M O R E T O R E A D

I
Eleven years after publishing RAW I and RAW II, the Department of Basic English continues the
series with two new reading books
!"RE #" READ I is the first book of the new series aiming to improve the reading skills of
Beginner and Elementary level students and thus to help them become better readers
#he Department is grateful to $ecmiye #%rkan and &anset &e'airlio(lu #%rkan for their
meticulous work on compiling and editing the material in this book and preparing it for publication
#hey put a lot of time and effort to achieve the )uality we aimed for
Aye Bark
Chairperson
Department of Basic English, School of Foreign Languages i!!le East "echnical #ni$ersity
Eleven years after publishing RAW I and RAW II, the Department of Basic English continues the
series with two new reading books
!"RE #" READ I is the first book of the new series aiming to improve the reading skills of
Beginner and Elementary level students and thus to help them become better readers
#he Department is grateful to $ecmiye #%rkan and &anset &e'airlio(lu #%rkan for their
meticulous work on compiling and editing the material in this book and preparing it for publication
#hey put a lot of time and effort to achieve the )uality we aimed for
Aye Bark
Chairperson
Department of Basic English, School of Foreign Languages i!!le East "echnical #ni$ersity
Foreword
#he purpose of this book is to provide students with e*tra reading and vocabulary tasks to improve
their language #he reading te*ts in the book have been compiled from )ui''es and midterms prepared
at the DBE for the Beginner, Elementary, +rep and +re,intermediate -roups between the years .///
and .//0 Besides reading te*ts, there are also vocabulary activities prepared to practice the words
listed in the Academic 1ocabulary 2ist at the end of the book Although this book is intended for the
Beginner, Elementary, and +re,intermediate students of DBE, we believe that it will also cater for the
needs of E32 students in other institutions
Canset Ce%airlioglu "&rkan 'ecmiye "&rkan
Ankara, ())*
Acknowledgements
We would like to e*press our sincere appreciation to all of those people who have helped to shape
this book 3irst and foremost, we would like to thank all Beginner, Elementary, +rep and +re,
intermediate -roup test writers between ./// and .//0 We also owe a special debt to Robert West,
who meticulously proofread and edited the material in the book We would also like to thank 4teve
Riva, Beth Do(an, -ary &onlan and +atricia Bilikmen for their invaluable proofreading We also thank
$urcihan 5ar6k, who formatted the material and 7mut 5ahraman, who created a software program that
enabled us to prepare the vocabulary tasks
"ur continuing thanks are due to8
Eva Banu &ant%rk, 4edef 9ener, :ilal Din;er, Deni' Atiko(lu and Ay<en 5araba( for their
continuous support,
:%sn% Enginarlar and Ay;e Bar6<6k, who provided us with a comfortable working environment
3inally, we are grateful to all our colleagues without whose support and encouragement the
compilation and preparation of this book would not have been possible
Canset Ce%airlio+lu "&rkan 'ecmiye "&rkan
Ankara, ())*
1 Sonia And Sam
4am, 0=, is from Rosebud, a small town in $ew >ersey Rosebud looks like many other towns in
the 7nited 4tates "n !ain 4treet, there is a post office and a bank #here is a bookshop between the
post office and the bank "pposite the bank, there is a shopping centre with a supermarket and a clothes
shop 4am?s office is ne*t to the post office Everybody in town knows 4am :e is a good doctor :e is
short with dark hair and brown eyes :is wife?s name is 4onia 4he is tall with blond hair and blue eyes
4he is an engineer and she works for a large company in $ew @ork &ity Every day, she takes the train
to the city
4onia and 4am live in an old white house on &leveland Road #hey have two children, #ed and
>ane #ed lives in Bra'il with his wife, !aria, and >ane lives in Alaska #ed and >ane?s rooms are
always ready for them, and sometimes they come to visit At the weekend, 4onia and 4am work in the
garden 4onia grows flowers and 4am has a large vegetable garden :e likes cooking special meals for
their friends using their own fresh vegetables
2 Los Angeles The City of Angels
2os Angeles A2AB is the second largest city in America It?s also home to film stars, sunny weather,
tall buildings and heavy traffic
ACCOMMODATION
#he hotels in 2A are more e*pensive than those in many other American cities, but they are clean
and safe #he Biltmore and #he "mni are lovely, and close to special bus stops where you can get
cheap rides to various sights
PLAC! TO "I!IT
#here are many interesting places you can visit, like 1enice Beach with its street performers,
7niversal 4tudios to see how they make films, and -riffith +ark @ou can also see the handprints and
footprints of film stars outside -rauman?s &hinese #heater &hildren can visit the &hildren?s !useum
C one of the most e*citing museums in the world
ATIN# O$T
#here are famous restaurants you can eat at, like the Buffalo &lub, a place packed with famous
people, or !usso D 3rank?s, :ollywood?s oldest restaurant 3or the most delicious !e*ican dishes, eat
at the Border -rill
!%OPPIN#
@ou can buy cheap fashionable clothes on !elrose Avenue Do you want designer clothesE #hen
go to the e*pensive shops on Rodeo Drive A visit there is always unforgettable
NT&TAINMNT
#he nightlife is e*citing on the 4unset 4trip, an area in :ollywood with famous clubs like #he
Whiskey and #he Ro*y #here you can enFoy rock ?n? roll music Also, .=,hour cafes like 1an -o?s Ear
are popular with visitors
2A is a modern city with something for everyone It?s noisy and crowded, but it?s also fascinating
' Com()ters And #irls
#he girls in the si*th,grade class in East +alo Alto, &alifornia, all have the same access to
computers as boys #hat is to say, boys and girls both have computers which they can use :owever,
studies show that by the time girls get to high school, they use computers less than boys, and this
causes a technology gap
>anice Weinman of the American Association of 7niversity Women says, G-irls tend to be less
comfortable than boys with the computer #hey use it more to type letters, reports, etc rather than to
find ways of dealing with problemsG
#he studies show that girls make up only a small percentage of students in computer science
classes -irls usually say that they have less computer ability than boys do #hey are less confident
when using computers Besides, they use computers less often than boys outside the classroom
#he instructor of the computer lab in &esar &have' 4chool says, GBoys are not so afraid they
might do something that will harm the computer, whereas girls are afraid they might cause damage
somehowG
4i* years ago, the software company +urple !oon also noticed that girls? computer usage was
falling behind boys? 5aren -ould of +urple !oon says, G#he number,one reason girls don?t like
computer games is not because they?re too violent or too competitive -irls Fust find them incredibly
boringG
According to the study conducted by +urple !oon, girls want games with people similar to those
around them and stories about what is going on in their own lives 5aren -ould says, Gthere is no real
reason why girls wouldn?t want to play on a computerH it is Fust a content thingG
#he sponsor of the study says that the technology gap, which separates the girls from the boys,
must be closed if women want to compete effectively with men in the Fob market in the .Ist century
* Different Co)ntries+ Different ,ting %,-its
.r,/il
Bra'ilians don?t like eating alone #hey like eating with their friends and family at home or in
restaurants #hey never have lunch at the office and they eat very late at night C at about ten o?clock
Bra'ilians like strong coffee in small cups at any time of the day #hey make many different fruit
drinks and also very good beer #hey don?t eat on the street or on the bus, and they never eat with their
hands #hey eat pi''a and sandwiches with a knife and fork
The Phili((ines
!any 3ilipinos have three meals a day with two snacks in between Rice is a part of every meal
+eople make desserts with it 3ilipinos like eating soup, meat, vegetables and a lot of different sauces
In some parts of the country, they make wine 3ilipinos usually eat with their families #hey eat with a
fork and a spoon, or with their hands It?s polite to leave a little food on the plate at the end of a meal
Finl,nd
In 3inland, there are a lot of different dishes 4moked fish and hot soups are some e*amples of
these dishes In 3inland, fast food includes pi''a and sausages, and they are very popular "n the
streets, there are stalls and they sell sausages, 3inland?s favorite food 3innish people drink a lot of beer
@ou can buy e*cellent 3innish beer in every shop in the country During the week, most families don?t
usually have dinner together 4ometimes, at the weekends, they eat with their friends #hey cook meals
together, or each person makes and brings a part of the meal
0 The Amish
#he Amish are a special group of Americans #here are about J0,/// Amish people in the 7nited
4tates #he largest groups live in "hio, +ennsylvania, Indiana, Iowa and Illinois #he Amish people
keep apart from the rest of the world #hey live in their own groupsH they have their own language and
they don?t have any relationship with the outside world
#he Amish have a simple life #hey grow vegetables and fruits, but they don?t have machines on
their farms #hey don?t drive cars #hey have horses #hey do not have electricity or telephones in their
homes
#he Amish are called ?the plain people? #hey all wear the same style of clothes 3or e*ample, the
men all wear dark clothes and hatsH the women wear long dresses and hats
Amish children have one,room school houses #hey have Amish teachers #hey have no school
after the eighth grade
1 The M,n 2ith The #lo3es
!ichael -reenberg is a popular man :e is not famous in sports or in the arts, but people,
especially poor people, on the streets of $ew @ork know about him
3or these poor people, he is not !ichael or even !r -reenberg 3or them, he is G-lovesG G:ere
comes -loves,G they say when they see him walking down the street :ow did he get that nameE !r
-reenberg looks like any other businessman :e wears a suit and carries a briefcase, but he is different
In his briefcase there are not only papers and books but also several pairs of gloves "n cold winter
days, !r -reenberg does not walk )uickly down the street like other $ew @orkers :e looks around at
peopleH he looks for poor people with cold hands #hat is why he carries gloves in his briefcase :e
stops when he sees someone poor with no gloves and gives him or her a pair of gloves
Every day during the winter, !r -reenberg gives away gloves During the rest of the year, he
buys gloves Also, people who know about him send him gloves :e has a mountain of gloves in his
apartment #here are gloves of all colors and si'es8 children?s gloves, work gloves, and evening gloves
for ladies
Why does !r -reenberg help these peopleE When he was a child, his family was poor :owever,
his father always gave things to other people :e thought it made everyone happier !ichael -reenberg
feels the same way :e feels very happy when helping the poor
4 The !t,t)e Of Li-erty
#he 4tatue of 2iberty, a universal symbol of freedom and democracy, is on 2iberty Island in $ew
@ork :arbor It was a gift from the people of 3rance to the people of the 7nited 4tates
#he 3rench sculptor 3rKdKric Auguste Bartholdi designed the 4tatue :e started to build the 4tatue
in 3rance in the year IBL0 and the construction finished in IJJM A 3rench ship called the GIsereG
brought it to the 74A in N0/ pieces the same year Workers spent = months to put them together
#he 4tatue is ON meters tall from the ground to the tip of the torch 1isitors climb N0= steps or take
the elevator to reach the crown #here are .0 windows in the crown 1isitors can rest, take photos and
enFoy the scenery of $ew @ork &ity there #he seven rays of the 4tatue?s crown symboli'e the seven
seas and seven continents of the world #he 2ady with the 2amp holds a tablet in her left hand It reads
G>uly =, ILLMG Ain Roman numeralsB, the Independence Day of America
#here is a museum in the pedestal !ore than 0 million people visit it each year and learn about its
history there
#he only way to get to the 4tatue is by ferryboat 3erryboats take visitors to the Island every N/
minutes #he entrance to the 4tatue is free, but the ferry tickets cost PI/ for adults and P= for children
aged =,I. &hildren under = don?t pay any money
5 A New Artist in New 6ork
A new show of paintings opened in $ew @ork last week #he name of the artist is !aria Arroyo
+eople in $ew @ork don?t know her, but she is )uite famous in some other countries 4he grew up in
!e*ico 4he studied with several famous artists there In IOO0, she married #ed Diamond, a reporter
for the $ew @ork -a'ette #he same year, !aria and #ed moved to Bra'il !aria won a lot of
important awards in Bra'il, and she showed her work in !e*ico and other countries :er work is very
popular in these countries now
!aria Arroyo is a small, )uiet person, but her paintings are very large #hey are full of color and
e*citement 4he says that she uses !e*ican colors In !e*ico, the sky and the sea are usually very
bright blue #he houses often have bright colors too8 pink, yellow, or orange
In her paintings, the e*citement comes partly from these colors It also comes from her style 4he
paints large forms that seem to move !ario Arroyo?s paintings aren?t like photographs #hey do not
show us houses, flowers, clouds or boats Instead, her paintings show us her feelings about the world
We look forward to seeing more work from this e*cellent artist
"he 'e, -ork "imes .y San!ra /oolf
7 An All8.oy .,nd
#he Backstreet Boys, or B4B, is an American all,boy band #he band started with :owie
Dorough, A> !c2ean and $ick &arter
A> worked as a model when he was si* At that time, he also acted in school plays When he was
fourteen, he met :owie :owie had had roles in films and plays #hey became friends and went to
auditions together #hey met $ick at one of them A>, :owie, and $ick started singing together for a
record company called #ranscontinental Records
#he record company owner, 2ou +erlman, had a friend who knew 5evin Richardson 5evin had a
Fob at Disney World in "rlando at the time When 2ou?s friend told 5evin about the new group, 5evin
decided to meet them #he four became friends and 5evin Foined the group 2ou wanted one more
person for the group #he fifth member was Brian 2ittrell, 5evin?s cousin
B4B released their first album in IOOM #hey received a gold record for this album #he second
one followed in late IOOL, but it was not as successful as the first
B4B has got fans in many countries @ou might even be a fan of this great band If you want to
write to them, here is the address8 Backstreet Boys, +ost "ffice Bo* MIJ./N, "rlando, 32 N.JMI,J./N
9: .)ddy %olly
Buddy :olly was born in the small town of 2ubbock, in the state of #e*as, on Lth 4eptember,
IONM :is name then was &harles :ardin :olly, not ?Buddy :olly? In his short life, he became one of
the greatest rock ?n? roll musicians of the IO0/s
In >anuary IO0O, Buddy :olly began a concert tour with some other musicians #hey were on tour
for nearly a month, going from one place to another every day "n .nd 3ebruary, they were in Iowa, in
the central 7nited 4tates, and they were very tired #hat night, after the concert, Buddy made a
suggestion G2et?s go to our ne*t concert by plane tonightG #he other musicians liked Buddy?s idea
#hey immediately said GyesG
#he same night at I am, Buddy and his two friends were on the plane #hey were on their way to
!innesota for their ne*t concert It was a cold and windy night It was snowing too #hen, something
bad happened +eople saw the lights of the small plane come slowly down and down 4uddenly, they
disappeared !aybe it was the pilot?s mistake, or maybe there was a technical problem, but no one
found out the reason for the accident
Buddy :olly, one of the great American rock stars, and his two friends died tragically in the
accident :e was only .N years old
99 Tik)
!y name is #iku I am an Aborigine from Alice 4prings in the center of Australia #hat is where
many Aborigines live We are different from the other people in Australia because we have brown skin
We are actually the original people of Australia #he white people came here in ILJJ and took our land
After that, we learned to live with them
In Aboriginal culture, we do not own land #he land is for everyone #he animals and plants are
for everyone but the white people take the land and use it for farms #hey cannot understand our ideas
about land and its importance for us
2ife is not easy for me because I am an Aborigine 7niversity life is also difficult because most
universities are in big cities #hey are far from our homes in the center of Australia #here are many
Aborigines in Alice 4prings, but I am the only Aborigine in my class at university so I feel that I?m
different 7niversities are very e*pensive We have to buy many books but we are poor
I am the first Aborigine woman to go to university I want to be a teacher because there aren?t
many Aboriginal teachers in our schools I want to teach my people our history I do not want
Aboriginal children to forget their history #hey learn only Australian history at schools but that is
different from our history
Aboriginal history is not written in history books Everybody learns it from their grandparents
#hey tell stories, and these stories are very important because they e*plain our history #hey tell about
the beginning of the world and about the land, trees and animals #hey teach us many things about
Aboriginal life and help us to understand the difference between right and wrong
I want to learn new things at the university but I also want to learn things from my grandmother,
who tells us stories 4he never went to school, but she is a very wise woman 4he knows many things
about Aboriginal culture 4he teaches me these things so that I can share them with other Australian
students #hen, the white people can better understand us
92 N,t,lie Im-r)gli,
$atalie Imbruglia was born in IOL0 in a small town two hours from 4ydney, Australia 4he is the
second daughter of a family with four girls :er father is Italian and her mother is Australian 4he took
tap dancing and ballet lessons when she was a child 4he danced M days a week, mainly after school
When she was fifteen, she went to a drama school 4he became famous when she started acting in the
Australian #1 series 'eigh.ours0 #wo years later, she got bored with it and left
In IOO=, she moved to 2ondon 4he needed to earn money, so she started writing songs In IOOM,
she met !ark 3o*, creative director for B!- publishing 4he showed her work to him and he liked it
so much that he contacted +hil #hornally, a former member of the rock band #he &ure #hen, they
recorded her hit song, G#ornG It was so popular that almost all maFor radio stations around the world
played it again and again In IOOJ, she made her first album G2eft of the !iddleG It was very
successful and it brought her many pri'es, including !#1 !usic 1ideo Awards, the Australian Record
Industry Awards and !#1 Europe 1ideo !usic Awards
$ow, $atalie lives alone in West :ampstead, 2ondon 4he still loves acting and she acted in
>ohnny English together with >ohn !alkovich, but she wants to go on writing and singing her songs for
a while In April .//0, she released her third album #he first single from this album was G4hiverG and
it became her longest running single
9' Celine Dion
&eline Dion, one of the biggest international stars in pop music history, was born in &anada in
IOMJ 4he is the youngest of the I= children in the Dion family 4he began singing in her parents? piano
bar when she was Fust 0 years old When she was I., she recorded one of her first songs 1 Ce '2etait
3u2un 4e$eG AG5t /as 6nly a DreamGB, with the help of her brother !ichel and her mother !ichel sent
this song to a manager named Rene Angelil When he listened to the demo tape, he decided to become
her manager At the beginning, &eline became famous only in &anada and 3rance because all her songs
were in 3rench At the age of IJ, &eline saw !ichael >ackson performing on #1 and told Angelil she
wanted to be a star like him Angelil sent her to an English school to learn English, and also he changed
her hair style and her physical appearance &eline was now ready to be successful in the 74A with her
new image :er first international success was the theme song for Disney?s 1"he Beauty an! the
BeastG #he song won both a -rammy and an Academy Award and topped the pop charts In IOO=, she
got married to Angelil, who is .M years older than her In IOOM, she won another -rammy Award and
was invited to the opening ceremonies of the Atlanta "lympics #he following year, she sang Gy
7eart /ill 8o 6nG, the theme song of the film G"itanicG, and was once again number one In IOOO, she
announced that her husband had throat cancer, so she had to take a break to spend more time at home
#wo years later, she gave birth to her son Dion returned to the public eye in .//. with her hit GA 'e,
Day 7as ComeG 4he is still one of the hardest working stars in show business
9* %etty &o-inson
:etty Robinson learnt all about money when she was very young As a child, she read the
financial pages of the newspapers to her rich father :er father died when :etty was N/ years old and
she inherited PI million When she herself died, her two children received a fortune of more than PI//
million
:etty made her money on the $ew @ork stock e*change 4he was a genius 4he was named ?the
Witch of Wall 4treet? because she made money )uite easily 4he was one of the richest women in the
world, but she was very meanH she counted every cent and she spent very little 4he didn?t own a house
because she didn?t want to pay property ta*es 4he and her children lived in cheap hotels
4he spent almost nothing on clothes, and wore the same black dress every day 4he washed it
herself, but she only washed the bottom of the dress, where it touched the ground, because she didn?t
want to spend money on soap "ther people had their own offices, but :etty used a desk in the bank
where she kept her money because it didn?t cost anything 4he sat in the bank and ate her sandwiches
while she bought stocks and shares If the bank complained, she Fust moved all her money to another
bank
:etty?s family paid the price for her meanness When she was NN, she married a millionaire,
Edward -reen, and they had two children -reen, however, lost all his money, so :etty left him When
her son, $ed, hurt his knee in an accident, :etty didn?t want to pay for a doctor, so she took him to a
hospital for poor people #he doctor knew that :etty was wealthy and asked for money, but :etty
didn?t pay any money and took the boy away :is leg didn?t get better and two years later doctors
removed it
But in the end $ed got his revenge At the age of JI, :etty had an argument with a shop assistant
about the price of a bottle of milk 4he got so angry that she had a heart attack and died 4he left half of
her money to her son, who spent it all on parties, holidays and e*pensive Fewellery
90 A New Dowry Item; The Com()ter
!in :uang is a banker in a small city in &hina 4he surprised her new in,laws when she showed
them a computer in her dowry It was there with the traditional items like furniture, dishes and linen
When the family asked about the computer, she e*plained that she wanted to improve her
professional skills :er office was computeri'ed GI also hope to connect to the Internet at home to
broaden my hori'ons,G she said When she told her parents that she wanted a computer for her dowry,
they didn?t hesitate to buy her one #hey knew a computer would be important to her and to her new
family?s future
+eople who study &hinese marriage customs are very interested in this story According to those
customs, the groom?s parents are responsible for the couple?s housing #he bride?s family supplies the
daily necessities :owever, the contents of the dowry have changed over time In the past, when rural
people lived in fairly harsh conditions, they usually provided grain and clothing for daughters who
would soon be married #his showed their desire to protect them from hunger and cold
In the IO0/s, farm e)uipment and animals became popular items +arents hoped that their
daughters? lives could be improved through hard work !odern times, however, brought the need for
1&Rs, stereos and computers #hrough these dowry items, parents hope that their daughters will be
part of a successful, modern world
!in?s parents said, GWe want our daughter to be part of a new world A computer is part of that
worldG !in completely agrees, and is thankful to have such generous and intelligent parents
91 Mirrors
!irrors have always been considered as having special powers #he superstition that breaking a
mirror is bad luck is very, very old #his belief can be observed in some form in most cultures around
the world, but, in fact, the first mirrors could not really be broken because they were made of water
+eople looked at themselves in lakes, ponds and rivers because they believed that by looking at their
reflection in the water they could learn about their future If the water was calm and the reflection was
clear, this was considered a good sign meaning that good things would happen to the person "n the
other hand, if the water was rough, ie not calm, and the reflection was distorted and hard to see, this
was a sign that the future would be bad
In the first century B&, the Romans used to read water fortunes @ou could go to a seer, a person
with special powers, and have him or her tell you what your future would be #he seer would ask you
to hold a bowl of water and look into it and then he or she would study your reflection and tell you
what was going to happen to you If you dropped the bowl, it meant that you had no future, a very bad
sign
Ancient people had the idea that a person?s reflection was actually the person?s soul and that the
soul e*isted outside the body in the reflection #herefore, if the mirror broke Aor the water bowl was
droppedB, it meant that the soul would be destroyed and the person would soon die In many cultures,
people believed that it was dangerous for a person to look at hisQher own image too long #his was
because they believed the soul in the reflected image could pull the life out of the person 4imilarly,
#he Basutos Aa Bantu tribe in 4outh AfricaB believed that crocodiles could drag a person?s reflection
under water and kill it
In the si*th century B&, the Romans changed their ideas about mirror fortunes a little At this
time, they believed that a person?s health and fortune changed every seven years #herefore, if you
broke a mirror, it was not )uite as bad as before8 @ou would have seven years of bad health and general
bad luck, but at least you probably wouldn?t die
:owever, &hinese people believed that a well,placed mirror could protect you from evil #his was
because they thought bad spirits would be frightened by their own image in the mirror and would then
leave people alone #here is an ancient &hinese saying8 GWhen evil recogni'es itself, it destroys itselfG
#herefore, brass mirrors were often placed in the bedrooms to scare evil spirits #hey were supposed to
protect people while they were sleeping
94 F)t)re Cities In The !e,
In some coastal countries where there is not enough land for an increasing population, living space
can e*pand into the sea 3or e*ample, the land area of :ong 5ong is small, but the population is large
#herefore, many of the city?s poor are unable to find affordable homes in the city itself #hey dwell in
boats that are tied close to each other by the shore 4uch floating towns have given new ideas to a
number of architects from different countries #hese architects are working on several futuristic designs
for oceanic cities "ne of these designs, by Eckhard 4chul'e,3ielit', is a huge city called G$ew
1eniceG It will be built on floating containers #he idea of floating cities has attracted special attention
in >apan, which has an enormous population density 2ike 4chul'e,3ielit', the >apanese architect
5iyonori 5ikutake has also suggested floating containers in his design of a town called G7nabaraG
A"ceanB Another >apanese architect, :ide'o 5obayashi, has proposed building a city, actually a safer
one, in a bay which will e*tend an e*isting city from the shore into the ocean It will use both
structures that float and structures that are securely tied to the bottom Boats will pass over and around
this city, and waves and tides will provide its energy 5obayashi?s city will also be a base for taking out
mineral deposits that lie on the ocean floor
95 #oing For #old
-old was probably first found on the ground and used by prehistoric man in tool,making In
ancient times, it was made into plates, cups, vases and vessels of all kinds, and of course, Fewelry #he
first use of gold as money occurred in Anatolia in ML/ B&, but it has always been accepted as money
anywhere in the world 4ailors, for e*ample, wore a gold earring If they were shipwrecked, they could
e*change it to get home again -old is still given to military pilots for the same reason +eople have
always been fascinated by gold :ow many times have people killed others and how many lives have
been lost for itE #he gold of the +haraohs was stolen from their tombs in the +yramids #he Inca and
A'tec empires were destroyed for gold 2ater in history, hundreds of men from other civili'ations died
in the Fungles of 4outh America as they searched for the golden city of Eldorado In IJ=O, thousands of
people left their homes to Foin the &alifornia -old Rush !any were killed by Indians and diseases
such as cholera, tuberculosis, chicken po* and the Black Death
+ure gold is rare both in nature and in manufacturing It is usually mi*ed with other metals #he
proportion of gold is shown in carats If the carat number is high, this means there is more gold but
fewer other metals in it +ure gold is twenty four carat and the cheapest is nine carat #he word carat
comes from the -reek word, keration, which means a carob seed #hese seeds were used to weigh gold
and diamonds
!ost gold today is found in 4outh Africa AMI. tons a yearB and $orth America A=0O tons a yearB
About JNR of it is used for Fewelry "f the rest, about OR is used by industry, about MR is used for
coins and .R is made into gold teeth -old is usually found in very small pieces or nuggets #he
largest nugget, the :oltermann $ugget, was found in IJL. in Australia Its weight was .I= kilograms
#he largest reserves of gold are held in the 74A in the 3ederal Reserve Bank and at 3ort 5no*
#he second biggest stores are held by the Bank of England and the Bank of 3rance $ot all of this gold
belongs to the governments of these countries A lot of it is owned by companies, other governments
and individuals When gold is bought and sold, it isn?t usually moved "nly the names on a piece of
paper are changed #he gold itself stays in the bank
#oday, gold is still the most important and valuable metal And man has used it in many different
fields 3or e*ample, in the IO./s doctors in 3rance started using gold to treat a disease called
rheumatoid arthritis In the IOM/s, scientists used gold,coated mirrors to ma*imi'e infrared reflection
In the IOJ/s, car manufacturers used gold for the metal parts of airbags
97 The .eetle; A Legend On 2heels
"ne of :itler?s dreams was to increase the number of car owners in -ermany, so he employed Dr
3erdinand +orsche, the well,known constructor, to design an affordable and reliable car for the people
:ider and +orsche often had arguments, but +orsche was afraid of him, so he stayed in the proFect and
continued his work in the Wolfsburg car factory In IONJ, the factory produced the first cheap car Gfor
the peopleG It included all the characteristics that :itler ordered #he engine was at the back of the car
and it had )uite a specific shape8 it was very round and it looked like an insect #hat was the reason
why it was called GBeetleG
During World War II, the -ermans used the Wolfsburg car factory to make all,terrain cars C
5ubelwagens C and airplanes for the army :owever, as soon as the war ended, Beetle production
started again and the Beetle immediately became even more popular than 3ord?s !odel ?#? #he great
success started with the import of Beetles to :olland in IO=L By IOL., the total number of Beetle cars
produced had increased to over I0,///,///
#hen sales started to go down because the Beetle was still a IO=/s design, although there were
some small changes in the engine In the end, the Beetle lost the war against technology In IOL=, the
new -olf model replaced the Beetle in the Wolfsburg car factory #he car designers decided to make a
car completely different from their original Beetle model In IOL0, 1olkswagen introduced this new
-olf in the 7nited 4tates where it was called the ?Rabbit?
"ver the years, the -ermans produced many models of 1olkswagens, using the Beetle and -olf as
a starting point and including many other concepts and standards #hese were produced in Emden,
"snabruck, Wolfsburg and other -erman cities #oday many people say that 1olkswagens are among
the most comfortable and powerful cars in Europe
#he production of the Beetle in -ermany ended in IOLJ :owever, in the early IOJ/s, there were
still millions of Beetles on the road +eople formed Beetle &lubs all around the world thinking that it
would never disappear Around IOO/, there were fewer Beetles on the road #oday, it is almost
impossible to see the Beetle in the streets, but the owners of the few remaining Beetle models still try
to keep their small cars in the best possible condition #hey enFoy driving the Beetle because it has a
history behind it #his makes it very special for them
2: An $n)s),l !tyle
2eonardo da 1inci was one of the most interesting characters of the Italian Renaissance :e wrote
in Italian using a special kind of shorthand that he invented himself +eople who study his notebooks
have long been pu''led by something else, however :e usually used Gmirror writing,G starting at the
right side of the page and moving to the left $ot only did 2eonardo write in mirror,image script from
right to left, but he used strange spellings and abbreviations, and his notes were not arranged in any
logical order :e only wrote in the normal direction when he was writing something intended for other
people +eople who were contemporaries of 2eonardo left records saying that they saw him write and
paint left, handed :e also made sketches showing his own left hand at work Being left,handed was
highly unusual in 2eonardo?s time Because people were superstitious, children who naturally started
using their left hands to write and draw were forced to use their right hands
$o one knows why 2eonardo used mirror writing, though several possibilities have been
suggested 4ome believe that he was trying to make it harder for people to read his notes and steal his
ideas "thers think that he was hiding his scientific ideas from the powerful Roman &atholic &hurch,
whose teachings sometimes disagreed with what 2eonardo observed Another possibility is that writing
from left to right was messy because the ink Fust put down would spread as his hand moved across itH
therefore, 2eonardo chose to write in reverse because it prevented smudging "ver =,/// pages of
2eonardo?s scientific and technical observations in his handwritten manuscripts have survived It seems
that 2eonardo planned to publish them as a great encyclopedia of knowledge, but like many of his
proFects, this one was never finished After his death, his notes were scattered among libraries and
collections all over Europe While 2eonardo?s technical treatises on painting were published as early as
IM0I, most of his scientific work remained unknown until the IOth century
29 Color Ther,(y
&olor therapy is the use of color in a variety of ways to promote health and healing 7sed to treat
both physical and emotional problems, color therapy may involve e*posure to colored lights, massages
using color,saturated oils, visuali'ing colors, even wearing colored clothing and eating colored foods
&olor has played a role in healing for centuries In ancient Egypt, patients were treated in rooms
specifically designed to break up the sun?s rays into separate colors In Ira), people also made regular
pilgrimages to the :anging -ardens of Babylon to take advantage of the healing colors of the e*otic
plants and flowers found there In India, practitioners of Ayurveda taught that specific colors
corresponded with the seven chakras, each of which is an energy center that represents organs,
emotions, or aspects of the spirit
:owever, modern,day color theory was born in the late ILth century when 4ir Isaac $ewton did
his prism e*periments and showed that light is a mi*ture of colors from the visible spectrum Although
doctors used color to treat everything from psychological problems to smallpo* over the ne*t hundred
years, interest in colors? effects on healing didn?t really become widespread until IJLJ, when Dr Edwin
Babbitt published his book 9rinciples of Light an! Color In his book, he e*plained his work in
chromatotherapy, that is, healing with colored lights, and suggested it as a treatment for a variety of
ailments, including burns, nervous e*citability, and cold in the e*tremities
+robably the most e*tensive and detailed work on colored light therapy, however, was done by Dr
Dinshah + -hadiali who had studied Babbitt?s work In IO./, he introduced a system of colored lights,
which he named G4pectro,&hromeG lamps #hese were used as a treatment for such diseases as
diabetes, tuberculosis, and chronic gonorrhea Although they were considered logical and effective by
the doctors who succeeded with them, many others regarded them as ridiculous 4till, this work
continues to inspire many color therapists today
In IO=L, 4wiss psychologist Dr !a* 2%scher introduced the 2%scher &olor #est, a form of color
therapy still widely used by many psychologists #he test involves choosing =N colors from a total of
LN possibilities By observing the colors a person chooses or reFects, and the therapist can learn about
his psychological state 3or e*ample, if a person selects darker colors, it suggests a need for rest and
stress reduction At about the same time, Russian researcher 41 5rakov was conducting a series of
e*periments to show how color can affect the nervous system :e observed that red light stimulated the
adrenal glandsH therefore, it raised blood pressure and pulse rate "n the other hand, blue and white
light had a calming effect Although there are still no studies supporting 5rakov?s work, today, many
practitioners recommend color therapy for stress
In recent years, interest in color therapy has grown as studies have shown the positive effects on
different forms of depression !ainstream researchers are looking into its use for a variety of other
illnesses as well, from sleep disorders to hormonal problems In addition, over the past decade, Aura,
4oma, an Eastern,influenced therapy that uses colored bottles of essential oils, has gained popularity
!oreover, Esogetic &olorpuncture #herapy, which focuses colored light on acupuncture points, is
being studied as a treatment for a variety of health problems, including migraines, bronchitis, and
uterine fibroids
22 Cities In The !e,
As the earth?s human population grows rapidly, satisfying basic human needs becomes more
difficult 2iving space and shelter are among our primary re)uirements 4ome parts of the world are
simply running out of room for their increasing populations, and people are beginning to look to the
sea for additional space "ther basic re)uirements of human life are food and natural resources It is no
longer enough to farm and mine the lands of the earth for foodstuffs and minerals &onse)uently, we
have begun to obtain some of the vast mineral and agricultural wealth of the oceans In recent years,
mining and drilling in the sea have added to our stores of oil and gas In addition, deep sea e*ploration
and mining will soon give access to the rare minerals on the ocean floor #here are, therefore, two
reasons why it may become necessary to learn to live in the sea 3irst, we might need some of its
immense area for living space 4econd, we might need to make use of the resources that lie in its
depths #here are already a number of proposals and e*periments that may help to achieve these goals
In the early IOL/s, the >apanese began the construction of A)uapolis on the main >apanese island
of :onshu It is a prototype of futuristic floating cities designed to run on wind, and tidal energy It
uses a biological waste,water system, which disposes of sewage by means of a species of green algae
known as chlorella, rather than by chemical means
#he time may come when floating cities such as A)uapolis e*ist not only as permanent e*tensions
of land,based habitats but also as free,floating platforms #hese would drift from continent to continent
across the deep oceans 4uch cities would permit deep sea miners and their families to live near their
work places on the ocean floor, but at the same time, miners working on the ocean bottom would face a
set of problems "ne such problem would be the enormous pressure e*erted by the ocean at great
depths Another would be the lack of easy access to air
#o study these difficulties, and to test human adaptability to life beneath the sea, scientists have
been carrying out several e*periments within the last century #he first of these was the &onshelf I
:abitat In IOM., a team, directed by >ac)ues,@ves &ousteau, remained at a depth of ten meters in the
!editerranean 4ea for seven days #he results of this e*periment led to the building of the &onshelf II
:abitat, where five oceanauts lived successfully at eleven meters Data from these e*periments made
possible the construction of &onshelf III in IOM=, when two men lived at a depth of IN. meters for
forty,eight hours In the same year #he 7nited 4tates $avy tested 4ealab I, in which four men lived at
a depth of nearly M/ meters for nine days #hey found the environment comfortable at a temperature of
twenty,nine degrees &elsius and a relative humidity of L. percent 3rom these e*periments, scientists
learned that daily swimming at these depths caused oceanauts to show symptoms of stress
In spite of minor drawbacks, those e*periments have proved the possibility of living in the sea
#heir success has encouraged the architect Warren &halk to design an entire underwater city, which
would make ma*imum use of space, and would enable entire human populations to live safely and
comfortably far beneath the sea for long periods
"bviously, deep sea living has its physical dangers and psychological drawbacks like being in
isolation $evertheless, due to the necessity of meeting our primary re)uirements, we may build
underwater cities which may even be connected by advanced systems of communication and
transportation +erhaps our children will live in what futurist Alvin #offler calls Gthe $ew AtlantisG
2' I< or <=
GIf you are lucky, your looks, the right contacts, and a presentable set of )ualifications might get
you on the first step of the career ladder :owever, it?s some other )ualities that will lift you to the top
While your IS Aintelligence )uotientB might get you hired, it?s your ES Aemotional )uotientB that will
get you promoted, says Daniel -oleman in his book Emotional 5ntelligence, which became a best seller
in Fust two weeks after being published in IOOO 2ike IS, ES claims to measure intelligence, but ES
cannot be calculated in numbers It is a comple* mi*ture of the )ualities that make us who we are
Where IS claims to measure pure brainpower, ES embraces all,important factors such as sociability,
optimism and empathy, )ualities that gained significance in the IOO/s,working environment
&o,operation, communication, and the ability to listen to others and to speak one?s mind are all
important aspects of social interaction in modern business, and the most productive workers tend to be
those who are good at motivating themselves and working with m a team C not necessarily the ones
who are ?the most intelligent on paper? +eople with high ISs may be able to solve the most
complicated mathematical formula or scribble symphonies on the back of a cornflakes packet, but they
usually tend to be at a bit of a loss when it comes to understanding how to behave in company C not to
mention being rather boring to have at parties
According to -eraldine Bown, &hief E*ecutive of the Domino -roup, a human resource
management consultancy, one of the most e*citing findings to come out of the ES discovery is the fact
that high ES )ualities are those traditionally associated with a feminine or GsoftG approach to
management G$ow that training gurus are talking about how people need to get in touch with their
intuitive selves, they are sending senior male managers on courses to learn how to understand their
own feelings,G she says GAnd, all the time, they have organisations full of women already well in
touch with theirsT It?s Fust these )ualities that will be advantageous in the futureG
Beverly Alimo, 4enior 2ecturer in "rganisational +sychology at the $uffield Institute for :ealth
has researched leadership )ualities in men and women :er work shows that women are more likely
than men to share power and try to enhance other people?s self,confidence What is more, this ES,
driven style of leadership is so much better suited to modern organisations GWe know women are more
likely to e*hibit a real understanding of human behaviour,G she says G#hey think through the
conse)uences and the effect on others before they actG
According to Dr Ale*is :allam, "ccupational &onsultant +sychologist at &areer Analysts, the
main aspect of emotional intelligence is self,awareness #hinking about how you feel improves your
ability to work well Really understanding how you feel and analy'ing emotions about your work could
also help you make better decisions about your career G!ost people go for e*tra )ualifications to break
through career barriers,G she says GWhat they don?t understand is that in order to move up through
organi'ations, more than e*tra )ualifications and pure brain power is neededG #herefore, ne*t time you
feel inade)uate because you know you?ll never be a rocket scientist, remind yourself that you may, in
fact, be cleverer than you think
2* .gm; More Th,n It !eems
Elevator or background music AB-!B, which is often referred to as G!u'ak,G dominates our
world It is easier to think of places that lack B-! than to list all those where it is found !ost
establishments where we purchase goods, services, food, or drink have B-! !any workplaces like
factories or offices have it, too B-! is currently being marketed for the home in digital stereo as well
B-! is not a modern invention It has been in demand since people started recording music
!oreover, contrary to common belief, it is not composed only by second,rate composers but also by
world,famous composers8 :andel, !o'art, Beethoven, and other masters produced music that was
intended for GbackgroundG listening, often for dinner parties of the aristocracy "ne maFor difference
between former times and recent times is that today B-! is more affordable and available #he
widespread and increasing presence of commercial B-! shows that B-! is very effective in
changing human behavior 3or e*ample, one study of the effectiveness of music in supermarkets
showed that the use of slow music increased sales 4hoppers stayed in the store longer and purchased
more #he average gain of each supermarket was between PI.,/// and PIM,///, an increase of nearly
=/R
Why might the use of music be so effective throughout societyE "ne very strong possibility is the
powerful influence of music on the communication and creation of emotions and moods !oreover,
music may provide a form of non,verbal communication whose message cannot be e*pressed in words
#hus, music can rapidly and powerfully set moods in a way that cannot be achieved by other means
!oreover, sound can spread through a place and reach all potential audiences simultaneously #his
is something achieved by visual images only in special circumstances, as in a cinema :owever, here
too, B-! has an important role If you think for a moment, you will probably reali'e that without
music, the impact of a movie would be dramatically reduced !oreover, researchers have shown that
filmed events can be remembered significantly better when they are accompanied by music,
particularly music that fits the mood of the visual images
B-! is also effective in altering and directing people?s opinions 3or e*ample, market
researchers, who advise advertising agencies and their clients, make a clear distinction between
purchasing situations8 some re)uire the use of high cognitive processes while others re)uire low
cognitive processes but with high emotional involvement What do Fewelry, sportswear, cosmetics, and
beer have in commonE #hey are rated as fitting the latter category, ie, not much thought but plenty of
feelings !usic has been shown to be )uite effective in increasing the purchase of these products "n
the other hand, music seems to be much less effective when one is trying to sell a +&, a camera, or
insurance, which are Ghigh cognitiveG items
#he fact that B-! has strong effects on behavior by communicating moods and emotions is
supported by studies like those proving the impact of music on the purchase of consumer goods #hus,
we should maintain an awareness of the powerful effects of music on human emotions
20 Ancient Artif,cts And Ancient Air
Archeologists made an e*citing discovery in Egypt in IO0= During an e*cavation
I
near the base
of the -reat +yramid, they uncovered an ancient crypt, or an underground room #hey believed that
this discovery would help us understand Egypt?s past #hey also hoped that it would give us important
information about the future
#his crypt was a tomb Aie a burial placeB for a dead Egyptian king :istorians believed that the
Egyptians buried their kings with two boats8 one to carry the body and the other to carry the soul #his
was one of their religious customs about death #herefore, the archeologists e*pected to find two boats
inside the crypt As they opened the crypt, they smelled the scent of wood #he ancient Egyptians had
closed the room so effectively that the aroma of the cedar wood was still there Inside the crypt,
archeologists found a =,M//,year,old boat that was in almost perfect condition In addition, they found
another crypt ne*t to the first one Archeologists and historians believed that this crypt contained the
second boat If so, they would have better information about the past #hey would be sure about the
religious custom of burying kings with two boats
:owever, this was not the only information they hoped to find #hey wondered if the air in the two
rooms contained something special that helped to preserve the wood from changing Researchers
hoped to find some clues about the future by carefully e*amining the air in the second crypt #hey
thought that this information could help them in the preservation of ancient artifacts AobFectsB in
museums throughout the world When the archeologists opened the first crypt, all the old air escaped
#hey wanted to recover the air in the second crypt to compare it with the present air, and then e*amine
the differences, especially differences in the level of carbon dio*ide &areful planning would be
necessary in order to open the second crypt and save the air In fact, it took years to plan the e*cavation
and to design and make the e)uipment necessary to open the second crypt and collect the air inside it
3inally, in "ctober IOJM, an international team of scientists and archeologists, using special
e)uipment, opened a hole in the roof of the crypt #hey sealed the hole they had made #hat is, they
carefully closed it so as to prevent the air inside the second crypt from escaping #hen, they took an air
sample #he air inside was the same as the one outside #he scientists were very disappointed but they
continued working to see what was inside the crypt Attached at the end of a long rope, a light and a
camera were lowered through the small hole, and the archeologists looked at the inside of the room on
a television monitor #he second boat was really thereT
1
Excavation: reoving eart that is covering very old objects buried in the ground.
