getting into it.

5.8.3.1. Procedure

Samples of lubricant collected every month from the coupling. These samples were sent to

the lab for ferrography wear particle analysis. Machine condition analysts at the lab studied

the particles of the wear in these samples and reported their findings.

5.8.3.2. Analysis
 2

Abnormally high concentrations of large size copper alloy particles were indicating severe

bearing cage damage. A severity rating of 9 on10 was assigned to this wear. An increase in

the concentration of significant size bearing wear particles was observed in the DEC sample.

This indicated initiation of damage of bearing parts like rolling elements and raceways,

caused by the deteriorated condition of the bearing cage. Both these wear patterns

contributed to the wear particle concentration trend increasing over time.

5.8.3.3. Recommendation

The equipment was rated CRITICAL and the inspection of the bearing cage was

recommended.

THE EQUIPMENT WEAR CONDITION DISCUSSION-RECOMMENDATION

The WPC 450 is high, equipment wear rate is critical. As the ferrogram shows the large

quantities of cast iron cutting wear particles, Babbitt bearing wear particles, friction polymers

and fibers. The other particles found on the ferrogram are normal rubbing wear, severe

sliding copper alloy, case hardened steel and sand, these are not immediate concern.

Recommended inspection of the cylinder liners, the Babbitt bearings, and crankshaft and

copper alloy components. Clean the lubricant to remove the existing contaminants, consider

change of filters. Continue the normal operation only after the above maintenance action.

5.8.3.4. Conclusion

Ferrography today has advanced as one of the predictive maintenance tools. This technique

of particle analysis is becoming prominent in the pulp and paper industry, especially for new

plants with automated operations. With minor financial outlay, ferrography offers a
 3

diagnostic tool that enables plant and maintenance managers to make decision more

effectively.

Ferrography was designed to monitor equipment condition. It can be used to monitor

component deterioration in order to maximize service life without the risk and associated

costs of secondary damage. It may be implemented to monitor a critical piece of

manufacturing or processing equipment to prevent downtime and subsequent loss of

production.

Wear-particle analysis can warn of potential failures well in advance of physical

manifestation, allowing timely, cost-effective scheduling of needed repairs. In addition,

ferrography may eliminate the need for routine overhauls or component replacement,

reducing parts inventory and maximizing repair personnel's productive time.

Ferrography's greatest liability is also its greatest attribute. It relies on a person, not a

machine, to examine wear particles and interpret information. Industry averages have been

established to suggest acceptable wear rates, but the crucial determination of the severity and

implications of the wear is left largely to the subjective interpretation of the analyst.

CHAPTER 6

FINITE ELEMENT METHOD IN DESIGN ANALYSIS

6.1 Introduction

The finite element method has been a powerful tool for the numerical solution of a wide

range of engineering problems. Applications range from deformation and stress analysis of

automotive, aircraft, building, defense, missile and structures to the field analysis of
 4

dynamics, stability, fracture mechanics, heat flux, fluid flow, magnetic flux, seepage and

other flow problems.

With the advances in computer technology and CAD systems, complex problems can be

modeled with relative ease. Several alternate configurations can be tried out on a computer

before a first prototype is built. The basics in engineering field are must to idealize the given

structure for the required behavior. The proven knowledge in the typical problem area,

modeling techniques, data transfer and integration, computational aspects of the finite

element method is essential.

Most often it Is not possible to ascertain the behavior of complex continuous systems without

some sort of approximations. For simple members like uniform beams, plates etc. , classical

solutions can be sort by forming differential and integral equations through structures like

machine tool frames, pressure vessels, automobile bodies, ships, aircraft structures, domes

etc., need some approximate treatment to arrive at their behavior, be its static deformation,

dynamic properties or heat conducting properties.

Indeed these are continuous systems with their mass and elasticity beam continuously

distributed. The classical differential equation solution approach leads to intractability. To

overcome this, engineers and mathematicians have from time to time proposed complex

structure is defined using a finite number of well defined components. Such systems are then

regarded as discrete systems. The discretisation method could be finite difference

approximation, various residual procedures.

Finite element method comes under this category of discretisation method R.W. Clough

appears to be the first to use this term of finite element since early 1960’s there has been
 5

much progress in the method. The method requires a large number of computations requiring

a fast computer.

Infact digital computer advances have been responsible for the expanding usage of the finite

element method. The finite element was initially developed to solve the structural problems.

Its use of late has been rapidly extended to various fields, like Soil& Rock Mechanics,

Thermal and Fluid mechanics, Hydro elasticity and Noise problems etc.

6.2 Broad steps of Finite Element Methods

The method is based on stiffness analysis. Stiffness is defined as the force required

per unit displacement and reciprocal of flexibility. In this method the structure is assumed to

be built of numerous connected tiny elements. From this comes the name “Finite Element

Method”. Extremely complex structures can also be simulated by proper arrangement of

these elements.

Finite element method allows accurate modeling through t he use of variety of beam, plate

and solid elements simultaneously. The method being essentially convergent I n nature,

solutions of engineering accuracy can be easily expected. The broad step in the finite element

method when it is applied to structural mechanics is as follows:

Divide the continuum into a finite number of regions of simple geometry triangles,

quadrilaterals, tetrahedron etc.

Select key points on the elements to serve as nodes where condition of equilibrium and

compatibility are to be enforced.

Assume displacement functions within each element so that the displacements at each

generic point are depend upon nodal values.

 6

Satisfy strain displacement and strain-strain relationships with a typical element.

Determine stiffness and equivalent nodal loads for a typical element using work or energy

principles.

Develop equilibrium equations for the nodes of the discretized continuum in terms of the

element contributions.

Solve the equilibrium equations for the nodal displacement.

Calculate support reactions at restrained nodes if displaced.

Determined stresses at selected points with in the elements.

6.3 Geometric Definitions:

There are four different geometric entries in pre-processor namely key point, lines, areas and

volumes. These entities can be used to obtain the geometric representation of the structure.

All these entities are independent of each other and have unique identification labels.

6.3.1.Key points

A key point is a point in 3-D space. It is basic entity and usually the first entity to be created.

They can be generated by many methods by individual definitions, by transporting existing

key points and from each other entities; e.g. intersection of two lines, key points at corners

etc.

6.3.2. Line

A general line in 3-D can be defined by a parametric cubic equation. Areas can be generated

from a number of grids. Sweeping a specified grid about a given axis through a desired

included angle can generate a circular arc.

 7

6.3.3. Area

An area is a 3-D surface defined using a parametric cubic equation. Area can be generated by

using four key points or four line method, depending on the geometry. Some inbuilt areas

like circles, rectangles and polygon can be directly created to the required size.

6.3.4.Volume

Volume is a general 3-D solid region defined by using a parametric equation. Similar to

areas, volumes also have parametric directions. Using 2 or 4 areas can generate these.

Spinning an area about an axis can also generate volume (swept volume). Volumes of

cylinder, prism and sphere can be directly created to the required dimensions.

6.4 General description of FEM:

In the finite element method, the actual continuum of body of matter like solid, liquid or

gas is represented as an assemblage of sub-divisions called finite elements. These

elements are considered to be inter-connected at specified points known as nodes or

nodal points. The nodes usually lie on the element boundaries where an adjacent element

is considered to be connected. Since the actual variation of the field variable like

(displacement, stress, temperature, pressure and velocity) inside the continuum is not

known, we assume that the variation of field variable inside a finite element can be

approximated function (also called interpolation models) are defined in the terms of the

value at nodes.

When the field equations (like equilibrium equations) for the whole continuum are written,

the new unknown will be the nodal value of the field variable. By solving, the field variables

will be known. Once these are known, the approximating functions define field variables

through the assemblage of elements.

 8

The element analysis is given in the following pages. This description provides general

outlook of FEM. General Explanation for each step-by-step procedure involved is also given.

6.4.1. Descritisation of domain:

The discretisation of the domain or solution into sub-regions (finite elements) is the first step

in the finite element method. This is equivalent to replacing the domain having an infinite

number of degrees of freedom by a system having finite number of degrees of freedom.

6.4.2. Basic element shape:

For any given physical body we have to use engineering judgment in selecting appropriate

elements for discretisation. The geometry of the body and the number of independent spatial

coordinates necessary to discretize the system dictate mostly the choice of the type of

element. Some of the popularly used one, two or three dimensional elements are given.