After the scientists and archeologists took samples of the air inside and photographed it
completely, they closed up the hole in the roof and left the crypt as they had found it Although they
were disappointed about their findings of the air inside the crypt, they were able to prove the Egyptian
custom of burying kings with two boats !ore importantly, they practiced a new, nondestructive
approach to archeology8 investigate an ancient location, photograph it and leave it untouched After
e*amining the photographs they had taken, scientists and archeologists reali'ed that the second boat
was not as well preserved as the first one #hey thought that this might be due to the construction of the
museum after the first e*cavation After archeologists had opened the first crypt years ago and removed
the boat, the Egyptian government had built a museum on the site of the first boat During the
construction of the museum, the vibrations from the heavy machinery had probably damaged the
second crypt and destroyed the seal, so the second boat was not in perfect condition
#he investigation of the second chamber taught archeologists a valuable lesson $ew e*cavations
will not only use modern technology but also follow the idea of preserving the entire location for future
studies
21 >)st As #ood As The Origin,l=
In IOLO, the painter #om 5eating was arrested and charged with forgery :e was accused of faking
and selling a painting by 4amuel +almer, an early nineteenth,century British artist Everyone in the art
world was shocked when 5eating admitted faking more than .,/// paintings by various artists over a
period of ./ years :e couldn?t remember the e*act number $or could he remember whom he had sold
them to, which meant that many of his fakes could not be traced As a young man, 5eating had been
employed by art dealers to make copies of paintings by well,known artists whose original paintings
sold for high prices :e was paid very little for this work and assumed that his paintings were also
being sold for low prices because they were copies :e then discovered by chance that the dealers who
employed him were selling his copies as originals for hundreds of times the price that they paid him
#his e*perience made him very angry, and he decided to teach them a lesson in his own way :e set
about producing large numbers of fakes by over I// artists as he was sure that most art dealers and art
critics could not tell the difference between the genuine and the fake
5eating had a rather casual attitude to his paintings :e often gave them away or sold them
cheaply !any unsuspecting people thought they had picked up a bargain from him In fact, he had not
made himself rich, but he took great delight in fooling so,called e*perts What he wrote on the canvas
also reflected his sense of humor Before starting to paint, he would write the word ?3A5E? or
?5EA#I$-? or sometimes a vulgar word #he word would be covered by paint but would show up if
anyone took the trouble to U,ray the paintings :aving U,rayed paintings, some famous museums
discreetly removed 5eatings from their walls Although he faked paintings by many artists, 5eating
speciali'ed in the works of 4amuel +almer 7nfortunately, +almer?s genuine output was )uite small,
much less than 5eatings, and soon the number of ?previously unknown? or ?Fust discovered? +almers
coming on to the market began to arouse suspicion :e admitted in court that he was rather ashamed of
the particular painting he had been charged with faking8 it wasn?t up to his usual standard :e admitted
everything and took great delight in showing the greed of the dealers #hey had once e*ploited him and
cheated their customers :e did not go to prison, as the charges against him were dropped because of
his poor health After the trial, which had received a lot of publicity, he became very well,known and
appeared Mn television :e actually painted a 4amuel +almer in about half an hour in the television
studio, with the whole process being filmed 2ater, he had his own television series in which he taught
his painting techni)ues #here is no doubt that 5eating had remarkable talent, and at the end of his life
he received many orders for his own work $owadays, even his fakes sell for )uite high prices
24 The %e,ling Power Of M)sic
!arianne 4trebely, severely inFured in a car accident, lay in the operating room of 4t 2uke?s
:ospital in &leveland, awaiting anesthesia 4urrounded by a surgical team, 4trebely was hooked up to
a computer that monitored her heart rate and brain waves 4he was also hooked up, by earphones, to a
tape recorder playing 1ivaldi?s #he 3our 4easons During the operation, the surgical team listened to
!o'art and Brahms from another tape recorder G!usic reduces staff tension in the operating room,G
says Dr &lyde 2 $ash, >r, 4trebely?s surgeon, Gand also rela*es the patientG $ash is one of many
physicians around the country who have found that music, used with conventional therapies, can heal
the sick Dr !athew : ! 2ee, acting director of the Rusk Rehabilitation Institute at $ew @ork
7niversity !edical &enter, adds, GWe?ve seen confirmation of the benefits of music in helping to avoid
serious complications during illness, enhancing patients? well,being, and shortening hospital staysG
:ow does music helpE 4ome studies show it can regulate blood pressure and respiration rates, thus
lessening physiological responses to stress "ther studies suggest music may increase production of
endorphins Anatural pain relieversB and 4,lgA Asalivary immunoglobulin AB 4,lgA speeds healing,
reduces the danger of infection, and controls heart rate !usic therapy is proving especially effective in
three key medical areas8
+ain, an*iety, and depression8 GWhen I had my first baby,G ,says 4usan 5oletsky of 4haker
:eights, "hio, GI was in difficult labor for two days #he second time around, I wanted to avoid the
painG Rela*ing Fa'' calmed her in the delivery roomH Bach and Beethoven paced her during
contractionsH finally, the closing movement of Brahms?s 4ymphony $ol energi'ed her while she was
giving birth G#he music produced a much easier e*perience,G she claims #he ama'ing power of music
as a way of therapy can also be observed on cancer patients during their bout with the illness #hese
people often brood in their hospital rooms, refusing to talk with doctors and nurses G#he music therapy
helps them to have a positive outlook #his makes it easier for them to communicate and encourages
them to cooperate more in their treatment,G says Dr $athan A Berger, director of the Ireland &ancer
&enter at 7niversity :ospitals of &leveland
!ental, emotional, and physical handicaps8 #he Ivymount 4chool in Rockville, Illinois, helps
youngsters with developmental problems ranging from emotional disturbances to mental retardation,
autism, and learning disabilities Ruthlee Adler, a music therapist for more than ./ years, uses songs
and dance to help the children learn and cope GWhile the seriously handicapped may ignore other
kinds of stimulation, they respond to music,G she says
$eurological disorders8 Dr "liver 4acks, whose work with sleeping,sickness victims led to the
book and movie Awakenings, reports that patients with neurological disorders who cannot talk or move
are often able to sing, and sometimes even dance, to music G#he power of music is remarkable in such
people,G 4acks observes In a group session for elderly patients at Beth Abraham :ospital in $ew @ork
&ity, a L/,year,old stroke victim sat by himself, never speaking "ne day, when therapist &onnie
#omaino played an old >ewish folk song on her accordion, the man hummed #omaino played the tune
regularly after that 3inally, the man sang some of the words GBefore you knew it,G says #omaino, Ghe
was talkingG
3ew people understand the therapeutic powers of music better than &leveland music therapist
Deforia 2ane #en years ago, during her own struggle with cancer, singing helped her rela* and take
her mind off the disease 4ince then, she has used that e*perience to help others G!usic is not magic,G
says the ==,year,old therapist with the warm smile and rich soprano voice GBut in a hospital or at
home, for young people or older ones, it can be a potent medicine that helps us allG "f course, music?s
therapeutic benefits aren?t only confined to those who are ill Apart from the simple enFoyment that
music provides, we should see how much it could help us in our daily lives It is obvious that, during
the day, music gives our minds a break as it lets us focus on something else for a few minutes and helps
us to cope with daily problems more effectively #o gain the full benefit of music, all we have to do is
to work it into our daily schedule
C$LT$&
25 ?w,n/,,
5wan'aa is a modern festival celebrated by African Americans It comes from traditional African
agricultural festivals In fact, the name ?5wan'aa? comes from the 4wahili word for ?first fruit? #his
modern festival started in &alifornia in the 7nited 4tates in the IOM/s because some black people
wanted to celebrate their original history and culture in their new country #oday, black people all over
the country take part in this special event as they want their children to value their African,American
history 5wan'aa is not a religious festival, but a festival that celebrates several important ideas or
principlesCprinciples like unity, cooperation and creativity #he festival lasts for seven days starting
on .M December +eople light candles, give gifts, and talk about one special principle each day "n
each night there is a dance, and on the final night there is a big feast #hat is, people have a large
special meal all together
As 5wan'aa becomes popular, it is also becoming more commerciali%e!, a lot of people are
making money from this festival #here are now 5wan'aa cards, books on 5wan'aa, 5wan'aa poetry
and recipes +arents are buying more e*pensive gifts for their children $ow there is also G$ia 7moFa?,
a kind old man, rather like 3ather &hristmas It was first thought of by the organi%ers in the late IOJ/s
to attract children to the festival
#he festival may at first seem to be held Fust for fun, but actually the principle of cooperation
helps the serious side of 5wan'aa because people collect food and clothes for the poor 5wan'aa is an
interesting balance of African and modern American influences
27 Picking A((lesA New ngl,nd Tr,dition
#hroughout $ew England, people know that fall has arrived when the !acintosh apples begin to
turn red in the orchards in early 4eptember After the GmacG apples come the &ordands, the Empires,
the !c&oons, and, finally, the -olden Delicious All through 4eptember and "ctober, the aroma of
ripe, fully grown, apples fills the air on sunny daysCan invitation to come picking
A day of apple picking is, in fact, a popular way to spend a fall day in $ew England 3rom
&onnecticut to !aine, it is generally possible to find an orchard within an hour?s drive, and the trip is
well worth the time $ot only will it provide you with plenty of the freshest apples to be found, but it
will also give you a chance to take in some sunshine and autumn scenery and get some e*ercise #he
picking is usually best done by adults &hildren should not climb up into trees and risk hurting
themselves and damaging the treesCyounger members of the family can have fun Fust romping around
the orchard
#he picking may not take longCtwo hours at mostCbut many of the orchard owners now offer
other kinds of entertainment At some orchards, you can go for pony rides or ride on a hay,filled
wagon @ou may be able to watch a horse,show or visit the cows or sheep in the pasture @ou may also
decide to take a hike and have a picnic along a country lane 4ome orchards have set up refreshment
stands in their barns where you can taste local products, such as apple cider and homemade baked
goods
A few hints;
9@ C,ll -efore yo) go@ &heck the local newspaper for the names and locations of orchards which
offer pick,your,own apples #hen phone to find out their hours, since they may change from one
orchard to another
@ou should also ask about the rules regarding bags arid containers !ost orchards provide bags,
but a few do not, and some will allow only certain types of containers8
2@ Check in when yo) ,rri3e@ Before you start picking, you should check with the orchard owner
about which varieties are ripe in that period, and which parts of the orchard are open for picking
Respect the owner?s privacy, and do not go where you are not allowedT
'@ Pick c,ref)lly@ When you pick the apples, treat them gently 4ome orchard owners advise
pickers to treat the apples as though they were eggs If they bruise, they will spoil more )uickly #he
techni)ue for picking is simple8 hold the apple firmly but not too tightly and twist it off the branch,
taking care to leave the stem attached, since removal of the stem will also cause rot
*@ DonAt w,ste ,((les@ Be careful to pick only the apples you need @ou may be tempted and pick
too many of the delicious looking fruit since you are attracted to it, and then find that the apples go bad
before you can eat them 4ince the apple season lasts for almost two months, you can always return for
another load of apples later
0@ ?ee( wh,t yo) (ickB "nce you take an apple off the tree, you must keep it It?s not fair to the
orchard owner to leave apples on the ground where they will )uickly spoil
1@ !tore yo)r ,((les (ro(erly@ +ut your apples in the refrigerator as soon as you get home
4tudies by the 1ermont Department of Agriculture have shown that apples last seven times longer
when kept under refrigeration
If you do pick too many apples to eat in a week or two, you could try free'ing them to use later in
pies and cakes 4imply peel, core, and slice them, and then put them in airtight plastic bags #hey may
be kept in the free'er for up to a year
': Men in skirts
In Europe men do not wear skirts, but the 4cottish national costume for men is a kind of skirt It is
called a ?kilt? #he 4cottish are proud of their country and its history, and they feel that the kilt is part of
their history #hat is why a lot of men still wear kilts at traditional dances and on national holidays
#hey believe they are wearing the same clothes that 4cottish men always wore in the past
In the early days, 4cottish men wore a kind of long shirt that went below their knees #hey wore
long socks and a big wool blanket around their shoulders #hese clothes were warm and comfortable
for working outside on a farm, but they were not so good when men started working in factories in the
ILN/s, so a factory owner changed the blanket into a skirt8 the kilt #hat was the first kilt
In the late IL//s, 4cottish soldiers in the British Army began to wear kilts "ne reason for this was
national feeling8 #he 4cottish soldiers wanted to look different from the English soldiers #hey fought
hard and became famous and in the early IJ//s, men all around 4cotland began to wear kilts
#he first kilts had colorful stripes going up and down and across In 4cotland, this pattern is called
a ?tartan? 2ater, the cloth with this pattern was also called tartan #he pattern of all the kilts was the
same, but they had different colors which were important to 4cottish families By the early IJ//s, most
4cottish families had special colors for their kilts and the men always wore these colors on their kilts
'9 &it),ls Of M,rri,ge In Americ,n C)lt)re
In the 74, before a young couple gets married, there are two social rituals which are usually
performed before the day of the wedding 3or young women, it is the bridal shower and for her
prospective husband, it is the stag party
#he bridal shower is the more conservative of the two rituals, with the future bride as the centre of
attention It is customarily organi'ed by her sister or best friend and attended,only by women, usually
family and friends It is usually organi'ed as a surprise party, and the bride doesn?t know its time and
location until the very last minute Everyone brings along a gift which will be useful in setting up a
home In recent years, however, it has become an acceptable custom to give a monetary gift sealed in
an envelope
3or the future husband, the stag party may contain more e*citement and fewer gifts #his will be
his last chance to have an all,night party in town with his close friends "nly men are invited to this
party, and rightly so, since some of the pleasures of the evening may not be appropriate for a proper
woman?s taste In most cases, however, it may be nothing more than a night of bar,hopping and talking
about the good times shared with friends in the past
In addition to bridal showers and stag parties, there are other rituals and traditions concerning
marriage in America 3or e*ample, the groom must never see his bride in her wedding dress before the
ceremony In some cases, they must not even speak or meet with one another the day before the
wedding Rice throwing at a wedding is also a popular tradition because rice is an ancient symbol of
prosperity Another reason may be the very ancient superstition that at the wedding there are evil spirits
which are believed to be flying about the couple #hrowing rice at them could keep these evil spirits
busily eating and away from the groom, of whom they are Fealous
'2 A-origines; The N,ti3e A)str,li,ns
#he Australian Aborigines came to Australia from Indonesia 0/,/// years ago 4cientists think that
at one time there was a land bridge between Australia and Asia #hey believe that Aborigines traveled
south over this bridge #hen there were changes in the Earth and the land between Australia and Asia
became islands
Australia is a difficult land to live in It has no river systems and it does not rain very much But
the Aborigines learned to live in the desert #hey hunted animals and insects for food In the cold areas,
they wore warm clothes made from kangaroo skins #hey usually slept outside by a fire with their dogs
nearby
Aborigines were nomads8 they went from one place to another #hey did not think they owned the
land, but they taught their children that they belonged to the land #he Aborigines didn?t have a written
language Instead, they had an oral tradition #here were M// groups, and each spoke its own language
#here were N//,/// Aborigines when white people arrived in Australia #he ?new? Australians
began to build and live on tribal lands, and the number of Aboriginal people fell greatly #oday, most
Aborigines live in cities and towns or in isolated places
'' The !h,kers
G4hake it up baby #wist and shout,G was sung by Beatles, but it was practised almost two hundred
years earlier by a religious group called G#he 7nified 4ociety of BelieversG #his religious group, led
by Ann 2ee, came to America from !anchester, England, in ILL= looking for a place to freely practise
their religious belief Eventually, they became known as G#he 4hakersG because the believers
worshipped by singing, dancing and whirling around
#he 4hakers were a peaceful community that welcomed people of all races #hey were against war
and lived in their own villages separate from the rest of society #hey lived communally, that is, sharing
their property and working for the common good #he )ualities they admired were kindness,
generosity, modesty, purity, cleanliness, and love for humanity #heir villages of plain white houses
were very neat Even the roads were swept clean
#he 4hakers are probably best known for their celibacy
.
and hard work 4ingle men and women
did not marry !arried couples who Foined the 4haker community had to live in separate houses In the
4haker community, males and females lived and worked separately as Brothers and 4isters #hey never
shook hands or touched each other in any way When conversation between a man and a woman was
necessary, it was done in the company of others !ales and females sat opposite each other when they
came together once a day for conversation and singing Even when they danced and whirled around
during worship, men and women always kept their distance
As might be e*pected, the 4haker style of dressing was modest, simple and plain, and their clothes
were dark in colour #he women combed their hair back under a cap and wore long dresses with a cloth
that covered the chest !en wore dark pants and simple coats It was e*tremely unusual to see these
celibate people wearing bright or attractive clothing
G+ut your hands to work and your hearts to -od,G said Ann 2ee to her followers #he 4hakers took
this seriously and worked very hard In order to be self,sufficient, the 4hakers grew their own food,
wove their own cloth and made their own tools, utensils and handicrafts #hey made chairs, buttons,
tubs, baskets, smoking pipes, pens, brooms, brushes, hats, shoes and hand,woven coats Although
simple and plain, these were of the highest )uality
2
celibacy8 having no se*, usually because of religious beliefs
$ot only were the 4hakers industrious, but they were creative and inventive as well 7nlike some
other religious groups, the 4hakers liked technology and labour saving devices #heir long list of
inventions and improvements includes such items as the first garden seeds packaged in paper and
machines such as a revolving oven and a wood,burning stove
Although it may seem that the 4haker life was all rules, work and worship, it was not without Foy
#hey spent pleasant hours picking fruit, walking in the woods, going for carriage rides, and laughing
together C in separate groups, of course
"ver the years, the original 4haker community in $ew @ork e*panded to twenty,four scattered
communities among eight states in the eastern 74 !any people were attracted to their peaceful ways
and clean crime,free villages Eventually, the 4hakers paid the price for their celibacy8 they didn?t have
any children to carry on their traditions and beliefs, and their numbers became fewer #oday, their
villages are museums and their handicrafts are items for collectors
34 Visiting Japan
1isiting >apan can be a very interesting e*perience >apan is an unusual mi*ture of the traditional
and ultra,modern #his can be confusing for the visitor because, although it looks )uite Western, >apan
is still in many ways very "riental 3or e*ample, whenever you go into a house, you must take off your
shoes 4ometimes your host will provide you with slippers If he doesn?t, you walk round in your socks
A visitor should also e*pect, in more traditional houses, hotels, and restaurants, to eat kneeling down
on the floor on a cushion in front of a low table It?s a good idea to get used to eating with chopsticks,
but, if you can?t manage, ask for a knife and fork #he >apanese are e*tremely polite and hospitable8
you can nearly always find someone who speaks English ready to help you
If you are planning to go to >apan, you should consider the weather >apan has four distinct
seasons In summer, the country is very hot and humid, so anyone planning a trip then ought to take
light, comfortable clothes with them Winter in >apan is cold, but it?s not too bad If you like skiing,
especially, going there in >anuary and 3ebruary is a good idea !ost people agree that the best time to
travel in >apan is early,April or late,"ctober #he temperatures are mild, and there is not too much rain
at that time
#he maFority of tourists go to #okyo, but you ought not to miss the chance of visiting the old
capital cities of 5yoto and $ara 3rom #okyo you can get to 5yoto in three hours on the ?4hinkansen?
super,e*press If you are driving, it is important to remember that in >apan you have to drive on the
left,hand side of the road #o get round the sights, you can hire a bicycle for .0/ yen an hour
3or a change from Western,style hotels, you ought to try one of the traditional inns, ?Ryokan?
Instead of a bed, you?ll sleep on the floor on a ?futon? mattress and cover spread over the ?tatami? floor
mat #o rela* at the end of a hard day?s touring, you should enFoy a long soak in the ?ofuro?Cthe
traditional >apanese hot bath before trying a delicious >apanese meal
'0 >,(,nese C)lt)re
>apan is an unusual mi*ture of traditional and ultra,modern Although it looks )uite western, it is
still oriental in many ways
Lifestyle
A lot of >apanese households consist of both one or more traditional >apanese style rooms with
tatami floors and modern rooms that usually have wooden floors #atami mats on the floors are made
of straw and measure roughly IJ/ cm * O/ cm @ou should always take off your slippers and step on
tatami mats only in socks or barefoot in order to protect them from damage In traditional homes,
people sleep on the floor on a GfutonG mattress which is laid on the floor only during the night and kept
in a closet during the daytime so the bedroom can then also function as a living or dining room #o
rela* at the end of a hard day, they enFoy a long soak bath in the GofuroG,the traditional >apanese hot
bath, which is usually ne*t to the kitchen
Food ,nd ,ting
In >apan, some restaurants and private houses have >apanese style tables and cushions on the floor
In a traditional >apanese house, a visitor should also e*pect to eat on the floor on a cushion in front of a
low table #he >apanese usually eat with chopsticks but they have knives and forks for visitors #he
>apanese say that food must be tasted with the eyes before it is tasted with the mouth #he >apanese
cuisine offers a great variety of dishes and regional specialties such as rice dishes, seafood dishes,
noodle dishes and soy bean dishes Rice dishes have until recently been the most important food in the
>apanese cuisine Despite changes in eating patterns over the last decades and slowly decreasing rice
consumption in recent years, rice remains one of the most important ingredients in >apan today, and can
be found in numerous dishes 4ushi is the most famous >apanese dish outside of >apan, and one of the
most popular dishes among the >apanese themselves who usually enFoy sushi on special occasions #he
>apanese have a tea ceremony called 4ado It is a ritual way of preparing and drinking tea #he custom
has been strongly influenced by Ven Buddhism $owadays, the tea ceremony is a relatively popular
kind of hobby !any >apanese, who are interested in their own culture, take tea ceremony lessons with
a teacher #ea ceremonies are held in traditional >apanese rooms in cultural community centers or
private houses
Tr,dition,l >,(,nese dresses
5imonos are traditional >apanese clothing 5imonos are made of silk and are usually very
e*pensive $owadays, they are worn at formal or traditional occasions, such as funerals, weddings or
tea ceremonies 5imonos can still sometimes be seen in daily life 5imonos differ in style and color
depending on the occasion on which they are worn and the age and marital status of the person wearing
them #o put on a kimono needs some practice Especially tying the belt AobiB alone is difficult, so
many people re)uire assistance Wearing a kimono properly includes a proper hair style, traditional
shoes, socks, and a small handbag for women
'1 &om,nies; 9+::: 6e,rs on the &o,d
-ypsies in England have an annual fair where horses are bought and sold In the first week of
>une, the larger part of Britain?s L0,/// gypsy population gathers at the town of Appleby for the famous
horse fair for horse dealing During this time, silver caravans and trailers arrive at the site C one of the
world?s very few remaining displays of gypsy culture #ravelers have been coming to Appleby for
hundreds of years References to the fair itself are found as early as IILM and it is believed that gypsies
started to attend it in the INth century
#hroughout the year, gypsies travel around Britain, working and taking part in other fairs 3rom
Appleby, the gypsies move on to another town, 4t Boswell?s on the 4cotish border, and on to
&ambridge, shire to pick strawberries there #hen they head for the 4tow,on,the,Wold and Barnet fairs
#hat?s it until the ne*t season, which begins with a week of horse racing at Epsom #he Epsom Derby
race is the main horse racing event of the gypsy calendar As the saying goes, G@ou?re not a proper
gypsy if you don?t go to EpsomG
What makes a gypsyE #his has proven to be a very difficult )uestion to answer It seems that the
gypsy people left northern India in the I/th century, gradually working their way westwards and
picking up parts of different languages and various cultures along the way #he use of the word
GgypsyG as a description for Romany people actually came about by mistake When these mysterious
dark,haired people began arriving in England in the !iddle Ages, people assumed that they came from
Egypt -ypsy is a modification of the word Egyptian #he gypsy people are described using the word
GRomG, which includes all descendants of the people who left India a thousand years ago #oday, it is
believed that there are around I0 million Romanies in the world !any do not reveal their gypsy roots
to avoid the trouble it can bring them #hey conceal their language too In England in the IMth century,
the punishment for speaking Romany was death
-ypsies and non,gypsies often do not trust each other In fact, gypsy customs are rarely revealed
and outsiders are hardly ever accepted into the gypsy communities -ypsies are nomadic people, who
do not lead settled lives, and they claim to be a specific people, a nation among nations !ost people
despise gypsies for their lifestyle :owever, gypsies are proud of themselves and have maintained their
lifestyle of traveling and working, along with their customs and religion through the centuries #hey
will undoubtedly continue to do so in the future
'4 The 6,nom,mi Of The Am,/on
#he @anomami people live in the Ama'on forest between 1ene'uela and Bra'il #hey live in the
tropical forest far away from other people #here are about ./,/// of them in .// villages Before
scientists visited them, they didn?t know anything about other people in 4outh America, about the
government, or about modern life #hey even did not know whether they lived in Bra'il or 1ene'uela
#hey lived in their own world
All of the @anomami?s materials and food came from the forest #here was really no need for
clothes so they only wore a few leaves for clothes #he @anomami people of the Ama'on have survived
for thousands of years by hunting and fishing in the Ama'on River #here wasn?t enough area in the
forest for farming so they didn?t grow any crops at all #hey ate bananas and palm fruit and the animals
they hunted As they ate healthy food, they never got ill #hey used stone a*es and bamboo knives to
hunt and catch fish with
In the late IO=/s, scientists started to visit the @anomami often #hey wanted to study them for an
unusual reason #he @anomami are some of the most violent people on earth #hey get angry )uickly
and stay angry for years #hey fre)uently fight and kill each other so there is always a war between
villages 4cientists want to know why the @anomami make war when other groups of people live
together and do not make war
#oday the life of the @anomami is changing very fast #hey wear clothes now #hey have learnt to
eat different kinds of food with salt and fat from visitors that come from the modern world :owever,
this food is bad for the @anomami and makes them sick Every time they get something new, they want
more modem things :owever, the modern things are killing the @anomami In the IOL/s, gold was
discovered in the area and many modern companies went there for gold #here were about J/,///
miners from big cities in the area by IOJL #hey worked under the ground to find gold #he miners
brought many diseases like hepatitis and tuberculosis, which killed many of the @anomami people
#hey also cut down trees in the forest for wood In IOOI, Bra'il and 1ene'uela made the @anomami
land into a park, so that no one could mine for gold or cut trees on this land any more #he Bra'ilian
and 1ene'uelan governments have also attempted to save the @anomami in other ways
'5 !$&INAM
4uriname, home to a spectrum of native, Asian, African and European cultures struggling to build
a common future, is 4outh America?s youngest nation It was founded as a colony by the British in
IM0/ and then it became Dutch in IMML #oday, 4uriname?s population of =N/,/// is made up of NLR
:industani, NIR &reole Ami*ed African and European ancestorsB, I0R >avenese, I/R !aroon and the
rest Indian and &hinese O/R of the population lives along a narrow strip of fertile land that stretches
along the Atlantic coast :ere, people of African and European origins live together with people who
have &hinese, Indian and Indonesian origins and +aramaribo, the capital, reflects this diversity +eople
are tolerant of one another?s religion and culture !os)ues and synagogues stand ne*t to :indu
temples !usic is heard everywhere and it?s as varied as the people8 reggae, :indi film songs, and
4urinamese Afro, pop
In the early years of their rule, the Dutch were often very harsh to the natives In more recent
years, though, they were so generous that the colony enFoyed Whe highest standard of living in 4outh
America Indeed, when 4uriname gained its independence from the $etherlands in IOL0, =/,///
4urinamers, nearly half the workforce, chose the option of Dutch citi'enship 4oon after that, they
moved to the $etherlands #his brain,drain made the already bad economy worse, since many who had
left were from the professional classes After IOL0, the country e*perienced a military dictatorship and
a civil war, as a result of which the Dutch financial aid was stopped 4uriname was so badly in need of
cash that it was considering selling off =/R of its forest to Asian logging companies :owever, with
the help of &onservation International A&IB, the government was convinced that long,term commercial
alternatives, like ecotourism, would be much more profitable than selling its forests #herefore,
4uriname and &I announced the creation of the &entral 4uriname $ature Reserve, a four,million,acre
preserved area that covers I/R of the country
#oday, 4uriname is known to be a country of rain forests Because it lacks roads and rails,
4uriname?s interior, where the 4uriname $ature Reserve is located, can only be crossed by airplane
4uch areas protect wildlife and offer forest people the promise of income from ecotourism $early
I/,/// native Indians live in riverside villages, largely dependent on the forest #hese forests are home
to L// bird species and =,0// plant species As the country is so rich in plants, the people?s knowledge
of the medicinal properties of the plants is incalculable
In the north of 4uriname, logging and mining are two important sources of income #imber and
gold attract foreigners with promises of fortune 2ogging is tightly controlled, but as a result of illegal
mining to smuggle gold to Bra'il and 3rench -uiana, much of the habitat has been destroyed
#oday, most 4urinamers have reali'ed that they must depend on one another if they want to move
forward In the end, it has become clear to them that the forest is the best alternative for a young nation
an*iously in search of itself
'7 .,r,s,n, Indi,ns of The ",)(es
#he 1aupes region lies near the E)uator on the border of &olombia and Bra'ilH the River 1aupes,
rising from close to the Andes, flows east to Foin the Rio $egro, a tributary of the Ama'on In clearings
on the banks of the river live some fifteen thousand Ama'onian Indians who make their living by
hunting, fishing and agriculture #hey are divided into many small groups, each of which speaks its
own language Despite this, all the group languages belong to a common family called #ukanoan
2egends of the 1aupes Indians suggest they came from the East, but some carvings on the rocks
indicate that they have been in the region for a long time
#he Barasana, who are the most well,known group of Ama'onian Indians, have no villagesH
instead, small groups of people live in malocas Acommunal housesB, each one separated from its
neighbors by about an hour?s Fourney +eople in nearby malocas often visit each other to attend dances
and wedding ceremonies !ore distant people are rarely visited and often regarded with suspicion
Indians prefer to build malocas close to the bigger rivers where fishing is good and travel is easy 3rom
the air, the large gardens, or chagras, around the malocas look like light green holes in the forest Each
maloca is surrounded by a cleared space or pla'a Behind the house are smaller gardens for special
plants used for medicines and drugs, peppers for cooking and tobacco Banana trees around the pla'a
provide fruit and their leaves are used for serving food
#he lives of Barasana men and women are sharply divided Inside the maloca they use different
doors and carry out their separate tasks in different areas "utside, women work in the gardens, and
men in the forest and on the rivers #he world of women revolves round the care of children, growing
crops and manioc, a type of plant with large roots #he process re)uired to turn manioc into food is
lengthy and time,consuming, but the root does produce a good crop in poor soil, and many different
foods can be made from it
#hough the groups have names like the #ukano, &ubeo, Desena, and Barasana, they are not really
independent tribesH they share a common culture and a way of life because each group intermarries
with its neighbors &hildren are taught to speak their father?s language but they know their mother?s
perfectly, too Adults always speak in their own language but as they also know up to five others, they
have no difficulty in understanding each other "n marriage a young man builds himself a compartment
inside the maloca When his wife has a child, he must stay with her in the compartment for ten days,
fasting and avoiding work When children reach the age of 0, they spend much of their time playing
with other children of the maloca "lder children, especially older sisters, are e*pected to look after
younger ones &hildren do not go to school but learn by playing together, watching their parents and
working with them By the time they are si*, young girls begin to help their mothers &ompared to
girls, boys are freer #hey swim in the rivers and practice hunting with miniature bows and arrows, or
blowpipes 2ater they begin to hunt and fish more seriously, bringing small birds and fish to their
mothers to cook Women often go with their husbands and children to visit their parents and brothers in
neighboring malocasH their husbands usually take along gifts of food or baskets to give to their in,laws
At sunrise and dusk men sit out in the pla'a talking with their wives and playing with their children, a
family time that contrasts with their separation for the rest of the day
#he Indians? religion is based on myths or stories about the beginning of time which they believe
to be true #hey say that the sun made the world in the form of a big maloca In the beginning there
were no people #he first ancestors, the sun?s children, came into the world through the front door in
the east, and swam up river in the form of anacondas, giant water snakes As they traveled, they
stopped at the rapids on the way to dance and sing &arved on the rocks in the rivers there are strange
figures and patterns, said to have been left there by the first people When they got to the 1aupes
region, the anacondas turned into people Each anaconda made people of a different language
*: The Moh,n,
#he !ohana fishermen of central +akistan are one of the oldest societies in human history #hey
lead a life that has not altered ?for 0,/// years #hey live in houseboats that are attached to each other
by ropes to form floating villages on the banks of the River Indus in the region of 4ind 3ew other
living creatures survive there #he climate is unpredictable and travelling down the river is too
dangerous #he !ohana live as they have always lived8 each person?s role in the society is determined
#here are three castes, which are determined by the traditional river trades8 fishing, boat building and
ferrying #he fishermen, or the shikari, are the most unusual #hey fish in the shallow waters along the
sides of the river for catfish and turtles #his is no easy task8 the alluvial currents make it almost
impossible to locate the fish #he solution is to use herons, a kind of large bird
:erons have oils on the surface of their eyes that function as colour filters #hese enable them to
detect fish below the surface of the water, which they then dive for and catch :owever, a trained heron
will stand still above the fish instead of diving ?#he fisherman approaches the heron in a boat, Fumps
into the water and traps the fish in a net known as the kulari #he !ohana have never kept herons in
captivity #here are so many in the region that it is not necessary Instead, they train fully,grown
specimens #he idea of training herons may seem impossible to Europeans, but for the !ohana, this is
a part of everyday life
Despite their skills, the shikari, who make up nearly two,thirds of the !ohana people, are the
lowest in rank among the three castes Above them are the kurnangar, or carpenters, who build both
the rowing boats and the houseboats in which the !ohana live #he highest caste of all is the
mir.amar, who ferry, or carry, cargoes by boat to the northern and southern parts of 4ind #hey are the
smallest caste but own most of the community?s wealth
Despite their long his ton,,, all these castes face a similar fate now8 e*tinction In other words, they
probably won?t be able to survive the .Ist century "n one side, they are threatened by problems as old
as their own traditions #hey have to pay about half of their incomes to their feudal lords, the NarnidarH
who own the banks of the river #he rest of their income is often taken by armed robbers from the
Fungles of northern 4ind "n the other side, they face modern dangers 4even dams that have recently
been constructed between the +unFab and southern 4ind have closed trading routes for the mir.amar
and killed many of the fish on which the shikari depend !oreover, the !ohana do not have enough
contact with other +akistanis to survive in the .Is? century #hey make no contribution to the country?s
economy as they are illiterate and nomadic What?s more, the rest of the population, most of whom are
!uslim, do not approve of the !ohana?s religious beliefs It seems that although the !ohana
civilisation has survived for 0,/// years, it will not last another twenty years
*9 The <),lities 2e Pri/e In O)r Children
A recent international study has shown some surprising and apparently contradictory results on the
)uestion of the priorities parents around the world have when raising their children While the survey
shows that some virtues are universally pri'ed, interesting regional and national trends emerge when
parents are asked to rate the importance of various )ualities they wish to instill in their children
+arents around the world seem to agree that good manners, a sense of responsibility, and respect
for others are important )ualities to teach their children :owever, while West Europeans give all three
)ualities more or less e)ual importance, East Europeans and $orth Americans rate a sense of
responsibility as by far the most important, and relegate respect for others to third place
Interestingly, a sense of imagination ranks the lowest priority worldwide, although West
Europeans give the )uality of fle:i.le thinking twice the importance any other group does #he Italians
stress the virtue of cultivating their youngsters? imagination more than most others surveyed, with the
e*ception of 4wit'erland #he supposedly staid 4wiss pri'e imaginative youth
Eti)uette,minded Belgians, 4paniards, and -reeks place the highest premium on politeness, while
the Danes and 4wedes put good manners lowest on the list #he newly,capitalist Eastern Bloc countries
also rate good manners as relatively unimportant, perhaps because they are being confronted, or faced
with, commercial competition for the first time #ogether with the 4wiss and the #urks, on the other
hand, they pri'e the ability to communicate with others
#he virtues of tolerance and respect for others are most highly regar!e! in 4candinavia, 3rance,
Britain, 4wit'erland, the $etherlands, and 4pain #his is not the case in -reece and the former Eastern
Bloc nations, which rate these as being of lesser importance
-ermans, Austrians, and 4wedes esteem personal independence, but the industrious 3rench hold
the )uality of conscientiousness at work, that is, doing their work carefully and properly, more dear
than any other European nationals #he responses in the industriali'ed nations of 4weden and Britain
show, perhaps bewilderingly, that those nations give little importance to conscientiousness at work
As for the )ualities concerning obedience and religious beliefs, the results are also interesting #o
start with, polite Belgians answered that for them, obedience is among their paramount valuesH this
sentiment is shared to a lesser degree by the British, -reeks, and Irish #he Italians, according to their
)uestionnaires, rank this very low 4econd, when rearing their children, the -reeks, #urks, and Irish are
alone in their emphasis on instilling strong religious beliefs
"ne of the primary difficulties the researchers faced was translating the )uestions as perfectly as
possible in order not to distort, or misrepresent, the results GImagination,G for e*ample, can be
translated into Dutch as GconceitednessGH perhaps this e*plains why the Dutch appeared to give
imagination a low priority
#he researchers also discovered that some )ualities are so ingrained in certain cultures that they
are taken for granted C in other words, they are believed to be true without being )uestioned C while
others are given great emphasis because they are felt to be lacking in a particular society
!PAC C A!T&ONOM6
*2 Comets
&omets are Fust as much members of the 4un?s family as are the maFor and minor planets #here
can be very few people who have not heard of :alley?s &omet, but there are still a great many who
have no real idea of what a comet is #he most popular mistake is to assume that a comet moves
)uickly across the sky, disappearing in a few seconds In fact, all comets are very distant and they do
not move perceptibly against a starry background If you see an obFect moving visibly, it most probably
is not a comet because most comets are e*tremely faint obFects, far beyond the limits of the naked eye
Although comets are members of the solar system, they are )uite unlike planets #hey are not solid
or rocky A large comet consists of an icy central part called the nucleus, a head, and a tail, or tails
made of tiny particles of ?dust? #hough comets may be immense C the head of the -reat &omet of
IJ=N was larger than the 4un C they are very flimsy Even a direct collision between the Earth and a
comet would cause no more than a local damage
&omets move around the 4un, and with one e*ception C :alley?s C all the really bright comets
take hundreds, thousands or even millions of years to complete one orbit #his means that we cannot
predict them, and they are always liable to take us by surprise &omets usually arouse public interest
when they are large and bright enough to attract attention and receive mention in the newspapers, but
obFects of this type do not appear fre)uently and have been particularly rare during the present century
#here are many short,period comets which reappear only after a few years but these are faint, and
usually remain well beyond naked,eye visibility !oreover, they usually lack tails and appear as
nothing more than tiny patches of light :aley?s &omet is in a class of its own It has a period of LM
years, and it has been seen regularly since well before the time of &hrist
*' The Milky 2,y
"n dark, clear nights we can sometimes see a creamy strip running across the sky #his is ilky
/ay, the gala*y in which we live A myth of the ancient -reeks said this long whit mark was a Griver of
milkG #he ancient Romans called it the ;ia 8alactica, or Groad made of milkG #his is how our gala*y
became known as the !ilky Way 7ntil the invention of the telescope, nobody really knew what the
G!ilky WayG was About N// years ago, telescope showed a very surprising fact8 the !ilky Way was
made of stars "nly L/ years ago, more powerful telescopes brought the further revelation that the
!ilky Way is only one gala*y among many, the IO./s, an American astronomer, :arlow 4hapley, was
the first to reali'e that our sola system is not at the centre of the !ilky Way
#he !ilky Way contains about two hundred billion stars and countless other obFects #he si'e of
our gala*y is hugeH light would take about I//,/// years to cross it 2ike other spiral gala*ies, the
!ilky Way has three main components8 a bulge, a halo and a disk Although all8 parts of the same
gala*y, each contains different obFects #he halo and central bulge containT old stars and the disk is
filled with gas, dust, and young stars "ur 4un is one of these fairlyT young stars
"ur 4un is about 0 billion years oldH however, the !ilky Way is at least 0 billion years older F than
that "ur 4un is located roughly .=,/// light years from the center of the !ilky Way #he ?T 4un is
revolving around the center of the -ala*y at a speed of half a million miles per hour #herefore, our
solar system must have made only ./ or so orbits around the !ilky Way since the 4un began to shine
** The Origins Of The Moon
3or thousands of years, people have looked up at the night sky and watched the moon #hey
wondered what the moon was made of #hey also wanted to know how big it was and how far away it
was "ne of the most interesting )uestions was GWhere did the moon come fromEG $o one knew for
sure 4cientists developed many different theories, but they could not prove any of these
#hen, between IOMO and IOL., the 7nited 4tates sent astronauts to the moon #hey studied the
moon and returned to the Earth with rock samples 4cientists have studied these pieces of rock, die
moon?s movements, and information about the moon and the Earth #hey can finally answer some
)uestions about the origin of the moon, which was impossible before the trips to the moon
#oday most scientists believe that the moon was formed from the Earth #hey think that a large
obFect, perhaps as big as !ars, hit the Earth early in its history When the obFect hit the Earth, huge
pieces of the Earth broke off because of this great impact #hese pieces went into orbit around the
Earth After a short time, the pieces came together and formed the moon
#his ?impact theory? e*plains many facts about the Earth and the moon 3or e*ample, the moon is
very dry because the impact created so much heat that it dried up all the water #he Earth has iron in its
center :owever, the moon has very little iron in its center #his is because the moon formed from
lighter materials that make up the outer part of the Earth
$o one can prove something that happened billions of years ago In the future, new information
will either support this theory or show that it is wrong 3or now, scientists accept the impact theory
because it e*plains what we know today about the Earth and the moon
*0 The Moon
#he !oon is the only natural satellite of the Earth It was first visited by the 4oviet spacecraft
2una . in IO0O It is the only e*traterrestrial body which humans have visited #he first manned
landing on the !oon was on >uly ./, IOMOH the last was in December, IOL. #he !oon is also the only
body from which astronauts have brought back samples to Earth In the summer of IOO=, the !oon
was mapped in detail by the little spacecraft &lementine, and again in IOOO by 2unar +rospector
#he gravitational forces between the Earth and the !oon have some interesting effects #he most
obvious is the tides #he !oon?s gravitational attraction is stronger on the side of the Earth nearest to it
and weaker on the opposite side 4ince the Earth is not perfectly rigid, ie fi*ed and infle*ible, it is
stretched out toward the !oon #his results in two small bulges on the Earth?s surface, one in the
direction of the !oon and one directly opposite #he effect is much stronger in the ocean water than in
the solid crust, so the water bulges are higher And because the Earth rotates much faster than the !oon
moves in its orbit, the bulges move around the Earth about once a day creating two high tides in oceans
and lakes
#he !oon appears to turn slightly Adue to its slightly non,circular orbitB so we can see a few
degrees of the far side from time to time #he maFority of the far side was completely unknown until
the 4oviet spacecraft 2una N photographed it in IO0O Actually, there is no Gdark sideG of the !oonH
other than a few areas with deep craters near the poles, all parts of the !oon get sunlight half the time
#here are basically two types of terrain, or land, on the !oon8 the heavily cratered and very old
highlands, and, opposite them, the relatively smooth and younger maria !ost of the surface of the
cratered highlands is covered with regolith, a mi*ture of fine dust and small rocks produced by meteor
crashes 3or some unknown reason, the maria are concentrated on the near side #he maria Awhich
cover about IMR of the !oon?s surfaceB are huge craters that were later filled with lava
A total of NJ. kg of rock samples were returned to the Earth by the Apollo and 2una programs
#hese provide most of our knowledge of the !oon #hey are particularly valuable because they can be
dated Even today, N/ years after the last !oon landing, scientists still study these precious samples
!ost rocks on the surface of the !oon seem to be between =M and N billion years old #hus, the !oon
provides certain evidence about the early history of the solar system which is not fully available on the
Earth
Before the study of the Apollo, 2una . and 2una N samples, there was no agreement among
scientists about the origin of the !oon #here were three principal theories8 co,accretion, which said
that the !oon and the Earth formed at the same time from the 4olar $ebulaH fission, which claimed
that the !oon was formerly a part of the EarthH and capture, which held that the !oon formed
somewhere else and was later captured by the Earth?s gravitational field $one of these is very
reasonable #he new and detailed information from the !oon rocks led to the impact theory8 that the
Earth crashed into a very large obFect Aas big as !ars or moreB and that the !oon formed from the
discharged material #here are still details that scientists are working on, but the impact theory is now
widely accepted
*1 "en)s
1enus is one of the most unusual planets in our solar system It is the second planet from the 4un,
located in between !ercury and Earth #he "rbit, or path, 1enus follows around the 4un is circular,
and the planet?s distance from the 4un is about M0 million miles As 1enus is closer to the 4un than
Earth, a 1enusian year is Fust ..0 Earth,days 1enus rotates around itself much more slowly than Earth,
so a day on 1enus is .=N Earth,days #his means that a day on 1enus is longer than its yearT Even more
strange is the fact that 1enus rotates from East to West #his is Fust the opposite of Earth and most of
the other planets
1enus is the brightest obFect in the sky after the 4un and the moon It is visible to the naked eye
for several months As 1enus appears both in the morning sky and the evening sky, ancient astronomers
thought it was two different obFects and called it Eosphorus and :esperus
1enus is similar to Earth in some ways 1enus is almost the same si'e as Earth, with a diameter of
a little over L,.// miles Both have craters on their surfaces #heir densities and chemical compositions
are similar 1enus probably once had large amounts of water like Earth, but it all boiled away so 1enus
is )uite dry now Because of these similarities, scientists thought that below its dense clouds 1enus
might be like the Earth and there might even be life on it :owever, more detailed study of 1enus
showed that in many ways it is different from the Earth
#he atmosphere of 1enus is about O/ times heavier than the Earth?s atmosphere It consists mainly
of carbon dio*ide AOMRB N0R of the atmosphere is nitrogen and less than IR is made up of carbon
mono*ide, argon, sulfur dio*ide and water vapor #here are also several layers of clouds that cover the
planet #hese clouds are many kilometers thick and they are made of sulfuric acid, which is an
e*tremely dangerous substance #hese clouds obscure our view of the surface of 1enus In other words,
we can?t see the surface of 1enus from the Earth #here are strong winds at the cloud tops, averaging
around N0/ kilometers per hour, but the winds on the surface are very light, no more than a few
kilometers per hour
A lot of information about 1enus comes from spacecraft that study the planet from a safe distance
#hey cannot get very close to the planet because of the high temperature #he density of the
atmosphere of 1enus leads to an increase in the surface temperature and makes the planet one of the
hottest places in the solar system #he temperature on 1enus reaches =0/X&, which is very hot and can
melt most metalsH that is, the high temperature can turn most metals into li)uid 3or this reason,
scientists are looking for a different way of collecting information about 1enus from Earth A few years
ago, they made a map of the planet?s surface using radar telescopes here on Earth #hey found that
1enus? surface has many mountains Asome higher than !ount EverestB and volcanoes #here are also
large flat lands called plains on its surface
*4 N,s, Listens For !(,ce Aliens
#he idea that GWe are not alone in the universeG and movies like E# or 4tar Wars have always
fascinated people, though in reality, most people don?t believe life on other planets e*ists :owever,
$A4A assumes there?s a good chance that we?re not alone in the universe 2ast fall, $A4A began a new
proFect called the :igh Resolution !icrowave 4urvey A:R!4B, whose purpose is to find evidence of
life in one of the billions of gala*ies in the universe
#he search for intelligent life on other planets isn?t new In fact, it began in the early IO//s
4cientists built a huge transmitter to beam radio waves into space then #hey thought intelligent beings
on other planets might pick up the signals Recently, scientists have also sent a message about humans
and our solar system to a nearby constellation :owever, as the constellation is .0,/// light years
away, a return message won?t reach Earth for 0/,/// years, so don?t e*pect an answer for nowT
4o far, no E#s Ae*traterrestrial beingsB that we know of have returned our GcallsG, but according to
Dr >ill #arter, who is an :R!4 scientist, we haven?t e*actly had our ears wide open G$ow, however,G
says Dr #arter, Gwe?ve built the technological tools we need to listen wellG 2ast "ctober, Dr #arter
turned on the largest radio receiver in the world It?s a huge metal bowl stretching I,/// feet across a
canyon in the Fungles of +uerto Rico
!eanwhile, another $A4A scientist flipped on a huge radio antenna in &alifornia?s !oFave
Desert, where $A4A hopes to pick up radio signals from other worlds Dr 3rank Drake has been
searching for life in outer space for years :e e*plains the :R!4 proFect this way8 #o listen to your
radio, you move the tuner on the dial until the channels come in loud and clear $ow imagine radio
receivers that scan our gala*y listening to I= million channels every second #hat?s what $A4A?s radio
telescopes in +uerto Rico and &alifornia are doing
:owever, that?s not all +owerful computers in the telescopes carefully e*amine everB, signal
#hey try to match the signals to the ones that scientists already recogni'e, such as human, made
signals If they can?t, Drake and #arter check on them GIt could prove there is radio technology
elsewhere in the universe,G says Dr #arter GAnd that would mean we?re not aloneG GWhenever I look
up at the stars,G Dr #arter adds, Git seems ridiculous to think we are aloneG After all, she reasons, there
are billions of gala*ies like our own and each has hundreds of billions of stars like our sun As each sun
might also have planets, it?s very likely that some of those planets support life as Earth does, and she
believes that some of that life could be intelligent
#hat leads right to the ne*t big )uestion8 If there are intelligent E#s out there, are they trying to
reach usE #here?s no way to know for sure, but according to Dr #arter, it might not matter GIf they
have the technology, their signals may reach us, Fust as our #1 signals may reach themG Dr Drake is
also confident GI fully e*pect to find signals from an e*traterrestrial before the year ./I/ :owever,
we have to be cautious when revealing our research findings as any misunderstanding may create a
panicky situation #herefore we have arrived at a decision8 We are not going to immediately announce
the results of the studies that might show the e*istence of space aliens to the publicG he says :owever,
not all scientists are that certain of discovering life in other gala*ies, but who knowsE If Dr Drake is
correct, the year ./I/ Fust might bring us a group of new space neighborsT
*5 Mission To M,rs
Astronomers all over the world were waiting in e*citement as August IOON approached !ars
"bserver, the American spacecraft, was scheduled to move into orbit around !ars and begin sending
new information back to Earth In addition to mapping the planet, !ars "bserves was going to study
the !artian atmosphere and surface 7nfortunately, no informationY reached the Earth as scientists lost
contact with !ars "bserver on August .= #he !ars "bserver mission, which cost PJ=0 million,
failed
7nlike !ars "bserver, the 7nited 4tates? previous mission to !ars was successful In IOLM two
American spacecraft, the 1iking landers, landed on !ars to search for life #heyZ performed four
e*periments #hree e*periments tested for biological activity in the soil #he fourth e*periment looked
for evidence of life, dead or alive #he results of the 1iking landers? tests were negative :owever,
scientists were dissatisfied with the 1iking mission and still had )uestions about our close neighbor in
space #he two sites where the spacecraft had landed F provided safe landing places, but they were not
particularly interesting locations 4cientists believe there are other areas on !ars that are similar to
specific places on Earth that support life 3or e*ample, an area in Antarctica, southern 1ictoria 2and,
which is not covered by ice, resembles an area on !ars In the dry valleys of southern 1ictoria 2and,
although the temperature averages below 'ero, biologists have found simple life forms
AmicroorganismsB in rocks and fro'en lakes +erhaps this is also true of some places on !ars
4cientists? interest in !ars is based on a theory #hey believe that =0 billion years ago, !ars and
Earth began their e*istence under similar conditions During the first billion years, li)uid water was
abundant AplentifulB on the surface of !ars #his shows that !ars was much warmer at that time !ars
also had a thicker atmosphere of carbon dio*ide A&/.B !any scientists think it is possible that life
began on !ars under these favorable conditions After all, Earth had the same positive conditions
during its first billion years, when life began At some point in time, Earth developed an atmosphere
that is rich in o*ygen, and an o'one layer It also survived and became more comple* !ars, however,
lost its thick atmosphere of carbon dio*ide and ultraviolet radiation increased #he planet eventually
grew colder, and its water fro'e
A biologist at $A4A, &hris !c5ay, has suggested three theories about life on !ars "ne theory is
that life never developed there A second theory is that life started on !ars Fust as it did on Earth and
survived for at least a billion years #he third is that life began on !ars and simple organisms
developed When environmental conditions on !ars changed, life ended
4cientists want to map the surface of the planet and land a spacecraft in a better location #hey
want to investigate further the possibility of life on !ars #hey want to search for fossils, the ancient
remains of life If life ever e*isted on !ars, scientists believe that future missions might find records of
it under sand, or in the ice
*7 Life On M,rs=
!any years ago, there was a newspaperman who was writing a story about the planet !ars :e
needed scientific information, so he sent the following telegram to a well,known astronomer8
G#E2E-RA+: I!!EDIA#E2@ 3I1E :7$DRED W"RD4 "$ W:E#:ER #:ERE I4 2I3E "$
!AR4G #he astronomer )uickly replied8 G$"B"D@ 5$"W4, $"B"D@ 5$"W4, $"B"D@
5$"W4G .0/ times
"ur ability to get information about !ars and the other planets in our solar system is much better
today We have sent people and machines into space We have analy'ed the GearthG and GairG of all the
planets in our solar system through one means or another !any of the scientists who have studied the
information we have got about !ars continue to think that there may be life on the red planet
#here are nine planets in our solar system8 the four smaller inner planets with solid surfaces8
!ercury, 1enus, Earth and !arsH the four gas giants further from the 4un8 >upiter, 4aturn, 7ranus, and
$eptune, and the icy planet of +luto, which is the smallest of the nine and is also the farthest from the
4un "f these nine planets that orbit the 4un, we know for sure of only one planet with life on it8 that
planet, of course, is the Earth Why, with seven other planets to choose from, does !ars receive so
much attentionE #here are two basic reasons8 one is its formH the other is its chemistry
In many ways, !ars looks like the Earth It is solid and about the same si'e "n !ars, there are
large rocks and bouldersH and there are huge volcanoes, much larger than the largest volcano in :awaii
#here are polar ice caps on !ars that look a lot like our $orth and 4outh +oles, and there are also
drifting white clouds in its sky like the ones moving slowly in the sky of the Earth A !artian day is the
same length of time as an Earth day !ars makes a complete revolution in .= hours 4ome of the other
planets turn more slowly than the Earth 1enus, for e*ample, turns so slowly that one day there takes
about IIJ Earth days >upiter, on the other hand, turns more )uickly than the Earth It only takes I/
hours for it to complete its day
If the form of a planet is a lot different from ours but the chemistry is similar, there may still be
life on that planet >upiter is such a planet It is the largest of all nine planets and it could contain more
than a thousand Earths within it It does not have a solid surface with mountains and valleys the way
the Earth and !ars doH it has instead a vast, ie, very big, ocean of boiling li)uids and gases >upiter
doesn?t look a lot like the Earth but the bright colors of the planet, and thousands of scientific studies
about it tell us that there are very, active chemicals on >upiter #hese chemicals are the same as the
ones that formed life on Earth long ago If some form of life could find a way to live at a distance from
its hot surfaceC maybe floating in its sky C there could be life on >upiter
Although our imaginations and our scientific minds take us here and there throughout the solar
system, we turn again to !ars !ars looks like the Earth Its chemistry is also similar to that of the
Earth Its air contains a lot of carbon dio*ide, a little water in a form between li)uid and gas, and
o*ygen #here is also a small amount of o'one Aa kind of gas that protects human beings from the 4un?s
harsh raysB :owever, there is not enough water, o*ygen or o'one for human beings to live on !ars
#he )uestion is8 could any organisms survive, or live, in such conditionsE
#o test this )uestion, scientists prepared a place that was chemically like !ars, and then they put
tiny Earth organisms in it 4ome of these very small organisms were able to survive In another
e*periment, they added a tiny amount of water, and some of the organisms actually grew If Earth
organisms can live in !artian conditions, maybe there are !artian organisms living somewhere on the
red planet 4cientists believe that if there are such organisms, they should be found near water, so they
are looking near the ice caps for signs of life
0: !(,ce 2,rdro-e
#here is no atmosphere to supply the pressure and o*ygen necessary to support life in space #his
forces humans to take their environment with them to be able to e*plore and work there Without
enough atmospheric pressure, body fluids will start to heat up and boil, and without o*ygen, we will be
unable to breathe
4pacesuits serve many functions #oday?s spacesuits are pressuri'ed, have an o*ygen supply,
protect the astronaut from micrometeoroid bombardment while spacewalking, and insulate the
astronaut from the severe temperature changes e*perienced in space #he 4pace 4huttle astronauts have
more than one GoutfitG for space travel What they wear while on a mission is determined by the Fob
they are doing During the launch and re,entry, the astronauts wear a partially,pressuri'ed suit and a
parachute pack #he suit has a helmet, gloves, and boots which all serve as protection for the astronaut
Within the suit, there are bags that automatically fill with air at reduced cabin pressures At low
pressure, the blood will accumulate in the lower body causing the astronaut to lose consciousness #he
bags maintain the pressure on the lower body to prevent this from happening While working in the
4huttle during orbit, astronauts work in comfortable clothes such as knit shirts, pants, or flight suits In
addition, before each duty, the flight crew is provided with lined Fackets, sleep shorts, slippers, and
underwear
While working outside the 4huttle during a mission, astronauts wear an e*travehicular mobility,
unit AE!7B #his suit has interchangeable parts so it can be assembled to fit different astronauts #his
makes the suit more cost,effective since it can be reused #he E!7 has a li)uid cooling garment,
which is a one,piece suit made of spande*, and keeps the astronaut cool while in the suit #he unit also
contains headphones and microphones, a drink bag which carries water, a life support system
containing o*ygen, and a urine collection device -loves are included with the unit along with a helmet
and a visor All of these are necessary to protect the astronaut from micrometeoroids, solar radiation,
infrared radiation, temperature changes, pressure changes, and o*ygen deprivation
#o help the astronaut get around freely while performing a spacewalk, a manned,maneuvering unit
A!!7B can be Foined to the E!7 #he !!7 is a nitrogen propelled backpack that allows the
astronaut to fly with precision #he !!7 has a N0mm camera attached to it so that the astronaut can
take pictures while in flight,
09 %istory Of Astronomy
+eople have been struggling to understand the universe since ancient times #hales, who is the
father of -reek science and mathematics, asked )uestions about the 7niverse that were not based on
the actions of gods or demons :e provided the bridge between the world of myth and the world of
reason :e used the astronomical records of the Babylonians and Egyptians to correctly predict a solar
eclipse in the si*th century B& #hales believed the Earth was flat and floated on water like a log, ie, a
piece of wood
Aristotle, who lived from NJ= to N.. B&, believed the Earth was round :e thought the Earth was
the center of the 7niverse and that the 4un, !oon, other planets, and all the fi*ed stars revolved around
it Aristotle?s ideas were widely accepted by the -reeks of his time #he e*ception, a century later, was
Aristarchus, one of the earliest believers in a heliocentric system In other words, he believed that the
7niverse was sun,centered
#he first astronomer to make truly scientific maps of the heavens, &laudius +tolemaeus, came
along N// years later 2ike most astronomers before him, he believed the 4un, !oon, and other planets
circled the Earth :e thought that each body in the space moved in an epicycle In other words, each
body in the space moved in a small circle which moved around a larger circle #his e*plained why
planets sometimes appeared to travel backward in the sky #he Earth,centered view of the 7niverse
was widely accepted for about I0// years It was not seriously challenged, until I0=N, when the +olish
monk $icolaus &opernicus suggested that the 4un was at the center of the 7niverse :owever, this idea
was not accepted by the &hurch #he two events most responsible for the eventual acceptance of
&opernicus?s views were #ycho Brahe?s precise observations of the sky and -alileo?s use of the
telescope
"ne night in I0L., Danish astronomer #ycho Brahe saw what he thought was a brilliant new star
in the constellation &assiopeia, a supernova In IM/=, a second one was observed #hese discoveries
caused scientists to seriously )uestion +tolemy?s theory that the outer sphere of the 7niverse contained
all the stars
In IM/O, Italian scientist -alileo -alilei heard about the invention of a Gspyglass01 :e made one
for himself and turned it on the heavens "ne of his first discoveries was four moons circling the planet
>upiter -alileo?s telescope revealed, or showed, a miniature version of &opernicus?s solar system, with
the moons moving around the planet in simple, circular orbits -alileo?s discoveries forever changed
the face of astronomy
#he beginnings of modern astronomy can be attributed to -alileo and the British genius Isaac
$ewton $ewton was born in the same year that -alileo died Isaac $ewton took the known facts and
used mathematics to e*plain them :e developed mathematical laws that e*plained how obFects move
on Earth as well as in space :e reasoned that everything in space is constantly moving, with no limits
on space or time
In IOIL, Albert Einstein proposed a description of the 7niverse based on his #heory of -eneral
Relativity Einstein?s theory inspired many other scientists such as 3riedmann, who built on the -eneral
Relativity e)uations to develop models that helped e*plain the evolution of the 7niverse
02 %istory Of !(,ce Tr,3el
#he Earth has been the home of mankind for centuries :owever, one cannot remain at home
forever After living on Earth for centuries, some people decided that it was time for them to e*plore
life outside the Earth #o do this, they had to design a spacecraft #he theory of space flight was studied
by many brilliant men over a period of nearly three centuries C from IM// to IO//
>ohannes 5epler was the -erman mathematician who, in IM/O, worked out the e)uations for
orbiting planets and their satellites :is belief was that the planets moved in ellipses Aflattened circlesB,
not in true circles In IMJL, Isaac $ewton wrote what is probably the single greatest intellectual
achievement of all time In a single book, he established the basic laws of force, motion, and
gravitation and this enabled him to invent a new branch of mathematics, calculus :e did all this to
show how the force of gravity is the reason that the planets? orbits follow 5epler?s e)uations
5onstantin #siolkovsky, a Russian school teacher, was the first to figure out all the basic e)uations
for rocketry in IO/N, without ever launching a single rocket himselfT 3rom his e*tensive reading,
including >ules 1erne, he concluded that space travel was a possibility, and that it was, in fact, man?s
destiny :e anticipated and solved many of the problems that were going to come up for rocket,
powered flight and drew up several rocket designs :e determined that li)uid fuel rockets would be
needed to get to space and that the rockets would need to be built in stages :e concluded that o*ygen
and hydrogen would be the most powerful fuels for these rockets to use :e imagined M0 years earlier
how the 4aturn 1 rocket would operate for the first landing of men on the moon
Robert -oddard, an American who is now called Gthe father of modern rocketry,G was the man
who designed, built, and flew the rockets :e was a university professor who also reached the same
conclusions as #siolkovsky did -oddard proved that the theory was true :e was also heavily
influenced by the science fiction of >ules 1erne, and he worked hard to develop rockets because he
wanted to see them take us into space When he first published his study, he proposed that it could be
possible to use rockets to travel to the moon, and people thought he was cra'y In fact, the criticism was
so strong that -oddard said little about his work after that
In IO.M, -oddard launched the world?s first li)uid,fueled rocket In the course of his e*periments
in $ew !e*ico, he virtually developed rocket technology :e invented everything re)uired for modern
rocketry and earned over .// patents By himself he developed the same components and designs that
took the -ermans hundreds of scientists and engineers and millions of dollars to develop independently
at +eenemunde during World War II :ermann "berth was another man who, after reading >ules
1erne?s G3rom Earth to the !oon,G became determined to find a way to travel to space :e
independently determined the same rocketry principles as #siolkovsky and -oddard #he difference
with "berth is that he made the world believe that the rocket was something to take seriously as a
space vehicle "berth was the only one who lived to see men travel through space and land on the
moon If he hadn?t been so successful, we may never have made it to the moon
FOOD C %ALT%
0' Corn
&orn grew naturally in both $orth and 4outh America Indians started planting it in gardens at
least 0,/// years ago #he word corn means Gour lifeG in their language 4ome Indians ground their
corn into flour and made corn bread &olumbus took corn to Europe and from there it spread to other
continents
#oday corn is the second most plentiful grain in the world after rice 3armers use corn to feed
animals :owever, corn is mostly used in the food industry as breakfast cereals, flour, starch and oil It
is also used as a sweetener in soft drinks In addition to the farming and food industries, corn is used to
make paper, paints, industrial alcohol and automobile fuel
$utritionally, corn is low in fat and calories It contains N0= calories per I// grams It is rich in
starch, lipids, proteins and carbohydrates White com does not have 1itamin A, but yellow corn
contains a lot of 1itamin A Both have some folacin, 1itamin &, lots of magnesium and potassium
$either type contains niacin #herefore, if corn makes up a large proportion of the diet, it might lead to
pellagra, a disease caused by lack of niacin +atients with pellagra have problems in their digestive and
nervous systems "n the other hand, if sweetcorn is eaten cooked, it greatly reduces the chance of heart
disease and cancer
&orn seeds are planted from !ay until the end of >une #he corn plant re)uires direct sunlight for
at least eight hours a day to grow at its best It takes M/ to I// days for the grains to fully develop As
corn starts losing its sugar as soon as it is picked, storing it at the right temperature is very important
0* All 6o) 2,nt To Le,rn A-o)t Corn
&om is a plant which does not e*ist naturally in the wild It can only survive if people plant this
crop in their fields It can be said that today corn still e*ists because it has been cultivated by farmers
In other words, people grew this crop in their fields
#he history of corn goes back to thousands of years ago 4cientists believe corn was originally
grown by Indians of &entral and 4outh America at least L,/// years ago #he Indians discovered that
corn was good to eat and very nutritious #heir diet depended on this crop because it was an important
source of food #hey learned to use almost every part of the corn plant #hey even used the leaves,
which contain a large amount of sugar, as the first Gchewing gumG #hey ate immature corn as a fresh
vegetable, but once the kernels of corn became fully grown, they used it to make flour By the time
&hristopher &olumbus reached the $ew World in I=O., corn was grown in an area from southern
&anada to the Andes !ountains of 4outh America When &olumbus discovered America, he also
discovered com 7p to this time, people living in Europe didn?t know about com &olumbus and the
e*plorers that followed him took corn back to Europe and introduced it to the world
&orn is a member of the grass family of plants It was started from a kind of wild grass called
teosinte #oday?s corn plant is much more different than its ancient ancestor, teosinte It is much taller
and produces a much larger ear An ear of corn averages I.,I= inches in length and can produce about
J// new kernels Each kernel can produce a plant which has one or more ears
As a crop, corn controls American agriculture more than any other &orn is planted on roughly L/,
J/ million 74 acres
N
with an annual production of about O billion bushels Bushel is a term which is
used to measure corn production It is e)ual to 0M pounds of kernels which are removed from the cob
A single bushel of corn contains about LN,/// kernels
#oday there are many types of corn #he most common ones are flint corn, dent corn, sweet corn
and, of course, popcorn 3lint corn, which is also known as Indian corn, has a hard outer shell and
kernels with a range of colors from white to red #oday, most flint com is grown in &entral or 4outh
America Dent corn, also called field corn, is often used as animal food It is also the main kind of corn
used when making industrial products and various food It can be either white or yellow 4weet corn is
often eaten on the cob or it can be canned or fro'en It is not used for feeding animals or to make flour
4weet corn gets its name because it contains more sugar than other types of com +opcorn has a soft
3
an acre8 =/=L m.
starchy, center which is covered by a very hard shell When a kernel of popcorn is heated it bursts open
and becomes soft and light It?s then eaten with salt and butter
#here are many uses of corn It is good for feeding cattle and chickens !any of the soft drinks
you enFoy are sweetened with corn syrup #he ink which is used to print books contains corn oil
Ethanol is made from corn !aybe, the car that carries you to and from school runs on fuel which
contains ethanol &orn is also used in such products as glue, shoe polish, aspirin, ice,cream and
cosmetics $ew ways of using corn are being developed everyday
00 T)rkish Coffee
When the first coffee house in Istanbul was opened in the district known as #ahtakale behind the
4pice !arket in the I00/s, it attracted the attention of enthusiastic customers as well as religious
people, who considered this strange new substance to be a harmful drug In order to stop the spread of
this new substance, they tried in vain to forbid its consumption, saying that it was sinful 4hips carrying
loads of coffee were sunk in Istanbul harbour @et, despite all this opposition, coffee drinking spread
very fast, and by the time of !urat III AI0L=,I0O0B, there were over M// coffee houses in Istanbul
alone
&offee houses generally had an attractive view8 !ost had verandas and sometimes a decorative
pool in the centre 3ashionable #urkish coffee houses served as gendemen?s clubs where men discussed
literature and listened to #urkish classical music
#he wide variety of often beautifully ornamented e)uipment used for preparing and serving
#urkish coffee could fill a museum on their own #he coffee is boiled in a long handled coffee pot
known as ce%$e, which has its own distinctive shape, as do the tiny coffee cups In the past, the
porcelain coffee cups were produced at the I'nik or 5utahya potteries 4ets of #urkish coffee cups were
later produced by European manufacturers for local European markets and known as ?a la tur)ue? coffee
sets
+eople who know the taste of a well,prepared #urkish coffee e*pect their coffee to be heated
slowly over pieces of coal or wood, the copper coffee pot being fre)uently taken away from the fire so
that it won?t get overheated It is important to have froth on top of the coffee A heaped spoonful of
#urkish coffee and sugar is allowed for each cup as a general rule today, although in the past most
#urks drank their coffee without any sugar Instead, they customarily ate or drank something sweet
either before or after the coffee Another custom which has died out today is the addition of some
aromatic substance such as Fasmine, ambergris, cloves or coriander
01 !,lt
Although there is no direct evidence that salt is the cause of high blood pressure or ?hypertension?,
there are studies which indicate that reducing salt intake lowers blood pressure 4ome scientists are
also concerned that e*cessive use of salt may cause asthma and kidney disease #herefore, most
doctors would welcome a decision by food manufacturers to decrease the amount of salt in food
!any food manufacturers, however, are reluctant to reduce the amount of salt It is an important
flavor enhancer and preservative British 4alt, the leading manufacturer of evaporated salt products in
the 7nited 5ingdom, points out that salt is an essential nutrient and regular intake is re)uired to
maintain bodily functions !oreover, according to British 4alt, there are greater risk factors in
hypertension, such as obesity, lack of e*ercise, alcohol intake and smoking Another reason why food
producers are not keen on lowering the amount of salt is probably that they fear that this will lower the
sales
A recent study, published in #he ?2ancet of April IOOO, proves that if manufacturers cut the salt
content of food, it will not necessarily affect the taste of the product Anthony Rodgers and Bruce $eal
conducted a study to e*amine the difference in taste between bread with standard and reduced salt
content #hree types of wholemeal bread were prepared, identical in all respects e*cept for salt content
"ne loaf contained the standard )uantity, one loaf I/R reduced and one ./R reduced 4i*ty
participants, who did not know the salt content, were asked to rate the taste on a scale from 'ero to ten
#hey also had to guess which loaf contained the standard, I/R reduced and ./R reduced )uantity "f
the IJ/ guesses of salt content, MN were correct, which is not different from what would be e*pected by
chance
#he study by Rodgers and $eal indicates that small reductions in salt content will not necessarily
affect sales If food manufacturers decide to diminish the amount of salt in food, the blood pressure of
the entire population will shift downwards, which may result in considerable health benefits "ne of
Britain?s largest supermarkets, As!a, has already decided to decrease the amount of salt in its products
#he As!a products will contain up to .0R less salt
04 Me,t= No+ Th,nks
Even today, although many people are aware of the importance of a healthy diet, a vegetarian is
often met with suspicion, or at least with surprise Although mouths e*press polite interest, eyes say
that a vegetarian is a crank, someone to be regarded only with suspicious curiosity or distrust 4uch
attitudes were perhaps Fustifiable when the GhippyG movements of the M/s and early L/s had Fust
started 1egetarianism, as a conscious ideology or way of life, was relatively new then and was
associated with )uestioning accepted social structures and conventions $ot surprisingly, members of
older generations still treat the vegetarians of the .///s with a similar sort of suspicion or intolerance
:owever, today, vegetarians can be found everywhere As more information becomes available, more
and more people are consciously turning to a meat,free diet #heir reasons for doing so are many and
the potential benefits are even more
1egetarians have an enormous health advantage "ne of the maFor health problems in modern
societies is not too little, but too much food, especially in the form of animal fats !edical evidence
suggests that animal fats, including butter, contribute to the development of cholesterol in the human
body A!ost vegetarians have low levels of cholesterolB :igh amounts of animal fats seem to be part of
the cause of heart disease #hey also seem to lead to certain kinds of cancer, and vegetarians typically
have less of these cancers than people who eat meat "verall, studies comparing the health of
vegetarians and meat,eaters show that the meat,eaters are twice as likely to die of heart disease as
vegetarians are In addition, animals such as cows and sheep are given various treatments so that they
grow at very high rates 2ogically, chemicals introduced into animal flesh are later consumed, further
up the food chain 4tudies have indicated that growth hormone treatments and vaccines given to
animals may be responsible for a variety of disorders including serious hormonal imbalances and
hyperactivity in children In short, better health is one reason that people choose to become
vegetarians
Increasing awareness of modern methods which in fact upset animals? natural life patterns is
another factor which changes people?s attitudes towards meat consumption #hese methods include
keeping cows in very small places which lack light and where they cannot move a lot, so their meat is
softer and more delicious 4imilarly, chickens are made to lay eggs more fre)uently by e*posure to
artificial periods of day and night #here are those who do not eat meat simply because they cannot
accept or put up with the suffering that animals feel #his group of vegetarians believes that life, all
life, is valuable, and that we do not have the right to destroy life to feed ourselves when there are other
good sources of food
2astly, there are people who do not eat meat because of their religions, which prohibit the eating
of meat #he largest of these is the :indu religion, which has about M// million believers in the world
Although not all :indus are vegetarian, many are, and there are many other believers of other religions,
such as Buddhism and even some &hristian groups, who also do not eat meat
#hese facts are available to everybody, and there are some who choose to react #o these people, it
seems that the best way to show their reaction is to boycott the product !ost vegetarians do not regard
themselves as ideals or modelsH they simply e*press their concern and do what they believe is right A
vegetarian isn?t necessarily a crank A vegetarian is someone who simply doesn?t eat meat
05 A %e,lthy Diet For 3eryone
4ometimes, people are confused about what type of food is healthy, and what kind of food is
unhealthy In IO0M, the 74DA
=
described four basic food groups8 meat Ameat, fish, chicken, etcB, dairy
Acheese, butter, etcB, grains Abread, cereals, rice, etcB, and fruit and vegetables #he 74DA suggested
how much of each food group was healthy to eat daily
As a result of years of research, we know that too much animal fat is bad for our health 3or
e*ample, Americans eat a lot of meat but only a small amount of grains, fruit, and vegetables Because
of their diet, they have high rates of cancer and heart disease In >apan, in contrast, people eat large
amounts of grains and very little meat #he >apanese have very low rates of cancer and heart disease In
fact, the >apanese live longer than anyone else in the world 7nfortunately, when >apanese people move
to the 7nited 4tates, their rates of heart disease and cancer increase as their diet changes !oreover, as
hamburgers, ice cream, and other high,fat foods have become popular in >apan, the rates of heart
disease and cancer are increasing there as well
A healthy diet is important for children as well as adults When adults have poor eating habits,
their children usually do, too After all, children eat the same way as their parents When parents eat
healthy food, the children will think it tastes good #hen they will develop good eating habits Doctors
advise parents to give their children healthier snacks such as fruit, vegetables, and fruit Fuice
Everyone wants to live a long and healthy life We know that the food we eat affects our health in
different ways, so by improving our diet, we can enFoy many years of healthy living
4
74DA8 74 Department of Agriculture It is responsible for controlling the )uality of food in the 7nited 4tates
07 >)nk Food C No Dercise8 The New Lifestyle
In today?s fast,moving world, people have less and less time to spend eating, let alone cooking It
is probably for this reason that Funk food has become so popular, and there?s no doubt that it?s here to
stay In fact, it seems that people simply can?t get away from it 4o, what e*actly is Funk foodE
Basically, it is anything that is high in calories but lacking in nutrition :amburgers, crisps, chocolate
bars and hot dogs fall into this category +i''as, although they can have vegetable and cheese toppings,
are also included as they contain a lot of fat
"bviously, a diet of Funk food is not the best thing for your health, particularly as it is high in
saturated fat In IOON, the <ournal of the 'ational Cancer 5nstitute reported this type of fat to be
associated with a greater risk of cancer Apart from the risk of cancer, gaining weight is another side
effect of consuming Funk food #he fact that obesity has become a world,wide health problem proves
this #he best advice, then, for those who cannot live without their hamburgers or chocolate bars, is to
limit the amount of Funk food they consume Eating Funk food now and then will probably do no harm
But, why have our eating habits changedE GBecause people are short of time, and they have lost
their tradition,G says one e*pert :e e*plains that people are too busy to cook and eat proper meals, so
they grab whatever is available , and that is usually Funk food Also, the style of life represented on #1,
especially in music videos, is fast @oung people pick up the idea that speed means e*citement,
whereas anything traditional is slow and boring As a result, they turn down traditional food and go for
Funk food instead
Another alarming thing about people?s lifestyles today is that while the amount of Funk food they
eat has increased, the amount of e*ercise they do has actually decreased E*ercise plays an important
part in keeping the body fit and healthy8 it helps to control weight and, if taken regularly, can also
decrease the chances of having a heart attack in later life What is more, one doesn?t have to e*ercise
much to gain visible benefits Doctors say that twenty minutes? e*ercise three times a week is all that is
necessary
Even though people nowadays are actually far more aware of the importance of e*ercise and a
healthy diet than they were a few years ago, the new unhealthy way of life is surprisingly popular
#hus, researchers suggest that the new generation will be much more likely to suffer from heart and
liver disease What can?t be emphasi'ed enough is the fact that a balanced diet and regular e*ercise
bring significant health benefits "ne way or another, the vast maFority of people appear to be missing
out on this, due mainly to the pressures of modern life Ironically, if they were to make time to e*ercise
and improve their eating habits, they would probably find that they were far better e)uipped to deal
with their stressful lifestyles than they are now
1: %e,lthy ,ting For Di,-etics
E9F eg E
!ost of the functions of the human body are controlled by hormones Insulin, a hormone produced
by the pancreas, controls the sugar in the blood which is used by the body to generate energy #he
insufficient production of insulin leads to a common disorder called diabetes
E2F [[[[[[[[
:aving diabetes does not mean giving up all your favourite foods and eating differently from
family and friends :owever, a sugar,free diet still remains the cornerstone of the treatment of diabetes
$owadays, doctors recommend that people with diabetes should continue their lives as usual, but
should follow a well,balanced and healthy diet
E'F [[[[[[[[
#he British Diabetic Association ABDAB has published guidelines to assist people who need to
follow a special diet #he BDA recommends controlling bodyweight and reducing fat consumption If
there is a need to lose weight, realistic short,term targets are most helpful Aiming for a slow but steady
weight loss of one kilogram per week is ideal until the desired weight is achieved Including more
e*ercise in your daily routine and checking your weight once a week are also recommended
E*F [[[[[[[[
It is also advisable to avoid cooking meals using large amounts of fat C choose lean meat or low,
fat items instead Removing the skin from chicken and using fat,free milk are also good ways of
reducing fat in the diet !oreover, cutting down on the amount of butter and cheese by using the low,
fat versions is recommended Biscuits and cakes are also high in fat content
E0F [[[[[[[[
Eating plenty of fruit and vegetables is highly recommended Beans and lentils contain a
considerable amount of a certain type of fibre which helps to bring down blood sugar levels after
meals &hoosing brown bread and flour instead of white, and high,fibre breakfast cereals is also
appropriate
E1F [[[[[[[[
3oods like sweets, chocolate, cakes and biscuits should not be eaten as they usually contain high
amounts of sugar and fat In addition, less sugar must be used in cooking and GdietG drinks are
preferable 7sing an artificial sweetener instead of sugar also helps a great deal It is also important to
be careful with the sugar content of packaged food items by reading the labels and preferably deciding
on a GdietG alternative
19 2ill #enetic,lly Modified Food Feed The 2orld=
If you want to start a heated discussion at a dinner party, bring up the topic of genetically modified
foods 3or many people, the idea of genetically altered, high,tech crop production raises all kinds of
environmental, health and safety )uestions +articularly in countries with a long tradition of
agriculture, the idea seems against nature In rich countries, there is a wide range of foods to choose
from and a supply that easily meets the needs of the population In developing countries, however, to
feed fast,growing and underfed populations, the problem is simpler and much more urgent8 Do the
benefits of biotech outnumber the risksE
#he statistics on population growth and hunger are disturbing 2ast year the world?s population
reached M billion And by ./0/, the 7nited $ations estimates, it will probably be about O billion
Almost all that growth will occur in developing countries At the same time, the world?s available
farming land is declining In fact, available farming land has declined steadily since IOM/ and will
decrease by half over the ne*t 0/ years, according to I4AAA Athe International 4ervice for the
Ac)uisition of Agri,Biotech ApplicationsB
#he 7nited $ations estimates that nearly J// million people around the world are undernourished
and the effects are deadly About =// million young women are iron deficient, which means they don?t
have enough iron in their bodies #his also means their babies might be born with various defects or
weaknesses As many as I// million children suffer from vitamin A deficiency, a maFor cause of
blindness !illions of people suffer from other maFor illnesses and nutritional deficiencies as a result of
not having enough food
:ow can biotech helpE In an effort to produce nutritionally improved crops, biotechnologists have
developed genetically modified rice that is strengthened with beta,carotene and additional minerals
Biotech can also improve farming productivity in places where food shortages are caused by crop
damage due to pests Aharmful insectsB, crop viruses, drought Alack of rainB or bad )uality soil Damage
caused by pests is incredible #he European corn borer, for e*ample, destroys =/ million tons of the
world?s corn crop annually, about LR of the total Adding pest,resistant genes into seeds can help
restore the balance In Africa, for e*ample, crop production\ has increased significantly by using pest,
resistant cotton 1iruses often cause great damage to basic crops in developing countries #wo years
ago, Africa lost more than half its cassava crop Ca key source of caloriesC because of the mosaic
virus -enetically modified, virus,resistant crops can reduce that damage 4imilarly, in regions with
very little rainfall, drought,tolerant seeds can reduce crop damage Biotech can also help solve the
problem of too much aluminum in soil, which can damage roots and cause crop failures A gene that
helps neutrali'e aluminum to*icity in rice has been identified recently !any scientists believe biotech
could raise overall crop productivity in developing countries as much as .0R and help prevent the loss
of those crops after they are harvested
In spite of all that promise, biotech is far from being the whole answer In developing countries,
crop loss is only one cause of hunger +overty plays the largest role #oday, more than I billion people
around the globe live on less than PI a day !aking genetically modified crops available will not
reduce hunger if farmers cannot afford to grow them, or if the local population cannot afford to buy
them because they?re e*pensive Another difficulty is the problem of food distribution #aken as a
whole, the world produces enough food to feed everyone but much of it is simply in the wrong place
Especially in countries with undeveloped means of transport, geography restricts food availability and
many biotech products won?t even reach the regions where they are most needed #o overcome this
problem, there is a need for better collaboration between governments and private biotech firms
In brief, biotech is not a miracle but it promises to transform agriculture in many developing
countries If that promise is not fulfilled, the real losers will be their people, who could suffer for years
12 Food And C)lt)re
What kind of food do you like to eatE Do you eat raw fishE Dog meatE &heeseE +eople usually
prefer to eat food from their own culture In other words, they like eating food that they are familiar
with 3or e*ample, the >apanese enFoy eating raw horse meat, but few Americans would want to taste
it !any Asians strongly dislike pi''a, which is a very popular food in the 7nited 4tates !ilk is a very
common drink in the 7nited 4tates for all people, young and old In contrast, only babies drink it in
&hina
4ome people do not eat particular food for religious reasons 3or instance, :indus do not eat beef
because they believe cows are sacred 4imilarly, >ewish people think pigs are not clean animals so they
never eat pork
4ociologists say that people prefer the food that they grew up with As a cultural group, we learn
to like and eat the things that we can find in our community #his is why in one place people eat horse
meat and in another place they eat monkey brain
4ometimes we need to change our eating habits If we move or travel to a new place with a
different culture, generally we can not find our favorite meals, so we may have to eat food that is
different to us 4lowly, our tastes change and we begin to enFoy eating the food that once seemed
unusual to us
1' Me,ls In .rit,in
A traditional English breakfast is a very big meal C sausages, bacon, eggs, tomatoes, mushrooms
and so on But today many people Fust have cereal with milk and sugar, or toast with marmalade, Fam,
or honey #he traditional breakfast drink is tea, which people have with cold milk !any visitors to
Britain find this kind of tea very strange and tasteless Apart from tea, people drink coffee, often instant
coffee, which is made with Fust hot water
3or many people, lunch is a )uick meal In cities there are a lot of sandwich bars, where office
workers can choose the kind of bread they want C brown, white, or a roll C, and then all sorts of
salad and meat or fish to go in the sandwich #hey can also go to pubs for lunch because these pubs
serve good cheap food 4chool,children can have a hot meal at school, but many of them Fust take a
snack from homeCa sandwich, a drink, some fruit, and perhaps some crisps
?#ea? not only means a drink but a meal as well #he meal includes sandwiches, cakes, and, of
course, a cup of tea &ream teas are popular @ou have scones Aa kind of cakeB with cream and Fam
when you have a cream tea in a cafe
#he evening meal is the main meal of the day for many people #hey usually have it )uite early,
between M8// and J8//, and often the whole family eats together
"n 4undays many families have a traditional lunch #hey have roast meat Abeef, lamb, chicken, or
porkB with vegetables and gravy, a sauce made from meat stock
#he British like food from other countries, too, especially from Italy, 3rance, &hina and India
+eople often get take,away meals Cyou buy the food at the restaurant and then take it home to eat
Eating in Britain is )uite internationalT
1* %e,lthy Diets From Aro)nd The 2orld
#he trick to finding healthy food, wherever it comes from, is to look carefully at its ingredients
$o single cuisine , a country?s distinct style of cooking , is all good or all bad Each has something to
teach us #he moral is simple8 Whether you?re eating Irish beef stew or 3rench cassoulet, you need to
know what?s in it With a little nutritional knowledge, you can sample some of the world?s tastiest food
and know you?re also eating some of the best
Chin,; #he &hinese have a balanced diet which is made up of about MO percent carbohydrate, I/
percent protein, and only .I percent fat #hat?s remarkably close to the mi*ture that Western
nutritionists recommend Rice, noodles, &hinese cabbage and mushrooms, along with other vegetables
and small portions of fish and meat, are the staples of &hinese diets #hat is, these are the most widely
consumed food items in &hina Recent medical research suggests that oriental mushrooms help boost
the immune system and also have )ualities that may help prevent heart disease #he downside of
&hinese cookery, as in >apan, is the e*cessive use of soy sauce, which is e*tremely salty, and the use of
monosodium glutamate A!4-B, a meat tenderi'er !4- is as bad as salt if you?re fighting high blood
pressure, and it can also cause allergic reactions 3or many people, when dining in &hinese restaurants
it is best to ask for the !4- to be left out
MeDico; Which !e*ican dishes are best for health,conscious dinersE Even though it is high in fat,
guacamole is a surprisingly good choice -uacamole is a thick mi*ture of avocado Aa tropical fruitB,
tomato, onion, and spices, usually eaten cold with bread or chips !ost of the fat in avocado is
monounsaturated, like the fat in olive oil, which is believed to lower cholesterol and be good for the
development of cells 4eviche Afish marinated in lime FuiceB is low in fat overallH so are some chicken
dishes like chicken tostadas, if they are not fried In addition, in case you?re wondering, the hot chili
peppers of !e*ican cuisine could actually be good for you, if you can tolerate the spiciness &hili
peppers, an inseparable ingredient of !e*ican cuisine, are an e*cellent source of 1itamins A and &
#hey may even help you fight a cold, asthma, bronchitis, and sinusitis
Al,sk,; Even in the remotest parts of the world, a health,food freak can find healthy diets #he
tremendous amount of fish that Eskimos eat helps to prevent heart disease 3ish oil can be beneficial as
it lowers blood pressure, cholesterol, and the blood?s capacity to clot A recent Dutch study showed that
eating as few as two fish meals a week cut the death rate from coronary heart disease by half Although
it is very healthy, it is )uite challenging to make such a monotonous diet tasty "ne piece of advice is to
carry one?s own sauces when traveling to Alaska A selected assortment of herbs and spices can do
wonders to improve even the dullest dishes, and can make them even healthier
It,ly; In southern Italy, such staples as pasta, olive oil, garlic, and whole,wheat bread provide a
true gift of health8 protection from cancer and heart disease 2ike oriental mushrooms, garlic is good
for the heart and the immune system When one is in Italy observing happy,looking and not,so,thin
Italians, it may be hard to believe that their diet is healthy, but it is, and delicious tooH so, when in
Rome, do as the Romans doT EnFoy Italian food to your heart?s content
>,(,n; #wo products of the soybeanCmiso and tofuCare healthy staples !iso soup may fight
cancerH tofu offers low,fat protein 4eaweed, the >apanese lettuce, is rich in many nutrients "n the
other hand, >apan?s smoked, salted, and pickled foods lead to a high incidence of stroke and stomach
cancer
1* Ch,nging Diets
What do most Americans and &anadians usually eatE !any people think that the typical $orth
American diet consists of fast foodChamburgers, hot dogs, 3rench fries, pi''a, fried chicken, and so
on #hey think Americans and &anadians also eat a lot of convenience food, usually fro'en or canned,
and Funk foodCcandy, cookies, potato chips, and other things without much food value 7nfortunately,
they are not wrong #he American diet is generally high in sugar, salt, fat and cholesterol, and these
substances can cause certain illnesses
:owever, people?s eating habits are changing #hey are becoming more interested in good health
and nutrition is an important part of health $owadays, $orth Americans are eating less red meat and
fewer eggs, and they are eating more chicken and fish #hese foods do not contain much fat, so they are
healthier !any people are also buying more fresh vegetables and eating them either raw or steamed to
keep the vitamins
#he fact that restaurant menus are changing also shows people?s growing interest in good food
#he $orth American diet now includes food from many different countries !ore ethnic restaurants are
opening in big cities in the 7nited 4tates and &anada 3oods from &hina, >apan, 5orea, #hailand,
India, and the !iddle East are very popular Even fast,food places now offer low,fat hamburgers,
roasted Ainstead of friedB chicken, and salad bars with a wide variety of fresh fruits and vegetables
In the 7nited 4tates and &anada, food is a very common topic of conversation +eople always
discuss new dishes, restaurants, diet plans, and ideas about nutrition #he arguments about the best
diets and foods will continue8 Are vegetarians really healthyE Is a little alcohol good for rela*ationE
&an yellow vegetables really prevent cancerE "ne thing we know for sure8 #he key to good nutrition is
balance We can eat various kinds of food, control the )uantities that we eat, limit fats, and do e*ercise
14 L)cky Peo(le
In the &aucasus region, nearly 0/ out of every I//,/// people live to celebrate their I//th
birthday, and many don?t stop at I//T #he +akistani :un'as, who live high in the :imalaya !ountains,
and the 1ilcabambans of the Andes !ountains in Ecuador seem to share the same secret, too #his is
very surprising because in America only N people in I//,/// reach I//
#hese people remain healthy in body and spirit in spite of the passage of time While many older
people in industrial societies become weak and ill in their M/s and L/s, some people in the &aucasus
region, aged II/ to I=/, work in the fields together with their great,great ,grandchildren Even the idea
of ageing is foreign to them When asked, GAt what age does youth endEG most of these old people had
no answer 4everal replied, GWell, perhaps at the age of J/G #he youngest estimate was age M/
What could be the reasons for this ability to survive to such old age, and to survive so wellE 3irst
of all, hard physical work is a way of life for all of these long,lived people #hey begin their long days
of physical labor as children and never seem to stop !r Rustam !amedov, for e*ample, is I=. years
old, but he has no intentions of retiring from his life as a farmer GWhyE What else would I doEG he
asks Actually, he has slowed down a bit $ow, he might stop for the day after M hours in the field
instead of I/
All these people get healthful rewards from the environment in which they work #hey all come
from mountainous regions #hey live and work at I,MM/ to =,/// meters above the sea level, where the
air has less o*ygen and is pollution,free #his reduced,o*ygen environment makes the heart and blood
vessel system stronger
Another factor that may contribute to the good health of these people is their isolation #o a great
degree, they are separated from the pressures and worries of an industrial society
Inherited factors also play some role !ost of the longest,lived people had parents and grand,
parents who also reached very old ages #herefore, good family genes may be a factor in living longer
3inally, although these three groups don?t eat e*actly the same foods, their diets are similar #he
:un'as, 1ilcabambans and &aucasians eat little meat #heir diets are full of fresh fruits, vegetables,
nuts, grains, cheese, and milk #hey never eat more food than their bodies need
It is clear that isolation from urban pressures and pollution, clean mountain air, daily hard work,
moderate diets, good genes, and a youthful approach to life all contribute to the health and remarkable
long life of all these people
15 C,m(odimel,ns
Although she doesn?t know it yet, three,month,old &ecilia, who was born in an Italian village
called &ampodimele, has a good chance of living at least I// years $ot that her parents have
discovered the secret to a long life C they are Fust lucky to have been born in &ampodimele, a small
village of J0/ people in Italy #he mayor of the village claims that few &ampodimelans die before the
age of J0, and many live longer :is grandfather lived to O0, his grandmother to OL and his aunt to I//
!ore than O/ people in the village are aged between L0 and OO C a surprising number, which led the
World :ealth "rganisation AW:"B to send scientists to the village to investigate #hey discovered that
the old people?s cholesterol levels were far lower than newborn babies? cholesterol levels
#he oldest villager, at OO, thinks that hard work as well as taking regular e*ercise can help you live
longer A favorite activity among the older people is going to see the village chickens A long street
leads from the village to do'ens of stone chicken houses on a hill -etting there can mean a good hour?s
walk and sometimes they do this twice a day +eople also think that the villagers? easy,going nature and
sense of emotional balance also helps $obody suffers from depression and old people don?t get lonely
because they live with their families 2ife is unhurried, stress is unknown and traffic is banned from the
centre of the village
During the study carried out by W:" in &ampodimele, the researchers found that the blood
pressure of the elderly in the area moved up and down far less than that of the maFority of Italians
4table blood pressure helps people live for a long time #he study also looked at the children and
grandchildren of the elderly and discovered that they also had much lower blood pressure than the
average #his was confirmed by the same study done on a group from the village who went to live in
&anada in the IOM/?s #heir blood pressure was also low and this led the scientists to believe that the
secret of why they live so long could be in the &ampodimelans? genes :owever, this is not the whole
answer
In &ampodimele, old people walk for at least two hours daily, eat at the same time each day, get up
at dawn and go to bed at sunset Baby &ecilia?s ON,year,old great grandmother thinks that eating lots of
spring onions is the key to a long life 4he eats them raw, dressed with oil, vinegar and red pepper :er
grandson was so impressed with her recipes that he has opened a restaurant #he menu is very
!editerranean #here are lots of fresh vegetables, beans, wild mushrooms, almost no butter and very
little salt #he local specialty is a dish of peas which is often served with homemade pasta or snails
Either side dish adds to the taste of the peas and makes it a perfect meal for celebrating your hundredth
birthday
17 &,in Forest &emedies
#he teacher and the student sit facing each other on the floor of the open,sided hut in Western
4amoa #he teacher is 4alome Isofea, a young healer who is demonstrating her art #he man opposite
her, a Westerner named +aul Alan &o*, is not an ordinary student :e is a botany professor at Brigham