6.4.3. Types of elements :

Often the type of element to be used is evident from the problem itself. For example, if the

problem involves the analysis of a truss structure under a given set of load conditions, the

type of element to be used idealization is obviously the “bar of line elements”. However, in

some case the type of the element to be used for idealization may not be appropriate and in

such cases one has to choose the type of elements judicially.

6.4.4. Number of elements

The number of elements to be chosen for idealization is related to accuracy desired, size,

shape of elements and number of degrees of freedom involved. Although an increase in

 9

number of elements generally means more accurate results for a given problem, there will be

certain number of elements reaching the point, where no significant improvement will be

found. Moreover, since the use of large number of elements, involve large number of degrees

of freedom, we may not be able to store the resulting matrices in the available computer

memory.

6.4.5. Size of elements :

The size of element influences the convergence of the solution directly and hence it should be

chosen with care. If the size of element is small, the final solution is expected to be more

accurate. Sometimes, we may have to use elements of different size in the same body.

The size of elements has to be very small near the region where stresses concentration is

expected to be at far away places.

6.4.6. Location of nodes

Details of the problem can be described in terms of two independent spatial coordinates, if

the body has no abrupt changes in the geometry, material properties and external conditions

(like load, temperature, etc.) it can be divided into equal sub-divisions and hence the spacing

of the nodes can be uniform. On the other hand, if there are any discontinuities in the

problem, nodes have to be introduced, obviously, at these discontinuities.

6.5 Nodal degrees of freedom:

The basic idea of FEM is to consider a body as composed of several elements, which are

connected at specific node points. The unknown solution or the field variable (like

displacements, pressures or temperatures) inside any finite element is assumed to be given by

 10

a simple function in terms of nodal values of the elements nodal displacement, rotations

necessary to specify completely the deformation of the finite element is the degree of the

element.

The nodal values of the solution, also known as nodal degrees of freedom, are treated as

unknown in formulating the system of overall equations, the solutions of the system equation

(like force equilibrium equations) gives the value of the unknown nodal degree of freedom.

Once, the nodal degrees of freedom are known, the solution within any elements will also be

known to us. For having the results in terms of nodal degrees of freedom the interpolation

function must be derived in terms of nodal degrees of freedom.

6.6 Convergence requirement

Since the finite element method is numerical technique, we obtain a sequence of approximate

solutions as the element size is reduced successively. This sequence will converge to the

exact solution if the interpolation polynomial satisfies the following requirements.

(a) The displacement function must be continuous within the element. This can be easily

satisfied, by choosing polynomials for the displacement model.

(b) The displacement function must be capable of representing rigid body displacements

corresponding to the rigid body motion. The element should not experience any strain and

hence leads to nodal forces. The constant terms in the polynomials used for the displacement

models would usually ensure these conditions.

(c) The displacement function must be capable of representing strain states within the

element. The reason for this can be understood if we imagine the condition when the body or

structure is divided into smaller and smaller elements. As this elements approach

infinitesimal size, the strains in elements also approach constant values.

 11

Change of physical problem

Physical problem

Mathematical Model
Improve the mathematical model
Governed by different equations,

assumption

Geometry

Kinematics

Finite Element Solution

Choice of

Finite Element
Design analysis through FEM
Define Mesh

Assessment of accuracy of finite

Define Analysis
Design
Interpolation
Improvements
of results
element
 12

6.7 Assembly of element equations

Once the element characteristics, namely, the element matrices and element vectors are found

in a global co-ordinate system, namely, the element matrices and element vectors are found

in a global co-ordinate system, the next step is to construct the overall or system equations.

The procedure of assembling the element matrices and vectors is based on the requirement of

“compatibility” at the element nodes. This means that at the nodes where elements are

connected, the values of unknown degrees of freedom of the variables are same for all the

elements at the nodes.