@oung 7niversity in 7tah, a world specialist in medical plants #o people here, he is known as
$afanua, in honor of a god who once protected the village and its forests
4alome is e*plaining a traditional cure for pterygium, an eye disease common to the tropics, in
which vision gradually becomes obscured as a layer of tissue covers the cornea #he traditional cure
used by healers is leaves of Centella asiatica, which 4alome chews and then spreads on a piece of cloth
and places as a compress on the afflicted eye for three consecutive nights Before this can be done,
4alome e*plains, there is another crucial part of the cure :olding a bowl containing ashes, she scatters
them in the direction of &o*, who is playing the patient When he asks why the ashes are necessary, she
replies that they enhance ?spiritual transmission? between the healer and the patient
All 4amoan healers are women who learned their art from their mothers, who in turn taught it to
their daughters $ow the knowledge of the recipes and their administration, even the location of the
plants in the forests, are endangered as more and more daughters abandon the long training period in
favor of using Western medicine 3or this reason, the discovery of young practicing healers like 4alome
delights &o*, who believes that only people like her can prevent the loss of centuries of knowledge If
he can carry 4alome?s knowledge to the developed world in the form of plants whose chemical
compounds might help combat incurable diseasesCnotably cancer, AID4, and Al'heimer?sCthe
enthusiasm to save the 4amoan rain forest, and all forests, will be much stronger
According to -ordon &ragg, chief of the $ational &ancer Institute?s natural,products branch,
nature produces chemicals that no chemist would ever dream of at the laboratory bench #his is
encouraging for biologists and environmentalists who are concerned about the dwindling of the planet?s
biodiversity, mostly concentrated in an area around the e)uator :uman activity, from farming to
logging and road building, is driving countless species to e*tinction even before they have been
discovered GI see ethno,botanyCthe study of the relationship between people and plantsCas the key
to the preservation of this vast collection of species, as well as a pathway to halting many diseases,G
says &o*
!aFor technological advances in testing processes have helped &o* and other ethno botanists
immensely +harmacologists must analy'e between I/,/// and IL,/// chemical compounds before
finding one with the potential to be tested to achieve the desired result in humans 7ntil recently,
animal testing and clinical trials of a single drug re)uired an average I. years of research and cost up
to 0N// million :owever, initial screening can now be done in a matter of days without using animals
!olecular biologists can isolate en'ymes that can trigger human e*diseases, then e*pose those
en'ymes to a plant?s chemical compounds If a plant e*tract blocks the action of a particular en'yme,
they know the plant has drug potential By e*tracting specific chemicals from the leaves, roots or bark
and testing each sample individually, scientists can !etermine which of the plant?s thousands of
compounds actually blocks the en'yme
As a result of these advances, about I// 74 companies are searching out plants Drug companies
and scientific institutions are collaborating on field research all over the globe to study as many natural
substances as possible before they, or the native people who use them, disappear 4ome work with a
group of ethno,botanists like &o*, who know a lot about indigenous people, to search out drug
candidates "thers use a different approach, mass, collecting plants whose chemical compounds might
contribute to new drugs
&o* has spent years in 4amoa interviewing traditional healers and learning their trade of healing
by working as their apprentice, ie trainee :e knows that if the rain forests of 4amoa continue to
disappear, hundreds of potential drugs hidden there may never be found #herefore, he spends much of
his time trying to preserve the forest area that remains !ore than J/R of the rain forest has already
been logged because that?s the only way 4amoans can earn money :owever, &o* aims at offering
cash,poor Western 4amoans an alternative to having their forest cut down :e believes they can earn
money by preserving their forest, their wealth, instead of selling it to loggers
4: Ty(ic,l Or Not=
If the idea of a fitness routine makes you feel e*hausted and if you shiver even at the thought of
Fogging round the park in the winter wind, then Sigong might be Fust the right form of e*ercise you are
looking for It won?t tire you a lot but will guarantee you good physical conditioning
#his new gentle form of oriental gymnastics is composed of a system of meditative e*ercises
#hese e*ercises involve standing motionless in a series of postures for half an hour a day, or combining
simple movements with breathing e*ercises Although this type of e*ercise does not build muscles, it is
)uickly growing in popularity #he reason for this is that in addition to its simplicity, it is a good way of
reducing stress, stimulating the circulation and strengthening the body?s immune system
3igong means training your energy, and is compared to acupuncture without needles According
to &hinese beliefs, =i is the vital energy which circulates within the human body and throughout nature
3i is thought to flow along the system of body channels Fust like blood does &onse)uently, 3igong is
based on the hypothesis that illnesses and psychological problems are caused when the natural energy
flow is blocked 3igong directs energy to the troublespot, and thus can be used in treating illnesses like
asthma and hypertension #his holistic method has also been shown to be successful in treating obesity
A Dutch patient who was taken by her father to a 3igong practitioner two years ago says8 GI wasn?t
sure, at the beginning, if the result would be good I?d tried so many diets, but none had workedG "nce
she started the 3igong routine, her weight began to drop, despite only small changes in her diet GI can?t
believe that I weigh 0/ kg less than I used to and it?s not difficult at all 4ince I started doing the
e*ercises I haven?t been so hungry and I?ve had more energy, so I?m more activeG she says
&hinese practitioners have found it difficult to persuade the Western mind of the powers of
3igong0 :owever, governments that want to cut down healthcare costs are endorsing Sigong, although
medical science cannot e*plain it In -ermany, for e*ample, 3igong is available on the national
healthcare system, and many doctors are prescribing it for aches, insomnia and allergies !any patients
who have suffered from allergies for years have found that, since starting Sigong, they haven?t been ill
at all, or only suffer from very slight allergic reactions
In Europe, it has been mostly used to treat relatively minor conditions, but recently Sigong has
achieved dramatic results with more serious conditions In one case, a 3rench air stewardess was told
by her doctor that she only had a few months to live because she had cancer &onventional treatment,
including chemotherapy and all kinds of medicine, had been unsuccessful It made her so ill that she
nearly died After starting 3igong, however, the patient immediately began to feel better and was able
to return to work Even more surprisingly, the doctors couldn?t find any traces of the disease While this
may sound like a miracle, one should point out that 3igong may not necessarily cure everyone, as it
depends on how much e*ercise the patient gets and on the individual?s psychological motivation
$evertheless, even if it does not cure the patient, it has the potential to prolong hisQher life
49 Ac)()nct)re
#oday in most western cultures acupuncture is considered a Gnew alternativeG medicine In reality
acupuncture is a practiced medical treatment that is over 0,/// years old 1ery basically, acupuncture is
the insertion of very fine needles into the skin in order to influence the physiological functioning of the
body
#he first record of acupuncture is found in the =,L//,year,old :uang Di $ei >ing #his is said to
be the oldest medical te*tbook in the world It is said to have been written down from even earlier
theories by 4hen $ung, the father of &hinese !edicine, who documented theories about circulation,
the pulse, and the heart over =,/// years before European medicine had any concept of them
As the basis of acupuncture, 4hen $ung theori'ed that the body has an energy force running
throughout it #his energy force is known as Si Aroughly pronounced as &heeB #he Si consists of all
essential life activities which include the spiritual, emotional, mental and physical aspects of life A
person?s health is influenced by the flow of Si in the body, in combination with the universal forces of
@in and @ang If the flow of Si is insufficient or unbalanced, @in and @ang become unbalanced, and
illness may occur Si travels throughout the body along GmeridiansG or special pathways, which are the
same on both sides of the body ApairedB #here are fourteen main meridians running vertically up and
down the surface of the body "ut of these, there are twelve organ meridians in each half of the body
#here are also two unpaired midline meridians #he acupuncture points are specific locations where the
meridians come to the surface of the skin, and are easily accessible by GneedlingG #he connections
between them ensure that there is an even circulation of Si, a balance between @in and @ang Energy
constantly flows up and down these pathways When they become obstructed, @in and @ang are said to
be thrown out of balance, which causes illness Acupuncture is said to restore the balance
#here are a few related procedures that fall into the range of acupuncture treatments #he first is
electro,acupuncture #his is the use of very small electrical impulses through the Acupuncture needles
#his method is generally used for analgesia Apain relief or preventionB #he amount of power used is
only a few micro amperes, but the fre)uency of the current can vary from 0 to .,/// :ert' #he higher
fre)uencies are generally used for surgery Ausually abdominalB, and the lower fre)uencies for general
pain relief #he first reported successful use of electro,acupuncture was in IO0J in &hina for a
tonsillectomy #oday, it is a common method of surgical analgesia used in &hina Besides electrical
impulses, lasers and sound waves are also used for stimulating acupuncture points #his is called
4onopuncture A very commonly used treatment is auriculotherapy, or ear acupuncture #he theory is
that since the ear has a rich nerve and blood supply, it would have connections all over, the body 3or
this reason, the ear has many acupuncture points which correspond to many parts and organs of the
body Auricular acupuncture has been successful in treating problems ranging from obesity to
alcoholism to drug addiction #here are numerous studies, either completed or currently going on,
which affirm auricular acupuncture?s effectiveness Another popular treatment method is mo*ibustion,
which is the treatment of diseases by applying heat produced by burning specific herbs on acupuncture
points Acupuncture and mo*ibustion are considered complementary forms of treatment, and are
commonly used together !o*ibustion is used for ailments such as bronchial asthma, bronchitis, and
certain types of paralysis
Acupuncture is also used in treating addictions to alcohol, tobacco AnicotineB and GhardG drugs It
can rid the body of the physical dependencyH however, cannot rid the mind of the habit 3or this reason,
acupuncture treatment of addictions has not been fully successful
42 2here Did They Come From=
In the modern world, transportation and the spread of products have made almost any foods and
drinks available all over the world, but many of the foods that we eat today originally were eaten or
grown in only one part of the world #he origins of various foods are interesting #omatoes, for
e*ample, are originally from the Americas, and so are potatoes Both were first taken to 4pain and
spread from there to the rest of Europe and, eventually, the rest of the world #oday they are so
common all over the world that it is difficult to imagine they were unknown outside of the Americas
only five hundred years ago
"ne food that is rapidly spreading throughout the world is the hamburger #he hamburger has
many variations #he basic hamburger of the past was made of chopped or ground beef that had been
fried and put between two halves of a round roll or bun #oday it may still be eaten plain or with
additions In modern fast,food shops, hamburgers are sold in what seem like hundreds of variations
#he cheeseburger, a hamburger fried with a slice of cheese on top, is a common variation #oday,
modern hamburgers are eaten with many different additions, including lettuce, tomato, mustard,
ketchup, pickles, and onions
As recently as twenty years ago, the hamburger was a basic food in the 7nited 4tates, &anada, and
some European countries, but it was not eaten in many other countries $ow, energetic business people
are taking the hamburger to 4outh America, >apan, the !iddle East, and &hina :amburgers have an
interesting history #hey were made at one time in the -erman city of :amburg, but the custom of
chopping meat, ie, cutting it into small pieces, was begun by the #artars of &entral Asia more than a
thousand years ago #hey chopped the meat of cows because the meat was tough, and they often ate the
meat uncooked !any centuries later, Russian #artars carried the custom of eating chopped meat to
-ermany -ermans began to eat chopped meat also, and in the city of :amburg, chopped meat was
eaten both cooked and raw and became known as G:amburg 4teakG In the late nineteenth century,
-erman immigrants to the 7nited 4tates brought this custom to the $ew World By the early part of the
last century, Americans were eating hamburger steaks between slices of bread and calling the sandwich
GhamburgerG #he sandwich spread )uickly throughout the 7nited 4tates
+asta is an Italian word for a large group of foods made from wheat flour, cut and formed into
various shapes, eaten after being boiled in water, and usually combined with a sauce 4paghetti,
macaroni, and noodles are all forms of pasta, but pasta, especially In Italy, can have over five hundred
shapes and si'es It is not clear where pasta originated #he usual e*planation is that noodles were first
made in &hina over three thousand years ago When !arco +olo, the Italian traveler, returned to Italy
from &hina in the IN//s, he is said to have returned with the idea of making pasta According to the
story, the Italians took the &hinese idea and developed it into the many forms of pasta we have today
"ther historians, however, can show that the Italians were eating a kind of ravioli, or a meat and
vegetable filling inside a pasta shell, long before !arco +olo returned from &hina 4o we really do not
know if pasta was invented in &hina and carried to Italy or if it was invented in both places
Italians eat about fifty pounds of pasta per person every year +eople in the 7nited 4tates eat only
about seven pounds per person +asta is a good food It has a lot of carbohydrates, and carbohydrates
are now thought to be a very important ingredient in human nutrition +asta is also low in fat 4ince
pasta can be cooked and eaten in so many different ways, and because it is eaten in so many different
countries, it must be called one of the basic foods of the world
4auces are used in cooking almost everywhere In fact, it is difficult to define the word sauce
because it is used in so many different ways 4auces are cooked and added to foods such as pasta #hey
may also be uncooked, such as the white mayonnaise that is used on many sandwiches "ne simple
sauce which has become universal on dinner tables all over the world is ketchup Actually, the word
ketchup entered the English language before the sauce that we know today did #he word ketchup is
from a &hinese word something sounding like ke, tshiap, which was used to mean Ga kind of sauce for
foodG But ke,tshiap did not have any tomatoes in it, and modern ketchup is made mostly of tomatoes,
British sailors liked the ketchup sauce they found in Asia and took the idea back home to England
During the IL//s, ketchup was a common sauce used all over England It still did not contain
tomatoes, though It was the Americans who first added tomatoes to the sauce 3rom IJ// to IJ0/, the
recipe for ketchup changed until it became mostly a tomato sauce and also became a sauce used in
almost every American kitchen 5etchup spread from the 7nited 4tates to many other parts of die
world, completing a Fourney that had begun many centuries earlier in &hina #herefore, types of food,
Fust like ideas and manufactured goods, often begin in one place and spread, often with many changes
in form, from one place to another
OCAN
4' Oce,n D(lor,tion
Although there has always been great interest in the mysteries of the oceans, it has only been in
recent decades that modern technology has enabled scientists to start e*ploring the ocean floor As
recently as the IOM/s, scientists made developments in sounding and recording what happened under
the sea :owever, they had to rely on irregular reports from ships that were on the surface of the water
#he data that were collected were unreliable, so new methods of reaching the ocean floor had to be
developed
!any nations took part in efforts to develop new ways of discovering the secrets of the oceans
#hey were interested in e*ploring areas containing rich mineral deposits, as well as documenting the
wide variety of life forms found in the depths #hey were also interested in investigating the earth?s
structure #he first step was to make maps of the ocean floor, which enabled scientists to guide
submarines and prevent them from having accidents, as the seabed is covered with mountain ranges,
plains and valleys, which can be dangerous for submarine vehicles Detailed knowledge of the floor of
the seas and oceans was also needed to better understand the constant movements of the earth?s surface,
such as the creation of new mountain ranges as a result of the eruption of volcanoes In fact, such an
eruption was witnessed by the crew of the Al$in, a uni)ue type of submarine
In April IOOI, after a one,and,a,half,hour descent to the bed of the +acific "cean, the crew of Y
the Alvin did not see the sea life they e*pected Instead, they saw a scene of disaster #he temperature
outside the Alvin began to increase, and the crew reali'ed they had arrived right after a volcanic
eruption Although they saw no movement of lava, they knew they had a uni)ue chance to learn
something #hey had come to this particular spot because cameras had spotted an area that was rising
rapidly #here had also been an increase in active hot springs 4cientists found out that there had Fust
been a volcanic eruption 3resh lava, which was discovered to be less than two weeks old, lay on the
seabed #here was a huge hole in the? seabed and nothing was left alive #he scientists dropped a
marker so that they could find the spot easily on return visits #here would be a chance to record the
chemical and geological changes, and the renewal of plant and animal life ,
4ince then, scientists have been there twice #hey went there first in !arch IOO. and then in
December .//N In IOO., they saw that the seabed had changed rapidly since the e*plosion 3or
e*ample, tube worms had reached a giant si'e8 they had grown to a length of about two meters
4cientists also found out about mineral chimneys that allow fluid and steam to escape from the lava In
fact, this was the first time scientists were able to see the growth of these chimneys from birth #hey
also witnessed the development of an underwater ?plumbing? system #hey took samples from the
chimneys for analysis and measured the temperature of
4* !,3ing The $gly
-oing out onto rolling seas before dawn to scare away man,eating sharks may not be a dream Fob,
but for >im 2umb, the work has its reward8 he protects swimmers on 4ydney?s beaches from Gthe FawsG
of the deep $ow, he also helps protect sharks from humans G@ou see a fin coming out of the water
and it?s wonderful,G says !r 2umb, as he moves his 0/,foot boat named 4ea Rogue along the long nets
that keep sharks away from swimming areas
2ast December, Australia passed a law protecting two endangered shark species, ending the time,
honored task of Gshark police,G who merely killed the feared creatures $ow they must preserve them ,
even the -reat White shark , by releasing, ie, setting them free if they are entangled in the beach nets
Australian officials say that, the number of -reat Whites has decreased off the coast, mainly because of
fishing Australia has Foined &alifornia, 3lorida, $amibia, and 4outh Africa in protecting sharks #he
government has put the -reat White and the less,threatening -ray $urse shark on its list of endangered
species It has also told Australia?s fishermen that if their nets snag a live -reat White or -ray $urse,
they should release it , if they can do so without being bitten :owever, some shark police aren?t too
pleased with the new rules 2umb?s son, >ames, who also works on the 4ea Rogue, believes that the
prospect of freeing a -reat White is e*tremely dangerous G#here?s Fust not any way you could do it,G
he insists 3ortunately for 2umb and other workers, they are e*empt from penalties if a protected shark
is? killed,in a net While the 2umbs have yet to save a -reat White, they do what they can to release
smaller, harmless sharks like the +ort >ackson, named after 4ydney?s harbor G?
GWe Fust want to prevent sharks from coming to the beaches If I didn?t catch a shark at all, I?d be
happy,G >im says :e and his colleagues move their mesh nets, each IM= yards long, between beaches
to try to prevent sharks from establishing territories #hey are taken away during the winter, when
fewer people visit the beach >im estimates he catches about 0/ sharks on his beat each season !ost
die as they struggle to break free from the nets
3amous for its surfing and life,saving culture, 4ydney became the first place in the world to try to
make its beaches Gshark,proof? following a spate of attacks in the IO./s and ION/s #he mesh nets first
appeared around the city?s beaches in IONL 4ince then, nets have been placed around other beaches
#he Australian government estimates that roughly 0// great whites are killed off the coast each year,
and only I/,/// remain in this part of the world #hey are often caught inadvertently by fishermen
#hese few sharks that are caught by accident bring high prices in Asia, where shark fin soup is a
delicacy "ther shark parts are used in health and beauty products Between IOO/ and IOOM, Australia
recorded =0 shark attacks, resulting in seven deaths @et, sympathy for the great white has grown due to
concern that the fish may disappear Australia?s Environment !inister, Robert :ill, says people now
not only want to preserve the furries an! cu!!lies, or cute and lovely animals such as the panda, but
also species viewed as threatening
40 D(loring The De(ths Of The Oce,n
Doctor Bob Ballard is an a)uanaut C, an e*plorer of the world?s seas and oceans :e has visited
the bottom of oceans in a mini,submarine and e*plored such things as the #itanic and the -erman
battleship the Bismark !ost recently he has discovered the ship 2usitania, which sank off the coast of
Ireland in IOI0 Ballard has made these visits alone since he Foined the Deep 4ubmergence 2aboratory
in IOML
!aking these visits, however, is very difficult #he mini,submarines which only have room for
one man and take over two hours to reach the sea,bed, and then can only stay there for three hours
Because of these problems, Ballard has developed two robot submarines which send him information
.= hours a day #hese robots are known as the Argo,>ason system #he Argo is lowered by cable from a
ship on the surface of the ocean and it follows the floor of the ocean and sends back new information
which helps Ballard and his team to make maps
#he >ason, however, is smaller and is a true robot It can move completely independently across
the ocean floor 3or instance, although it was still attached to the surface ship, it actually went inside
the #itanic >ason has two control systems It can be directed from the surface ship, or it can be
programmed by computer before it goes down Either way, it is small enough to get within a centimeter
of its target
At one time, the )uality of the pictures which >ason sent back to the ship was not very good $ew
technology, however, has enabled >ason to send back clear, full color television pictures to the surface
ship An operator can sit in the ship, surrounded by television screens, and see everything >ason is
filming Ballard says it is almost the same as being in the submarine himself At his home by the sea in
America, Ballard has built an electronic centre By using satellite links he can send other robots, Fust
like >ason, to various underwater spots all over the world without ever leaving his houseT
Despite the use of new technology, Ballard says that only a tiny part of the ocean floor has been
e*plored 3or e*ample, the !id,Adantic Ridge, a huge underwater mountain range, is the Earth?s
largest geographical feature yet it was discovered under the ocean after man had already walked on the
moon
Ballard dreams of people living under the sea in the .Ist century According to him, problems
such as energy shortage and overcrowding can be solved by man making use of parts of the ocean :e
believes that many people think !ars is a friendlier place to live than under the sea, and that many are
afraid of the idea of living under the sea :e says that people have always been afraid of the unknown,
and that we must rise above these fears If we continue to live with our fears, we might never find
answers to our )uestions Ballard, in short, thinks people should start considering living under water
41 2h,t is ,n MPA=
A !arine +rotected Area A!+AB is an area of the ocean that is protected by law in order to
preserve areas of high biological importance It is similar to a national parkH an !+A tries to conserve
the life and habitat within #his can include the sea floor and all the life above it in the water
:uman activities that destroy the habitat or endanger a species by removing too many individuals
are banned in an !+A !arine biologists have identified mining, oil e*ploration and a)uaculture, as
some activities that may be destructive and need to be stopped in areas that have to be protected
Different !+As may have different goals, therefore, in some, fishing may be allowed, whereas others
may be no,go 'ones for anyone
!arine +rotected Areas may become an important tool for creating permanent fisheries +ast
fishery management simply tried to limit the amount of fish caughtH it did not consider entire
ecosystems An !+A can be designed to protect important habitats !+As can also function to save
endangered species by protecting their habitat +rotected areas are beneficial for conservation, but they
are also good for improving fisheries and increasing local economic opportunities
When they are properly managed and enforced, !arine +rotected Areas have been effective in
protecting and rebuilding many marine species #he numbers of certain fish and other species often
increase in the waters ne*t to a protected area as well #his is a good thing for local fisheries It is
called the G4pillover EffectG If an area is protected from fishing, the fish in that area will be able to
grow older and bigger 2arger fish are able to produce more eggs and therefore more Fuvenile fish
When these Fuveniles grow up, and the !+A becomes too full, as there are no fences in the ocean, the
fish will move out of the area and into fishing grounds where they can be caught by fishermen A
couple of years after !+As were established in 4pain, fisheries reported 0/,J/R higher catches ne*t to
these protected areas !+As seem to be doing the Fob scientists thought they would
"aken from 6cean link> 6cean?'e,s
FLI#%T
44 Desire To Fly
!an has long wanted to fly :e saw birds, envied them and tried to imitate them "ver the ages,
countless attempts were made8 men constructed wings, fastened them to their arms and legs and
Fumped off towers and hill tops #hese ?bird,men? flapped their wings for a short space of time and then
fell to the ground What was not reali'ed in those early years was that birds have muscles very much
stronger, in proportion to their si'e, than men :uman limbs cannot provide sufficient strength to lift
the body off the ground #he secret of flight did not lie in making wings, but in discovering the right
kind of power, and how to use it
In the IJth century, the invention of the hot,air balloon by the !ontgolfier brothers of 3rance was
seen as a great step forward In ILJN, in the presence of the 5ing and Sueen, it took three passengers
safely up into the air and down again8 they were a sheep, a cock and a duck 2ater, ballooning became a
fashionable pastime rather than a means of transportation #he cigar,shaped airships which were
invented slightly later did not solve the problem of flying because they had no means of power or
control8 their designers could not find an engine strong enough yet light enough to drive the aircraft
#he airship went where the wand blew it, could lose height and,could easily catch fire, so as a means
of passenger transport it turned out to be neither practical nor safe
4o the difficulty remained8 a true flying machine which was heavier than air and capable of
carrying people was still to be invented E*periments were carried out in many countries, sometimes
with models driven by steam engines, but these were too heavy to be used in an airplane with a pilot
#he answer finally came at the beginning of the ./,h century with the invention of the internal
combustion engine C the kind used in motor cars :ere at last was a powerful, yet comparatively light
engine, driven by petrol and capable of being fitted into an airplane In IO/N, two Americans, the
brothers Wilbur and "rville Wright, flew a powered airplane for the first time #heir success
encouraged designers everywhere Although there were now new, different problems, mainly to do
with safety and the training of pilots, progress was rapid #hese were e*citing days and interest was
intense At Reims, in IO/O, a crowd of a )uarter of a million gathered at the first Air Display, and saw
thirty,eight different aircraft take part #he age of the airplane had arrived
45 .,llooning
#he first means of air transportation was not the airplane It was the balloon +eople traveled by
balloons I// years before there were planes or Fet aircraft In those early days, ballooning was e*citing,
but it was also dangerous 4ometimes the balloons fell suddenly 4ometimes they burned, but these
dangers did not stop the balloonists
3lying a balloon is not like flying a plane It is completely different because the balloon has no
engine and therefore no power of its own #he wind directs the balloon It goes where the wind blows
#he pilot can control only the height of the balloon :e or she can raise and lower the balloon to find
the right wind direction #his is how a good pilot controls where the balloon goes
#he first balloon flight took place in 3rance in ILJN #wo 3renchmen, the !ontgolfier brothers,
made a very large paper bag It was a test balloon without passengers It was filled with hot air :ot air
is lighter than cold air, so it pushed the balloon up #he !ontgolfiersI hot air balloon went up I,///
feet in the sky
2ater that same year, two other 3renchmen went up in a basket attached under a balloon #hey
built a fire under the balloon to make the air hot, #his made the balloon stay up in the air for a few
hours But their balloon was tied to the ground, so it could not go anywhere
#he first free balloon flight was in December, ILJN #he balloon flew for .0 minutes over +aris It
traveled about 0 1. miles Ballooning continued to grow in popularity, and soon other balloonists tried
longer flights A maFor event in the history of ballooning was the first long flight over water "n
>anuary L, ILJ0, >ean +ierre 3rancois Blanchard and >ohn >effries made the first trip over the English
&hannel in a hydrogen balloon After about an hour, their balloon une*pectedly lost gas and began to
go down toward the water #hey threw out some e)uipment and food to make the balloon lighter, but it
still continued to fall, so they threw out almost everything in the basket,even some of their clothes
3inally, after about three hours, they landed in 3rance, cold but safe
During the nineteenth century, ballooning was popular until the invention of the airplane #here
were balloon races all over Europe Balloons were also used by armies in wars to transport e)uipment,
and by scientists to study the meteorology After the airplane was invented, people generally lost
interest in balloons +lanes were much faster and easier to control :owever, some people today still
like to go up in balloons :igh up in the balloon basket, they find peace and )uiet #hey also have a
wonderful view of the world below
47 Aro)nd8The82orld In , .,lloon
Bertrand +iccard and Brian >ones received, a heroes? welcome at &ointrin Airport, -eneva,
4wit'erland, as the first team to successfully complete a round,the,world Fourney in a balloon #heir
trip took about nineteen days and twenty,one hours #hey departed on !arch I, IOOO, from &hateau
d?"e*, 4wit'erland, headed south into Africa and then east over the Arabian +eninsula, Asia, the +acific
"cean, &entral America and the Atlantic "cean before crossing over !auritania, Africa on !arch ./
#hey landed in Egypt on the ..nd Breitling, the 4wiss watchmaking company, sponsored the balloon
flight
+iccard, a =I,year,old 4wiss psychiatrist, who comes from a family of adventurers, and >ones, a
0I,year,old British balloon flight instructor, tried to accomplish something never done before, and they
were successful
#heir big, silver balloon, the Breitling "rbiter N, helped them obtain the one,million,dollar pri'e
offered by the Anheuser,Busch &o and break two other ballooning records8 the longest time in the air
and the furthest distance traveled , more than .M,/// miles
Although +iccard and >ones had their share of problems, they were able to avoid the kinds of
things that caused their two previous attempts and the numerous attempts by other groups to fail, such
as lack of fuel, weak winds, e*tremes of temperature, and thunderstorms #heir cabin was actually
)uite spacious, measuring 0= meters long and .O meters high It was pressuri'ed, so no special
o*ygen tanks or breathing apparatus were needed !oreover, the "rbiter N crew employed a team of
meteorologists to ensure that +iccard and >ones would know where the most favorable winds were to
be found #he "rbiter N weighed about O tons, most of it fuel #he "rbiter itself was designed slightly
differently than the other balloons which failed to travel around the globe #he shape was slightly
changed to minimi'e the effects of both heat and cold on the helium gas 3urthermore, the helium cell
was enlarged so that it was capable of holding appro*imately M0/,/// cubic feet of helium 3inally,
propane was burned this time instead of kerosene, which, although lighter, is more difficult to control
#his well,designed balloon carried +iccard and >ones to success and when they returned, by plane,
to 4wit'erland, it was time to celebrate #he corks were popping, the champagne was flowing, trumpets
were playing and the air was thick with confetti
5: L,st .,lloon To Nowhere
4olomon August Andree, a serious 4wede, was only .. when he had his first e*perience with
balloons while working at an aeronautics fair
0
3rom then on, he devoted himself to the study of
aeronautics !ore e*perienced balloonists were greatly surprised that a man so young and
ine*perienced could go up into the air, in varying weather conditions, and never once showed any signs
of fear Andree?s first balloon was the 4vea, which the publisher of an evening newspaper in 4tockholm
had bought for him Gto promote scienceG After that, ballooning became his entire life In the 4vea, he
made many significant weather observations, studied the speed and movement of sound, and took some
remarkable photographs from the air :is greatest accomplishments in the early IJO/s were several
flights across the Baltic 4ea #hen, in IJO0, Andree surprised everyone by announcing8 GIt is possible
for a balloon to fly to the $orth +oleTG !any people disagreed by saying, G:ow can a balloon stay up
in the air that longEG Andree had the answer to this )uestion GIn the summertime, conditions will be
ideal &ontinuous daylight will keep the temperature variation within a few degrees #herefore, the gas
will remain constant By attaching a sail to the bag, a balloonist can increase the speed so that the
distance can be covered in I0 to ./ daysG
"n !ay NI, IJOM, after more than a year of preparation, the 3irst Andree +olar E*pedition left
4tockholm Andree was in headlines all around the world as he left for Danes Island, off 4pitsbergen in
$orway, from where the e*pedition would start #hen, for si* weeks, the world Cand especially
4wedenC waited e*pectantly while the e*pedition stayed on Danes Island, waiting for the right
weather #he right wind and weather never came, so on August IL, Andree gave up in frustration #he
e*pedition went back to 4tockholm in a state of depression #he man who had been labeled a national
hero because of his previous brave flights became an obFect of criticism Even the most sympathetic
newspapers wrote that his chances of ballooning to the $orth +ole were impossible
In the spring of IJOL, with new hope and financially supported by Alfred $obel, the inventor of
dynamite and the donor of the $obel pri'es, Andree decided on a second attempt #his time, he was
determined to get his new balloon, the Eagle, to fly in the air at all costs Accompanying Andree on the
flight would be 5nut 3raenkel, a .L,year,old civil engineer, and $ils 4trindberg, a .=,year,old
university professor In >une IJOL, the e*pedition was ready to take off in the Eagle Despite the fact
that Andree was a responsible individual and paid great attention to detail, the balloon had one
dangerous fault8 air escaped from it #he advice of everyone, including the balloon maker himself, was
that the e*pedition should be postponed to a later date and the bag rebuilt GI do not have the courage to
5
aeronautics fair8 an aircraft technology show or e*hibition
postpone the flight again,G Andree replied :e was strongly supported by both 4trindberg and 3raenkel,
even though it had been demonstrated that the Eagle was losing a lift capacity of =0 kilos every twenty,
four hours "n >uly II, IJOL, at .8N/ in the afternoon, the flight order was given and the three men
took off 3or almost an hour, the Eagle could be seen against the gray north sky, growing smaller and
smaller #hen it disappeared and was never seen again After that, nobody heard from the e*pedition
for NN years
In August of ION/, the bodies of the three airmen were found near where the balloon had fallen in
the Arctic by a little $orwegian fishing boat Even in his dying hours, Andree had acted meticulously8
he had covered the diary in straw and then in oilcloth as tightly as possible Even as he died, he was
holding the book tightly to his chest, inside the protective clothing he wore Its recordings were nearly
as complete as anyone could have wished "n >uly I=, only three days after taking off, the balloon had
lost too much air and had gone down on Arctic ice #he men marched on ice, eating the fish they
caught and the bears and seals they killed :owever, they became weaker and sicker with each passing
day Andree?s diary gives a clue to one death, that of $ils 4trindberg, who was the first to go Andree
and 3raenkel lived about two weeks longer 4trindberg died of what the other two men decided was a
heart attack within a few hours #he last entry in 4trindberg?s diary, on "ctober M, was GResignationG
5nut 3raenkel died in his sleeping bag, and 4olomon August Andree died leaning against a rock #he
-reat Adventure had ended
59 Airliners
4oon after the end of the 3irst World War, pioneers began to show that, contrary to popular
opinion, long,distance flight across oceans could be made in safety #he e*citement of fast air travel
soon became attractive to business people and the wealthy, and civil airlines opened up in a number of
countries #he first passenger aircraft were biplanes, two winged aeroplanes originally designed as
wartime bombers, and often built of wood and fabric
As more and more people wanted to travel by air, passenger aeroplanes were developed to meet
the demand !any of these were monoplanes, single,winged aircraft with two engines, and they made
regular flights between the cities of Europe and those of the 7nited 4tates During the ION/s, huge
four,engined flying boats became popular for long distance flights across oceans, but they could only
take off and land on calm water, and were not as safe as people believed #hey were also slow and
e*pensive to manufacture #he modern airliner was born in the mid,ION/s with the arrival of the all,
metal low,wing monoplanes, the Boeing .=L and the Douglas D&,. #he D&,. and later the D&,N
proved to be faster, more reliable and more economical to operate than any of its rivals &arrying up to
N. passengers, this aircraft helped to make air travel cheaper, and by IONO, nine out of every ten
airliners in use throughout the world were D&,Ns
Before the 4econd World War and for a few years after it ended, airliners were powered by piston
engines and their speed was limited #heir days were soon numbered with the arrival of the Fet engine
#he first turboFet airliner, de :avilland D: I/M &omet, was put into service in IO0. It had a cruising
speed of about J// kph, much faster than any other airliner of the time 7nfortunately, it was soon
beset with problems In IO0N and IO0=, two &omets broke up in mid,air, killing everyone on board
Eventually, weaknesses in the design of the cabin structure were found responsible for these accidents
In IO0J, a redesigned version, the &omet =, was put into service and remained in use until the IOL/s
4ince the introduction of the &omet, the basic design and appearance of the airliners have changed very
little #he &omet was followed by the Boeing L/L "ther turboFets included the Douglas D&,J and the
4ud, Aviation &aravelle #oday, all long,range airliners are still designed, like the &omet, to cruise at
the altitudes between M,/// and I.,/// meters At this height, the air is calmer In addition, the engines
and wings can operate at the highest efficiency
#he year IOMO saw the first of the big wide,bodied Fet airliners, the Boeing L=L, which can carry
between N./ and 0// passengers #his was one of the turning points in the history of airliners as
carrying more passengers makes flying more economical #he Boeing L=L was followed by other wide,
bodied airliners Among the latest airliners is the wide,bodied Boeing L=L,=//, which has a fully
computeri'ed digital cockpit that can be operated by a flying crew of two A flight engineer is no
longer needed since engine performance is continually monitored by computer It has advanced engines
that consume less fuel and the aircraft can fly about IN,/// km without refueling All these factors help
to reduce the cost of long,distance air travel
4maller airliners, such as the Boeing L0L, are also e)uipped with digital cockpits #he Airbus
AN./ is e)uipped with the latest avionics and fly,by,wire systems $early all of this aircraft?s functions
are electronically controlled, involving over fifteen different interlinked computers A centrali'ed fault
display system flashes up faults on a screen near the pilots #his system will soon be modified so that
details of faults can be signaled to the ground By the time the aircraft lands, ground engineers will
have plans ready for repair work to begin immediately
52 Ameli, M,ry ,rh,rt
A 2OMAN PILOT 2%O MAD A DIFF&NC
America?s famous aviatri* Amelia !ary Earhart was born on >uly .=, IJOL in 5ansas :er
grandfather, Alfred "tis was one of the leading citi'ens of Atchison #herefore, Amelia and her sister
!uriel had privilege and wealth #hey attended private schools and enFoyed many of the comforts of
life
Amelia became interested in flying in IO./, when she went to an Gaerial meetG at Daugherty 3ield
-iven a helmet and goggles, she got in an open,cockpit biplane for a I/,minute flight over 2os
Angeles #his was the e*perience that made her cra'y about flying 4hortly afterwards, she began
lessons with pioneer aviatri* Anita G$etaG 4nook and purchased a prototype of the 5inner airplane and
named it G#he &anaryG 4he had several accidents during this period, but considering the unreliability
of planes in the early days of aviation, some were due to unreliable engines and slowness of the planes
In IO.., Amelia began participating in record breaking attempts and set a women?s altitude record
of I=,/// feet "ne day in IO.M, Amelia was called by &aptain Railey, who had heard a lot about her,
and was offered the chance to become the first woman to fly across the AtlanticH no woman had so far
flown across the Atlantic 4he was only going to be a passenger on the flight, but still she accepted the
offer After the Fourney, she became the subFect of columns in newspapers all over the country Aviation
was )uite a new concept and the industry was looking for ways of improving its image 4oon, Amelia
was appointed assistant to the -eneral #raffic !anager at #ranscontinental Air #ransport mainly with a
responsibility for attracting women passengers
In 4eptember, IO.J, Amelia flew a solo flight from the Atlantic to the +acific coast When she
returned to $ew @ork, she wrote a book about the Atlantic flight, ./ hours, =/ minutes !eanwhile, she
met -eorge +ulmer +utnam, the publisher of her book, and married him in IONI -eorge played a very
important role in many of the accomplishments Amelia made A famous organi'ation that was made up
of OO female pilots, the G$inety,$inesG, was formed by Amelia Earhart with the help of -eorge
+utnam
In ION., Amelia thought she needed to do something striking and started planning a solo flight
across the Atlantic $o other person had successfully flown solo across the Atlantic since 2indbergh At
the time, several other women pilots were making preparations for such a flight and -eorge knew that
in order to keep Amelia?s name in the forefront she would need to make the trip "n !ay ./, ION.,
e*actly 0 years after the 2indbergh flight, Amelia set off 4he broke several records on this flight 4he
was the first woman to fly the Atlantic solo and the only person to fly across it twice 4he held the
record for crossing it in the shortest time and it was the longest non,stop distance flown by a woman
#he +resident sent his congratulations and said that she had shown that aviation was a science which
could not be limited to men only
In IONL, Amelia began to formulate plans for a round,the,world flight and on >une I, IONL Amelia
and her navigator 3red $oonan departed !iami 7nfortunately, after several days of flight, they lost
radio contact Authorities claimed that the plane went down N0,I// miles off the coast of :owland
Island in the +acific +resident Roosevelt authori'ed a search by O naval ships and MM aircraft at an
estimated cost of over P= million #he search was abandoned after three months -eorge continued to
seek help in the search, but he too abandoned all hope of finding them alive "ver the years, many
unconfirmed sightings have been reported and theories still abound "ne of the many theories about
Amelia?s disappearance is that she was on a spy mission authori'ed by +resident Roosevelt and was
captured by the >apanese Another is that she dove her plane into the +acific on purpose and still
another is that she lived for years on an island in the 4outh +acific with a native fisherman :owever,
the whereabouts of her disappearance is yet to be uncovered
!OCIOLO#6
5' Tr,ditions
What are traditionsE #hey are beliefs, customs, music, stories, food, and dress that each generation
passes to the ne*t #hey are social habits #heir origins are largely unknown but we follow them
without thinking #hey are the things that make people around the world different from each other
:owever, the new trend, globali'ation, threatens the e*istence of all traditions As technology, science,
and business bring different nations closer to each other, cultural differences lose their importance
Wherever you go in the world, people eat hamburgers, wear Feans, play the same computer games, and
listen to similar types of music Even languages are not immuneH they are filled with many foreign
words
+eople have two distinct attitudes about traditions, ie, there are two different opinions about
whether traditions should be kept 4ome people believe that no tradition is worth saving #hey believe
that every place on earth will gradually become the same, and a global culture will emerge "thers
think differently and want to preserve all traditions #hey prefer to keep the world with a variety of
different cultures in it #hey think that it is possible for many different cultures to live together
peacefully #o understand and respect each other and give others the right to be different, we must be
more tolerant of each other?s traditions We can get a better understanding of traditions if we classify
them into three groups8 religious traditions, social traditions, and superstitions
Religion is the source of many of our traditions "ne e*ample of religious traditions is holidays In
fact, the English word for holiday originates from Gholy daysGH that is, religious days !any of the most
important holidays, such as GRamadan BayramG and G&hristmas Eve,G are religious in origin "ther
traditions like circumcision and pilgrimages also come from religion A pilgrimage is a Fourney to a
sacred place like !ecca or >erusalem, the holy lands for !oslems and >ews !any daily practices also
depend on religion 3or e*ample, !oslems cannot eat pork, whereas :indus cannot eat beef >ews have
many rules about food, whereas &hristians have none
#here are many social traditions that originated long ago $o one remembers why we wear
wedding rings on the fourth finger of the left hand 4imilarly, we have forgotten why knives have
round ends, why we use forks instead of chopsticks as the &hinese do, why men wear trousers in the
West but dresses called GthobesG in Arabia or skirts called GkiltsG in 4cotland :ave you ever thought
about why white is a symbol of purity in the West but of death in the EastE #here are thousands of
details in our daily lives that started for reasons that we no longer know Even the stories that we tell
our children or the dances that we do at ceremonies have forgotten origins In other words, many social
traditions have historical origins
4uperstitions are traditional beliefs that we share with other people in our society about luck
4ometimes we try to avoid bad luck by avoiding certain things 3or e*ample, people do not walk under
ladders or cross the path of a black cat !any people try to avoid the number GIN,G so many hotels in
the 74 will not have a thirteenth floor or a room number INT Another e*ample is knocking on wood to
avoid bad luck !any of these superstitions seem to be universal, whereas others are more local
+eople of the !iddle East and the Balkans believe that a blue bead on a child?s clothes will keep away
bad luck or the Gevil eyeG
5* Arr,nged M,rri,ges; An Altern,ti3e to Lo3e M,rri,ges
#he system of arranged marriage in India was well established during the 1edic period and has
been practiced very commonly by the vast maFority of the population since then !arriage is seen as a
necessity in the life of a :indu, and the unmarried person is considered incomplete and not suitable for
participation in certain social and religious activities
#he practice of arranged marriage cuts across all caste lines, regional borders, and language
barriers in India !arriage is treated as an alliance between two families rather than two individuals In
the Foint family arrangement, where several generations live together, the possible bride is evaluated on
her suitability as part of the family environment C not only as a wife to her husband 2ove is not
viewed as an important element in mate selection In fact, romantic love is regarded as an
uncontrollable emotion which negatively affects the use of logic in decision making #hus, mate
selection by self,choice is seen as a danger to the entire Foint family because it could lead to the
selection of a spouse who is unsuitable in character or background -upta AIOLMB has estimated that
Indian marriages based on love occur among less than one percent of the population &rucial life
decisions, such as choosing a mate, are generally determined by responsible members of the family
#herefore, they reflect the cultural emphasis on family life as opposed to freedom of the individual
:owever, it is thought that close ties and feelings of love will develop between the couple following
marriage
In urban areas of India, newspaper advertisements have become a convenient and acceptable
method of finding a suitable spouse In IOM/, &ormack noted that the use of advertisements was
growing in most big Indian cities Eleven years later, 5urian observed that it had become an
established Ggo betweenG for arranging marriages #hese advertisements typically list the desirable
characteristics of the young men and women 4tudies by 5urian AIOL=B and Ross AIOMIB show strong
se* differences in preferred )ualities for males and females In Indian culture, a male is highly valued
for the social and economic status of his family, his educational level, and potential earning power
+ersonal )ualities such as appearance and personality are not considered very important In women, the
following )ualities are emphasi'ed8 moral character, beauty, ability to cook well and manage a home,
and education
!ost research on modern family life in India suggests that there has been little change in the views
of Indians toward marriage :owever, Rao and Rao?s survey of college students revealed a surprising
fact8 An increasing number of young adults in India wish to have more choice in the selection of their
future wives or husbands, although they still let their parents arrange their marriages #heir findings
were also )uite similar to those of &ormack, who also stated that the custom of forbidding a
prospective couple from seeing each other until their wedding day is becoming out of date in most
urban areas and among college,educated youth #hey prefer to spend some time with their prospective
husbands or wives before getting married
50 Dowry ,nd .ride Price
#he economics of marriage has changed over time In the past, families arranged marriages, and
there was always some money or goods involved #he bride was e*pected to bring a GdowryG, Aie a
payment by the bride?s family to the bridegroom?s for marrying their daughterB of money, Fewelry,
animals, or something of large value to the marriage #he dowry was often used by the receiving family
for business purposes, family members? education, or for the husband?s sisters #hroughout history, the
dowry has been used in many civili'ations for different purposes 3or e*ample, in Ancient Rome, the
dowry was a means of sharing the cost of starting a new family In India, dowry was given as
compensation to the groom?s parents for the amount they spent in educating and upbringing their son
In &hina, wealthy parents gave some real estate or a couple of servant girls to the husband to guarantee
their child a pleasant and comfortable life 3orms of dowry were common in Europe until the IOth
century, but it declined and eventually disappeared with moderni'ation
In other cultures, the family of the groom or the groom himself had to pay a Gbride priceG, or a
marriage payment, to the bride?s family for the right to marry their daughter Another form was Gbride
wealthG, which was the property given by the groom?s family to the bride?s family to compensate the
loss of their daughter?s services
In some cultures, dowries and bride prices are still demanded 3or e*ample, in southern 4udan, the
groom must give ./,=/ cattle as a bride price In both cases, the financial transaction takes place
between the groom, or his family and the bride?s familyH the bride has no part in this transaction and
often no choice in the marriage decision It is the bride?s family who has the final word
51 #ender; 2h,t M,kes $s Different From Them=
A few hours after >oy 3isher?s birth, her parents took pictures of her >oy?s mother put a pink hair
band around >oy?s head, so that everyone who saw the pictures would know that the new baby was a
girl Even before she was born, >oy?s parents knew that the baby was going to be female because they
had had a sonogram >oy?s parents decorated her room in pink and white and told all their relatives and
friends that their baby was a girl -ifts soon arrived, including pink dresses and dolls A few years later,
>oy?s brother, #ommy, was born :is room was painted blue, and he received toy cars and a football as
gifts
Both >oy and #ommy are growing up in a certain culture #hey are learning what it means to be a
girl and a boy in that culture #heir se* at birth, female and male, is now becoming a genderCa way of
thinking, speaking, and acting that is considered feminine or masculine Each culture has its own way
of defining gender, and very early in life gender becomes a basic part of a person?s identity
According to Deborah #annen, a professor at -eorgetown 7niversity, gender differences begin
early in life 3or e*ample, in the 7nited 4tates, boys and girls usually play in same,se* groups Boys
like to play with a large group of boys, and they compete with one another for leadership 4ome are
leadersH others are followers -irls, in contrast, usually play in smaller groups 4ometimes they play
with only one or two Gbest friendsG It?s important for most girls that other girls like them, and this is
more important to them than winning
#annen has found that these differences are also reflected in the ways that children use language
while they play Boys often use commands when they talk to each other 3or instance, when #ommy is
the leader of the group, he might say, G@ou go first Don?t wait for meG As the leader, he tells them
e*actly what to do But when >oy wants to influence her friends, she uses different forms of language
Instead of using commands, she will say, G2et?s try it this way 2et?s do thisG #his is how she tries to
direct the other girls without sounding like a boss
As >oy and #ommy grow up, they will continue to be different At school, >oy?s status will depend
on her circle of friends If her friends are popular, then >oy may enFoy high status as well #ommy?s
status, on the other hand, does not depend on who his friends are at school #ommy gains status
through his own ability to play sports well or earn high grades
Different ways of speaking are another part of gender As adults, men and women sometimes face
difficulties in their communication with each other 4tudies of communication show that if a woman
tells her husband about a problem, she will e*pect him to be understanding 4he may be annoyed when
he simply tells her how to solve the problem 4imilarly, a husband may be annoyed when his wife
wants to stop and ask a stranger for directions to a park or restaurant 7nlike his wife, he would rather
use a map and find his way by himself
2anguage is also part of the different ways that men and women think about friendship !ost
American men believe that friendship means doing things together, such as camping or playing tennis
American women, on the other hand, usually identify their best friend as someone with whom they talk
fre)uently #annen believes that for women, talking with friends and agreeing with them is very
important #annen has found that women, in contrast to men, often use tag )uestions 3or e*ample, a
woman might say, G#his is a great restaurant, isn?t itEG By adding a tag )uestion to her speech AGisn?t
itEGB, she is giving other people a chance to agree with her 7nlike most women, men often speak more
directly, giving direct commands such as G&lose the doorG !any women, however, use more polite
forms such as G&ould you please close the doorEG
#hese differences seem to be part of growing up in a certain culture and following its rules of
gender If men and women can understand that many of their differences are cultural, not personal, they
may be able to improve their relationships #hey may begin to understand that because of gender
differences in language, there is more than one way to communicate
54 Is Americ, Closing The A#olden DoorA=
America has always been a land of immigrants With the e*ception of the native American Indian,
there is no 7nited 4tates citi'en who is not an immigrant or a descendant of an immigrant Immigration
into this continent started in the IM//s and continued nonstop and unrestricted until the late IJ//s #o
people in Europe and other parts of the world, where governments were often tyrannical, economies
unpredictable, and food fre)uently insufficient, this ?new world? offered promise and hope, and thus,
millions of them went there 4ince the 7nited 4tates was a new nation with a massive frontier and very
few people to shape it, immigration was encouraged 1ast amounts of land were available, and
opportunities were limitless in the country By IJJ., however, the massive frontiers and open spaces
were )uickly filling up A country that had once had room for all was full, or so its citi'ens thought
+assing restrictive immigration laws was their way of closing the ?golden door? on the constant stream
of immigrants With the passage of time, these laws became increasingly stricter, and by IO.I, the first
74 immigration )uota system had been brought in to allow only a pre,set number of immigrants to
enter the country yearly
4ince the IOM/s, the 74 Immigration and $aturali'ation 4ervice AI$4B has been )uite successful
in controlling the number of ?legal? immigrants entering the country each year :owever, a rather
predictable problem has resulted from the strict )uota system8 people?s desires and needs to emigrate do
not decrease Fust because a )uota is imposed 4ince the decision to emigrate is not an easy,one to
make, once it is made, people are often persistent in their efforts to reach their destination If they
cannot reach it legally, then they often reach it illegally
Illegal aliens have been a problem ever since the first immigration restriction was imposed, but the
problem has never been as serious as it is now Estimates of the illegal population range from two
million to ten million, and this population is growing #he pressure this huge population of illegals
places on the national economy is shocking #he hardest effect of this pressure on the 74 workforce
has been on low,skilled American workers Illegals often compete for Fobs by offering to do the same
work for far less pay and fewer benefits than American citi'ens #he economy is further worsened by
illegal immigrants? use of false identification papers Illegals are using false IDs at an alarming rate to
benefit from services paid for by American ta*payers8 !edicare, unemployment compensation, 4ocial
4ecurity, etc 4uch activities cost American ta*payers millions of dollars a year In short, illegals are
adding e*treme pressure to an already over,burdened economy
Economic problems caused by illegals are only the beginning of the problems Ironically, the
people who have suffered most are the legal immigrants As the economy gets worse, and
unemployment rates rise, it is usually legal immigrants who cannot find employment !oreover, it is
often legal immigrants who are most seriously ridiculed because of the misconduct of illegals America
is )uickly becoming an unpleasant place for immigrants to live According to one congressman, GIf
necessary precautions are not taken, America may have to shut its doors altogetherG
4olutions to such comple* problems are not easy to find, and none are totally satisfactory 4ome
argue that the best place to attack the problem is at the borders !ore intense controls at borders would
certainly limit, to some e*tent, the influ* of illegals !ore sophisticated night cameras and newer and
greater numbers of vehicles would help, but only partially #he 7nited 4tates shares such e*tensive
borders with &anada and !e*ico that it is virtually impossible to maintain control over them all
D$CATION
55 A Different 2indow
"ne of the most remarkable features of the theory of multiple intelligences is how it provides eight
different potential pathways to learning If a teacher is having difficulty reaching a student in the more
traditional linguistic or logical ways of instruction, the theory of multiple intelligences suggests several
other ways in which the material might be presented to facilitate effective learning Whether you are a
kindergarten teacher, a graduate school instructor, or an adult learner looking for better ways of finding
self,study on any subFect of interest, the same basic guidelines apply Whatever you are teaching or
learning, see how you might connect it with words Alinguistic intelligenceB, logic or numbers Alogical,
mathematical intelligenceB, pictures Aspatial intelligenceB, music Amusical intelligenceB, self,reflection
Aintrapersonal intelligenceB, a physical e*perience Abodily,kinesthetic intelligenceB, a social e*perience
Ainterpersonal intelligenceB, andQor an e*perience in the natural world Anaturalist intelligenceB
If you?re teaching or learning about the law of supply and demand in economics, you might read
about it AlinguisticB, study mathematical formulas that e*press it Alogical,mathematicalB, e*amine a
graphic chart that describes the principle AspatialB, observe the law in the natural world AnaturalistB or in
the human world of commerce AinterpersonalB, or e*amine the law in terms of your own body Abodily,
kinestheticB 3or e*ample, when you supply your body with lots of food, the hunger demand goes
downH when there?s very little supply, your stomach?s demand for food goes up and you get hungry
Abodily,kinesthetic and intrapersonalBH andQor write a song or find an e*isting song that demonstrates
the law such as Dylan?s G#oo !uch of $othingG AmusicalB
@ou don?t have to teach or learn something in all eight ways, Fust see what the possibilities are, and
then decide which particular pathways interest you the most, or seem to be the most effective teaching
or learning tools #he theory of multiple intelligences is intriguing because not only is it fascinating but
it also e*pands our hori'on of available, teachingQlearning tools beyond the conventional linguistic and
logical methods such as lectures, te*tbooks, writing assignments, and formulas that are used in most
schools #o get started, put the topic of whatever you?re interested in teaching or learning about in the
center of a blank sheet of paper, and draw eight straight lines or GspokesG radiating out from this topic
2abel each line with a different intelligence #hen, start brainstorming ideas for teaching or learning
that topic and write down ideas ne*t to each intelligence #his is a spatial,linguistic approach of
brainstormingH you might want to do this in other ways as well 3or e*ample, use a tape, recorder, or
have a group brainstorming session:ave funT
57 Coo(er,ti3e ?ids
"he concept of cooperati$e learning is alien to all of us ,ho ,ere taught the tra!itional ,ay, .ut it
offers our chil!ren the a!$enture of fin!ing their o,n ans,ers0
Di #lfor! reports0
If you took a doctor from the IOth century and put him in a modern operating theater, he would
have no idea what to do, but if you put a teacher from the IOth century into a modern classroom, he
would be able to carry on teaching without pausing #eaching methods have not changed much in one
hundred years #he idea that students are empty containers which the teacher fills with knowledge
remains the same
Education consultant Alyce !iller says8 G&ooperative learning does not work in today?s changing
world We are not teaching creative problem,solving We only encourage competition and believe that
this brings out the best in peopleG :owever, this is not the case Encouraging children to concentrate
on getting the best marks destroys motivation and the fun of learning 4he goes on to say that the
teacher?s role is no longer to feed students with information G#he facts are available in libraries, on
&Ds and on the Internet 4tudents need the skills to find this information, to use it and to think
creatively in order to solve the problems of our worldG
In cooperative learning classes, the traditional classroom physical layout is abandoned &hildren
do not sit in straight rows of desks facing the teacher, but they face one another to make it easier to
share ideas 4tudents learn to work first in pairs, then in threes, and finally in groups of four 4tudents
are re)uired to participate actively in discussing and shaping their own knowledge #he teacher, who is
still very important to the process, becomes the helper instead of the master
Aarnout Brombacher, head of the mathematics department at Westerford :igh 4chool, says8 G#he
incorrect assumption that many people make about cooperative learning is that it is Fust group work In
fact, it is much, much more &ooperative learning recogni'es that students do not have the skills to
work together With this techni)ue, most of the time in the classroom is spent teaching them these skills
C life skillsG
Brett !elville, a IL,year,old student at the school, says that students benefit from cooperative
learning :e adds, G@ou learn the same material as you would using the traditional method, but this
way you learn how to work with others at the same time In our class, we are given enough time to
discuss issues and problems in detailG :e also mentions that it might take longer than simply listening
to the teacher lecture, but the students remember much more afterwards
"ne teacher, 2ynne -edye, has been using cooperative learning in her classes for two years 4he
says, G#his year, we have several students in the class who cannot speak a word of English I was
feeling an*ious, but there was nothing to worry about #he students? response was ama'ing #he strong
students helped the weak ones endlessly so that they could participate in class activities tooG
In short, it seems that cooperative learning turns the classroom from a competitive arena into a
place where learning facts and life skills is both more fun and more effective for students and teachers
alike
7: The Trend Tow,rds %ome !chooling
Record numbers of children are being taken out of school and educated by their parents at home in
Britain 7p to I// children a month are leaving the classroom because of their parents? dissatisfaction
with the education system Around I0,/// families are now teaching their youngsters at home, a rise of
0/ percent from last year, according to the latest figures
#he popularity of home schooling is mainly due to the rigidity of the e*amination system, parents
being unable to get their children into the school of their choice, and disillusionment with the teaching
methods 4ome parents also prefer to keep their children at home because of bullying arid a lack of
discipline in schools Academics believe that schools could become obsolete within ./ years as parents
turn to media technology, such as the Internet, to educate their children +rofessor !eighan of
$ottingham 7niversity says that as well as the schools, the teachers could also become obsolete in ./
years? time because children will be taught at home using the Internet, computers and video :e adds
that teachers will take on a new role as advisors who sort through the available information Regarding
these possible changes in the education system, 4ir &hristopher Ball, the director of learning at the
Royal 4ociety of Arts brings up the issue of institutionali'ed schooling :e predicts that the education
system of the future will include a global curriculum and a worldwide )ualifications system
M years ago, !s 2eslie Barson founded the "therwise &lub, which now comprises of N0 families
around north 2ondon +rofessional teachers are brought in where necessary to help the children with
more speciali'ed subFects, but for the most part parents and children work together According to !s
Barson the whole idea of educating children should be to develop their self,confidence :er son, 2uis,
who is now teaching himself math, agrees with his mother and says8 GI like the freedom to learn things
that interest me, particularly music I don?t feel I am missing out on anything by not being at school
because I am a member of various clubs and have friends who attend normal schoolG
4ome educationalists, however, disagree with 2uis and claim that home schooling could worsen
children?s relationships with others because of long periods spent with their parents !ost academics
who are of this opinion fear that children could also become shy as they have limited contact with
people other than their parents +rofessor !ichael Barber of 2ondon 7niversity has worked out a
compromise to eliminate the possible negative aspects of home schooling :e thinks that children
could spend half their time at home and half at school because they need to learn the rules of work in a
democratic society and learn to? deal with relationships with adults other than their parents, and this is
only possible through e*perience in school
79 D(,nding d)c,tion,l O((ort)nity
In the 7nited 4tates, education for young children is both free and compulsory #hat is, the
government must provide education for children without charging them money, and the children are
re)uired to attend school #his is always true for children in primary, or elementary school and for
children in Funior high school, or middle school In high school, which is sometimes referred to as
secondary school, education is free, but many states allow young people to stop attending school when
they are si*teen years old
J/R of young people in the 74 complete high school and get their high school diplomas !any
communities offer special programs in which those who have not completed high school can still get a
high school diploma #hese programs, called -ED A-eneral E)uivalency DegreeB programs, offer
classes in the evenings In the last few years, about half a million people a year have earned -EDs
It is at the postsecondary level, after high school, that 74 education offers the greatest variety
and opportunities for almost anyone who wants to get more education !odern society has become
more comple*, and so more trained people are needed to build and maintain that society As a result, a
new kind of school has developed in the last twenty or thirty years #hat kind of school is the two,year
college, often called a Funior or community college It provides postsecondary educational
opportunities for people who have not been able to take advantage of them before #here are now more
than I,0// Funior and community colleges in the 7nited 4tates, and about 0 million students are taking
credit courses and programs in these places #his number accounts for about =/R of postsecondary
students
#wo,year colleges offer several advantages over more traditional four,year schools "ne is
location !ost two,year colleges are located in larger towns and cities and are designed to serve the
people who live in that area Being close to the school saves money #hese schools also cost less than
four,year schools -enerally, tuition is about two to four times cheaper than it is at larger schools
Another advantage of two,year colleges is that the classes are usually smaller and the faculty is
more interested in seeing its students succeed than may be true at four,year schools #hese facts,
combined with the fact that the total enrollment is usually smaller, mean that the two, year college is
often a more comfortable environment for study than a large university with big classes and professors
busy with research
#he two,year college also offers greater access and opportunity !any of these schools admit
anyone who has a high school diploma or a -ED Easier entrance, however, does not mean that the
education students receive is of poor )uality #wo,year colleges offer Associate Degrees, and most of
their courses are accepted for transfer into four,year schools !any students transfer even before they
receive their Associate Degrees !any four,year schools welcome students who have earned good
grades at two,year schoolsH in this way, they provide opportunities to students who might not otherwise
be able to get bachelors? and even graduate degrees
3inally, many two,year colleges offer fields of study that are not found at more traditional
universities !any colleges also have arrangements with businesses and industries in their area to
provide training and even employment for their students
"ne of the basic social beliefs in the 7nited 4tates is that as many of the country?s people as
possible should have opportunities to achieve their goals #he college system is one way that
opportunity is made available to those who might not be able to take advantage of more traditional
postsecondary education
72 D,m Fitness
Research has shown that success in e*ams depends on both physical and intellectual fitness
#here is nothing that can replace studying, but keeping yourself in good physical shape will help you to
remember and use what you have learned well #he following advice will help you to do your best at
e*am time
Dercise
!any people believe that there are two kinds of students8 the healthy, popular type, with muscles
and a low IS Aintelligence )uotientB, and the weak, unhealthy academics, who wear thick glasses and
pass, all their e*ams #hese people think that intellectual students are passive, and athletic people are
not intellectual #hat is, students are either intellectual or physicalC they can?t be both at the same
time :owever, this belief is not in fact true Recent studies have found that students who take regular
e*ercise generally do better at school than those who don?t 3or e*ample, twenty minutes of aerobic
e*ercise will immediately result in8
\ improved performance in IS tests
\ a reduction in stress
\ better concentration
\ faster, clearer, more creative thinking
\ an improvement in your memory
4o try to do some aerobic e*ercise at least three times a week But remember, as e*ercise makes
you feel more energetic, it is better not to do it near bedtime because it could cause insomnia And on
the e*am day, take some physical e*ercise before your e*am starts, preferably outdoors
.ody Clocks ,nd !lee(
"ur bodies and minds are programmed to run to a particular timetable and our mental and physical
abilities change a lot during a day 3or e*ample, concentration, memory and the ability to work with
our hands, all reach a peak in the afternoon, but fall to a low level in the middle of the night "ur body
clocks are set and kept in synchronicity by daylight, which also keeps us alert &onfusing your body
clock will make you less alert and less effective,2ack of sleep will not stop a doctor from operating
successfully or a pilot from landing a Fet, but it will, affect a student?s ability to read a book and
remember things well
4ome points to remember8
\ If you can?t get up in the mornings and if you ask someone to wake you up, you ?are not getting
enough sleep
\ @ou should sleep at regular times in order not to stop your body clock from working normally
\ @ou must get enough daylight 4tudy in a well,lit room, preferably near a window
\ #he best times to study are between O// am and I.// noon, and the late afternoon between
=// pm and M// pm
\ #he worst times are after lunch because your body clock slows down between I// pm and
N// pm, and also late at night @ou may think you are more creative after II// pm, but remember
that most e*ams take place during the day 4tudying late at night will disrupt your body clock In other
words, your body clock won?t be able to work,properly
\ A nap Ashort sleepB during the afternoon will help you study and could result in improved
performanceCFust make sure you don?t fall asleep during your e*am
Fin,l Points
G Don?t study more than four or five hours a day after school or other work
G Don?t study with the #1 or radio on It negatively affects your ability to understand what you?re
trying to learn? #he same is true for music that you are listening to while studying @ou can?t pay
enough attention to what you are studying unless you choose music that is pleasant and rela*ing
G 4tudy with a friend It helps you feel less stressed because it helps you feel you aren?t suffering
alone @ou see that there are other people who are having the same difficulties and problems as you
N"I&ONMNT
7' A Terri-le Conflict
When two of his closest friends were killed in a power struggle between Vapatista rebels and
another indigenous group a few years ago, Domingo +ere' -ome' decided that the peaceful village of
4alinas,&ru', where he had farmed for a decade, was no longer safe :e picked up his family and fled
his village to live in the N./,///,hectare !ontes A'ules Reserve, the richest patch of virgin forest in
!e*ico GIt was the only place we could go,G says the =J,year,old GWe had lost everything we had All
we wanted to do was workG As soon as they got there, they began to cultivate corn and black beans on
a small piece of land in the forest
!ontes A'ules contains NI percent of !e*ico?s bird species and .J percent of the mammal species
Cincluding an endangered Faguar #hat meant -ome' and his family were a threat for the wild life In
December .//., government inspectors showed up and accused them of illegally cutting down treesH
threatening to arrest them if they didn?t leave the reserve
When the government kicks out illegal forest dwellers, as it did three times in .///, these people
often return -reen activists from &onservation International have tried to develop alternative ways to
make a living for these people, including producing organic coffee for e*port :owever, these farmers
seem to resist this kind of change as they are not very familiar with these new ways GWe shouldn?t cut
the forest down, I agree,G says Rosario 2ope', .=, a forest dweller GBut if we don?t have any work,
how are we going to surviveEG
Environmentalists say the reserve is sinking fast In the last I= years, logging and intensive
farming have stripped away =I percent of the forest Destruction of !ontes A'ules would be a disaster
Ecologists say the damage being done to the forest may be irretrievable
Regardless of who is to blame, when the time comes it is usually the farmers who have to relocate
GIt is a terrible conflict,G says environmentalist :omer AreFis GDetermining what to do with these
families inside the Fungle has become a huge social problemG -ome' and his family now live in the
dusty yard of a shelter, raising chickens :e is looking for work
7* %ow The #reenho)se ffect 2orks
!any e*perts agree that the most pressing problem facing all of us today is the global warming of
the earth?s atmosphere It is caused mainly by the build up of carbon dio*ide and &3&s #he
information we have now is that the atmosphere is getting warmer In the past J/ years, the average
temperature has increased by half of one degree &elsius Weather e*perts think that the rate of increase
in the warming process is accelerating 4ome predict that, by ./O/, the temperature in southern Britain
on a typical summer?s day could be .M,N/X& AIn IOOJ, the highest temperature recorded was .= ]&B
#his might be wonderful news for the British, who continually complain about the bad weather, but
there would be a price to pay Even a small rise in temperature could, scientists say, have a dramatic
effect on ice in the polar regions +ieces would break off, float away and melt 4ea levels would rise
and Britain?s low,lying coastal regions would be flooded if sea defenses were not built :owever, the
effect of higher temperatures on other countries could be even more severe :ot countries which are
already suffering from droughts could get even hotter and more arid
What have we done to produce this warmer climateE We?ve burnt fossil fuels Acoal, gas and oilB,
cut down trees faster than they?re replaced, used aerosol sprays and bought food packages in rigid,
foam containers We?ve also used refrigerators and free'ers with &3& coolants Burning fossil fuels
uses o*ygen and produces carbon dio*ide whereas growing trees use carbon dio*ide and produce
o*ygen #his creates a healthy balance on the earth :owever, since the industrial revolutionCabout
I0/ years agoCthat balance has been upset because more fossil fuels have been burnt and forests cut
down at an unprecedented rate Both produce carbon dio*ide #he result is that carbon dio*ide in the
atmosphere has increased .=R over the past I0/ years 4ome carbon dio*ide is essential to life to help
plants grow and to retain some heat but the very large amounts are responsible for trapping even more
heat in the earth?s atmosphere, which is called the greenhouse effect "ther important ?greenhouse
gases? are &3&s especially the types which have been used in aerosols, some food trays, domestic
free'ers and refrigerators, supermarket refrigeration systems and most air conditioning systems 4ome
&3&s are at least I/,/// times more powerful than carbon dio*ide in trapping heat in the earth?s
atmosphere
70 The >,(,nese 2,y Of De,ling 2ith Tr,sh
#he >apanese are better than the Americans when it comes to generating and getting rid of trash
Each person in >apan produces IO pounds a day, compared with N0 pounds in the 7nited 4tates 4ince
the tiny country has even less land,fill space to dump rubbish than the 7nited 4tates, necessity has led
to a sophisticated system for handling trash #he key difference is that while the Americans believe
there is a single solution to the garbage crisis, the >apanese reali'e that burning, burying, recycling and
reducing each has its place
3or the >apanese, the solution of choice is recycling In #okyo, enterprising firms have
traditionally toured neighborhoods, collecting newspapers, maga'ines and rags Aworn or worthless
pieces of clothB in e*change for new bathroom and facial tissue Button,shaped batteries, containing
to*ic mercury, are returned to stores to be recycled Although only a few years ago no >apanese would
touch used goods, the latest tendency is garage sales and flea markets, which give secondhand goods
new life About =/ percent of solid waste is recycled #his includes half the paper, about 00 percent of
glass bottles and MM percent of food and beverage &ans 4ome towns go further Residents of VentsuFi
separate trash into N. categories, from paper and glass to rags and appliances
4ince the early IOL/s, officials have strictly enforced compulsory separation of burnable from
noncombustible trash Burnable waste, L. percent of the total trash, is trucked to incinerators Afurnaces
for burning wasteB, which reduce it in weight and volume by at least J/ percent Every >apanese
community has its own incinerator or access to one nearby Athere are I,JOO garbage , burning plants,
compared with the I00 large incinerators in the 7nited 4tatesB
@et, >apan has not solved the problem of garbage efficiently #he overall recycling rate peaked at
about 0/ percent in the IOL/s, but dropped during the IOJ/s #he country still makes too much of the
stuff -leaming appliances and used furniture are thrown away, and it?s impossible to buy even a pencil
without the salesclerk wrapping it +artly as a result, #okyo and three neighboring towns will have an
e*cess of N=N million tons of garbage by ./I/, and may have to ship it elsewhere #o avoid this, the
government will probably promote greater recycling and changes in consumption patterns and reduce
the amount of trash that its citi'ens generate -arbage is one >apanese e*port without a market
71 CyclonesThe ?iller !torms
Weather is one of the many forces of nature over which mankind has little or no control over It
sometimes produces a disasterH crops are destroyed, buildings are flattened, and land is washed away
by powerful storms called cyclones, typhoons or hurricanes 2et us look at these tropical storms, the
damage they cause and the precautions, if there are any, which may reduce that damage
#ropical storms, which are called hurricanes in the Atlantic and typhoons in the +acific, are very
severe storms with wind speeds e*ceeding II0 kph Akilometers per hourB &yclones and other tropical
storms do not occur in all parts of the world but are confined to latitudes 0X to N/X both north and south
of the e)uator Although the fre)uency of such storms varies from year to year, it averages about si*
per season #his season lasts from >une to "ctober in the northern hemisphere &yclones only form
over water which is at least NLX& In the early stages, cyclones behave Fust like ordinary storms #hey
start with winds coming in to fill an area of very low air pressure As the winds approach the center of
this area, they begin to turn anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere due to the earth?s rotation #he warm air currents, or winds, flowing towards the center pick
up huge amounts of moisture, or water vapor, from the warm water below Winds with speeds high
enough to be called cyclones develop in the course of a few days A cyclone generally moves towards
the west until it hits land During this time, the whole storm may be traveling at a speed of .0 kph or
less When the storm hits land it usually curves up to higher latitudes and begins moving eastwards At
this stage the cyclone?s forward movement accelerates to =/ kph or more until it loses strength and is
no longer considered a cyclone &yclones pass by any particular place in a few hours
During its passage, a cyclone causes immense damage Besides breaking trees, cyclones can
knock down walls and lift the roofs off buildings #he pressure on the walls of buildings can e*ceed
=// kgQm.Cenough to flatten any non,strengthened structure #he wind speeds become faster at the
center of the storm, which is called the ?eye? If the eye of the storm passes over a weather station, the
instruments which measure wind speeds and pressure may not be able to withstand these huge winds,
so proper measurements are often not possible #he damage caused by a cyclone depends largely on
how close the eye of the storm passes over densely populated areas and how flat the land is
#he damage from cyclones is not limited to the winds &yclones come together with torrential, ie
heavy, rains which cause rivers to overflow their beds and flood flat land 3urthermore, the storm raises
the sea level by about three meters, so the rivers cannot flow out to sea "ften cyclones are
accompanied by e*tra high seas called Gstorm surgesG #hese surges, or huge waves, reach far inland
over flat areas Bangladesh is one such area which has suffered storm surges repeatedly In IOL/, a
surge swept over Bangladesh eventually killing over half a million people #his number was due to
drowning and also to the disease and starvation that resulted after the cyclone destroyed the crops
there
7nfortunately, there are few precautions that can be taken to lessen cyclone damage We can,
however, inform people about the potential cyclones due to their constant monitoring by weather
satellites 3looding may be further reduced by building sea walls #hese walls must be higher than the
sea surge in order to protect the flat areas behind them #here is a sea wall in #e*as, which was built
after a storm surge killed M,/// people in IO// and caused a lot of damage When another hurricane hit
in IOI0, only .L0 lives were lost #here are sea walls like this in other places but their huge cost
prevents many countries from constructing them Although we can take some precautions to reduce the
damage and loss of lives during severe storms, like all of nature?s most powerful forces, we can do
nothing to prevent cyclones
74 nergy fficient "ehicles
Each year, M0R of the petroleum consumed in the world is used for transportation As a result,
vehicle emissions have become the leading source of air pollution today :owever, recent advances in
technology are helping increase fuel efficiency and reduce to*ic substances which vehicles discharge
into the air
"ne way to improve vehicle performance and, at the same time, reduce emissions is to make
changes in the composition of petroleum,based fuels, like gasoline and diesel fuel 4uch new types of
gasoline are developed using improved methods and they contain fuel additives to increase the o*ygen
content #his decreases harmful emissions such as carbon mono*ide !oreover, new diesel fuels which
have lower sulfur contents or which are produced from clean,burning natural gas help vehicles with
diesel engines achieve lower emissions
In addition to advanced petroleum,based fuels, researchers are rapidly developing alternative
fuels, such as electricity, ethanol, natural gas, and propane, which reduce or entirely eliminate harmful
emissions In the future, scientists will probably generate these fuels from renewable resourcesH for
e*ample, ethanol from corn or electricity from wind energy :owever, this is not possible for some
fuels? such as natural gas and propane
In an effort to increase fuel efficiency and to decrease air pollution, researchers are also making
improvements in vehicle design, components, and materials Alternative 3uel 1ehicles AA31sB, which
can either alternate between two fuels or operate on a mi*ture of two fuels are now available In
addition, recent developments in both A31s and petroleum,based vehicles may double or triple the
efficiency of current vehicles 4ome of these new technologies include electric vehicles, which
combine an engine with an electric motor, and fuel cells, which produce electricity by converting a fuel
into water
#wo basic issues motivate the research into advanced fuels and vehicles #hese are the dependence
on imported petroleum and the increase in air pollution caused by vehicle emissions -overnments in
many developed countries have set aside huge sums of money from their national budgets for research
in these areas 4ome governments have also passed laws to encourage businesses and individuals to
purchase A31s, although there is not much they can do about the e*isting old,technology vehicles
which people still use In the course of time, however, everyone will be using A31s as there will be no
other type of vehicle on the market
75 2,ste Dis(os,l Crisis
+eople have been throwing out trash ever since they were cave men In fact, by looking through
trash, archeologists can tell us a lot about the material wealth of people 4cientists who study the
people of the ./th century will be particularly lucky because no civili'ation so far has thrown out so
much as ours Actually the amount of trash or garbage that we have is starting to become a serious
problem 7p to now, we have Fust thrown away what we no longer wanted in large dumps at the edge
of towns and cities #hen, it was either burned or buried so it did not smell or become an eyesore We
did not need to worry about dumps8 they were far away from populated areas so most people were
never even aware of them :owever, with the rapid increase in population and the outward spread of
cities, the dumps which we used in the past are now found near residential areas #hey have become a
threat to our health and to the environment #hus, we have to apply more modern methods to produce
disposal in big cities or find ways to reduce the waste that we produce
In big cities like 2ondon and $ew @ork, which have had large populations for a long time, city
officials have had to build more modern dumps which are called landfills #hese are not Fust an open
hole in the ground but are specially designed to cause as little harm as possible to the environment
#hey usually consist of several different layers #he bottom layer is made of clay and plastic so that the
chemicals that leak out of the garbage do not enter the ground and thus pollute the ground water near
landfills $e*t, a pipe system is laid down #his will take the resulting chemical leakage to a treatment
center #he trash is then dumped on this prepared area and as it fills up the area, it is covered with soil
so that birds cannot reach it and the area does not smell 4ince garbage produces methane gas as it
decomposes, there are usually pipes which run vertically through the layer to collect it 7nless the
methane gas is safely conducted away, it may e*plode When the landfill is full, it is covered with thick
layers of soil and after a while the land may be used as a site for a park or other open space In this
way, we can reclaim the use of the land without risking the health of the people there
#he amount of waste that a society produces seems to be determined by the level of economic
development #he richer the country is, the more trash it produces In #hird World countries, a single
individual produces less than half a kilogram of waste each day whereas in the developed world, each
person can generate IJ kg of garbage daily A typical American throws out 0O/ kg of garbage a year
and NJ kg of plastic Every year ../ million trees are cut down to make 74 newspapers, L/R of
which eventually ends up in landfills 3or this reason, the landfills in America are huge 3or e*ample,
the 3resh 5ills 2andfill in $ew @ork has .0 times the volume of the -reat +yramid in Egypt and
receives IL,/// tons of garbage daily, si* days a weekT Due to their huge si'e, it is difficult for
governments to find new sites for landfills as they lose their capacity to hold more waste
It is possible to reduce the amount of waste that we produce in several ways #he amount of paper
packaging on products that we buy could be reduced !ost products have two or three layers of
packaging, including plastic bags, plastic trays, and cardboard bo*es Another way would be to
separate old newspapers from our trash and use them to make new paper instead of cutting down so
many trees for that purpose #his would further reduce the need to cut down forests In addition, we
can recycle the glass and metal that we throw out By using separate bins for paper, bottles and metal
containers, we could reduce the amount of waste that we produce by J/R 4imilarly, old cars and
machines could be used as scrap metal and thus reduce the need for mining so much metal ore #hese
things are very easy to do and yet most of us do not do them We need to make everyone aware of the
trash crisis #he governments must help us to recycle by providing separate bins for collection at
convenient places
77 &ecycling
>ulie 2ewis from "regon, in the 7nited 4tates, is wearing an e*pensive,looking pair of boots
#hey are durable, ie long,lasting, and also fashionable When you look at them you can?t reali'e that
they are made entirely of? recycled materials >ulie owns her own shoemaking company and has
achieved a long,term dream to turn waste into something useful #he shoes are made from all sorts of
used materials, which include te*tile scraps Awaste pieces of materialsB, rubber from tires, and plastic
bags Although she thinks that something has to be done before it?s too late, >ulie knows that she cannot
solve the world?s environmental problems single,handed 3or such important issues, she needs support
from others but still she feels she is doing a good Fob at a local level
Recycling has become e*tremely popular in the 74, particularly in recent years when the number
of recycling schemesCorgani'ed plansChas increased by 0// percent M0 percent of aluminum cans
are recycled in addition to .0 percent of paper and ./ percent of glass #he interest in re,using
materials has come from the reali'ation that Americans produce far more waste per person than most
EuropeansH a total of .// million tons a year 3or e*ample, this is twice the amount of waste produced
in -ermany and it is enough to fill a line of garbage trucks stretching eight times around the world
America even e*ports its waste #aiwan buys used paper to make more paper and >apan uses
American scrap metal to produce new cars, which it then sells back to the 74 #wo thirds of the
remaining waste is buried in landfill sites -etting rid of waste is a maFor problem 2andfill sites can
cause pollution of water supplies As sites fill up, new ones need to be found 4ome rubbish is burnt,
but this pollutes the atmosphere #he obvious solution to this problem, then, is to recycle more
Recycling is already a big businessC>ulie 2ewis being a perfect e*ample :er company has already
attracted millions of dollars worth of investment Recycled products are no longer seen as poor )uality
goods, but as useful alternatives
A hugely successful plan has been operating in +alm Beach &ounty since IOJJ Rubbish is sorted
into different categories +aper, glass and plastic are sold to recycling firms 5itchen waste is used to
operate a generator which supplies electricity to N/,/// houses "ther materials are used, to make soil,
which is then used for growing fruit and vegetables
#here are arguments against recycling, in spite of the fact that it is environmentally friendly
Although many people show great interest in recycling schemes, it can be e*pensive to run them As
2ynn 4carlett, a government adviser from 2os Angeles argues, it is not economical to transport
materials for recycling from areas which still have a lot of landfill space
!anufacturers in -ermany are trying to solve the problem at the production stage #hus, they
mainly look at how their goods are packaged 4oap powders are now more concentrated and packed in
small containers, toothpaste tubes are sold without bo*es and plastic wrapping has been reduced
In a time when newspapers and #1 news bulletins are filled with depressing stories of
environmental disasters, it is important to remind people, especially children, that they can improve the
situation
9:: >oHo-, Oil Co)ld F)el C,rs And Tr)cks
An oil fre)uently found on your bathroom shelf may prove a possible alternative to diesel fuel for
cars and trucks Early tests show that FoFoba,fuelled engines release fewer pollutants, run more )uietly
and for longer, and perform Fust as well as diesels
#he search for alternative fuels, driven by shrinking oil reserves and concerns over e*haust
emissions, has led researchers to investigate more enduring sources such as vegetable oils 4unflower
oil and soybean oil have both been tested as potential fuels $ow it is FoFoba?s turn >oFoba is a desert
plant that can reach up to =0 metres high and typically lives more than I0/ years #he non,to*ic oil is
widely used as a non,greasy skin,smoothing ingredient in cosmetics
Engineers think the oil has potential as a motor fuel because it releases a lot of energy when it
burns and is chemically stable at the high temperatures and pressures in a working engine #o test
FoFoba in engines, !ohamed 4elim and his colleagues at the 7nited Arab Emirates 7niversity in Al,
Ain and at the :elwan 7niversity in &airo, connected sensors to a diesel engine and monitored its
performance while burning regular diesel fuel and FoFoba oil respectively #he results showed that
FoFoba is worth pursuing as an alternative fuel because it contains less carbon than fuels like diesel,
which means lower emissions of carbon mono*ide and carbon dio*ide
4elim says, G>oFoba can be grown in hot climates, salty soils and deserts #he use of FoFoba as a
fuel needs huge )uantities of seeds, so it needs to be cultivated in huge amounts, which is easy in the
desert lands in many countriesG #he plant has been grown for decades in south,western America and
north,western !e*ico >oFoba plants are now cultivated throughout 4outh America and in several
!iddle East countries 3armers in Egypt have already started planting them specifically to use the nut
oil as a fuel
CONOMIC!
9:9 !(ice Tr,de
#he marketplace of today is full of products from all over the world Everything C from
!editerranean olive oil to coffee from 4outh America to pineapple from the tropics C is available on
grocery shelves +eople have always been willing to pay for special things that taste good What people
demand, business people will supply
#he demand for spices has had a great effect on the history of the world #he spice trade began
before history was written #here is still evidence of a route that spice merchants used for crossing Asia
in prehistoric times #he spice trade has affected world history because it forced people from different
countries to communicate #raders used to be the main source of ideas and information from foreign
countries Arab spice traders, for e*ample, probably brought the first news of Asia to the !iddle East
#hey probably introduced the !iddle East to spices as well 4pices such as cinnamon have been used
in the Arabian Desert since at least .,/// B& Arabs sailed from the southern part of the Arabian
+eninsula to the island of 4ri 2anka, near India In 4ri 2anka, they met &hinese traders who had
already sailed around the 4outh &hina 4ea, trading &hinese foods for spices #he Arabs traded their
own products for the spices that the &hinese had obtained #his early spice trade brought people of
different parts of the world closer together In order to trade, they had to communicate #he traders saw
people who lived in ways very different from their own #hey traded, or e*changed, ideas and
information as well as products 3urthermore, when they returned to their own lands, they took the new
ideas and information with them #heir own people learned about other lands and people by listening to
the traders? stories
Arab traders had a monopoly on the spice trade for centuries because they were the only people
who supplied spices to merchants #hey controlled the spice trade for a long time Eventually, the Arab
monopoly ended because merchants from other countries began to trade in spices :owever, the
demand for spices was still greater than the supply #herefore, both the Arabs and the other traders
made money from their business !any of them became rich !any governments became rich, too 3or
e*ample, the government of 1enice became rich from the money that traders and merchants had to pay
it for permission to sell spices #he spice trade was a good business, so European traders and
governments wanted to enter the trade, too
#he Europeans knew that the only way they could compete with !iddle Eastern and
!editerranean spice traders was to find a short route to the source of the spices, the countries where
spices were produced 3irst, the +ortuguese tried sailing around the African continent to reach the
source of the spices :owever, this Fourney was long and difficult #he investment of time and money
was not worthwhile #he amount of time and money that the trip took caused the spices to be very
e*pensive !erchants could buy spices more cheaply from the !iddle Eastern and !editerranean
traders than from the European traders #he Europeans had to find a better route in order to be able to
compete with the other traders #he motive for the voyages of &hristopher &olumbus in I=O. and of
>ohn &abot in I=OL was to find a shorter route :owever, their Fourneys across the Atlantic "cean
brought the Europeans knowledge of the American continents, not spices #heir discoveries affected
the history of the world
#he spice trade made the world both larger and smaller It made the world larger because it
increased people?s knowledge of their world #hey learned about countries that were different from
their own #he spice trade made the world smaller because it encouraged people to communicate
When people communicate, the distances between them seem to become shorter
9:2 !o 6o) 2,nt To .e A Million,ire=
#here is no specific formula you can use to become a millionaire At school, we are told that
receiving a proper education is all that we need to do well in society :owever, a recent study by
+rofessor -ary &ooper of the 7niversity of !anchester has proven this wrong +rofessor &ooper
studied the lives of successful entrepreneurs and discovered that M/ percent left school early, either due
to e*pulsion or boredom "ther studies show that there is little connection between how well children
do at school and the success they achieve as adults
At the moment, there are O0,/// millionaires in Britain alone #hose who recently became
millionaires come from a wide variety of backgrounds #he easiest way is to start out wealthy In a
survey of the richest .// people in Britain, more than 0/ percent inherited money #wenty,five per cent
of those who head large corporations were born into wealthy families
If you are not born wealthy, you may be able to take advantage of your good looks Dr Raymond
Bull of +ortsmouth 7niversity says that good looks make early life easier :e then adds that people
e*pect a good,looking person to be kinder and more efficient :owever, don?t be surprised if you find
yourself employed as a decorative figure due to your good looks, while your less attractive colleagues
are moving up the career ladder
+rofessor &ooper divided successful people into two categories8 the entrepreneurs and the
intrapreneurs #he former often left school early and had several business disasters :owever, in
general, they are very determined people #he latter, on the other hand, have risen up through the levels
of organi'ations #hey are the children everyone thought would do well "ver half of them went to
universities #hey are good organi'ers and get on well with people "ne dramatic difference between
&ooper?s two groups is that many of the intrapreneurs felt that they had been the victims of
discrimination early in their lives #his has not been the case for entrepreneurs
$onetheless, even if you were born poor and lack good looks, there is still plenty you can do to
improve your chances of success #here are many self,help manuals available to help you reach the
top #here is even a maga'ine called +ersonal 4uccess, filled with ads for courses that will transform
your thinking and behavior !ost of today?s courses on positive thinking originated in the 7nited
4tates !any start by emphasi'ing the importance of self,belief and its role in being successful
All these methods are the result of the fact that the old idea of a career ladder leading to success in
big corporations no longer applies #here is much greater emphasis on personal development
:owever, what none of these methods do is to look at the )uality of your life or consider whether the
price of success is too high !ost entrepreneurs are an*ious people who are not strangers to self,
destructive behavior #wenty,five percent of top e*ecutives are unhappy with the long hours they have
to work and the destructive effects this has on their family life It seems that true success turns out to be
based on more than motivation #here is a need for harmony, creativity, and healthy relationships
9:' #lo-,l Tr,de
3or the first time in history, almost the entire world is now sharing the same economic system
&ommunism began to fall in the late IOJ/s and since then, capitalism has spread to most corners of the
world #he basis of a GpureG capitalist economy is free trade, also called Gopen tradeG #here are
benefits of open trade for both rich and poor countries 3or developed countries such as >apan and
England, free trade brings with it more competition, which, in turn, brings advantages such as lower
prices and more choice of products for consumers 3or developing countries, open trade means that
people have much easier access to essential goods such as food, clothing, and fuel than before An open
economic system can be a key to improving the lives of people in both poor and rich countries because
it can curtail poverty and improve living conditions
#his is apparently very good news "ptimists often say that Ga rising tide lifts all the boatsG What
do they mean by thisE Imagine a harbor filled with boatsCsome small ones, some medium,si'ed, and
some huge ships As the ocean tide comes in every eight hours, the water rises and literally lifts all the
boatsC both large and small In economics, this e*pression means that in good economic times, poor
countries benefit as much as rich countries do :owever, pessimists point out that many of the Gsmall
boatsG seem to be GleakingGChave holes in themCand so are going down instead of up In other
words, the gap between the rich and the poorCthe economic difference between themC is wider than
it was in the past #he contrast can be startling According to #he $ation maga'ine, Gthe wealth of the
world?s .// richest people is greater than the combined incomes of the poorest =I percent of
humanityG
Why is this happeningE What is causing this widening gap between the rich and the poorE !any
of the poorest countries are at a disadvantage because of geography, which is the root of several
problems 3irst, a country that is landlocked, with no access to an ocean or sea, has a disadvantage
because it cannot easily transport its products to other parts of the world 4econd, manyCbut not allC
countries in tropical regions Anear the E)uatorB have the disadvantage of heavy rains that often wash
nutrients from the land Without these nutrients in the soil, agricultural development is more difficult
Another obstacle for many countries is the problem of infectious diseases such as malaria and dengue
fever, which are found only in tropical climates It goes without saying that people with disease cannot
contribute to the economy of the country
Another cause of the growing gap between rich and poor countries is protectionist policies In
other words, many rich countries have governmental plans that give special help to their own people,
so trade isn?t actually completely GopenG "ne e*ample of a protectionist policy is an agricultural
subsidy
M
7nfortunately, governments in poor countries can?t pay these subsidies to their farmers
#herefore, farmers in rich countries have a competitive edge in the global market "ther protectionist
policies are GhiddenG 3or e*ample, a rich country might say its trade is open :owever, it will not buy
products from a poor country WhyE It says that the poor country does not have high enough health or
safety standards
It may sound as if the situation is hopeless for developing countries ever to have a competitive
edge in global tradeCbut perhaps not East Asia, for e*ample, has found far more economic success
than Africa has #he key to success seems to lie in each government?s economic policy !alaysia,
Indonesia, and #hailand have the same tropical climate as many African countries, but their economies
Cunlike those of AfricaCare growing fast #heir governments have created an economic climate in
which people can move from agriculture to manufacturing -eography is not as terrible an obstacle to
manufacturing as it is to farming #o help new entrepreneurs, these governments pay careful attention
to areas such as infrastructure Aharbors, railroads, and so onB and telecommunications In other
countries, such as India, information technology is driving the economy &omputer technology doesn?t
depend on geography, but it does re)uire educated workers #herefore, education must be a priority In
addition, governments of developing countries must work with developed countries and persuade them
to drop protectionist policies &learly, it is possible for governments to prepare a path out of poverty in
even landlocked, tropical countries
6
Agricultural subsidy: Money that the governent gives !arers so that they can sell their "roducts at a
lo# cost.