6.8 Incorporation of the boundary conditions:

After assembling the characteristic matrices [K(e)] and element characteristic vectors

P(e) the overall system equation of the entire domain or the body can be written (for and

equilibrium problems) as

[K]{Ø} = {p}

These equations cannot be solved for {Ø} since the matrix [K] will be singular and hence its

inverse does not exist. The physical significance of this , in case of solid mechanics problem

is that the loaded body or structure if free to undergo unlimited rigid body motion unless

some support constraints are imposed to keep the body or structure under equilibrium under

the loads. Hence some boundary conditions have to be applied before solving for {Ø}. In

non-structural problems, we have to specify one or more than one degrees of freedom. The

number of degrees of freedom is dictated by the physics of the problem.

 13

6.9 Types of Meshing

6.9.1 Manual meshing

In manual meshing the elements are smaller at joint. This is known as mesh refinement, and

it enables the stress to be captured at the geometric discontinuity. Manual meshing is long

and tedious process for models with any degree of geometric complication, but with useful

tool emerging in pre-processors, the task is becoming easier.

Meshing controls

The default meshing controls that the program uses may produce a mesh that is adequate for

the model we are analyzing. In this case, we need not specify any meshing controls.

However, if we do use meshing controls, we must set them before meshing the solid model.

Meshing controls allow us to establish the element shape, mid side node placement, and

element size to be use din meshing the model.

This step is one of the most important of the entire analysis for the decisions we make at this

stage in the model development will profoundly affect the accuracy and economy of the

analysis.

6.9.3. Smart sizing of elements

Smart element sizing (smart sizing) is a meshing feature that creates initial element sizes for

the free meshing operations. Smart sizing gives the mesher a better chance of creating

reasonably shaped elements during automatic meshing generation.

6.9.4. Free or mapped mesh

 2

A free mesh is a one that has no restrictions in terms of element shapes, and no specific

pattern applied to it. Compared to a free mesh, a mapped mesh is restricted in terms of the

element shape it contains and the pattern of the mesh. A mapped mesh contains only

quadrilateral (area) or only hexahedron (volume) elements. If this type of mesh is desired, the

user must build the geometry as series of fairly regular volumes and/or areas that can accept a

mapped mesh.

6.10. Types of analysis

There are two types of analysis that are use din industry: 2-D modeling and 3-D modeling.

While 2-D modeling conserves simplicity and allows the analysis to run on a relatively

normal computer, it tends to yield much accurate results. 3-D modeling produces more

accurate results while sacrificing the ability to run on all but fastest computers effectively.

There are different types of analysis that are used. They are; Structural, Modal, Harmonic,

Transient & Spectrum.

Structural analysis consists of linear and non-linear models. Linear models use simple

parameters and assume that material is not plastically deformed.

Non-linear models consist of stressing the material past its elastic capabilities. The stresses in

the material then vary with the amount of deformation.

Vibration analysis is used to test the material against random vibrations.

Each of these incidents may act on the natural vibration frequency of the material, which, in

turn, may cause resonance and subsequent failure. So, analysis is done on the material to

predict the life of the material.

 3

Heat transfer analysis models the thermal conductivity or thermal fluid dynamics of the

material or structure. This may consist of a steady or transient transfer. Steady-state transfer

refers to constant thermo-properties in material that yield linear heat diffusion.

6.11. Finite element analysis process

The structure to be analyzed is sub-divided into mesh of finite sized elements of simple

shape. Within each element, the variation displacement is assumed to be determined by

simple polynomial shape functions and nodal displacement. Equations for strain and stress

are developed in terms of unknown nodal displacement. From this, the equations of

equilibrium are assembled in a matrix form, which can be easily programmed and solved on

a computer. After applying appropriate boundary conditions, the nodal displacements are

found by solving the matrix stiffness equation. Once the nodal displacements are known,

element stresses and strains can be calculated.

6.12. Results of Finite element analysis process

Analysis helps designer to predict the life of material or structure by showing the effects

of cyclic loading on specimen. Such analysis can show the areas where crack propagation

is most likely to occur. Failure due to fatigue may also show the damage tolerance of the

material. This method of product design and testing is far superior to the manufacturing

costs, which would accrue if each sample is built and tested.

6.13. Advantages of FEM

• Its ability to use various sizes and shapes and to model a structure of arbitrary

geometry.
 1

• Its ability to accommodate arbitrary boundary conditions and loading including

thermal loading.

• Its ability to model composite structures involving different structural components

such as stiffening member on a shell and combinations of plates, bars and solids

etc.

• The finite element structures closely resembles the actual structure instead of

being quite obstruction that is hard to visualize.

• The FEM is proven successfully in representing various types of complicated

material properties and material behavior (non-linear, an-isotropic, time

dependent or temperature dependent material behavior).

• It readily accounts for non-homogeneity of the material by assigning different

properties to different elements or even it is possible to vary the properties within

an element according to a pre determined polynomial pattern.

6.14. Disadvantages of FEM

• Specific numerical result is obtained for a specific problem.

• Experience and judgment are required in order to construct a good finite element

model.

• A big computer and a reliable computer program (software) are essential.

• Input and output data are tedious to prepare and interpret.

 2

CHAPTER 7

ANSYS

7.1 Introduction
The ANSYS program is self contained general purpose finite element program

developed and maintained by Swason Analysis Systems Inc. The program contain many

routines, all inter related, and all for main purpose of achieving a solution to an

engineering problem by finite element method.

ANSYS finite element analysis software enables engineers to perform the following

tasks:

• Build computer models or transfer CAD models of structures, products,

components, or systems.

• Apply operating loads or other design performance conditions.

 1

• Study physical responses, such as stress levels, temperature distributions, or

electromagnetic fields.

• Optimize a design early in the development process to reduce production costs.

• Do prototype testing in environments where it otherwise would be undesirable or

impossible (for example, biomedical applications).

The ANSYS program has a comprehensive graphical user interface (GUI) that gives

users easy, interactive access to program functions, commands, documentation, and

reference material. An intuitive menu system helps users navigate through the ANSYS

program. Users can input data using a mouse, a keyboard, or a combination of both. A

graphical user interface is available throughout the program, to guide new users through

the learning process and provide more experienced users with multiple windows, pull-

down menus, dialog boxes, tool bar, and online documentation.

7.2 Organization of the ANSYS Program

The ANSYS program is organized into two basic levels:

Begin level
Processor (or Routine) level

The Begin level acts as a gateway into and out of the ANSYS program. It is also used for

certain global program controls such as changing the job name, clearing (zeroing out) the

database, and copying binary files. When you first enter the program, you are at the

Begin level.

At the Processor level, several processors are available. Each processor is a set of

functions that perform a specific analysis task. For example, the general preprocessor

(PREP7) is where you build the model, the solution processor (SOLUTION) is where you

apply loads and obtain the solution, and the general postprocessor (POST1) is where you
 2

evaluate the results of a solution. An additional postprocessor, POST26, enables you to

evaluate solution results at specific points in the model as a function of time.

7.3. Performing a Typical ANSYS Analysis

The ANSYS program has many finite element analysis capabilities, ranging from a

simple, linear, static analysis to a complex, nonlinear, transient dynamic analysis. The

analysis guide manuals in the ANSYS documentation set describe specific procedures for

performing analyses for different engineering disciplines. The next few sections of this

chapter cover general steps that are common to most analyses.

A typical ANSYS analysis has three distinct steps:

• Build the model.

• Apply loads and obtain the solution.

• Review the results.

The following table 4.1 shows the brief description of steps followed in each phase.

Pre-Processor Solution Processor Post- Processor

Analysis
Assigning element type Read results
definition(type)

Geometry definition Constraint definition Plot results on graphs

Assigning real
Load definition View animated results
constants

Material definition Solve

Mesh generation

Model display

7.4. Pre-Processor
 2

The input data for an ANSYS analysis are prepared using a preprocessor. The general

preprocessor ( PREP7 ) contains powerful solid modeling and mesh generation

capabilities, and is also used to define all other analysis data (geometric properties (real

constants), material properties, constraints, loads, etc.), with the benefit of database

definition and manipulation of analysis data.

Parametric input, user files, macros and extensive online documentation are also

available, providing more tools and flexibility for the analyst to define the problem.

Extensive graphics capability is available throughout the ANSYS program, including

isometric, perspective, section, edge, and hidden-line displays of three-dimensional

structures, x-y graphs of input quantities and results, and contour displays of solution

results.

The pre-processor stage involves the following:

1. Specify the title, which is the name of the problem. This is optional but very

useful, especially if a number of design iterations are to be completed on the same

base mode.