9:* %,d They D(ected The #lo-,l conomy To T,ke Their >o-s=
#he growth of the global economy is leaving millions of workers in the lurch Ine)uality,
unemployment and poverty are all signs of this Rapid technological change and heightened
international competition are damaging the Fob markets of the maFor industriali'ed countries At the
same time, various pressures are limiting governments? ability to respond to the crisis >ust when
workers need help most, the state is letting them down
#his is not how things were supposed to work #he failure of capitalism to distribute wealth is a
challenge not only to politicians, but to economists as well Despite a continuing growth in
international trade and finance over the past decade, productivity has decreased, while ine)uality in the
7nited 4tates and unemployment in Europe have increased In Western Europe, the unemployment
figures are frightening 3or e*ample, in 3rance and in Belgium, the unemployment rate now is four
times as high as it was between IOMO and IOLN
#he Europeans have created a lost generation of workers, who feel insecure about their future
Europe is now suffering from it in terms of increased crime, drug addiction, violence against
immigrants, and the increasing popularity of e*tremist political groups #he big )uestion is why it is
happening #hree basic e*planations of the problem have been suggested
"ne of these puts the blame on the relationship between developed and developing countries
:istorically, developing countries provided the industrial world with raw materials in e*change for
manufactured goods $owadays, over M/ per cent of such goods, from clothing to consumer
electronics, are produced by these countries #he reason for this is that labor is cheaper in developing
countries, with the result that workers in developed countries have less and less to do
4ome economists assert that technology must be responsible for this problem According to this
school of thought, the introduction of new technology means that there?s less and less for assembly line
workers to do as their Fobs are being done by computer #hese economists also emphasi'e the fact that
the new technology does create new Fobs and businesses, but only for skilled workers who know how
to use a computer #hese factors lead to an increase in the unemployment rate among unskilled
workers
#he final e*planation is immigration #he legal immigration of skilled workers actually helps the
economy as it supplies talents that are needed, creates businesses and Fobs, and raises output "n the
other hand, the increase in the number of unskilled workers has forced down wages in many European
countries #he immigrants? presence has also created an environment of crime resulting from feelings
of hatred, as is already evident in parts of Western Europe
It seems that retraining workers would be the key to solving the problem of unemployment and
une)ual pay in Europe, but the trouble is that while more training programs are needed, there is less
and less money available to fund them
#he starting point for any positive policy would be to make it each nation?s goal to improve the
lives of its citi'ens #his means that economic policies should be structured so that working people can
earn a living wage
9:0 %istory Of conomics
It is believed that the subFect of economics first appeared in early -reek times #he reason for this
belief is that the first writings on this subFect were by +lato and Aristode 2ater, such Romans as &icero
and 1irgil also wrote about it :owever, there is no data showing the economic system during these
times #he first known economic system was in medieval times, when the system of feudalism
dominated In feudalism, there was a strict class system consisting of nobles, clergy and the peasants
#here was a series of nobles that were the holders of various si'ed lands "n these lands was a series of
manors #hese lands were similar to large farming tracts in which the peasants or serfs worked the land
in e*change for protection by the nobles
2ater, the system of mercantilism predominated It was an economic system of the maFor trading
nations during the IMIh, ILth, and IJth centuries, based on the idea that national wealth and power
were best served by increasing e*ports and collecting precious metals in return !anufacturing and
commerce became more important in this system
In the mid,eighteenth century, the Industrial Revolution ushered in an era in which machines
instead of tools were used in the factory system !ore workers were employed in factories in urban
areas rather than on farms #he Industrial Revolution was fueled by great gains in technology and
invention #hese also made farms more efficient, although fewer people were working there During
this time the idea of Glaisse' faireG, which means that economies work best without lots of rules and
regulations from the government, became popular
In the nineteenth century, there was reaction to the Glaisse',faireG thinking of the eighteenth
century due to the writings of #homas !althus :e felt that population would always advance faster
than the science and technology needed to support such population growth David Ricardo stated that
wages were at a poor or subsistence level for most workers, rather than at a high or affluent one >ohn
4tuart !ill provided the backdrop for socialism with his theories that supported farm cooperatives,
labor unions and less competition #hese theories were brought to a high point by 5arl !ar* who
condemned the capitalistic Glaisse',faireG theories of competition and instead favored socialism which
marked more government control and also favored state rather than private ownership of property
Another important change at this time was in how goods were valued 3ormerly, items? prices had
remained steady, but at this time the value of an item came to be determined by the number of people
wanting the item AdemandB and the amount of the item available AsupplyB In fact, this is still valid in
today?s economic systems
In the first half of the twentieth century, >ohn !aynard 5eynes wrote about business cycles , when
the economy is doing well and when it is in a slump :is theories led to governments seeking to put
more controls on the economy to prevent wild swings After World War II, emphasis was placed on the
analysis of economic growth and development using more sophisticated technological tools
In recent years, economic theory has been broadly separated into two maFor fields8
macroeconomics, which studies entire economic systemsH and microeconomics, which observes the
workings of the market from the perspective of an individual company, person or a group within an
economic system In the later twentieth century, ideas such as supply side economics, which states that
a healthy economy is necessary for the health of the nation, and !ilton 3riedman?s idea that the money
supply is the most important influence on the economy, began to gain popularity In the twenty,first
century, the rapid changes and growth in technology have spawned the term GInformation AgeG in
which knowledge and information have become important commodities
P!6C%LO#6
9:1 Does %onesty Alw,ys P,y=
What e*actly is a lieE Is it anything we say which we know is untrueE "r is it something more
than thatE 3or e*ample, suppose a friend has been on a diet for a while When she sees you, she
e*citedly asks, GI have become thinner, haven?t IEG and you say, G@es, definitelyG In fact, you cannot
notice any difference, but you know that she is obsessed with her weight and you don?t want to hurt her
feelings Well, is this really a lieE
+rofessor >erald >ellison of the 7niversity of 4outhern &alifornia has made a scientific study of
lying According to him, women are better liars than men, particularly when telling a ?white lie,? such as
when a woman at a party tells another woman that she likes her dress when she really thinks it looks
awful :owever, this is only one side of the story "ther researchers say that men are more likely to tell
more serious lies, such as making a promise which they have no intention of fulfilling #his is the kind
of lie politicians and businessmen are supposed to be particularly skilled at8 the lie from which the liar
hopes to profit or gain in some way
Research has also been done into the way people?s behavior changes in a number of small,
apparently unimportant ways when they lie It has been found that if they are sitting down at the time,
they tend to move about in their chairs more than usual #o the trained observer, they are saying ?I wish
I were somewhere else now? #hey also tend to touch certain parts of the face more often, in particular
the nose "ne e*planation of this may be that lying causes a slight increase in blood pressure #he tip
of the nose is very sensitive to such changes, and the increased pressure makes it itch
Another gesture which gives liars away is what the writer Desmond !orris in his book
an,atching calls ?the mouth cover? :e says there are several typical forms of this, such as covering
part of the mouth with the fingers, touching the upper,lip, or putting a finger at one side of the mouth
4uch a gesture can be interpreted as an unconscious attempt on the part of the liar to stop himself or
herself from lying
"f course, such gestures as rubbing the nose or covering the mouth or s)uirming about in a chair
cannot be taken as proof that the speaker is lying #hey simply tend to occur more fre)uently in this
situation It is not one gesture alone that gives the liar away but a whole number of things, and in
particular the conte*t in which the lie is told
9:4 AnDiety And Pho-i,s
An*iety and fear are normal human emotions and are often found as reactions to stress 4tress is a
difficult word to define because it includes both the things that make you an*ious, such as working too
hard or becoming ill, and your reactions to them $ormal an*iety is what we feel when we are e*posed
to e*ternal stresses such as losing a Fob, having difficulties in marriage, or our children getting ill #his
type of an*iety is often called worry and remains with us until the problem is dealt with in some way
When an*iety occurs in response to a more immediate threat, like being attacked by a huge snarling
dog or looking over a cliff edge, it is called fear $ormal an*iety becomes abnormal when the
symptoms are so painful and distressing that they stop us from coping well with daily activities
Abnormal fears, sometimes called phobias, are intense fears of things which would not make the
average person frightened If we are terrified even by a little +ekinese dog sleeping in the corner of a
room, or won?t climb down even a short flight of stairs as the height bothers us, then we have a phobia
When we are an*ious, it shows in our minds and bodies We cannot concentrate, we are irritable
and easily distracted, and we become inefficient We tend to sleep badly and get tired easily #he body
shows the effects of an*iety by more powerful heartbeats ApalpitationsB, tension and pains in muscles,
sweating, di''iness, and indigestion #hese symptoms are easily mistaken by an*ious people for
evidence of serious illnesses, like heart disease or cancer, and so they feel even worse
4udden une*pected surges of an*iety are called panic and are often so unpleasant that people can
become fearful of having panic attacks When an*iety and panic are accompanied by some depression,
we feel sad, lose our appetite, and the future seems hopeless A phobic has symptoms of intense an*iety
or panic, but only in particular situations #he dog phobic is "5 away from dogs, the height phobic is
fine on the ground floor, the social phobic has no fear away from other people, and the agoraphobic
feels much better at home +hobias lead to avoidance of the things which are feared Avoidance may
not be easyCwe can never be sure that a dog isn?t lurking round the cornerT +hobics usually know
there is no real danger and may feel silly about their fear, yet they are unable to stop it 4ome people?s
phobias are associated with repetitive obsessive thoughts that engage their minds #hey might worry all
day that the bump they heard while driving the previous day was a pedestrian they had knocked down,
and then repeatedly retrace their route looking for the corpse, and ring police stations to ask if the body
has been found "r each time they leave home, they might have an urge to check that all the windows
and doors are locked, not once but do'ens of times, so that they are hours late for work or social
engagements
+eople under stress due to an*iety, fears, and obsessions often cope with them well if they
recogni'e what causes them and reali'e that they will not last #hus, someone about to take a driving
test can be e*tremely an*ious but knows that the feeling will go away once the test is over If the
symptoms continue, though, help is often sought 4ome people delay seeking help because they are
afraid that they might be regarded as GmadG In fact, people with an*iety and fears rarely have severe
mental illness, and it is much better for help to be sought early rather than late
9:5 Control 6o)r Dre,ms
#he secret of controlling the hidden powers of sleep lies in lucid dreams A lucid dream is a
special type of dream in which the dreamer is consciously aware of himself and of the fact that he is
dreaming 4tudies have shown that while only one in ten of us has regular lucid dreams, most of us
e*perience them sporadically and almost all of us can, with patience and practice, discover how to
produce and control them
2ucid dreaming is a powerful research tool in scientific e*plorations of the dream state It might
also be helpful in increasing self,confidence, improving mental health, and facilitating creative
problem solving !oreover, lucid dreaming could be e*tremely beneficial to nightmare
L
sufferers,
giving them the chance to overcome their fears #hus, they could reduce their nightmare problems, and
by doing so, increase their self,confidence and self, esteem 2ucid dreaming could also provide the
handicapped and other disadvantaged people with the possibility of reali'ing their impossible dreams
+aralytics could walk again in their dreams, for e*ample
In the last ./ years, lucid dreaming has attracted serious attention from researchers An early
breakthrough in dream studies came during the mid,0/s When two American scientists noticed that, at
certain times during the night, a sleeper?s eyeballs moved rapidly beneath closed eyelids as if watching
moving images If they were woken up at this point, most people reported that they had been dreaming
By monitoring the eye,movements electronically, researchers found that most of us dream every O/
minutes during our sleep
4o, how can you become a lucid dreamer and make dreams work for you while you restE @ou
must first train yourself to wake up towards the end of the last vivid dream of the night, as lucid dreams
are most likely to occur Fust before we wake up 7sing an alarm clock is not a good idea C it will
wake you too abruptly to remember your dream #he trick is to train yourself to wake up naturally
"nce you are awake, think carefully about your dream and try to remember as many details as you can
$e*t, devote five minutes to a mentally stimulating task, such as reading a book 3inally, turn over in
bed again and say something like this8 G#he ne*t time I dream, I will be aware of the fact that I am
dreamingG $ow, rela*, close your eyelids, and begin moving your eyeballs gently as if you were in
RE! ARapid Eye !ovementB sleep After a while, you will fall asleep once again, and if all goes
according to plan, pick up the dream you Fust left But this time you should know you are dreaming and
be able to decide what happens ne*t
$
a bad dream
With practice, it is no longer necessary to wake up and go to sleep again Each time you enter a
lucid dream, and these can last from two to ten minutes, you will know that you are dreaming and be
able to create whatever images you like Don?t be disappointed if learning to control lucid dreaming
proves a lot more difficult than you imagined Although lucid dreaming is a learnable skill, currently
available methods, all of which involve mental concentration, re)uire a considerable amount of time
and effort :owever, the effort is usually well worth it After all, when you consider that even the
liveliest and most energetic of us spends around ./ years of life asleep, it seems a dreadful waste not to
make better use of the timeT
9:7 Tr,nce
#he word ?hypnosis? comes from the -reek word ?hypnos?, which means ?sleep? Although it is hard
to define hypnosis, because it has many aspects and degrees, it might be said that hypnosis is a kind of
trance Aa sleeplike conditionB in which the subFect responds strongly to the suggestions of the hypnotist
It is difficult to know e*actly what changes hypnotism produces in the functioning of the nervous
system or the personality
#here are many theories on hypnosis, but no single theory is accepted as completely e*plaining all
aspects of hypnosis "ne of the oldest theories regards hypnosis to be a form of sleep #his concept
originated in ILJ=, and was further developed by Ivan +avlov :owever, this theory is contradicted by
evidence which indicates that the hypnoti'ed person is not asleep8 the knee refle*, which is absent in
sleep, is present in the hypnotic state, and recordings of brain waves show the typical patterns of the
state in which we are awake
!ethods of putting a subFect into a trance have changed in recent years 1ery few modern
hypnotists use the old method of staring into the subFect?s eyes Instead, they use methods which
emphasi'e rela*ing or even sleep #he subFect sits in a comfortable chair while the hypnotist talks
)uietly, giving the subFect directions and suggestions which lead him slowly into a trance #he
hypnotist watches for signs for this stat^ 3or e*ample, many subFects don?t talk when they are in a
trance Instead of talking, they nod or shake their heads when they have to answer the )uestions the
hypnotist asks them
#he hypnotic trance may be classified according to its degree, which depends partly on the
hypnotist and partly on the subFect
In a light trance, the eyes are closed, breathing becomes slower and the subFect is able to carry out
simple suggestions #he subFect is usually unable to open his eyes or move his arms if the hypnotist
tells him that he cannot
In a medium,deep trance, the subFect is able to e*perience feeling of movement even though he is
not moving After coming out of the trance, the subFect may not remember what happened during the
time he was in a trance
In a deep trance, the hypnotist can produce very unusual effects 3or e*ample, he may tell the
subFect that, when he comes out of the trance, he will think that he sees a clock on the wall and that he
will look at it and say it is midnight even though it?s four o?clock in the afternoon When he comes out
of the trance, the subFect will do what he is told to do, but he may not remember anything about what
happened in the trance
In contrast to many people who can be put into a deep trance )uite easily, there are others who are
not affected at all #he number of such people constitutes about ./R of the population, but this
percentage may be higher among people who are 00 or older Also, subFects who try too hard to fall
into a trance may actually be difficult to hypnoti'e Fust like those who are afraid or suspicious of
hypnosis or the hypnotist +eople who resist the process can?t be hypnoti'ed either :owever, some
e*perimenters have reported that it was easier to hypnoti'e people who did not know they were being
hypnoti'ed #hese subFects were patients who needed treatment for various kinds of nervous
conditions #hey were simply told that the doctor would teach them how to rela*
&ontrary to popular belief, there is no possibility of the subFect not awakening as a result of an
accident to the hypnotist It is also not true that a hypnoti'ed subFect is completely under the will or
power of the hypnotist
99: &,ising A !mile
:umor, the way people regard things as amusing, was often seen in a very negative way in the
past 3or +lato, for e*ample, it meant trying to give yourself a sense of superiority by making fun of
other people, and he thought that only people who lacked self,confidence did this
!odern psychology, however, regards humor with more respect 4igmund 3reud, the founder of
psychoanalysis, considered laughter to be a means of releasing nervous energy safely :e thought
laughing provided relief and made potentially damaging disagreements harmless While this approach
is still very influential, more recent work in psychology has also focused on the social value of being
funny, that is, the useful role of the well,timed Foke or light remark in everyday encounters
A study of humor has revealed that a person?s sense of humor depends very much on his point of
view +olitical opinions and ethnic background all influence the way a Foke is received and how funny
people find it #he study has also shown that humorous people are perceived as being more likeable,
and this enables them to have a greater influence on others In one e*periment, trained psychology
graduates played the role of sellers in a bargaining situation in which a painting was to be sold #hey
were instructed to take a humorous approach, while others made no Fokes at all and bargained in a
straightforward, serious way It was found that the dealers with the more light,hearted attitude were
able to get a significantly higher price for the painting What humor does, in this conte*t, is to reduce
the buyer?s feelings of threat and an*iety and to establish a more rela*ed relationship with the seller In
this way, both trust and attraction are increased and the buyer feels safe
#he implications of this study are )uite important If humor can help the salesman, then it can also
help others in a similar way in different situations If you can get people to laugh with you, then you
have already established a degree of leadership that you can later build on :umor can improve your
image in a conversation with a group of friends It can be used as a persuader in other social conte*ts
and is useful in opening conversations with the opposite se* Establishing a rela*ed mood helps a
relationship to develop )uickly !aking Fokes may also allow you to avoid a useless discussion without
hurting the other person?s feelings
!any researchers believe that being really funny can only be achieved by returning to a more
childlike view of the world #his may be related to the fact that comedians adopt humor early in life as
a way of getting people to like them and attracting their attention !any comedians have reported that
their use of humor developed in early schooldays and was a means of coping with an*iety,producing
situations 4uch strategies were rewarded with laughter from both classmates and teachers
As 3reud suggested, humor can also be a replacement of aggression with a more positive attitude
#he professional comedian is thought Cby psychoanalystsC to be an angry person whose skills allow
him to e*press his aggression in a socially acceptable and productive manner In other words,
comedians are regarded as aggressive people, but they have enough strength of character to transfer
their emotions into a creative e*pression
As well as for comedians, for all of us, humor is not only a valuable social tool but also a useful
way of coping with personal frustrations or emotional difficulties By laughing about them, we achieve
a more rela*ed mood in which we are better able to communicate with others
999 The Mind8.ody Connection;
Are 6o) .locking 6o)r 2,y to !)ccess ,nd %,((iness=
#he holistic perspective, or the view which accepts the mind and the body as parts of a whole, is
still a mystery for many people #his is because they probably grew up seeing their mind and their
body as completely divided, separate systems In fact, when they became ill, their bodies were treated
in separate units, which has been the case in traditional Western medicine for centuries #he holistic
perspective, on the other hand, regards the two as interrelating parts of a whole
According to the holistic perspective, the mind,body connection occurs through vehicles called
meridians We have thousands of meridians, which are energy channels that run throughout the body
and are associated with our organs In Eastern medicine, the energy flow through the meridians is
referred to as ?prana? +rana means ?life force? If this life force becomes blocked from trauma or from
life?s demands Apopularly known as stressB, illness can occur Illness can show itself in all forms, from
severe pain to a weak immune system to organ problems #hese blocks in the life force can slow one?s
progress toward creating a satisfying life 3or e*ample, one can be too ill or in too much pain to try
new things Apart from physical illnesses, there can be psychological disturbances, such as depression,
which can prevent one?s ability to create the relationships one needs in order to succeed #he stress in
our life can also block our creativity When our creativity is blocked, we can never truly Fudge or
understand how to reach complete happiness
What can be done to open blocked meridiansE 3irst of all, we should try to get rid of the clutter of
years of anger and fear #hese feelings absorb the energy we can otherwise devote to creating
supportive relationships and environments that will carry us toward our dreams If we cannot overcome
our problems by ourselves, we can consult professionals #oday, Fust like people who practice holistic
health, modern medical practitioners are also beginning to acknowledge the connection between the
mind and the body and treat their patients? physical and emotional illnesses as a whole In addition to
traditional treatment methods, more and more doctors are prescribing e*ercise and stress,reduction
techni)ues In some cases, massage, acupuncture, and other alternative therapies are recommended as
supplementary care
In order to become healthy, happy, and successful individuals, we need to bring our bodies to a
state where our life energy flows freely #his flow can occur only with a dedicated mind, a mind
committed to health and well,being #he most important step is to maintain a balanced life that
includes mindful eating, physical activity, and a peaceful mind Being balanced, healthy, strong, and
fle*ible creates the self,esteem, confidence, and strength for being successful in life #his lifestyle will
ultimately lead to achieving one?s fullest potential
992 The ffects Of O)r n3ironment
+hysical settings, architecture, and interior design affect our communication Recall for a moment
the different homes you have visited lately Were some of these homes more comfortable to be in than
othersE &ertainly a lot of these kinds of feelings are shaped by the people you are with, but there are
some houses where it seems impossible to rela*, no matter how friendly the hosts are We?ve spent
what seemed an endless evening in what !ark 5napp calls Gunliving houses,G where spotless ashtrays,
furniture coverings, and plastic lamp covers seemed to be sending nonverbal messages telling us not to
touch anything, not to put our feet up, and not to be comfortable +eople who live in these Gunliving
housesG probably wonder why nobody ever seems to rela* and enFoy themselves at their parties "ne
thing is )uite certain8 #hey don?t understand that the environment they have created can communicate
discomfort to their guests
#here?s a large amount of research that shows how the design of an environment can shape the
kind of communication that takes place in it In one e*periment at Brandeis 7niversity, !oslow and
!ints found that the attractiveness of a room influenced the happiness and energy of the people
working in it #he e*perimenters set up three rooms8 an GuglyG one, which resembled a Fanitor?s closet
in the basement of a campus building, an GaverageG room, which was a professor?s office, and a
GbeautifulG room, which was furnished with carpeting, curtains, and comfortable furniture #he subFects
in the e*periment were asked to rate a series of pictures as a way of measuring their energy and feeling
of well,being while at work Results of the e*periment showed that while in the ugly room, the subFects
became tired and bored more )uickly and thus it took them longer to complete their task 4ubFects in
the beautiful room, however, rated the pictures they were Fudging more positively, showed a greater
desire to work, and e*pressed feelings of importance, comfort and enFoyment
!any business people show an understanding? of how environment can influence communication
Robert 4ommer, a leading environmental psychologist, described several such cases In his book
9ersonal Space, he points out that dim lighting, lowered noise levels and comfortable seats encourage
people to spend more in a restaurant or bar 5nowing this fact, the management can control the amount
of customer turnover If the goal is to run a high, volume business that tries to move people in and out
)uickly, it is necessary to keep the lights shining brightly and not worry too much about keeping sound
out "n the other hand, if the goal is to keep the customers in a bar or restaurant for a long time, the
proper techni)ue is to lower the lighting, and use absorbent building materials that will keep down the
noise levels 3urniture design also affects the amount of time a person spends in an environment 3rom
this knowledge came the 2arsen chair, which was designed for &openhagen restaurant owners who felt
their customers were occupying their seats too long without spending enough money #he chair is
constructed to put an uncomfortable pressure on the sitter?s back if occupied for more than a few
minutes 4ommer also describes how airports are designed to discourage people from spending too
much time in waiting areas #he uncomfortable chairs, connected shoulder to shoulder in rows facing
outward, make conversation and rela*ation ne*t to impossible 3aced with this situation, travelers are
forced to move to restaurants and bars in the terminal, where they not only feel more comfortable but
also spend money &asino owners in places such as 2as 1egas also know how to use the environment
to control behavior #o keep gamblers from noticing how long they have been playing roulette and
blackFack, they build their casinos without windows or clocks 7nless they wear a wristwatch,
customers have no way of knowing how long they have been gambling
Even the design of an entire building can shape communication among its users Architects have
learned that the way housing proFects are designed controls to a great e*tent the contact the neighbors
have with each other +eople who live in flats near stairways and mailbo*es have much more neighbor
contact than those living in less heavily traveled parts of the building, and tenants generally have more
contact with immediate neighbors than with people even a few doors away Architects now use this
information to design buildings that either encourage communication or increase privacy, and house
hunters can use the same knowledge to choose a home that gives them the neighborhood relationship
they want
99' Monsters Or "ictims=
4erial killers and their motives have always attracted people?s interest Why do they killE Does
killing result from generic, hormonal, or other biological factorsE Does cultural conditioning play a
role in killingE Do serial killers have any control over their desires and rageE We all have our
unfulfilled desires and e*perience rage, but we have some sort of internal cage that keeps our inner
monsters locked up What about serial killersE Are they insaneE What sets them apart from othersE
$ow let?s have a look at the characteristics that an average serial killer has
4tatistically, serial killers have some common character traits8 #he average serial killer is a white
male from a lower to middle,class background, usually in his twenties or thirties In their childhood,
most are physically or emotionally ill,treated by parents 4ome are adopted As children, serial killers
often set fires, torture animals, and wet their beds, which are the three important symptoms of future
serial killers Brain inFuries are another common feature 4till, some are very intelligent and have
shown great promise as successful professionals #hey are active, outgoing figures in business and
society !ost serial killers are also fascinated with authority in general 4ome have attempted to
become police themselves but have been reFectedH some have worked as security guards or served in
the military !any, such as >ohn -acy and #ed Bundy, disguise themselves as people who are
responsible for enforcing the law to gain access to their victims &arrying badges and driving vehicles
similar to those of the police help them feel important and approach their victims, who would
otherwise never talk to strangers
4erial killers tend to choose victims weaker than themselves "ften their victims will fit a certain
stereotype which has symbolic meaning for the killer #his meaning is related to the killer?s e*istence
!ost of the time, they tend to generali'e certain characteristics which they see as a threat and kill
people who they believe have these characteristics 3or the killer, the victim?s e*istence in this world is
a problem which can only be solved through the act of destruction As the killer has generali'ed the
threat into a certain stereotype, the killing game never ends #ed Bundy, for e*ample, killed college
girls with long brown hair Was he killing over and over again because of his upper,class fiance, who
broke off her engagement with himE Another killer hated all women8 GI blame them for everything
Everything evil that has happened in the world somehow goes back to themG >ohn -acy strangled
young men, some of whom were his own employees, seeing them as Gworthless little creaturesG 4ome
believe that -acy?s rage was proFected onto the boys, who represented his own childhood and
relationship with his own authoritarian father
4erial killers usually try to present a number of e*cuses for their killing :enry 2ee 2ucas, killer
of an unknown number, blamed the way he had been brought up "thers like #ed Bundy, who killed
about NM women, claimed pornography made him do it :erbert !ullin, 4anta &ru' killer of IN,
blamed the voices in his head that told him it was time to Gsing the die songG #he most psychopathic,
like >ohn -acy, turned the blame around and said that the victims deserved to die
&an a normal person slaughter another human for the simple pleasure of itE "ne thinks that serial
killers are totally insane and that we can notice their insanity easily We assume that a maniac with an
uncontrollable wish to kill will be unable to control himself "n the bus, in the street, we try to avoid
the mentally ill, the untidy, unshaven man who speaks loudly to himself :owever, the most frightening
fact is that serial killers mostly seem )uite normal, and they calculate their acts very carefully If we
want to avoid serial killers, our best strategy should be to stay away from nicely dressed, polite
individuals, as they mi* among ordinary people easily We can see him anytime, anywhere GDress him
in a suit and he looks like ten other men,G said one psychiatrist in describing #ed Bundy 2ike all
evolved predators, serial killers know how to approach their victims by gaining their trust #hey are
wolves in sheep?s clothing8 they hide behind a carefully constructed appearance of normality
We believe that we have control over our impulses, and, no matter how angry we get, there is
something that stops us from taking our aggression out on others What about serial killersE What
makes them different from usE #he answer to this )uestion may be lying in the darkest side of man?s
mind and may take psychologists a long time to find out
99* 2here Do Dre,ms Come From=
!ost people dream at night When they wake up in the morning, they say to themselves, ?What a
strange dream I hadT I wonder what made me dream that? 4ometimes dreams are frightening
4ometimes, in dreams, wishes come true We can fly through the air or float from mountain tops At
other times we are troubled by dreams in which everything is confused In dreams we act very
strangely We do things which we would never do when we are awake Why are dreams so strangeE
Where do they come fromE
+eople have been trying to answer this since the beginning of time But no one has produced a
more satisfying answer than a man called 4igmund 3reud "ne?s dream,world seems strange and
unfamiliar, he said, because dreams come from a part of one?s mind which one can neither recogni'e
nor control :e named this the ?unconscious mind? #he unconscious mind is like a deep well, full of
memories and feelings #hey have been stored there from the moment of our birth "ur conscious mind
has forgotten them We do not suspect that they are there until some unhappy or unusual e*perience
causes us to remember #hen suddenly we see a face we had forgotten long ago We feel the same
Fealous fear and bitter disappointments we felt when we were little children #his discovery of 3reud?s
is very important if we wish to understand why people act as they do, for the unconscious forces inside
us are at least as powerful as the conscious forces we know about Why do we choose one friend rather
than anotherE Why does one story not affect us at allE +erhaps we know why If we don?t, the reasons
may lie deep in our unconscious minds
In 3reud?s day, it seemed that no one knew very much about the mind If a person went mad, or
?out of his mind,? there was not much that could be done about it +eople didn?t understand at all what
was happening to him :ad he been possessed by a devil or evil spiritE Was -od punishing him for
wrongdoingE "ften such people were shut away from the company of ordinary people as if they had
committed some terrible crime #his is still true today in many places Doctors prefer to e*periment on
those parts of a man which they can see and e*amine If you cut a man?s head open, you can see his
brain but you can?t see his thoughts or ideas or dreams In 3reud?s day, few doctors were interested in
these subFects 3reud wanted to know what makes us think and feel as we doH that is, he wanted to
know how our minds work :e went to +aris to study with a famous 3rench doctor, &harcot, whose
special field of study was diseases of the mind and nerves :e learned a lot from him When he
returned to 1ienna in IJJM, he began to work as a doctor for nerve diseases !ost of the patients who
came to see him were over,e*cited and an*ious, sick in mind rather than in body !edicine did not help
them 3reud was full of sympathy, but he could do little to make them better
#hen one day, a friend, Dr >osef Breuer, came to see him :e told 3reud about a girl he was
looking after, who seemed to get better when she was allowed to talk about herself Dr Breuer allowed
her to talk at great length, and she told him everything that came into her mind, whether it seemed
important or not Each time she talked to him, she remembered more about her life as a little child
3reud was e*cited when he heard this :e began to try to cure his patients in the same way :e asked
about the events of their early childhoodH he urged them to talk about their own e*periences and
relationships while he himself said very little "ften, as he listened, his patients relieved occasions
from their past lives #he doctor did not make any attempt to stop them :e let them speak as they
wished, while he himself remained calm and )uietly accepted whatever they told him "ne young
woman who came to him couldn?t drink anything although she was very thirsty 4he would hold a glass
of water to her lips and then push it away 4omething prevented her from drinking 3reud discovered
the reason for this "ne day, as they were talking, the girl remembered having seen a dog drink from
her nurse?s glass 4he hadn?t told the nurse, whom she disliked, and had forgotten the whole e*perience,
but suddenly this childhood memory returned to her mind When she had described it to Dr 3reud, the
girl was able to drink again 3reud called this treatment the ?talking cure? 2ater, it was called
psychoanalysis When patients talked freely about the things that were troubling them, they often felt
better and learned to control their fears
Whatever 3reud learned he reported to other doctors, and many of them were greatly upset by his
discoveries Even Dr Breuer?s courage was not enough for him to continue with his e*periments, and
3reud stopped his e*periments It was hard to believe that people could become blind, or lose the
power of speech, because of what had happened to them when they were children #he human mind
was turning out to be a dark and fearful place
3reud was attacked from all sides for the things he said and wrote :e made many enemies, but he
also found firm friends !any people believed that he had at last found a way to unlock the secrets of
the human mind and to help people who were very miserable :e had found the answer to many of
life?s great )uestions :e became famous all over the world and taught others to use the ?talking cure?
:is influence on modern art, literature, and science cannot be measured +eople who wrote books and
plays, people who painted pictures, people who worked in schools, hospitals, and prisons all learned
something from the great man who discovered a way into the unconscious mind
$ot all of 3reud?s ideas are accepted today, but others have followed where he led and have helped
us to understand ourselves better Because of him, and them, there is more hope than there has ever
been before for people who were once Fust called ?cra'y?
.IOLO#6 C #NTIC!