2. Setting the type of analysis to be used, e.g., Structural, Thermal, Fluid, or

electromagnetic, etc.

3. Creating the model. The model may be created in pre-processor, or it can be

imported from another CAD drafting package via a neutral file

format(IGES,STEP,ACIS,PARASOLID etc.,)

4. Defining element type, these chosen from element library.

 1

5. Assigning real constants (thickness, etc) and material properties like Young’s

modulus, Poisson’s ratio, density, thermal conductivity, damping effect, specific

heat, etc.

6. Applying mesh. Mesh generation is the process of dividing the analysis

continuum into number of discrete parts of finite elements.

7.5. Solution processor

Here we create the environment to the model, i.e. applying constraints & loads. This is

the main phase of the analysis, where the problem can be solved by using different

solution techniques.

Here three major steps involved :

Solution type required, i.e. static, modal, or transient etc., is selected.

Defining loads. The loads may be point loads, surface loads; thermal loads like

temperature, or fluid pressure, velocity are applied.

Solve. FE solver can be logically divided into three main parts, the pre-solver, the

mathematical-engine and post-solver. The pre-solver reads the model created by pre-

processor and formulates the mathematical representation of the model and calls the

mathematical-engine, which calculates the result. The result return to the solver and the

post solver is used to calculate strains, stresses, etc., for each node within the component

or continuum.
 1

7.6. Post-Processor

Post processing means reviewing the results of an analysis. It is probably the most

important step in the analysis, because we are trying to understand how the applied loads

affect the design, how good your finite element mesh is, and so on.

The analysis results are reviewed using postprocessors, which have the ability to display

distorted geometries, stress and strain contours, flow fields, safety factor contours,

contours of potential field results (thermal, electric, magnetic), vector field displays mode

shapes and time history graphs. The postprocessors can also be used for algebraic

operations, database manipulations, differentiation, and integration of calculated results.

Root-sum-square operations may be performed on seismic modal results. Response

spectra may be generated from dynamic analysis results. Results from various loading

modes may be combined for harmonically loaded axisymmetric structures.

Review the Results. Once the solution has been calculated, you can use the ANSYS

postprocessors to review the results. Two postprocessors are available: POST1 and

POST26.

We use POST1, the general postprocessor, to review results at one sub step (time step)

over the entire model or selected portion of the model.. We can obtain contour displays,

deformed shapes, and tabular listings to review and interpret the results of the analysis.

POST1 offers many other capabilities, including error estimation, load case

combinations, calculations among results data, and path operations.

We use POST26, the time history postprocessor, to review results at specific points in

the model over all time steps. We can obtain graph plots of results data vs. time (or

frequency) and tabular listings. Other POST26 capabilities include arithmetic calculations
 2

and complex algebra. Details of POST1 and POST26 capabilities and how to use them

are described in chapters later in this document.

In the solution phase of the analysis, the computer takes over and solves the

simultaneous set of equations that the finite element method generates. The results of the

solution are:

Nodal degree-of-freedom values, which form the primary solution

Derived values, which form the element solution.

7.7. Meshing
Before meshing the model, and even before building the model, it is important to think

about whether a free mesh or a mapped mesh is appropriate for the analysis. A free mesh

has no restrictions in terms of element shapes, and has no specified pattern applied to it.

Compared to a free mesh, a mapped mesh is restricted in terms of the element shape it

contains and the pattern of the mesh. A mapped area mesh contains either only

quadrilateral or only triangular elements, while a mapped volume mesh contains only

hexahedron elements. In addition, a mapped mesh typically has a regular pattern, with

obvious rows of elements. If we want this type of mesh, we must build the geometry as a

series of fairly regular volumes and/or areas that can accept a mapped mesh

7.7.1. Free Meshing

In free meshing operations, no special requirements restrict the solid model. Any model

geometry, even if it is irregular, can be meshed.

The element shapes used will depend on whether you are meshing areas or volumes. For

area meshing, a free mesh can consist of only quadrilateral elements, only triangular

elements, or a mixture of the two. For volume meshing, a free mesh is usually restricted
 3

to tetrahedral elements. Pyramid-shaped elements may also be introduced into the

tetrahedral mesh for transitioning purposes.