990 !lee(
!any people think that nothing happens when they sleep Doctors, on the other hand, have studied
sleep for many years, and they think that a lot happens when people sleep
Doctors say that people have five stages of sleep and that they usually go through each phase
about every O/ minutes During the first two stages, you sleep lightly If someone calls you or puts his
or her hand on you, you wake up )uickly @our body rests )uietly @ou breathe more slowly than when
you are awake @our heart beats slowly During stages three and four, you sleep deeply If someone
puts his or her hand on you, you don?t wake up @our heart beats more slowly than it does in stages one
and two $either sounds nor lights wake you up #he last stage of sleep is called RE! ARapid Eye
!ovementB During RE! sleep, your eyes move under your eyelids @ou breathe faster, and your heart
beats faster than it does in the previous stages All of these things happen because you are dreamingI
Dreams are another issue that fascinates people Doctors say that everyone dreams, but while some
people are good at remembering their dreams, others simply forget them
+eople do not need the same amount of sleep 4ome people get enough rest with only four or five
hours of sleep a night, and others may re)uire twelve hours of sleep #hat is, they may need a twelve,
hour sleep Why do you need to sleepE Is it bad for you if you don?t sleep for some rimeE Doctors say
you won?t be sick, but you will be sleepy and tired the ne*t day
4ome people worry a lot about sleep Americans, especially, spend at least .0 million dollars a
year on sleeping pills :owever, doctors say this is a bad idea After you use sleeping pills for about I=
days, they don?t help you anymore 4ome sleeping pills won?t let you go into sleep stage fourH others
won?t let you go into RE! sleep #herefore, you can?t get a good night?s sleep with sleeping pills 4o,
what can you do if you have a sleeping problemE #ake a warm shower before you go to bed Don?t
drink coffee or eat a lot before bedtime Drink a glass of warm milk 3inally, do not think about your
problems in bed
991 All In The Memory@@@
!any people complain that their memory is bad, particularly as they get older +hone numbers,
names, and facts we studied only a few days ago are easily forgotten 2ife would be so much easier if
we could remember them all effortlessly 4o how can we improve our memoryE
!any people think that repeating things is the best way to remember them While this undoubtedly
helps short,term memory Aremembering a telephone number for a few seconds, for e*ampleB,
psychologists doubt whether it can help you remember things for very long #he British psychologist
E & 4tanford seemed to prove this point when he tested himself on five prayers that he had read aloud
every morning for over .0 years :e found that he could remember no more than three words of some
of themT If you want to remember numbers, Gchunking,G or grouping the information, is much more
helpful #he following numbers would be impossible for most of us to remember8 I=O.ILJOIOONIJ=J
But look at them in ?chunks,? and it becomes much easier8 I=O. ILJO IOON IJ=J
4o what about Gmemory trainingEG We?ve all heard about people who can memori'e packs of cards
C how is this done and can anyone learn how to do itE According to e*perts, there are various ways of
training your memory !any of them involve forming a mental picture of the items to be memori'ed
"ne method, which may be useful in learning foreign languages, is to create a picture in your mind
associated with a word you want to remember 3or e*ample, an English person wishing to learn GpatoG
Athe 4panish word for GduckGB, could associate it with the English verb Gto patG Imagining someone
patting a duck on the head would remind the learner of the 4panish word
Another method is to invent a story that includes all the things you want to remember In
e*periments, people were asked to remember up to I./ words using this techni)ueH when tested
afterwards, on average, they were able to recall O/ per cent of themT 4urprisingly, however, there is
nothing new about these methods C they were around even in ancient times #he Roman general
+ublius 4cipio could recogni'e and name his entire army C N0,/// men in totalT
:owever, not all of us are interested in learning long lists of names and numbers Fust for fun 3or
those studying large )uantities of information, psychologists suggest that the best way to Gform
meaningful connectionsG is to ask yourself lots of )uestions as you go along 4o, for e*ample, if you
were reading about a particular disease, you would ask yourself )uestions like8 GDo people get it from
waterEG GWhat parts of the body does it affectEG and so on #his is said to be far more effective than
time spent GpassivelyG reading and re,reading notes
3inally, what about this problemE What happens when people lose their memoriesE !emory loss
can take many forms8 cases of people who forget their identity and end up wandering the streets are
relatively common Rarer cases include the man who lost his memory for faces and believed that a
stranger was watching him every time he looked in the mirror, or the man who lost his visual memory
and could not recogni'e everyday obFects, confusing a pen with a knife, for e*ample
994 $nderst,nding The %)m,n .r,in
:istorically, anatomists have been able to make vague inferences about the human brain by
comparing it to the brains of animalsH ie, if mammalian brains have grown outward from a root
structure Cthe brainstemC which is similar to the complete brain of a reptile
J
, it?s reasonable to
suppose that GreptilianG responses Aeg, breathing, heart rate, pleasureB might still e*ist there 2ikewise,
the more comple* mammalian behaviors Aeg, social organi'ation and caring for the youngB should
logically be controlled from other regions which reptiles don?t have
But that?s about as far as comparative anatomy will get you In order to map the living brain in
greater detail, researchers have traditionally waited for humans to have an accident or disease ,When a
part of the brain is destroyed or disconnected, doctors can observe the changes in the victim?s behavior,
cognitive AreasoningB abilities, reported sensation, etc, and thereby understand the function of the
affected region 4ince this kind of damage can be devastating, it?s hard not to see this as one of
science?s darker corners
"ver the centuries, the misfortunes of a few have provided important knowledge to scientists, and
a reasonably detailed map has been drawn that can offer us helpful hints like GIf you?re an artist or a
dancer, let the bus hit you on the left side If you?re an auctioneer or used car salesman, let it hit you on
the rightG
3ortunately, beginning in the IOJ/s, it became possible to measure brain activity directly and non,
destructively, using two e*citing new technologies8 +ositron Emission #omography A+E#B and
!agnetic Resonance Imaging A!RIB A +E# scan relies on the detection of gamma rays and can take
detailed neural Gsnapshots,G or brightness maps, which accurately reflect the levels of activity across
the entire brain, all at once With a +E# scan, an image taken of a brain at rest can be contrasted with
an image of a brain doing a specific task #his yields a very e*act picture whose bright spots highlight
only the brain areas that are directly involved #hese highlights are repeatable, tooH the same areas will
light up every time the subFect performs that task 4o while we can?t yet tell what a person is thinking,
we?re rapidly developing the means to see where they?re thinking, and thus,, at least in rough terms,
what they?re thinking about #he !RI scan operates on a different principle8 sensing the
electromagnetic signature of o*ygen directly Its sensors rely on powerful electromagnets which can
literally suck bits of metal completely through a human body
%
a cold,blooded animal like a turde or snake
As this kind of mapping continues and our brains? self,understanding e*plodes, it isn?t hard to
imagine some sinister applications What if enemy governments or criminal organi'ations had the
ability literally to read our mindsE We might not want even our friends and lovers to know us )uite that
well 4till, there are as many intriguing possibilities on the positive side 5nowing e*actly how our
brains function, we may find it possible to cure a host of neurological and psychological ailments
995 Dise,se Detecti3es
Recent technological changes are making modern medicine more popular and e*citing than ever
before $ew technology is now available to modern Gdisease detectives,G doctors and scientists who are
using clues to solve medical mysteriesCthat is, to find out the answers to )uestions of health and
sickness #he knowledge of genetics may prevent or cure birth defects and genetic illnesses 4uccessful
transplants of the heart, liver, kidney, and other organs of the body are much more common than they
were ten or twenty years ago
!odern Gdisease detectivesG include microbiologists, epidemiologists, and other scientists who try
to find out the reasons for an epidemicCa sickness that many people in one region have #hese e*perts
talk to people with the disease and ask them many )uestions, such as8 What do you eat most oftenE
:ow often do you wash your handsE Do you use drugsE #hey inspect kitchens, bathrooms, and air,
conditioning systems #hen they study the outside environment for clues that might give them
information about the disease #hey share the information that they, find with laboratory scientists, who
have the benefits of microscopes and computers #ogether, they work to find the causes of modern
killer diseases
What are genes and why are Gdisease detectivesG always trying to find out more about themE
-enes are part of the nucleus Athat is, the centerB of every cellH in the form of D$A, this Ggenetic
materialG determines the characteristics of every living thingCevery plant, animal, and human being
!edical geneticists are scientists who study D$A and genes for many purposes8 AIB to learn how
organisms such as bacteria and viruses cause illnessesH A.B to detect the gene or combination of genes
that causes inherited diseases like sickle,cell anemia and :untington?s diseaseH ANB to understand the
gene changes that lead to birth defects or genetic illnessesH A=B to change gene structure and thus
prevent or cure genetic diseasesH and A0B to improve the chances of success in organ transplants 3or
these and other reasons, genetics is an important part of modern science and medicine
Another field that modern disease detectives are highly interested in is organ transplantation
"rgan transplants are not only more common but also more successful now than they were in the past
because of modern technology In other words, people with a new heart, liver, or kidney can live much
longer than they did in the past $ot long ago, transplant patients often died after a few days because
their bodies fought against the new organ $ew drugs, however, now help the human body to accept a
new part In addition, knowledge of genes and D$A increases the possibility of successful organ
transplants Doctors can now try to GmatchG the characteristics of the organ donor Athe person who
gives the body partB and the receiver 3urthermore, scientists can change genes #hey can change the
structure of D$A, and they can also put genes from one organism into another In the future, therefore,
scientists may put human genes into pigs or other animals, and farmers may raise animals for the
purpose of organ transplants for humans
997 .r,in Circ)its
#he comple*ity of the human brain has made brain research the last great border between what is
known and unknown 4cientists from many different fields have combined their findings to understand
the mystery of how the brain functions #heir research has led to our understanding of how information
scattered throughout the brain can be brought together in GcircuitsGCconnections of different parts of
the brain working simultaneously #hese circuits direct many actions and skills which are re)uired in
our lives 4cientists are Fust beginning to learn which circuits control which skills and how the number
of circuits affects intelligence
As researchers learn new things about the working of the brain, they sometimes learn that some of
their earlier ideas were incorrect "ne misconception was that people must mentally or physically
pronounce words to understand them Actually, people can understand words by either hearing or
seeing them In both situations, circuits go to the left frontal lobe, which gives meaning to the words
Information in the brain is scattered everywhere Different types of words C nouns, verbs,
adFectives C are kept in different places In addition to this, the brain also separates the parts of images
and stores them in different places in the visual corte* #he visual corte* has different places for color,G
movement, si'e, etc #hus, if the color part of the corte* is damaged, people can still see, but they
cannot see in color 4imilarly, if the movement part is damaged, then a person can see only stationary
obFects In short, different features are dealt with separately but are combined instantly
#he brain also switches circuits #here is one circuit for learning new things and another for
remembering In one study, ?common nouns were shown to II adults #hey were supposed to give a
matching verb 3or e*ample, if they saw the word Gbird,G they might have answered with GflyG In this
e*ercise, four areas of the brain were active #he adults did this e*ercise for I0 minutes with different
nouns #hen they were given the same nouns again #his time, the original four areas were not active
Instead, the brain?s motor system, which automatically controls muscles, was activated #hus, the brain
does not consciously think after it has learned the answer It simply responds automatically :owever,
when the adults were given new and different words, the original four areas were reactivated It seems
that the brain uses certain circuits for learning new words, and after it has learned them, it switches to
GrememberingG circuits for those same words
"f course, sometimes people learn something partially #hen they use both areas for thinking and
remembering :owever, they use less energy for automatic remembering than for conscious thinking
In other words, in the process of learning new words, people think less and therefore use less energy
when they see a new word a second time #hey continue to think less and use less energy until the new
word is completely learned
Interestingly, the decrease in energy for thinking seems to be related to intellectual development in
children and intelligence in adults When a baby is born, its brain is highly active, and it is a mess of
brain circuits It uses a lot of glucoseCthe sugar that the brain burns for energyCfor its thinking, and it
uses even more of it as it grows older until it becomes five years old At this time, a child uses about
two times as much glucose as an adult #hen, the child starts to use much less glucose and fewer
circuits until the age of I0 #he decreasing use of brain circuits is called Gpruning,G the cutting of
unneeded circuits >ust as trees grow better when they are pruned, people become more intelligent as
more circuits are pruned #hose people whose circuits are pruned the most become the most intelligent
#hat is, more intelligent brains use less energy because they use fewer brain circuits, but less intelligent
brains use more circuits and therefore waste more energy +runing may, therefore, e*plain why some
people are more intelligent than others
92: #enetic ngineering
Dramatic achievements in genetic engineering are rapidly revealing the secrets of how genes
work 4ome researchers are probing into its social and economic benefits 3or e*ample, they are trying
to produce more meat and milk from genetically engineered cattle !oreover, current advances bring
medicine closer to curing hereditary illness in humans, instead of merely treating its symptoms, as
medical practices are now restricted to doing
:owever, many people are worried8 what if an evil dictator produces hundreds of copies of
himself through cloning in order to take over the world or grieving relatives use cloning to bring their
loved ones back to lifeE #he truth is there is no chance that any copy of a human being would be
identical either physically or mentally, any more than children are identical to their parents
4cientists )uite reasonably point out that human genetic engineering still faces immense technical
obstacles -etting a new gene into a cell is Fust the first of many giant steps that are re)uired 2ike
$A4A engineers sending a space probe into another planet, researchers must not only deliver a gene to
their target, but then turn it on and get it to work properly
It was Fust these problems that thwarted the controversial work of 7&2A?s Dr !artin &line In
>uly IOJ/, he tinkered with the bone marrow of two young women suffering from thalassemia, a fatal
defect in hemoglobin production #he idea was to give a few of their marrow cells normal genes in
hopes that the repaired cells would multiply and cure the inborn defect It does not appear to have
worked When the e*periments were revealed the following autumn, &line was asked to resign his post
as head of his division #he following year, the $ational Institute of :ealth stripped him of two federal
grants C he had four C worth more than PIO/,/// #he unprecedented punishment was a stern
warning to researchers to move slowly in testing gene therapy on people
&line?s approach is sadly limited as it can apply only to tissues whose cells, like those of bone
marrow, continue to divide throughout life so that the genetically engineered cells can eventually
replace the natural, defective ones !any organs produce cells only intermittently or, like the brain,
stop altogether once they are fully developed 3or defects in these organs, other methods are needed
"ne hope is to insert the desired gene into a virus that would infect the afflicted tissue and use the virus
to get the gene to its target C cells with defective genes
:owever, the method, called viral transduction, is problematic As #homas &askey, professor of
medicine and biochemistry at Baylor &ollege of !edicine, sees it, Gthe problem is to engineer a virus
so that it will be defective, that is, will not cause a disease, yet will carry the desired gene into a certain
tissue and reproduce it Fust as disease,causing viruses reproduce their own genes #his is a formidable
task, but not insurmountableG
+erhaps riot, but all forms of gene therapy now being e*plored present problems that will keep
them from being widely used &askey says Gpeople have gotten the impression that this work is going
to lead to miraculous cures, but it is really going to be applicable only to a small category of patients
with rare diseasesG #he trouble is that the gene therapies now under development can work only with
inherited diseases limited to a single tissue and there are relatively few of such diseases !ost genetic,
disorders have far wider effects &ystic fibrosis, for e*ample, affects the lungs, intestinal tract, pancreas
and se* organs 4o far, there is no way to deliver a ?good? gene to all these tissues at once
"ther defects present even more difficult problems Down?s syndrome, the most common cause of
severe mental retardation, is genetic, but it is not caused by a single gene Instead, Down?s patients
carry an entire e*tra chromosome, a package of D$A comprising several thousand genes $o one has
been able to devise a way to remove that e*tra chromosome from every cell in a child?s body, or to
undo the damage it wreaks on the brain $or will gene therapy avert such disorders as diabetes, heart
disease and high blood pressure #hese are all produced in large part by environmental factors, but they
develop most often in people genetically predisposed to them #hese conditions, too, probably involve
more than one gene, medical geneticists believe
-etting foreign genetic material into a comple* organism is no easy task !ost scientists have
simply inFected the new genes into a fertili'ed egg through a glass needle finer than a hair #hey call
this techni)ue microinFection #he process is traumatic and many of the eggs die :owever, some
survive, and when transferred into the uterus of a host mother, they can live out lives that appear
otherwise normal
#he first success of this kind was reported by three @ale scientists, who were able to identify
foreign genes in one, or perhaps two, of I0/ newborn mice grown from microinFected eggs "f crucial
importance for the future of embryo genetic engineering, those mice passed the gene along to their
children and grandchildren :owever, it is not enough simply to get the genes into the animal "nce
there, they must behave normally and this involves two more problems #he first problem is gene
e*pression8 a gene ?e*presses? itself by making the protein it is supposed to make #he other problem is
gene regulation8 a gene must not only make the right protein, but turn it out at the right place and time
and in the right amount
If putting a foreign gene into an embryonic mouse is no easy task, getting the gene to e*press itself
is far more challenging 4ince the @ale announcement, a number of research groups have reported
successful gene insertion and even inheritance :owever, only three have claimed that the foreign
genes in their engineered rodents e*pressed themselves
#hese successes in engineering other species force us to wonder about the genetic manipulation of
:omo 4apiens As we want to heal hereditary illness, we are slipping toward the genetic engineering of
human beings almost without reali'ing it $onetheless, genetic engineering will not be forced upon us
as a few social forecasters have led us to believe, by a new :ider wishing a mindlessly obedient
populace We will seek out, applaud its humane goals and espouse it greatly
929 #enetic thics
#he promises of genetic engineering seem almost limitless In only a few years, scientists have
developed methods for producing valuable new substances and materials, and predicting which
diseases a person is likely to get in later life Even more remarkably, medical researchers have been
able to locate the genes responsible for nearly si* hundred diseases 2ocating these genes is the first
step toward repairing or replacing them and thus preventing the diseases they cause #ogether with the
many benefits of genetic research, however, are the dangers and risks involved whenever scientists
interfere with the basic structures of life
"ne of the most significant risks of genetic agriculture is the possibility that genetically
engineered species will mi* with natural species 4cientists are not able to predict the results of such a
mi*ing 3or e*ample, scientists have successfully engineered a new species of carp, a fish that is
popular in many parts of the world #his new species contains a growth gene from another kind of fish,
the rainbow trout #he new kind of carp grows twenty percent faster than ordinary carp What does the
future hold for such ?improved? speciesE Will they destroy all the other fish in the oceansE When only
the engineered species are left, will these die out from some genetic weakness that scientists have not
foreseenE &learly, it is dangerous to play such games with nature
Another maFor user of genetic engineering techni)ues is manufacturing industry -enetic
manufacturing could be more dangerous than genetic agriculture In manufacturing, microorganisms
are changed so that they will produce desired substances or perform desired functions Because these
creatures are too small to be seen without microscopes, and because they tend to reproduce rapidly,
their potential for creating ha'ards is great "ne of the greatest dangers of altered microorganisms is
their tendency to undergo spontaneous mutations When organisms mutate spontaneously, they change
into different organisms without any outside influence #he changed organisms may be much more
dangerous than the original, genetically altered ones 4ome critics worry that mutating organisms could
get out of control, spreading new, incurable diseases or destroying agricultural crops
#he area of greatest concern to the critics of genetic engineering is medical science, for genetic
medicine would affect people directly by altering human genes "ne of the fastest growing fields of
medicine is transplant surgery, which can often e*tend the patient?s lifespan and improve the )uality of
life As a result, there is a large demand for replacement organs :owever, relatively few such organs
are available -enetic engineering may provide some solutions to this problem -enetic techni)ues will
enable doctors to predict the kinds of diseases that a person is likely to e*perience later in life Even
more remarkably, genetic engineering will eventually enable scientists to create humanoids that could
be used as a source of spare organs #hese creatures may contain human hearts, kidneys, lungs, and
other organs :owever, the use of humanoids would present a completely new set of ethical problems
to be discussed and resolved
Another e*ample of a genetic techni)ue that may soon have implications for genetics is
amniocentesis, a procedure for determining the se* of a fetus In some societies, in which boys are
pri'ed more highly than girls, mothers who do not want to give birth to a girl occasionally use this
techni)ue to determine whether or not to have an abortion With the help of genetic engineering, by
changing the genes on a single chromosome, the se* of a baby could be changed while it is still in the
womb Again, however, this must be dealt with before such a procedure could be permitted
In dealing with the ethical concerns of generic engineering, another issue to consider is eugenics
It is concerned with using biotechnology to remove biologically undesirable characteristics to make
genetic changes that will improve an organism or species 4oon, doctors will be able to give us a list of
our genetic weaknesses In other words, they will be able to tell us what genetic diseases we are most
likely to get and how we will possibly die Even before biotechnology provides us with treatments for
these diseases, however, we will have ethical choices to make 4ociety will have to decide who is
allowed to use personal genetic information and for which purposes this information may be used
-enetic information about individuals poses two important concerns "ne is whether knowledge of the
information is itself potentially ha'ardous to the individualH the other is whether institutions will
misuse that knowledge to foster their own dominance and control In the near future, employers may
demand to know the genetic profiles of their workers #hey may fire or refuse to hire people with
certain genetic weaknesses 4chools may refuse to admit children whose genetic profiles indicate
behavioral problems or learning disabilities
In view of these ethical considerations, society should consider seriously whether science should
be thinking about genetic engineering of human beings at all
!CINC C T?NOLO#6
922 The Internet
When one considers all the information about the e*tensive use of the Internet, one would assume
that youngsters all over the world were using it :owever, this would be a misconception It isn?t as
though these youngsters wouldn?t want to, given the chance, but British Funior schools have neither the
time nor the money to offer their students this opportunity !ost lack the funds and teachers with
enough technical e*pertise to be able to successfully install or operate an Internet system
A specialist company called Research !achines AR!B develops and supplies information systems,
software, and services to Funior schools, &olleges, and universities It speciali'es in the British
education system and offers some very comprehensive packages R! sets a fi*ed annual fee, and this
means that users have the advantage of spending a longer time on the Internet without continually
having to worry about the cost
Although schools are e*pected to use the Internet responsibly, some individuals do not do so #his
can have disastrous results Internet users communicate with one another by using telephone circuits,
and, like R!, most Internet systems charge a standard fee with no time charges #his leads to heavy
Internet users taking advantage of this standard fee and spending hours on the net #his Fams local
telephone circuits and may prevent ordinary bill, paying telephone users from making calls, even in
emergencies
$ow, thanks to the Internet, anyone can offer such servicesH there is no advantage in owning the
telephone lines Worse, the Internet is already starting to embrace more traditional telephone services
Internet users Fam telephone circuits and create inconvenience and possible danger to telephone users,
and they also cost the telephone companies a great deal of money #he companies fre)uently have to
replace and install e*pensive new circuits #his is a result of the fact that Internet users are continually
overloading their systems
#he problem is that while it is costing the telephone companies money, it is )uite legal #elephone
companies claim that Internet users are abusing their networks and that this is a war being fought on an
international scale Another international battle is approaching #his one is going to be on the kind of
information that should be checked before it is transmitted over the Internet
At an international conference in 4alt 2ake &ity, former British +rime !inister !argaret #hatcher
warned that corrupt governments and evil individuals might abuse the Internet 4he also e*pressed
concern about the harm that is being caused to children who have access to offensive material on the
Internet #his kind of material, unfortunately, brings forth social and psychological problems R!, in
the meantime, has restricted easy reach to any information it feels may be unsuitable, and it demands
that news groups evaluate their programs for parts that may cause offense, especially to children
"f I0,/// news groups, R! has banned around L,/// #his attitude is a far cry from the
irresponsible attitude being demonstrated by a number of people on the open Internet "f course, it is
inevitable that there will be drawbacks to something as powerful as an international communications
system :owever, with R!, the benefits for young people will certainly be to their advantage 3or
e*ample, additional knowledge of computers can enhance their chances of future employment
:owever, encouraging responsible use is the only way forward
92' The %istory Of The Internet
#he Internet was created in the 74 in the IOM/s as a tool to link university and government
research centers via a nationwide network that would allow a wide variety of computers to e*change
information and share resources #here were numerous engineering challenges, beginning with the
design of a packet,switching network C a system that could make computers communicate with each
other without the need for a traditional central system "thers included the design of the machines, data
e*change protocols, and software to run it What eventually grew out of these efforts is a miraculous
low,cost technology that is swiftly and dramatically changing the world It is available to people at
home, in schools and universities, and in public libraries and Gcyber cafesG
#he Internet is not owned or controlled by any organi'ation, corporation, or nation It connects
people in M0 countries instantaneously through computers, fiber optics, satellites, and phone lines It is
changing cultural patterns, business practices, the consumer industry, and research and educational
pursuits It helps people keep up to date on world events, find a restaurant in a foreign city or a cheap
flight to +aris, play games, and discuss everything from apples to 'oology It has gathered support for
human rights in suppressed nations, saved the life of a child in BeiFing, and helped a man in Iowa find
a lost family member in Bra'il
2eonard 5leinrock invented the technology of the Internet in IOM. while he was a university
student #he packet,switching technology he proposed was a dramatic improvement over the circuit,
switched telephone network +acket switching chops messages into packets, and sends these packets of
data independently through the network as if they are electronic letters passing through an electronic
post office
In IOMN, a man named >&R 2icklider visuali'ed a network that would connect machines and
people worldwide #his network, which formed the foundation of the Internet, was made public in
&alifornia in IOMO
7niversities and research organi'ations were among the first to Foin the network in order to
e*change information Electronic mail was introduced in IOL. by Ray #omlinson !ore networks
began to pop up in the IOJ/s &ommercial organi'ations, which fell outside the original charter,
wanted to use the same packet,switching technologies, and the system came to be known as the
Internet during this period It had far e*ceeded its original purpose, and was providing the stimulus for
a vast technological revolution that was Fust ahead
!aFor innovations in software were necessary before the Internet could function as a global
information utility In IOJO, #im Berners,2ee, a scientist in -eneva, proposed a proFect that would
provide information worldwide called the World Wide Web 4imple tools to retrieve information from
the Web and communicate would be the focus of much activity in the ne*t few years In IOOI, the
7niversity of !innesota developed G-opher,G the first successful Internet document retrieval system
In the spring of IOON, a group of graduate students, led by .I,year,old !arc Andreessen, created a
GbrowserG program called !osaic and distributed it free $etscape and then !icrosoft followed with
browsers that greatly simplified a computer user?s ability to surf the Internet in search of information
#oday people can search thousands of databases and libraries worldwide in several languages,
browse through hundreds of millions of documents, Fournals, books, and computer programs, and keep
up to the minute with wire,service news, sports, and weather reports An increasing number of people
shop, bank, and pay bills on the Internet !any invest in stocks and commodities online It?s a powerful
symbol of society?s e*pectations about the future C fast,moving technology that adds convenience and
efficiency to their lives
Beyond convenience, as people consider the philosophical ramifications of the Internet, some
view it as a tool of unity and democrati'ation In the IOM/s, long before the Internet, futurist and author
4ir Arthur & &larke predicted that by ./// a vast electronic Gglobal libraryG would be developed
Recently, a Fudge cited it as Gthe single most important advancement to freedom of speechG !arshall
!c2uhan coined the phrase Gthe global villageG when he spoke of how radio and television had
transformed the world in the course of the ./th century In the .Ist century, it seems the Internet is
destined to have even more profound effects
92* &eflecting On Light
!ost of what we know comes to us through our ability to GseeG with our eyes, our telescopes, and
our microscopes, but how do we seeE 4ight is not something that reaches out from our eyes Instead, it
is the light that travels to our eyes @ou see this page, for e*ample, because light, reflecting from the
sun or an electric light, travels from the paper to your eyes 4ometimes we see light as it comes from a
direct source, such as the sun, fire, lightning, or a light bulb #he rest of the time, we see it as it is
reflected off Asent back fromB obFects
2ight travels at high speeds It must have been e*tremely ama'ing, or surprising, for scientists to
reali'e that light actually GtravelsG It isn?t Fust there In the air, light travels at a speed of IJM,/// miles
per hour It travels slightly faster in a vacuum, but, in other transparent materials such as water or
diamonds, it travels more slowly It takes light less than one minute to travel from earth to the moon
and about I0 minutes to go from the earth to the sun
In IMLJ, the Dutch scientist &hristian :uygens was the first to suggest that light travels in waves
4ince then, the work of the American Albert Einstein arid the 4cottish >ames !a*well has shown that
light actually consists of particles known as photons and travels in electromagnetic waves light seems
to travel in straight lines If you shine a flashlight in the dark, for e*ample, the beam of light appears to
be straight 4ound waves, on the other hand, travel in every direction #hat is the reason why we can
hear people on the other side of the wall but cannot see them
In certain situations, light diverges from a straight path In other words, it changes its direction
When it falls on an obFect, most of it is either absorbed Aie, taken inB by the obFect itself or passes
through #he remainder of the light is reflected When light is reflected off a smooth surface, it changes
direction in a regular way If the surface is rough, light is reflected in many directions
&ertain silver compounds like silver bromide reflect almost all the light that falls on them and are,
therefore, used for mirrors #he image that is reflected in a flat mirror is identical toC e*actly the same
asC the original obFect, but it is reversed 3or instance, when you write the word B""5 on a piece of
paper and hold it up against a mirror, its image is seen backwards #hat is, the word appears as 5""B
in the mirror #his can be e*plained by the fact that light on a flat surface changes direction
When light passes from one transparent medium to another, it changes speed and direction #his
process is called refraction In water, the process of refraction e*plains the apparent shortening of a
person?s leg or the bending of a stick
2ight is a form of energy that can be transferred into heat @ou can prove this by using a
magnifying glass to concentrate the sun?s rays on a piece of paper and burn a hole in it It is this light
energy from the sun that warms the earth and enables living things to grow +lants get light energy
from the sun, while animals get it from the plants they eat
920 T,ke A Pict)re Th,t C,n Fly
4ome people get revelations in the shower "thers solve pu''les in their dreams @ousuke @amada,
a lead engineer for the >apanese office,e)uipment maker Ricoh &o 2td, gets his best ideas on #okyo
commuter trains GI cannot create an idea at my desk,G he says GI like to walk around a crowded train,
where nobody disturbs meG
"ver the past three years, while his fellow commuters Fostled for space or scanned the morning
paper, @amada, 00, devoted his four,hour daily commute to a higher causeC dreaming up the ne*t
great consumer gadget In IOOL, Ricoh president !asamitsu 4akurai commissioned @amada to create a
device that would help push his company, which had built its fortunes on heavy office machines, into
the forefront of digital technology #he trouble was 4akurai didn?t really know what he wanted G#he
idea was to develop a product that uses all our senses,G says @amada G#here was no paper, no
specifications >ust his wish, his hopeG
After reviewing the most promising new technologiesCand meditating endlessly on the trainC
@amada felt he was prepared to design a digital camera like no other #he fruit of his cogitations is
about the si'e of a videocassette and weighs in at Fust over a pound But the genius of the RD&,iL//
camera is revealed as its top opens up to display a bright, N0,inch touch,sensitive screen, which is a
window on the World Wide Web that surfs the Internet, records voice memos, accepts written notes and
drawings in IM different colors, and receives and sends e,mail
In many respects, such features are not new this year What makes the iL// an innovation is its
wireless Web,publishing capabilities #hanks to its custom software, users of the iL// can correlate
images with specific Web pages and then transmit them to a live website of their choice $ot only can
they send photos from, the road, they can also automatically display them e*actly where they want
them to appear on their website
GWe created the first camera that allows :#!2 coding, which can be sent to a Web page and
instantly published,G says the camera?s 74 marketing manager, >eff 2engyel After the photographer
takes pictures, which are of a very high )uality, he selects the photos he wants to upload to his personal
website 7sers in >apanCwhere the product was released in 4eptember with a price of about PI,0//C
can transmit images with a tiny wireless modem that slides into a slot on the camera Ricoh e*pects
similar wireless cards to be available in time for the iL//?s 74 release early ne*t year
Perfect Pict)re
?#ime? maga'ine also tested the device in order to see how efficient it was, and the engineers, were
able to upload a low,)uality image to a website in about a minute simply by selecting the desired
image on,screen, then hitting a few more buttons to send it through the airwaves Although they were
skeptical at first about browsing the Web on a screen that is no bigger than the si'e of a drink coaster,
they were pleasantly surprised at how easy it was both to enter Web addresses and write e,mail with the
slim gray plastic stylus included with the camera
G#he RD&,iL// is an innovative device,G notes &hristopher &hute, analyst at the high,tech
market,research firm International Data &orp G3or the first time, a camera manufacturer has attempted
to offer an all,in,one solution for digital,image capture, transmission, display, and storageG 4uch an
invention opens up all sorts of possibilities &ross,country travelers could wirelessly update their home
pages on the road with pictures from their trip -uests at a family reunion or wedding could post
images online Fust minutes after taking them, so everyone who couldn?t attend could see the action as it
unfolded &ouples who are looking for a new place to move to could split their house or apartment
hunting chores and keep each other up to date on their efforts8 If you find something you like, take a
few pictures and let your spouse log on at the office or at home to see what you?ve found
921 2h,t The F)t)re %olds
When we look back at the fantastic spectacle of scientific progress over the past N,/// years, it
may seem as if nature has yielded nearly all of its mysteries to the unstoppable march of the human
intellect
"ur world, which only 0// years ago seemed to be the center of the cosmos, has now assumed its
right place in the solar systemCand the solar system has found its proper place within the universe
#he planet has been e*amined from its core to the outermost parts of the atmosphere #he fundamental
principles of the physical world have become increasingly clear as scientists are able to study black
holes billions of miles away, crack atoms and harness their energy, and create synthetic materials that
improve on nature?s inventory
A great number of living things have been categori'ed, but not completely enumerated #he
chemistry of plants and animals has been observed, e*ploited, and even rearranged "ne disease after
another has succumbed to medical science, and researchers are on the verge of e*tending human life
beyond a century @et, for every solution, there has been another pu''leH for every answer, another
)uestion
We can track some cellular processes down to the motion of individual electrons @et, there is still
a lot to learn about the molecular details of infection, the cellular anarchy called cancer, and the
comple*ities of the immune system We have found ways of altering the genetic contents of plants and
animals, including humans, without undesirable side effects #he process of aging is still in many
respects mysterious, and the upper limit of the human life span remains unknown #he ama'ing
comple*ity of the brain is only beginning to become apparent We do not know how life arose on this
particular world, or whether it might have appeared elsewhere in the universe in some similarCor very
differentCform
We can control energy and matter @et, we don?t really know what gravity is, or what mysterious
Gdark matterG fills O/ percent of the universe #here are still basic processes to be detected, and new
conditions of matter and energy to be observed !any phenomena that we once thought to comprise
incomprehensible chaos are turning out to reflect a perfect hidden order at the heart of nature
#he structure of the center of the earth is still uncertain, and many fundamental properties of the
surface are not much better known 3or e*ample, we can predict the behavior of an electron down to
several decimal places, but often we can?t predict a snowstorm or tornado even hours in advance #he
comple* interactions of land, oceans, and atmosphere that create the planet?s climate are yielding only
slowly to science As a result, humanity still has no conclusive way of knowing Fust what it is doing to
its one and only home world
In the field of chemistry, no more than a tiny fraction of possible chemical combinations has been
e*amined, and the advent of new materials with e*traordinary properties is certain 4o far, we have no
economically feasible substitute for fossil fuels, even though presumably one must be found within
only a few decades
In sum, the .Ist century will be as full of grand challenges to the mind as any that came before In
fact, if the history we have viewed here is a dependable guide, there will be no end to nature?s pu''les
$or any end to the human will to solve them
924 Artifici,l Intelligence
4igns of plenty of thinking on artificial intelligence can be found in ancient Egypt, but it wasn?t
until IO=I, when the electronic computer was developed, that technology could finally create machine
intelligence #he term artificial intelligence was first used in IO0M, and since then artificial intelligence
has e*panded because of the theories and principles developed by its dedicated researchers
With the invention of the electronic computer in IO=I, there was a big revolution in every aspect
of storage and processing of information #his invention was developed in both the 74 and -ermany
#he first computers re)uired large, separate, and air,conditioned rooms #hey were a programmer?s
nightmare as it was difficult to even get a program running among thousands of wires In IO=O, the
stored,program computer made the Fob of entering a program easier #he developments in computer
science prepared the ground for artificial intelligence
Although the computer provided the technology necessary for Artificial Intelligence AAIB, the link
between human intelligence and machines was observed with the Gfeedback theoryG of $orbert Weiner
#he most familiar e*ample of the feedback theory is the thermostat It controls the temperature of an
environment by first measuring the actual temperature of the house #hen it compares this to the
desired temperature and reacts to the situation by turning the heat up or down Weiner maintained that
all intelligent behavior was the result of feedback mechanisms :is theory suggested that machines
could start the function of mechanisms
In IO0M, >ohn !c&arthy, regarded as the father of AI, organi'ed a conference in $ew :ampshire
to draw the attention of others interested in machine intelligence to the topic #he Dartmouth
conference brought the founders of AI together, and it also served as a preparation for the future of AI
research
4even years after the conference, AI began to speed up 3irst, centers for AI research at &arnegie,
!ellon and !I# began functioning 3urther research was done on creating systems that could
efficiently solve problems and on making systems that could learn by themselves
In IO0L, the first version of a new program, the -eneral +roblem 4olver A-4+4B, was tested It
could solve common,sense problems to a great e*tent While more programs were being produced,
!c&arthy was busy developing a maFor breakthrough in AI research In IO0J, he announced his new
development8 the 2I4+ language, which is still being used today 2I4+ stands for 2I4# +rocessing, and
was soon adopted as the language of choice among most AI developers !any programs such as
4:RD27, 4#7DE$#, and 4IR were developed in the IOL/s During the IOJ/s, AI was moving at a
faster pace and further into the corporate sector In IOJM, 74 sales of Al,related hardware and software
surged to P=.0 million &ompanies such as Digital Electronics, Du+ont, -eneral !otors and Boeing
relied heavily on these systems
#he impact of AI in computer technology was strongly felt An outstanding e*ample was the
development of +R"2"-7E language by !insky and !arr In the late IOJ/s, a new technology called
Gthe fu''y logicG was developed in >apan It had the uni)ue ability to make decisions under certain
conditions
#he military put Al,based hardware to the test of war during Desert 4torm Al,based technologies
were used in missile systems AI has also made the transition to the home Applications for the Apple
!acintosh and IB!,compatible computers, such as voice and character recognition, have recently
become available With the growing demand for AI, related technology, new advancements are
becoming available Inevitably, artificial intelligence has influenced and will continue to influence our
lives 4teven 4pielberg?s latest movie, AI, underlines the importance of artificial intelligence as well
925 !te(hen %,wking; Ch,nging O)r "iew Of The $ni3erse
4cientists have long struggled to find the connection between two branches of physics "ne of
these branches deals with the forces that rule the world of atoms and subatomic particles #he other
branch deals with gravity and its role in the universe of stars and gala*ies +hysicist 4tephen :awking
has set himself the task of discovering the connection 2eading theoretical physicists agree that if
anyone can discover a unifying principle, it will certainly be this e*traordinary scientist
Dr :awking?s goal, as he describes it, is simple GIt is complete understanding of the universe,
why it is as it is and why it e*ists at allG In order to achieve such an understanding, Dr :awking tries
to G)uanti'e gravityG Suanti'ing gravity means combining the laws of gravity and the laws of )uantum
mechanics into a single universal law Dr :awking and other theoretical physicists believe that with
such a law, the behavior of all matter in the universe, and the origin of the universe as well, could be
e*plained
Dr :awking?s search for a unifying theory has led him to study one of science?s greatest
mysteries8 black holes A black hole is an incredibly dense region in space whose gravitational pull
attracts all nearby obFects, virtually Gswallowing them upG A black hole is formed when a star uses up
most of the nuclear fuel that has kept it burning During most of its life as an ordinary star, its nuclear
e*plosions e*ert enough outward force to balance the powerful inward force of gravity But when the
star?s fuel is used up, the outward force comes to an end -ravity takes over, and the star collapses into
a tiny core of e*tremely dense material, possibly no bigger than the period at the end of this sentence
:awking has already proved that a black hole can emit a stream of electrons Before this
discovery, scientists believed that nothing, not even light, could escape from a black hole 4o scientists
have hailed :awking?s discovery as Gone of the most beautiful in the history of physicsG
E*ploring the mysteries of the universe is no ordinary feat And 4tephen :awking is no ordinary
man Respected as one of the most brilliant physicists in the world, :awking is also considered one of
the most remarkable as he suffers from a serious disease of the nervous system that has confined him to
a wheelchair, barely able to move or to speak Although Dr :awking gives numerous presentations
and publishes countless articles and papers, his speeches must be translated and his essays written
down by other hands
:awking became ill during his first years at &ambridge 7niversity in England #he disease
progressed )uickly and caused the young scholar to become depressed :e even considered giving up
his research, as he thought he would not live long enough to receive his +hD But in IOM0, :awking?s
life changed :e married >ane Wilde, a fellow student and language scholar 4uddenly life took on new
meaning G#hat was the turning point,G he says GIt made me determined to live, and it was about that
time that I began making professional progressG :awking?s health and spirits improved :is studies
continued and reached new heights of brilliance #oday, Dr :awking is professor of mathematics at
&ambridge 7niversity and a husband and father who leads a full and active life
Dr :awking believes that his illness has benefited his work It has given him more time to think
about physics #herefore, although his body is failing him, his mind is free to soar &onsidered to be
one of the most brilliant physicists of all time, Dr :awking has taken some of the small steps that lead
science to discovery and understanding With time to think over the )uestions of the universe, it is )uite
likely that 4tephen :awking will be successful in uniting the world of the tiniest particles with the
world of stars and gala*ies
COMM$NICATION C MDIA
927 C)lt)re Cl,sh
Ideas about polite behavior vary from one culture to another and it is easy to cause offence or feel
offended if you don?t know what other cultures e*pect or what civility means to them 3or this reason,
all over the world there are cross,cultural workshops which help business people avoid culture clash
and misunderstandings when they deal with people coming from different cultures
4ome societies, such as America and Australia, are mobile and very open +eople there change
Fobs and move house )uite fre)uently, so they need to get to know people )uickly As a result, they
cannot have very long and deep relationships In fact, their relationships often last only a short time
#herefore, it is normal for them to have friendly conversations with people that they have Fust met, and
to talk about things that other cultures would regard as private
At the other e*treme are more crowded and less mobile societies in which long,term relationships
are more important A !alaysian or !e*ican businessperson, for e*ample, will want to get to know
you very well before he or she wants to do business with you But when you get to know each other,
the relationship becomes much deeper than it would in a mobile society
#o Americans, both Europeans and Asians seem cool and formal at first :owever, from the
perspective of a person from a less mobile society, it is no fun spending several hours ne*t to a stranger
who wants to tell you all about his or her life and asks you all sorts of embarrassing )uestions that you
don?t want to answer
In addition to mobile and less mobile societies, there are societies that have ?universalist? cultures
#hese societies have a strong respect for rules, and treat every person and situation in basically the
same way ?+articularist? societies, on the other hand, also have rules, but they are less important than
the society?s unwritten ideas about what is right or wrong for a particular situation or a particular
person #herefore, the formal rules are bent to fit the needs of the situation or the importance of the
person
9': The %o(e Of s(er,nto
In IJJL, 2udovic Vamenhof, a multilingual +olish oculist, published a book introducing a new
language under the pseudonym Dr Esperanto, meaning Gone who hopesG Vamenhof hoped his
invented tongue would become the world?s second language Although that hope is still unreali'ed,
nearly M,/// 'ealous Esperantists C the largest gathering ever C from as far away as >apan and Bra'il
were in Warsaw in IOJL to honor Vamenhof on the occasion of the I//th birthday of his language
#hey did so with a variety of events, all in Esperanto, plus a visit to Vamenhof s hometown of
Bialystok
!any people assume that Esperanto is a dying language, or a verbal e*periment that has simply
not worked out In fact, Esperantists can be found all around the world Estimates of their total number
vary widely, from I million to J million or more !arForie Duncan, M0, a retired Australian school
teacher, believes the movement needs more young people :owever, she says, they would Grather drive
cars or go surfingG
It seems that Esperanto is not a complicated language It has only IM easily memori'ed rules of
grammar C no e*ceptions C and a basic vocabulary built from mostly Indo,European roots E*perts
claim that virtually anyone can learn Esperanto in I// hours or less Accents always fall on the last
syllable of a word $evertheless, for some, numerous suffi*es and prefi*es may complicate matters
#he use of Esperanto probably reached its peak in the IO./s, when idealists welcomed it as one
small step toward peace 4ome intellectuals viewed it as a solution to the language problem, which
they felt contributed to political misunderstandings In some British schools, youngsters could study
Esperanto :owever, interest died down after World War II, partly because governments did not
support the language, and partly because English was fast becoming the lingua franca of business and
travel Esperantists have urged the 7nited $ations to adopt their language, but the organi'ation already
has its hands full with si* official ones
:umphrey #onkin, president of the Rotterdam,based 7niversal Esperanto Association, says
Esperanto is popular in lands whose languages do not travel well, such as Iran, Bra'il, the $etherlands
and the 4candinavian countries A large number of Esperantists are found in >apan, where the language
has sometimes been used for discussions by scientists who speak different languages &hina uses
Esperanto to facilitate communication between speakers of its northern and southern dialects and
supports an active publishing programH 3rom +eople?s &hina, a monthly maga'ine in Esperanto, is read
worldwide Radio BeiFing?s Esperanto program is the most popular program in Esperanto in the world
!any books and masterpieces of literature have been translated into Esperanto, including the 5oran
and some of 4hakespeare?s plays $evertheless, !ary Davies, an Esperantist who runs a hotel in
:eysham, England, complains, GWe don?t have any light readingG
When they travel, Esperantists wear lapel pins shaped like green stars that signal them as
Esperanto speakers, in the hope of meeting fellow Esperanto speakers #hey also call up comrades,in,
conversation and e*change cassette tapes by mail
9'9 #lo-,l T3
A global television channel which will be liked by the entire world population is possible,
according to research from a -erman institute #he author of the research and chief e*ecutive officer of
the !olln,based 4ample Institut, Dr :elmut >ung, says that in order to make it work, the tastes of
people in various countries need to be taken into consideration
A possible global television channel is an ideal, yet, in practice, people in different countries have
different program preferences In the former 744R, JLR of the people who took part in the research
wanted to see more full,length films, compared with a global average of M/R In the !iddle East, JIR
of the people wanted more home,produced news, as did LOR in Asia "nly about half the respondents
from Western Europe, $orth America and >apan felt they needed more domestically produced news
In places where programming is left to television controllers instead of political or religious
officials, television audiences are generally happy >ung identified regions where many people were
unhappy with programming schedules, including &entraf Europe, the former 744R and 2atin America
C all having state,run television In regions such as Western Europe and $orth America, which have
independent programming, audiences were happy
Despite his confidence that global television will eventually arrive, >ung thinks there is a more
realistic alternative for the near future8 G!ulticultural Regional #1G or !R#1 4peaking recently in
$ew @ork, >ung said, GI?m convinced that the concept of global television is basically promising and
that the process of globali'ation will continue and will first happen in the area of media and
telecommunications :owever, I?m also convinced that the idea of global television will be restricted to
a limited number of channels and to specific types of programs #here will be more options in the area
of regional television within the ne*t few yearsG
>ung also said that global television?s time had not come yet It would have to omit certain
programs due to unpopularity in certain regions which other people might want to see 1iewers still
prefer home,produced news, and cultural differences remain 3or e*ample, Asian audiences look for
education, while 2atin Americans and Europeans generally prefer non,violent programs
>ung?s research has been supported by surveys which revealed that European channels such as
Eurosport tempted more people to watch television #he presence of international channels, for
e*ample, increased the average number of hours of television watched by people in Austria, -ermany
and 4wit'erland by I0R and in southern Europe by NR
#he implications of the globali'ation of television will be seen in the future It is certain to
strengthen the position of English as the top language for media in the world, and will weaken the
status of the languages of economically disadvantaged cultures It seems that, despite increasing
internationalism, national differences will remain
9'2 L,ng),ge; Is It Alw,ys !(oken=
!ost of us know a little about how babies learn to talk 3rom the time infants are born, they hear
language because their parents talk to them all the time Between the ages of seven and ten months,
most infants begin to make sounds #hey repeat the same sounds such as GdadadaG and GbababaG over
and over again, which is called babbling When babies babble, they are practicing their language 4oon,
the sound GdadadaG may become Gdaddy,G and GbababaG may become GbottleG
What happens, however, to children who cannot hearE :ow do deaf children learn to
communicateE Recently, doctors have learned that deaf babies babble with their hands 2aura Ann
+ettito, a psychologist at !c-ill 7niversity in !ontreal, &anada, has studied how children learn
language 4he observed three hearing infants and two deaf infants #he three hearing infants had deaf
mothers and fathers who used American 4ign 2anguage AA42B to communicate with each other and
with their babies GDr +ettito studied the babies three times8 at I/, I., and I= months During this time,
children really begin to ac)uire their language skills
After watching and videotaping the children for several hundred hours, the psychologist and her
assistants made many important observations 3or e*ample, they saw that the hearing children made
many different, varied motions with their hands :owever, there appeared to be no pattern to these
motions #he deaf babies also made many different movements with their hands, but these movements
were unchanging and deliberate #he deaf babies seemed to make the same hand movements over and
over again as if they wanted to convey a message During the period in which the e*periment was
carried out, the deaf babies? hand motions started to resemble some of the basic hand,shapes used in
A42
:earing infants start first with simple syllable babbling AdadadaB, then put more syllables together
to sound like real sentences and )uestions Apparently, deaf babies follow this same pattern, too 3irst,
they repeat simple hand,shapes $e*t, they form some simple hand signs AwordsB and use these
movements together to resemble A42 sentences
2inguistsCpeople who study languageCbelieve that our ability for language is innate In other
words, humans are born with the capacity for language It does not matter if we are physically able to
speak or not as language can be e*pressed in many different waysCby speech or by sign Dr +etitto
believes this theory and wants to prove it 4he plans to study hearing children who have one deaf
parent and one hearing parent Dr +etitto wants to see what happens when babies have the opportunity
to learn both sign language and speech Does the human brain prefer speechE 4ome of these studies of
hearing babies who have one deaf parent and one hearing parent show that the babies babble e)ually
with their hands and their voices #hey also produce their first words, both spoken and signed, at about
the same time
#he capacity for language is uni)uely human !ore studies in the future may prove that the sign
system of the deaf is the physical e)uivalent of speech If so, the old theory that only the spoken word
is language will have to be changed #he whole concept of human communication will have a very new
and different meaning
9'' MiDed Mess,ges Across C)lt)res
When people communicate with each other, there is always the possibility of people?s not
understanding or misunderstanding each other #he danger of misinterpretation is greatest, of course,
among speakers who actually speak different native tongues, or come from different cultural
backgrounds #he reason for this is that cultural differences lead to different assumptions about natural
and obvious ways to be polite
Anthropologist #homas 5ochman gives the e*ample of a white female office worker who
appeared with a bandaged arm and felt ignored because her black colleague didn?t say or ask anything
about it #he white worker assumed that her silent colleague didn?t notice or didn?t care :owever, the
co,worker was not paying attention on purpose, thinking that she might not want to talk about it :e let
her decide whether or not to mention it8 showing politeness by not imposing 5ochman says, based on
his research, ^that these differences reflect recogni'able black and white styles
In another e*ample, an American woman visiting England was repeatedly offended when the
British ignored her in situations in which she thought they should have paid attention 3or e*ample, she
was sitting at a big table in a railway,station cafeteria A couple began to settle into the opposite seat at
the other end of the table #hey unloaded their luggageH they laid their coats on the seatH the man asked
what the woman would like to eat and went off to get itH she sat at the table facing the American
#hroughout all this, they showed no sign of having noticed that someone was already sitting at the
same table When the British woman lit up a cigarette, the American had a reason to reflect her anger
4he began looking around for another table to move to "f course there was noneH that?s why the
British couple had sat at her table in the first place #he smoker immediately put out her cigarette and
apologi'ed #his showed that she had noticed that someone else was sitting there, and that she did not
intend to disturb her
#o the American, politeness re)uires talk between strangers who are forced to share a table in a
cafeteria, even if it?s only a ?Do you mind if I sit downE? or a conventional ?Is anyone sitting hereE?