If our chosen element type is strictly triangular or tetrahedral (for example, PLANE2 and

SOLID92), the program will use only that shape during meshing. However, if the chosen

element type allows more than one shape (for example, PLANE82 or SOLID95), you can

specify which shape (or shapes) to use by one of the following methods:

7.7.2. Mapped Meshing

We can specify that the program use all quadrilateral area elements, all triangle area

elements, or all hexahedral (brick) volume elements to generate a mapped mesh. Mapped

meshing requires that an area or volume be "regular;" that is, it must meet certain criteria.

Mapped meshing is not supported when hard points are used. An area mapped mesh

consists of either all quadrilateral elements or all triangular elements.

For an area to accept a mapped mesh, the following conditions must be satisfied:
• The area must be bounded by either three or four lines (with or without

concatenation).

• The area must have equal numbers of element divisions specified on opposite

sides, or have divisions matching one of the transition mesh patterns (see

Transition Patterns).

• If the area is bounded by three lines, the number of element divisions must be

even and equal on all sides.

• The meshing key must be set to mapped. These setting results in a mapped mesh

of either all quadrilateral elements or all triangle elements, depending on the

current element type and/or the setting of the element shape key .If our goal is a
 2

mapped triangle mesh, you can also specify the pattern ANSYS uses to create the

mesh of triangular elements.

• Area Mapped Meshes shows a basic area mapped mesh of all quadrilateral

elements, and a basic area mapped mesh of all triangular elements.

7.8. Structural Static Analysis

A static analysis calculates the effects of steady loading conditions on a structure, while

ignoring inertia and damping effects, such as those caused by time-varying loads. A static

analysis can, however, include steady inertia loads (such as gravity and rotational

velocity), and time-varying loads that can be approximated as static equivalent loads

(such as the static equivalent wind and seismic loads commonly defined in many building

codes).

Static analysis is used to determine the displacements, stresses, strains, and forces in

structures or components caused by loads that do not induce significant inertia and

damping effects. Steady loading and response conditions are assumed; that is, the loads

and the structure's response are assumed to vary slowly with respect to time. The kinds of

loading that can be applied in a static analysis include:

Externally applied forces and pressures

Steady-state inertial forces (such as gravity or rotational velocity)
Imposed (nonzero) displacements
Temperatures (for thermal strain)
Fluences (for nuclear swelling)

7.9. Modal Analysis

You use modal analysis to determine the vibration characteristics (natural frequencies

and mode shapes) of a structure or a machine component while it is being designed. It

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also can be a starting point for another, more detailed, dynamic analysis, such as a

transient dynamic analysis, a harmonic response analysis, or a spectrum analysis.

We use modal analysis to determine the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a

structure. The natural frequencies and mode shapes are important parameters in the

design of a structure for dynamic loading conditions. They are also required if you want

to do a spectrum analysis or a mode superposition harmonic or transient analysis.

We can do modal analysis on a prestressed structure, such as a spinning turbine blade.

Another useful feature is modal cyclic symmetry, which allows you to review the mode

shapes of a cyclically symmetric structure by modeling just a sector of it.

Modal analysis in the ANSYS family of products is a linear analysis. Any nonlinearity,

such as plasticity and contact (gap) elements, are ignored even if they are defined. You

can choose from several mode extraction methods: Block Lanczos (default), subspace,

Power Dynamics, reduced, unsymmetrical, damped, and QR damped. The damped and

QR damped methods allow you to include damping in the structure. Details about mode

extraction methods are covered later in this section

The procedure for a modal analysis consists of four main steps:

1. Build the model.

2. Apply loads and obtain the solution.

3. Expand the modes.

4. Review the results

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CHAPTER 8

ANALYSIS OF THE EOT CRANE GIRDER USING ANSYS

8.1 Description

Perform static analysis on the Crane girder to identify the displacement and stress against

safe working load. The model had been scaled and analysis performed in MKS units. Due

to the complexity involved the rail and wheel assemblies were not involved in the

calculations. The girder is considered to be in direct contact with guide beam. Structural

analysis has been performed by considering the guide beam fixed at bottom in all

direction and operating load of 30 tonnes is applied at the center of span.

In heavy-duty material handling equipment, major concern is optimum utilization of material

for equipment construction without sacrificing the design parameters. To understand this

aspect and also to validate the design, as this kind of equipment is a vital part of any
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manufacturing industry, finite element analysis is one of the best method that can be used

extensively. The major advantage is that the equipment need not be manufactured and tested

physically to find out the drawbacks. Instead one can simulate the conditions through finite

element analysis to obtain an optimum design.

The finite element analysis was carried out for the rated load condition with some impact

factor and also for the overload condition.

Maximum stress and displacement locations were obtained for each of the components to

check the validity of design values. All these values obtained through detailed finite element

analysis were found to be within the design limit.

The complete analysis work gave a very good insight on various component design of crane

and also a high degree of confidence, with cost saving.

Heavy material handling equipments have been traditionally designed using some standards

with factor of safety included into the design. This can lead to over design of the component.

This paper presents a case study required for a design that is optimum and safe with respect

to the available standards as well as easy to manufacture

This analysis for each of the above three components has been carried out for the loads as

specified by relevant crane standards. The analysis also involved redesign of the structure

wherever needed to meet requirements of stresses and displacements. Online change in

design is an advantage not available to this particular industry.

Another significant aspect of this analysis was that the results were accepted as equivalent to

carrying out field load test as prescribed by the Crane standards. Only a limited load field

load test was carried out to ascertain the accuracy of the results.
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8.2. Types of element used

Solid-45

It is a 8-node hexa 3-d element. The element is defined by 8 nodes with 3 degrees of

freedom each node: translation in x, y, z directions. The element has plasticity, creep,

swelling, stress stiffening, large deflection and large strain capabilities.

8.3. Material properties

Material is structural steel.

Young’s modulus EX = 2e5 MPa

Density ρ = 2900 Kg/ m3

Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

8.4. Building the model

The solid model is imported from CATIA using IGES file. The geometric model,

which is imported, is mapped meshed in order to generate finite element model. There by

19661 number of elements and 23891 number of nodes are obtained.

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Geometric model of EOT Crane

Load diagram
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Meshed model of girder considered for analysis.

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Guide beam fixed in all directions at the bottom face.

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30 tonnes load applied at the center of the span

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Deformation plot (5.225 mm)

VALUES OF MAX. AND MIN. MIN. MAX.

DISPLACEMENT FOR THE LOAD DISPLACEMENT DISPLACEMENT

CASES
HALF LOAD 0.6506 1.8
RATED LOAD 0.58 5.225
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von Mises stress plot (284 MPa)

von Mises stress values

LOAD ON HOOK Bending stress (kg/mm2)

MIN MAX

HALF LOAD 15 T 0.0001 95

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FULL LOAD 30T 0.009 284

Conclusions

The following conclusions are drawn from the present work

The design of 30/7.5T EOT crane has been done as per IS: 3177-1999. All the calculations

pertaining to the design have been calculated and results are tabulated

The failure analysis i.e. vibration, Bearing, WPA has been done.

Design validation of girder has been performed using ANSYS finite element software

indicates that the calculated deformation is 5 mm which is less than the allowable

deformation of 18 mm as per IS standards. The calculated von Misees stress is 284 Mpa

which is less than the allowable stress of 520 Mpa with a safety factor 1.83.

Therefore, the crane girder will perform safely during its operating conditions

Future scope

At present, the market size for EOT cranes and hoists is approximately Rs 3000 crores .

The Indian infrastructure, construction and civil construction industries lead to a huge

requirement generation for the material handling industry. Primarily, there is a direct

requirement for equipment at various project sites like gantry cranes for precast segment
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yards, gantry cranes for bridge constructions, specialized hoisting equipment for bridge

launching girders etc. Typically, the capacities for such cranes can range from 10 ton to

150 ton.

A lot of multinational crane manufacturing companies are now entering into the Indian

market and we expect some sort of consolidation to take place over the next three-four

years. The demand for cranes merely reflects the growth across all sectors of the industry.

More importantly, the demand for world-class cranes over the traditional Indian design

cranes is increasing drastically due to the advent of almost every global company worth

its salt setting up manufacturing facilities in India. We estimate a growth rate of around

20 to 30 per cent annualized in this industry.