although it?s obvious no one is #he omission of such talk seemed to her like dreadful rudeness #he
American couldn?t understand that another system of politeness was at work By not noticing her
presence and not disturbing her, the British couple thought they were showing politeness While the
American e*pected a show of involvement, they were showing politeness by not imposing
In the case of an American man who had lived for years in >apan, there was a similar politeness
ethic :e lived, as many >apanese do, in e*tremely close )uarters C a tiny room separated from
neighboring rooms by walls In order to preserve privacy in this most unprivate situation, his >apanese
neighbors simply acted as if no one else lived there #hey never showed signs of having overheard
conversations, and if, while walking down the corridor, they caught a neighbor with the door open,
they walked ahead without looking around or showing any sign of noticing anybody around #he
American in the e*ample admitted that when a ne*t,door neighbor passed within a few feet without
noticing his presence, he felt insulted, like many Americans did 2ater, however, he reali'ed that the
intention was not rudeness by omitting to show involvement, but politeness by not imposing
&ommunication plays an important role in all sorts of relations and the fate of the world depends
on cross,cultural communication $ations must reach agreements, and agreements are made by
individual representatives of nations who sit down and talk to each other Despite the fact that
conversations don?t usually produce the communication we need, we continue to talk to each other In
the same way, nations keep trying to negotiate and reach an agreement although it?s not an easy task
Woody Allen knows why, and says, in his film Annie :all, which ends with a Foke8
GA man goes to a psychiatrist and says, ?Doc, my brother?s cra'y :e thinks he?s a chicken? And the
doctor says, ?Well, why don?t you tell him to see meE? and the man says, ?I would,? but I need the eggsG
It seems that?s how most of us feel about relationships +erfect communication is something almost
impossible @et, we still keep hoping and trying because we need the GeggsG of involvement and
interaction
9'* The "is),l Medi,
:ow do television and the other visual media affect the lives of individuals and families around
the globeE #he media can be very helpful to adults Aand their childrenB who carefully choose the
movies and shows that they watch With high,)uality programming in various fields orG studyC
science, medicine, nature, history, the arts, and so on C#1 and videotapes increase the knowledge of
the average well,educated personH they can also improve thinking ability 4imilarly, television benefits
elderly people who can?t go out often, as well as patients in hospitals and residents of nursing facilities
Additionally, it offers language learners the advantage of ?real,life? audiovisual instruction and aural
comprehension practice at any time of day or night And of course, television and video can provide
almost everyone with good entertainment C a pleasant way to rela* and spend free time at home
$evertheless, there are several serious disadvantages to the visual media
3irst of all, some people watch the ?tube? for more hours in a day than they do anything else In a
large number of homes, #1 setsCas many as five or more in a single householdCare always on
Instead of spending time taking care of their children, parents often use the tube as an ?electronic baby,
sitter? As a result, television and video can all too easily replace family communication as well as
physical activity and other interests
4econdly, too much #1Cespecially programming of low educational valueCcan reduce people?s
ability to concentrate or reason In fact, studies show that after only a minute or two of visual media, a
person?s mind ?rela*es? as it does during light sleep Another possible effect of television and video,
tapes on the human brain is poor communication &hildren who watch a lot of #1 may lose their
ability to focus on a subFect or an educational activity for more than ten to fifteen minutes !aybe it is
because of the visual media that some children contract attention deficit disorder AADDB, a modern
condition in which one is unable to pay attention, follow instructions, or remember everyday things
A third negative feature of the media is the amount of violence or horror on the screenC both in
real events in the news and in movies or #1 programs It can scare people and give them terrible
nightmaresH the fear created by media images and language can last for a long time Another
conse)uence is that fre)uent viewers of ?action programming? get used to its messages #hus, they
might begin to believe there is nothing strange or unusual about violent crime, fights, killing, and other
terrible events and behavior 4tudies show that certain personality types are likely to have strong
emotional reactions or dangerous thoughts after some kinds of ?entertainment? #hey may even copy the
acts that they see on violent showsC start fires, carry and use weapons, attack people in angry or
dangerous ways, and even worse
Because of the visual media, some people may become dissatisfied with the reality of their own
lives #o these viewers, everyday life does not seem as e*citing as the roles actors play in movies or #1
dramas #hey reali'e they aren?t having as much fun as the stars of comedy shows 3urthermore,
average people with normal lives may envy famous media personalities, who seem to get unlimited
amounts of money and attention Also, media watchers might get depressed when they cannot take care
of situations in real life as well as #1 stars seem to "n the screen, they notice actors solve serious
problems in one,hour or half,hour programs,C or in twenty,second commercials
@et another negative feature of modern television is called ?trash #1? #hese daily talk shows bring
real people with strange or immoral lives, personalities, or behavior to the screen !illions of viewers
Cincluding childrenClike to watch these ?fifteen,minute? stars tell their most personal secrets, shout
out their angry feelings and opinions, and attack one another #1 watchers seem to enFoy the emotional
atmosphere and e*citement of this kind of programming C as well as the tension of the real but
terrible stories on #1 ?news maga'ine? shows What effect does fre)uent viewing of such programs
have on people?s livesE It makes television more real than reality, and normal living begins to seem
boring
3inally, the most negative effect of the tube might be addiction +eople often feel a strange and
powerful need to watch #1 or play videotape even when they don?t enFoy it or have the free time for
entertainment Addiction to a #1 or video screen is similar to drug or alcohol dependence8 addicts
almost never believe they are addicted
!PO&T! C AD"NT$&
9'0 IMP! In The Desert
#he Imps is the name given to a motorcycle display team which is made up of children under the
age of si*teen #he team was founded by Roy +ratt, who is a senior educational welfare officer in
:ackney, which is one of the toughest areas of 2ondon It really started by accident :e took a group of
children from :ackney to the country as a part of a council,run scheme to help children from rundown
inner,city areas #he children found a couple of old motorbikes which they managed to get working
again8 Roy +ratt taught them a few tricks which he had learned when he used to run motorcycle and
horse riding displays when he was a member of the police force ?It Fust grew from there? said Roy
&hildren Foin #he Imps as young as five and retire at the age of si*teen, but being a member of
#he Imps is not all fun #hey don?t spend all their time roaring around on motorbikes #here?s a lot of
hard work involved in rehearsing and doing the less glamorous Fobs in preparation for the shows As a
result, many drop out, but, according to Roy +ratt, the effect on those who do manage to stay with him
is dramatic #hey have to make a commitment to go to school every day and to stay out of trouble with
the police $either of these commitments is easy for children in this part of 2ondon where truancy, that
is to say missing school, and Fuvenile crime are part of the accepted order An added benefit is that e*,
members of #he Imps have nearly all got Fobs because many employers appreciate their sense of
responsibility which comes from being an Imp
4i* members of #he Imps recently crossed the -rand Erg "ccidental #his is a =//,mile stretch of
dunes, or sand hills, in the 4ahara Desert, which had been thought impassable by motor vehicles #he
only people who had crossed it were the local tribesmen and they did it on camels or on horseback #he
main difficulty, apart from the sun and the heat, was the problem of navigation #hey had taken along a
satellite navigator, but it broke down early on in the e*pedition and they had to rely on dead reckoning,
which means working out one?s position on a map by calculating the distance traveled in a certain
direction #his works where there are no obstacles to prevent traveling in a straight lineH however, it is
a totally different matter in this part of the 4ahara where the different kinds of dune make traveling in a
straight line all but impossible -etting over or round or through the dunes obviously meant detours
which made navigation e*tremely difficult #he terrain was so bad that one day they only managed to
cover N/ miles in I. hours
#he vehicles that they used were motor tricycles , motorcycles with three wheels attached to
balloon tires #hese tires are not very practical to use on ordinary roads, but the e*tra surface area they
gave on the sand meant that the weight of the machine, rider and luggage was distributed over a larger
area and the grip was, therefore, much better #hey still fell off or the motorbikes turned over, but the
landing was usually soft #hey had .L punctures, one of the riders broke his arm, another lost his tent
but they made it in the end
9'1 !(onsoring !(ort
#he fans cheer as your team comes onto the fields, wearing their brand,new #,shirts bearing a
company name As you?re trying to spot your favorite player, your eyes wander onto the billboard on
the other side of the field, and you see the name of a well,known product displayed in big letters
Welcome to the world of sport sponsorship
4ponsorship is about getting the spectators to enFoy the sporting event and, therefore, to buy the
sponsor?s product At its simplest, sponsoring sport gives a company a chance to put its name in front
of the public so that it is remembered :owever, sponsorship can be a more subtle process If the name
of the company or product is on your favorite player, you may, without reali'ing it, also feel good
about the company
4ponsors like to be linked to success and e*cellence As a result, world champions and "lympic
medalists are often approached by companies that want them to endorse their products Cand some of
these sports people make the most of it #hey advertise one product rather than another because of the
money they are paid, although not many get nearly as much as the million British pounds David
Beckham was paid for endorsing $ike shoes
International matches and championship finals are very popular with sponsors because they are
televised, so the sponsor gets good publicity 4ponsors pay for the administration, organi'ation, and
e*penses of the event, which allows the sportsmen or teams to keep any profit from television fees or
ticket sales !ost maFor events depend on sponsorship? to enable them to take place
It is not only the stars of sport who are sponsored, however Amateur teams and individuals can
find sponsors from the local community or from national organi'ations 4ponsorship is given to
individual athletes, sports teams arid groups, coaching schemes, and sporting events 4ports Aid, a
charity for sport, aims to further the education of young people through the medium of sport #hey give
grantsH that make it possible for younger up,and,coming sports people to buy the best e)uipment
#hese grants also help with training and competition costs 4ports Aid is funded by private individuals,
professional fundraisers, and large companies 2ast year, more than .,/// grants were given to young
sports people involved in M/ different sports, from archery to wrestling
In addition, there are many sponsors who support achievement schemes for young people #hey
hope to get credit for encouraging them to take part in sport 4o if you have any talent for a sport and
would seriously like to improve, you should start looking for a possible sponsor nowT
9'4 The %istory Of Foot-,ll
3ootball is an ancient game, and most cultures around the world have had some form of this game
3ootball was played in &hina as early as the second century, and it was similar in some ways to soccer
as it is played today In the &hinese football game, the players used their feet and bodies to move the
ball, but never their hands #he goal was a hole in a net made from silk, and the teams competed with
each other to kick the ball through this hole #he winners received a silver cup filled with fruit or wine
#he losers received a Gpri'eG too8 #hey were beaten up by the winning teamT
What were the balls made ofE In the British !useum in 2ondon, there is an e*hibit of a number of
ancient balls from various cultures around the world #housands of years ago, the Egyptians made balls
out of soft leather or fine linen, and they filled them with straw to make them round and hard In other
cultures, the balls were filled with earth, grain, bits and pieces of plants, and sometimes even pieces of
metal #he !ayas made their balls out of solid rubber
4ome historians believe that the first balls were actually headsT A group of people would cut off
the head of one of their enemies and then use this head as a football, supposedly to celebrate their
victory over their enemy and to bring them luck and prosperityH in this way, they could overcome their
financial problems In an ancient story from -reat Britain, for e*ample, the storyteller e*plains how the
Britons cut off the head of a Danish invader and later played football with it #here is some evidence
that animal heads were also sometimes used as footballs
Ball games were connected to fertility in primitive societies +eople believed that success in ball
games would help their crops to grow and help the players to produce more children as well 3rom the
earliest days, tribes divided their players into teams8 unmarried men against married men or unmarried
women against married women It was believed that throwing the ball Athe symbol of life and fertilityB
back and forth among these groups would help the players become stronger and produce healthier
children in the future
3ootball was popular in both ancient -reece and Rome In the -reek version of football, the
players on one team tried to carry a ball across a line in the other team?s territory, and the opposing
team tried to keep them from crossing the line #his version of football is similar in some ways to
today?s American football #he Roman football game was like the -reek game #he players had to
throw the ball from one to another to get the ball over the other team?s baseline In this game, players
were not allowed to kick the ball -alen, a famous doctor in the second century in Rome, wrote about
how football helped the players become stronger and healthier !any other Roman writers wrote about
how football helped prepare young men for war by teaching them the skills they needed for survival
In England in the !iddle Ages, whole towns played football on certain holidays, such as 4hrove
#uesday, sometimes with as many as 0// players at one time #he goals were placed at the opposite
ends of the town, and sometimes the game lasted all day Everything was allowed8 @ou could kick, trip,
hit, or even bite your opponent In fact, you could do anything you wanted in order to get or keep the
ball &onse)uently, players were often seriously inFured In addition to this, there was a lot of property
damage throughout the town 3inally, in INI=, 5ing Edward II made a law saying that people could not
play football in the future and that anyone who broke this law would be sent to prison
#his law kept people from playing football for a while, but it was not successful for long because
everyone, even priests and monks, had a strong attraction to the game 3inally, in IM/N, when 5ing
>ames I came into power, football was allowed again, and people were even encouraged to play it As
time went on, rules were added to the game to make it safer and more orderly, and players were limited
in what they could and could not do to get and keep the ball
3ootball originally meant Ga game played with a ball on footG Cas opposed to a game played on
horseback, such as polo 4occer, as played throughout the world today, is closest to the original
football Rugby, American football, and Australian Rules football all come from soccer and are later
versions of the game
9'5 !now-o,rders In3,de The !lo(es
3rom 1ermont to &alifornia, snowboarders are going down the slopes on 0,foot,long, I/, inch,
wide pieces of wood or fiberglass with fi*ed bindings #he newborn sport, like its cousins surfing and
skateboarding, re)uires alertness and a fine sense of balance to guide the board down the slopes at
speeds approaching N/ mph
#he first attempt at snowboarding can be a miserable e*perience 3or the novice, the only controls
are stop Asit downB and go Avery fastB 3ortunately, after a painful start, most newcomers master the art
as )uickly as they fall down GBy your third day, you can be going down slopes that beginning skiers
wouldn?t touch,G says David Alden, a former amateur snowboard champion
4ome proponents maintain that their sport is safer than skiing 4ince there is Fust one board, the
legs can never cross, so there are fewer broken ankles and hips #he inFuries that occur are usually
bruises to the upper body as a result of falls and occasional collisions with trees and other downhillers
4ome mountain ski resorts are cautious of the board, fearing that adventurous snowboarders might
frighten regular skiers 1ail in &olorado and 4ugarbush in 1ermont are two of the places that have
banned snowboarding, but more than I// ski areas throughout the 74 allow it As rentals are )uite
cheap and the e)uipment is not very complicated, many resort owners think snowboarding may lure a
whole new crowd to try out the slopes #he sport has already achieved a great deal of respect $e*t
month, for e*ample, the World 4nowboard &lassic will be held in &olorado, with more than .//
competitors from ten countries participating
9'7 Profession,l !(orts
#here are two kinds of sports, GamateurG and GprofessionalG #he main difference between them is
that amateurs do not receive money for competing in sports but professionals do 3or e*ample,
"lympic athletes are amateurs, so they usually cannot receive money for their participation #he word
amateurs comes from the 2atin amare, meaning Gto loveGH in other words, amateurs are supposed to
play because they love the game "n the other hand, professional athletes are paid to compete, and
some of the top professionals earn millions of dollars a year +rofessional sports give athletes the
opportunity to play sports as a career and to earn and save money for the future As long as they can
continue to play the game well, they can continue to perform We, as spectators, have the opportunity
to watch wonderful performances by our favorite professional athletes for the price of an admission
ticket or by turning on the television
:owever, there are some problems with professional sports #he main goal of sports is to
encourage the development of good character as well as to give pleasure to the participants and the
people watching them 4ome professional athletes demonstrate admirable skill in playing their game,
but their life off the field or the court is not very admirable and, in some cases, shocking and even
criminal 4ome have been charged with criminal acts, such as rape and using illegal drugs
What is the role of professional athletes in modern societyE 4hould they be role models for young
people to admire, look up to, and imitate, as the early "lympic athletes wereE "r do they Fust have to
be top athletes and play their sport wellE #here is a lot of controversy around these )uestions Arthur
Ashe, the great American tennis player who died in IOON, critici'ed the behavior of some of his fellow
athletes :e said that many of them did not take their responsibilities as sports stars seriously, and,
conse)uently, they were poor models for young people to follow +rofessional athletes do not agree on
what their role should be &harles Barkley, a star basketball player, believes that his role is to be a great
basketball player, not a role model for young people As he said, GI?m not paid to be a role model I?m
paid to destroy the other team in a basketball,gameG Barkley believes that what he does in his private
life is his own business and should not be important to anyone else "n the other hand, 5arl !alone,
another star basketball player, disagrees with Barkley :e says that sports stars are role models for
people even if they don?t want to be As !alone commented to Barkley, G&harles, you can deny being a
role model, but I don?t think it?s your decision to make We don?t choose to be role models, we are
chosen "ur only choice is whether to be a good role model or a bad oneG
What do teenagers think about the role of professional athletes in societyE #hey have different
opinions about it, Fust as adults do 4ome of them believe that sports stars should try to be role models
in all aspects of their lives because kids look up to them and want to be like them :owever, others
believe that sports stars are Fust people, e*cept for their outstanding skill in their sport #hey believe
that stars should not be e*pected to be perfect and that whatever they do in their private life is not
important and is Fust their own business #hey think kids will try to imitate their performance in their
sport, not their behavior in their private lives In other words, kids will try to play basketball like
!ichael >ordan, but they won?t become gamblers because !ichael >ordan is a gambler
Another dark side of professional sports is the atmosphere of violence that surrounds them #here
have been many unfortunate cases of spectators getting into fights and hurting and even killing each
other at professional sports events In soccer, for e*ample, a terrible tragedy occurred at :eysel
4tadium in Brussels before the European &up 3inals in IOJ0 An English soccer team was playing
against an Italian soccer team for the European championship #he English fans started a fight with the
Italian fans As the fans pushed and shoved each other against the stadium walls, one of the walls
collapsed As a result, more than 0/ people were killed, and many others were badly inFured
+rofessional sports have become more like business than pleasure Everything is money, money,
money #he team has to earn enough money to pay its e*penses #his puts a lot of pressure on the
players #hey feel they have to win all the time, and winning becomes more important than anything
else In sports, there is a saying8 GIt is not important if you win or loseH what is important is the way
you play the gameG In professional sports, this saying is no longer true, unfortunately
9*: !wedish Ad3ent)rer #Ir,n ?ro(( ?illed In F,ll
4wedish adventurer -oran 5ropp, N0, fell to his death on 4eptember N/, .//., while climbing a
popular route on the 3renchmen &oulee, in central Washington 4tate 5ropp was ascending AclimbingB
the Air -uitar route near the town of 1antage when he fell .0 meters onto a rock shelf Ail of his
climbing protection, e*cept for one piece, had been ripped by his surroundings #he local health
official reported that he had died of severe head inFuries
-oran 5ropp became a worldwide celebrity after the news of his IOOM bicycle Fourney from
4weden to $epal appeared in leading newspapers everywhere :e cycled L,/// miles and left his
bicycle on the skirts of !ount Everest #hen he summited Everest without o*ygen After coming back
down, he took his bicycle and rode it home to 4weden again "ften referred to as the &ra'y 4wede,
5ropp was recently called ?the most entertaining adventurer on Earth?
Early one autumn, 5ropp agreed to spend a day climbing with Erden Eruc, whom he had met at a
presentation a year before "n a !onday morning, 5ropp met Eruc at the 3renchmen &oulee It was
the first time 5ropp was in the area, so, on that day, Eruc secured the climbing rope
O
for 5ropp to hold
onto and climb, according to a written report he prepared after the accident G-oran said the climbs
were really challenging,G Eruc said of the 4wedish adventurer?s first few climbs that morning G:e
hadn?t e*pected them to be so hard We agreed to go crack,climbing
I/
together the following year so
that he could become an e*pert in the field, and he felt rela*edG
After 5ropp had made a few climbs, the duo turned their attention to the Air -uitar crack, a
difficult ascent, and together they decided that 5ropp would climb it According to Eruc?s report,
5ropp climbed most of the route and had reached the final and most difficult section of the climb when
he fell Eruc heard commotion above and reali'ed 5ropp was falling In what he describes as a )uick
se)uence, Eruc saw the first piece of protection pull out, felt the rope become slack, then pulled to take
in the rope to prevent 5ropp from falling :e was unsuccessful, though, and he heard 5ropp fall onto a
small rock shelf Fust below him 2ooking down, he saw 5ropp lying on his back, his helmet Ahat made
of strong hard materialB shattered Eruc climbed down and found that 5ropp was bleeding heavily from
his ears and nose GI have no doubt that he died immediately after he fell,G he wrote in the accident
report 3alls like 5ropp?s, in which several pieces of protection fail, are unusual but not unheard of,
according to !att 4tanley, a maga'ine editor +ositioning the protection pieces carefully can decrease
the chances of an accident
&
climbing rope8 a piece of strong thick cord used by mountaineers
1'
crack climbing8 climbing mountains by placing hands and feet in narrow spaces in the rock
5ropp?s fame as a mountaineer had increased before his death together with his popularity as a
fascinating motivational speaker GIt is not Fust that he stood up there and chronicled his events,G said
his friend, 5aF Bune G:e was able to communicate what is in the mind of a human being that makes
him go out and look for adventure :e was the greatest, brightest light the world of adventure has ever
knownG
ANIMALS
141 Pandas
+andas are large animals with big heads, heavy bodies, rounded ears and short tails #hey are
famous for their black and white markings #he legs, shoulders and oval patches around the eyes are
black, and the rest of the coat is white #hey have thick, oily, woolly fur It is waterproof, and keeps
them warm in cold forests
!ale pandas are large Adult male pandas stand I// centimeters high, and weigh about I//
kilograms, but female ones stand J/ centimeters high #hey rarely reach O/ kilograms
3emales often give birth to two babies #hey are called cubs 7sually one of them dies A newborn
cub weighs J0 to I=/ grams It is pink, hairless and blind Its eyes open when it is M to L weeks old
&ubs grow very slowly #hey stay with their mothers for two years
+andas live in cold and rainy bamboo forests in the mountains of western &hina #hey move to
low places during cold winter months to keep warm, and to high mountains in summer to stay cool
#here is food all year round in these forests, and this makes pandas? lives easier because they need to
eat IJ,./ kilograms of food every day 3or this reason, they never hibernate in the winter Bamboo is
the most important plant in their life, and they love it #hey use their front paws to hold the bamboo, so
they usually eat while sitting #hey spend at least I. hours each day eating bamboo +andas need a lot
of water #hey get much of this water from bamboo, but they also need to drink fresh water from rivers
almost every day
#here are about I,M// pandas left in the wild, and about IM/ pandas live in 'oos and breeding
centers around the world, mostly in &hina 4cientists are not sure how long pandas live in the wild, but
they are sure these animals live longer\in 'oos than in the wild #here are 'oo pandas as old as N0
years of age
9*2 C,ts
4ome people hate cats, and some people love them #he old Egyptians and the &hinese loved their
cats &ats had a very important place in those cultures #oday, in every country, a lot of people have
cats too &ats are very useful animals for people 3or e*ample, they are the worst enemies of mice
When there is a cat in a house, you won?t see many mice around
&ats are not difficult pet?s to have 3irst, they stay very clean and they don?t make the house dirty
4econd, cats like being alone, so you don?t have to spend a lot of time with them #hird, they don?t
make a lot of noise, so you don?t have many problems with your ne*t,door neighbors
9*' The Arctic FoD
#he Arctic 3o* lives in the far north, mainly in the Arctic &ircle It is small, about the same si'e as
a cat, with short legs and short rounded furry ears Its tail is about N/ cm long Its thick fur coat helps it
live in free'ing temperatures #hick hair on the pads of its feet helps it to walk on the ice $ear the end
of summer, its grayish brown coat begins to grow thicker #he color of the fur becomes gray and then
white #his makes it very hard to see the fo* in winter #he female Arctic 3o* has = to II pups in late
spring Both parents hunt to feed their babies When they can?t find meat, they bring fruit, seaweed and
fish eggs At two weeks, the babies open their eyes At three weeks, they go outside and begin to
e*plore When the young fo*es grow older, they learn how to hunt and become independent #he
Arctic 3o* has to be careful because +olar Bears kill it, and people hunt it for its beautiful fur coat
144 Sharks: Usefu !unters "f #he Sea
!ost people are afraid of sharks, but they usually do not know very much about them 3or
e*ample, there are N0/ kinds of sharks, and all of them are meat eaters 4ome sharks are very big, but
some are very small 3or e*ample, the whale shark is 0/ to M/ feet long, but the dwarf shark is only M
inches long #he shark species is I// million years old In fact, the first species of sharks lived at the
same time as the dinosaur
#oday, sharks live in every ocean in the world, but most sharks live in warm water 4harks do not
have ears, but they can GhearG sounds and movements in the water Any sound or movement makes the
water vibrate 4harks can feel these vibrations, and they help the sharks find food 4harks use their
large eyes to find food too #hey eat sick fish and animals, so they keep the oceans clean 4cientists
want to learn more about sharks for many reasons 3or e*ample, cancer is common in many animals
and human beings, but it is rare in sharks 4cientists want to find out why sharks almost never get
cancer !aybe this information can help prevent cancer in people too
9*0 #entle #i,nts Of The ,rth
#hey live with their mothers, sisters, aunts, nieces and nephews, and an old grandmother who is
the head of the family #hey show emotions such as Foy, sorrow, anger, patience, and friendliness #hey
become e*cited when they meet old friends Who are these peopleE In fact they are not peopleH they are
elephantsT
Elephants are the largest land animals on Earth An adult male African elephant can weigh si* tons
and be four meters tall Elephants usually have two tusks #hese are long, pointed teeth that e*tend
from the elephant?s mouth "ver the years, the elephant ate more and more food and grew larger teeth
An elephant?s tusks grow all through its life Elephants use their tusks only for protection #hey do not
use them to kill because elephants do not eat any meat #hey eat only plants An elephant shows signs
of old age at 0/ years and it may live M/ years or more, but there are no e*amples of I//,year,old
individuals
Elephants are the giants of the animal kingdom :owever, the si'e of an elephant is not its only
uncommon feature #he most interesting characteristic of an elephant is its trunk An elephant uses it to
smell, wash, eat, drink, ?talk? and hug It also uses it to lift things It can lift up to about =0/ kg, but it
does not carry heavy loads on its trunk, or with its trunk It places the load across the tusks and holds it
in place with the help of the trunk :owever, elephant babies do not know how to use their trunks, Fust
as human babies are not born with the ability to walk 2earning to walk is not easy, and it takes a lot of
practice In the same way, it takes time for baby elephants to learn how to use their trunks well
"ver the last ./ years, people have studied elephants and how they live &onse)uently, we are
beginning to understand these fascinating giant creatures 7nfortunately, their number is )uickly
decreasingCthere were about I0 million African elephants in IOL0H now there are fewer than M//,///
+eople are killing elephants to make money by selling their ivory tusks #his ivory is used to make
bracelets, rings, and other ornaments :owever, precautions should be taken to stop, or limit this ivory
trade because tourism is also important to the economy of many African countries and elephants are a
part of the tourist attraction !any people travel to Africa to enFoy its beautiful countryside, learn about
its culture and see its unusual animals :opefully, with cooperation among countries around the world,
elephants may continue to live, and everyone can see these fascinating giants of the Earth
9*1 The m(eror Peng)in; A(tenodytes Forsteri
#rue to its name, the emperor penguin is the largest of all penguins and one of the heaviest of all
birds 4cientifically speaking, Aptenodytes means ?featherless diver? and refers to the emperor penguin?s
incredible ability to dive deeper than any other bird on earth :owever, contrary to this name, emperor
penguins have = layers of feathers to protect them from the Antarctic weather 3orsteri, the emperor
penguin?s species name, honors >ohann Reinhold 3orster AIL.O,OJB 3orster was a naturalist on &aptain
>ames &ook?s voyage around the world and was the first person ever to describe penguins
3rom a distance, emperor penguins look like little men wearing tu*edos #hey are easily
recogni'ed by their black cap, blue,gray neck, orange ear,patches, yellow breast and white belly
Emperor penguins may be as tall as II0 m and can weigh as much as =/ kg and they are the largest of
the IL penguin species #heir = layers of feathers are all covered in a greasy waterproof coating #he
feathers defend them against the chilling Antarctic weather, Fust like a mammal?s fur does 2ike seals
and whales, which both live in cold water, emperor penguins also have a thick layer of fat below the
skin for e*tra insulation
In the Antarctic winter, temperatures can fall to more than =/ degrees below 'eroH free'ing winds
can reach speeds of .// kmQhr 7nder these conditions, feathers and fat Fust aren?t enough and the
emperor penguins must depend on each other to survive 7nlike other types of penguins, which are all
territorial, emperor penguins don?t mind sharing their space with others #o keep warm, emperors
gather in large groups called huddles Inside a huddle the temperature can rise as much as ./ degrees
above the outside air temperature
Emperor penguins are ?sociable? animals and live in crowded groups called rookeries or colonies
#here are appro*imately =0 colonies around Antarctica, which range in si'e from .// to 0/,///
penguins &olonies of emperors gather on the sea ice Aice that forms naturally on the seaB around
Antarctica and use icebergs for shelter C especially from strong winds Ama'ingly, emperors are the
only birds in the world that usually spend their whole life without ever coming to land
Emperor penguins live off the coast of Antarctica 7nlike all other penguins in the Antarctic,
emperor penguins do not migrate to warmer climates for the winter months In fact, they are the only
penguin species which is able to survive the harsh Antarctic winters and breed during some of the
worst weather conditions on earth :ow the chicks Ababy penguinsB can survive in such difficult
conditions is a mystery
Emperor penguins have a most abnormal breeding cycle #he breeding season occurs through the
winter months and is ama'ingly coordinated with the formation and the break up of sea ice #heir
breeding season is so perfectly coordinated with nature that the chicks become mature enough to leave
their parents by the summer #his is when the weather gets warmer, the ice on the sea begins to break
up and food becomes more available After learning to swim and feed themselves, sometime between
December and 3ebruary, the chicks leave their parents
It is not known for sure how long emperor penguins usually survive in the wild It is estimated,
however, that after the emperor chicks reach adulthood they have a good chance of surviving another
./ years or more
9*4 L,ng),ge For Chim(s
All animals communicate with others of their kind !any of their communicative acts are
essentially refle*ive, as when a bird persuades others to sing, or the croaking of a frog initiates this act
in other frogs #hese behaviors for the most part serve to signal dangers, interest in mating, and
territorial claims
Among primates, research has shown some communicative acts which are similar to those
employed by human beings &himpan'ees communicate by bowing, kissing, and touching #hey also
have a few vocal signals, such as calls and grunts Because of these similarities, scientists have always
wondered whether the chimpan'ee, our closest relative from the standpoint of evolution and
neurological development, has the capacity to ac)uire language
4ome years ago, Winthrop and 2uella 5ellogg decided to study this and reared a chimpan'ee in a
normal human environment -ua, a seven,month,old female chimpan'ee, was adopted into their
household to be treated in the same way as their ten,month,old son Donald 4hortly after the
e*periment began, -ua became slightly superior to Donald in word recognition As time passed,
however, the child caught up with the chimp, and by the end of the period of investigation he was
significantly ahead in word recognition #hroughout the e*periment, -ua remained nonverbal in word
usage :er ^communication included some gestures, such as wriggling her lips when she wanted
apples, but no words :er only vocali'ations were sudden barks or cries in moments of e*citement,
fear, or pain Donald, on the other hand, passed through the normal cooing and babbling stages and by
the end of the research, said his first words :e said GdaG meaning GdownG and GbowwowG for the dog,
and he used a few other words :owever, as his parents emphasi'ed, he did not show language mastery
either 7nfortunately, this research had to be discontinued after nine months, due to the increasing
strength and enormous agility of -ua, that is, her being too active, around the house
It is possible that -ua?s failure to develop words, as well as prior cooing and babbling, was due to
her limited speech mechanisms, rather than her mental ability $o primate, as far as we know, has
demonstrated coordination of mouth and throat mechanisms comparable to that displayed by a young
child in speaking #herefore, it was concluded, to find out whether the chimpan'ee is capable of
learning human language, different approach is re)uired
3or this purpose, N0 years later, another chimpan'ee, named Washoe, was reared entirely apart
from human speech #his twelve,month,old female was e*posed only to American 4ign 2anguage
AA42B, used by the deaf During the first four years of this e*periment, A42 gestures were taught to
Washoe using the best methods known to science "perant conditioning, modeling, and direct
manipulation of the hands were used, and thus Washoe?s training differed markedly from that of -ua
years earlier 3or e*ample, whenever Washoe imitated a sign that was modeled by one of her
e*perimenters, she was immediately rewarded 3urthermore, when she brought her hands together in a
pattern resembling the A42 sign for ?more?, she was rewarded again #hrough this operant conditioning,
an acceptable sign for ?more? was established In these ways, Washoe ac)uired a larger and larger
vocabulary, learning at a more rapid rate as the e*periment progressed 2ike a normal child, rather than
becoming more confused as more words were added, she seemed to learn them more easily and had a
vocabulary of IM/ signs at the end of the tour,year e*periment !ore importantly, Washoe made .O=
different two,sign combinations, and comparative studies have shown that LJ percent of these
combinations are similar to the earliest two,word combinations of children #his finding suggests that
four,year,old Washoe, who began training at the age of one, has been using language much like a child
appro*imately IM to .L months old "n this basis, Washoe?s achievement is remarkable, despite the fact
that she falls behind a human child as regards the ability to speak a language
%I!TO&6
9*5 %ow New 6ork .eg,n
American Indians were the first to live on the island of G!anhattanG, which means Ghill islandG in
their language #hey lived there for hundreds of years #oday this island is the centre of $ew @ork &ity
#here aren?t any hills now and there aren?t any Indians, but their old home is still called !anhattan
Island
In IM/O, an Englishman named :enry :udson sailed his boat, the :alf !oon, across the Atlantic
"cean from :olland :e wanted to find India Instead, he found the river that took him to !anhattan
Island $ow, that river is called the :udson
:udson and his seamen made friends with the !anhattan Indians, and soon more people came
from :olland #hese Dutch people built a small town in the south of the island #hey named the town
$ew Amsterdam, after the city in :olland #hen, in IM.M, +eter !inuit, from :olland, bought all of
!anhattan Island from the Indians :e gave them some cloth and beads worth about P.=
In IMM=, the English sent soldiers to :udson River #hey also sent a letter to +eter 4tuyvesant, the
Dutch governor, to inform him that they wanted !anhattan 4tuyvesant was very angry about the letter,
but he knew that the English soldiers were very strong In the end, the Dutch left $ew Amsterdam and
the English came
#he leader of the English soldiers who took control of the city was the Duke of @ork, so the
English named the city after him and changed it to $ew @ork $ew @ork remained English for over one
hundred years #hen, in ILLMAmerica won its independence from Britain, and the 7nited 4tates was
born 3rom ILLM to ILJ=, $ew @ork was the capital of the 7nited 4tates Interestingly, some people
around the world still think that it is the capital of the 7nited 4tates today, but it isn?t
9*7 The C,liforni, #old &)sh
Although there have been many -old Rushes in world history, the &alifornia -old Rush was a
uni)ue event 7nlike other places, the gold, in &alifornia was both plentiful and easy to getCat least at
first #he result was great change in &alifornia, America, and the entire world
-old was first discovered in &alifornia by >ames !arshall in early IJ=J while he and twenty men
were building a sawmill for >ohn 4utter, one of the wealthiest people in the region !arshall took the
samples to 4utter?s fort, where they tested the shiny metal as well as they could With the help of an
encyclopedia, they concluded that it was gold :owever, neither man was happy about it 4utter was
building his empire based on agriculture :e didn?t want the competition that gold,seekers might bring,
and !arshall had a sawmill to build :e thought gold hunters would Fust get in his way 4o they agreed
to keep the discovery a secret :owever, it wasn?t long before stones of gold reached the surrounding
countryside @et, there was no rush because people thought it was Fust another fantastic tale #he -old
Rush began with 4am Brannan, a skilled craftsman It made him the richest person in &alifornia, but he
never mined for gold In the streets he shouted about !arshall?s discovery As proof, Brannan held up a
bottle of gold dust, which started the rush for gold :e sold shovels, a*es, and pans A metal pan that
sold for twenty cents a few days earlier, was now available from Brannan for fifteen dollars In Fust
nine weeks he made thirty,si*,thousand dollars
By IJ=O, thousands were on the way to &alifornia 4ome traveled by ship around the tip of 4outh
America, which often took more than si* months #hey faced problems such as diseases, lack of
drinking water, and boredom 4ome others took shortcuts across +anama and !e*ico :owever, they
also encountered some difficulties !alaria and &holera were common and traveling through the rain
forests of &entral America in the IJ=/s was an adventure itself #hose who survived to see the +acific
had to wait for weeks, or months, in overcrowded, disease,infested coastal towns Americans who lived
in the central states traveled overland on the already established "regon,&alifornia #rail #his road was
much shorter than the sea route, but it wasn?t faster #he main difficulty was a lack of water #he price
for water could go as high as PI// per drink #hose without money were sometimes left to die
#he gold seekers were called G=OersG because most left home in IJ=O Importantly, =Oers were not
uni)uely American Suite the contrary, the &alifornia -old Rush was a world event, attracting gold
seekers from !e*ico, &hina, -ermany, 3rance, #urkey, and nearly every other country in the world
_
!any people became very rich either by mining gold or by selling the things that the gold, seekers
needed :owever, it didn?t last forever By mid IJ=O, the easy gold was gone but the =Oers kept
coming #here was still gold in the riverbeds, but it was getting harder to find In time, frustration and
disappointment led to crime !any gave up the dream and went home
As the gold became more difficult to e*tract, great changes in &alifornia took place8 By the early
IJ0/s, miners came together in informal companies to dam the rivers, reroute the water and e*pose the
gold underneath 2ater on, groups of miners were replaced by corporations By the mid IJ0/s, most of
the miners who remained were employees #he mining techni)ues that the mining corporations
developed destroyed the rivers and caused &alifornia?s first environmental disasters It took years to
stop the destructive? techni)ues, but by then the -old Rush had changed &alifornia in every way
90: The #re,t 2,ll Of Chin,
#he -reat Wall of &hina is more than .,/// years old, and is one of the great wonders of the
world It can be seen from Earth orbit but, contrary to legends, is not visible from the moon according
to astronauts $eil Armstrong, >im 2ovell, and >im Irwin 4tretching =,0// miles from the mountains of
5orea to the -obi Desert, it was first built to protect an ancient &hinese empire from marauding tribes
in the north :owever, it evolved into something far greater Ca boon to trade and prosperity and
ultimately a symbol of &hinese genius and will
#he -reat Wall is actually a series of walls built and rebuilt by different dynasties over I,/// years
and while they often served the same purpose, these walls reflected the worlds Cboth natural and
culturalC in which they were erected 3or all its seeming timelessness, the -reat Wall is an emblem of
&hina?s evolution
#he Wall was first in the form of individual sections, which were later connected during the Sin
dynasty A..I,./M B&B Sin 4hi :uangdi, the first emperor of Sin, forced peasants, enemies, and
anyone else who wasn?t tied to the land to go to work on the wall :e garrisoned armies at the Wall to
stand guard over the workers as well as to provide early warning of invasion and a first line of defense
#he tradition lasted for centuries from one dynasty to another Each added to the height, length and
elaborated the design mostly through forced labor
It was during the !ing dynasty AINMJ,IM== ADB that the Wall took on its present form It was
enlarged and renovated over a .//,year period #he watch towers were redesigned and modern
cannons were mounted in strategic areas #he +ortuguese had found a ready market for guns and
cannons in &hina, two of the few items of trade that &hina didn?t already have in abundance #he !ing
Emperors, having overthrown the :un dominance and e*pelled their !ongol rulers of the $orth,
devoted large portions of available material and manpower to making sure that they didn?t return #he
security was strengthened with the construction of small garrison towns and blockhouses
#he construction of the walls re)uired great effort In addition to that, there weren?t many farms or
trade towns nearby to provide ease, rela*ation and food 4upplies were always short and chancy,
particularly in winter, which made the conditions more difficult
#he Wall served well "nly when a dynasty had weakened from within were invaders from the
$orth able to advance and con)uer Both the !ongols and the !anchurians were able to take power,
not because of weakness in the Wall but because of weakness in the government and the poverty of the
people #hey took advantage of rebellion from within and stepped into the void of power without
e*tended wars
Although some of the sections of the Wall are now in rums or have disappeared completely, it is
still one of the most attractive landmarks of the world
909 nglish
English is spoken by more than a )uarter of the world?s population It is spoken as a mother tongue
in the 75, in former colonies such as Australia and $ew Vealand, and by the vast maFority of the $orth
American population It is a second or official language in most of the former Empire, for e*ample,
-hana and 4ingapore, and it is studied as a foreign language all over the world #his has made it a truly
international language8 it is the language of shipping and aviation, of science and technology, and of
commerce But how did the language ,spoken by the population of a small island in the $orthern
:emisphere reach such widespread useE
English has not always been the language of the British Isles8 until the fifth century AD the British
Isles were populated by a race called the &elts, whose language lives on in &eltic languages such as
-aelic and Welsh, the former being spoken in 4cotland and the latter in Wales In ==O AD the British
Isles were invaded by -ermanic tribes from the coast of what is now $orth -ermany and Denmark
"ne of these tribes ,the Angles, gave their name to the language that was to become English During
the ne*t I0/ years, these warriors drove the &elts to the western and northern e*tremities of the islands
and settled in the area now known as England 3or nearly three hundred years their language spread
Between L0/ and I/0/ AD, the 1ikings, from present,day $orway, coloni'ed the north of
EnglandH while it is difficult to evaluate the effect of $orse on "ld English because of the similarity of
the languages, certain traces remain, such as place names ending in ,,ick, and words starting with sk,,
such as sky #he $orman invasion of I/MM changed the course of the English language by bringing to
England both $orman 3rench and 2atin, thus dividing the country linguistically between the educated
classes with 3rench or 2atin and the common people with only English As a result of this linguistic
mi*, English has become a language with a huge vocabulary full of nuances, often with three or four
ways of e*pressing the same idea
Its introduction to the $ew World in the ILth century resulted in this language becoming the
second oldest version of EnglishCand the most widely spokenCAmerican English In IM./, the
+ilgrim 3athers, escaping to a land of religious freedom, left +lymouth on #he !ayflower and settled
in !assachusetts !any other migrations followed and more settlements were founded on the north,
eastern seaboard In the IL./s, another large group of immigrants arrived on the $ew England coast
from the northern part of Ireland, fleeing from religious discrimination #hese farmers were not well
received in $ew England, and moved further south to +ennsylvania, from where they moved once
more to the western frontiers, this time to buy their own farmlands After this the two EnglishesCin the
British Isles and in AmericaCdeveloped along their own paths, giving us the two distinct dialects we
know today
Early pioneers did not only head westH they also went east and south In ILL/, >ames &ook sailed
#he Endeavour into what is now called Sueensland, Australia In ILJJ, the first group of immigrants
from England arrived and set up the first colony In the late IJth and IOth centuries a large number of
Irish also immigrated to Australia Also in the IL//s pioneers traveling south established a colony in
the southern lands of Africa, where English remained the dominant imperial language until the late IO^
century, when the Boer War established the predominance of Afrikaans in 4outh Africa English is now
considered a second language for the maFority of the white population in 4outh Africa
M #he coloni'ation of America, Australia, $ew Vealand and 4outh Africa were all very much at the
e*pense, linguistically as well as in other ways, of the indigenous racesCAmerican Indians,
Aborigines, !aories and Vulus respectively :owever, a different type of coloni'ationCbased on
commerce rather than immigrationCtook place in other areas, particularly 4outh,East Asia In India,
settlements were first established in IM// by the East India &ompany, and by the end of the IJth
century it controlled most of the commercial life in India In the early IOth century the company was
dissolved, but by this time India had become the keystone of the British Empire, and the Indian
population had begun to learn English in order to find employment in the new order In India, English
now shares the status of official language with :indi, and it is spoken by over L/ million peopleCmore
than the entire population of the British Isles
IMPO&TANT POPL
902 >@6@ Co)ste,)
"The reason I love the sea I cannot explain it's physical. When you dive, you begin to feel
like an angel. It's liberation of your weight." .!. "ousteau
>ac)ues,@ves &ousteau was born in 4aint,Andre,de,Dub'ac, 3rance, on >une II, IOI/ :e always
loved the water and spent much of his early childhood near it, swimming and tinkering with gadgets
such as underwater cameras and mechanical toys In his early teens, &ousteau became fascinated with
films :e saved his money and bought a home movie camera In high school, &ousteau became bored
with school and began to cause trouble As a result, his parents sent him to a strict boarding school
After high school, in IONN, he entered the 3rench Armed 3orces It was during this time that he began
his underwater e*plorations and began working on a breathing machine for longer dives In IONL,
&ousteau married 4imone !elchoir, and they had two sons #wo years after their marriage, &ousteau
fought for the 3rench in World War II During the war, he still found time to continue his underwater
work In IO=N, he and 3rench engineer Emile -agnan perfected the a)ualung, which allowed a diver to
stay underwater for several hours Divers used the a)ualung to locate and remove enemy mines after
World War II
&ousteau was named a capitaine !e cor$ette of the 3rench $avy in IO=J, and two years later he
bought the boat &alypso, part ocean,going lab and part yacht, which would soon become synonymous
with &ousteau and his underwater adventures #o finance his trips and increase public awareness of his
undersea investigations, &ousteau produced numerous films and published many books In IO0M, with
the help of &alypso and her crew, &ousteau?s position as the world?s most famous marine biologist was
cemented when he received an Academy Award for his undersea documentary, #he 4ilent World
Because of his many proFects, &ousteau retired from the 3rench $avy In IO0L, he became director
of the "ceanographic !useum of !onaco and founded the 7ndersea Research -roup at #oulon In
IOMJ, &ousteau was asked to make a #1 series "f the I./ documentaries &ousteau completed in his
lifetime, this television series, called #he 7ndersea World of >ac)ues &ousteau, was the most important
one #his series brought unforgettable images into millions of homes and contributed to a deeper
understanding of a part of the world few people ever visit In IOL=, &ousteau started #he &ousteau
4ociety to protect ocean life #he membership of this non,profit group has grown to include more than
N//,/// members worldwide "n >anuary II, IOOM, the &alypso sank in 4ingapore harbor When
>ac)ues,@ves &ousteau died on >une .0, IOOL, the world lost more than Fust an esteemed biologist and
oceanographer
90' Orson 2elles
#he Beverly :ills :otel is one of :ollywood?s most celebrated meeting places for people in the
film business It was here that film director "rson Welles met American Fournalist >ohn Rosenbaum for
a long interview #heir si*,hour meeting resulted in one of the finest biographies written about Welles
Rosenbaum?s book, published in the late IOL/s, gives us a lot of information about the life of this
comple* man
Welles was born into a respectable middle,class family and became famous as a piano virtuoso in
his childhood In his teens, he wanted to be a painter, but while he was in Ireland he had to earn money,
so he started acting #hen he became a theatre director and made a name for himself with stage
productions such as G>ulius &aesarG :owever, it was only after a successful period on the radio that
Welles won a contract with R5" +ictures and began his career in the cinema
Rosenbaum?s book suggests that all this may surprise people who think of Welles as the maker of
&iti'en 5ane, the famous film which some critics still refer to as the best film ever made #hey say that
a director can make such a film only at the end of his career &iti'en 5ane looks as though it was made
by somebody with a lifetime of e*perience in the cinema Actually, when it was made, Welles was
ine*perienced in cinema and e*tremely young C he was only .0
#here is no doubt that the film is remarkable, but it owes its success not only to Welles but also a
skilled group of people who helped him -reg #oland, perhaps :ollywood?s best cameraman, helped
Welles to film it Welles worked on the screen play with the respected writer :erman !ankiewic' :e
knew the editor and all the actors well, and had a good relationship with them :e believed that the
director must think of himself as somebody at the service of the actors and the story
$one of Welles? later films became more successful than &iti'en 5ane &ritics thought other
proFects could not match the success of his first film #his made him feel that Americans did not like
him :e spent more time in Europe than in :ollywood, where he only made a few films :e had a
difficult time collecting money for these few films because his films did not sell well :e became
overweight and started to make money by acting in films he hated :owever, he continued to bring a
certain )uality to everything he did :e died of a heart attack at a friend?s house in &alifornia at the age
of seventy
90* Alfred No-el; A M,n Of Pe,ce
#he headline in the newspaper announced the death of Alfred $obel on April IN, IJJJ #he
reporter called him a salesman of death, G#he Dynamite 5ing,G because he had invented the powerful
e*plosive dynamite In fact, Alfred $obel?s dynamite business had made him a rich man #he
newspaper story continued, giving Alfred $obel?s age, nationality, and other information about his
business :owever, the words G#he Dynamite 5ingG were all that the 00,year,old 4wedish man read
Alfred $obel put the newspaper down $o, he wasn?t deadChis brother 2udwig had died the day
before, and the 3rench newspaper had made a mistake All the same, Alfred $obel was disappointed
Was this the way the world was going to remember himE :e didn?t like that idea at all :e had spent his
life working for peace in the world and he had invented dynamite to achieve this aim :e hated
violence and war :e believed that if countries had the same powerful weapons, they would see how
impossible war was, and wars would end In fact, this was a popular idea of his day
Alfred $obel believed that he had invented dynamite at a perfect moment in time Before the
invention of dynamite, a lot of people working in the field of construction lost their lives because other
e*plosives were dangerous to use #hey needed a safe, powerful e*plosive like dynamite to blow up
stone in order to construct buildings, dams and roads #he use of dynamite saved the lives of workers
and, thus, is considered a turning point in the history of construction
$obel was very upset about the image that the world had of him, but he did not know what to do
about it :e thought about this problem for years :e wanted to think of the best way for people to use
his fortune of nine million dollars after his death #hen, in IJO0, an adventurer named 4alomon August
AndrKe decided to make a Fourney to reach the $orth +ole +eople all over the world were e*cited
about AndrKe?s plans, which continually appeared in newspapers in those days $obel read about his
plans, too, and had an inspiration :e thought he could use his fortune to encourage people who work
for the good of the world :e wrote his 2ast Will and #estament In his will, he told people to use all
his money for a yearly award to honor leaders of science, literature and world peace :e stated that
these leaders could be men or women of any nationality
Alfred $obel died on December I/, IJOM, at the age of MN :e was unmarried, and had no
children +eople all over the world wondered who was going to get $obel?s money #hey were
surprised when they learned about Alfred $obel?s plan to give yearly pri'es in the fields of physics,
chemistry, medicine, literature, and peace #he first $obel +ri'es were given in IO/I, and they very
soon became the greatest honor that a person could receive in these fields In IOMO, an award for
economics was added
#he report of Alfred $obel?s death had been a mistake, but the decision that he made because of
this error gave the world the image he wanted Alfred $obel established the $obel +ri'es, and the
world thinks of him the way he wanted to be remembered8 Alfred $obel, a man of peace
900 A Pe,cef)l &e3ol)tion,ry
#oday, when people think about revolutions and their leaders, they think about people like 3idel
&astro, !ao #'e,#ung, Ayatollah 5homeini or $elson !andela 4ome of these leaders were e*tremely
successful, like !ustafa 5emal Atat%rk, but others were complete failures, like Danton "ne of the
most powerful revolutionaries in the history of mankind was !ahatma -andhi :is ideas influenced
both his own country and the world
-andhi was born in India in IJMO :is father was a minister in the government of -uFarat As his
father wished, -andhi became a lawyer :is mother was a deeply religious :indu, and her beliefs
strongly influenced -andhi throughout his life -andhi was a :indu, but the religious ideas of the >ains
Aa small, peaceful religious groupB also affected him #hey were the source of his most important
principles8 non,violence, religious tolerance and fasting
When -andhi was a young man, he went to England to study law :is stay in England was very
important because he met many prominent British intellectuals there #hey introduced him to many
new, Western ideas In IJON, he went to 4outh Africa to practice law :is e*periences during his first
days in 4outh Africa greatly affected him #he Whites there treated the Indians and Blacks very badly
While he was speaking in court during a trial, he could not wear his turban, a white piece of cloth worn
on the head While he was traveling on a train, he had to leave the first,class compartment because he
was not White :e took these as personal insults In IJO=, the government of $atal Aone of the states of
the 7nion of 4outh AfricaB decided to end the political rights of the Indians -andhi started a campaign
against this policy #his was the beginning of his political life :e used a special political method of
non,violent resistance and civil disobedience #his disobedience had to be peaceful and he should
protest against the police non,violently
After living abroad for more than twenty years, -andhi returned to India and entered politics
there In IOIO, the British government of India AIndia was a British colony thenB began to put Indian
nationalists in prison without trial 3or the same reason, -andhi was also in prison for two years While
he was there, political feelings in India changed Before he went to England, the :indus and the
!uslims were working together to make the British leave India :owever, later, religious differences
separated the two groups -andhi believed that religious tolerance was very important for the success
of India?s goal of independence from Britain In IO.=, he fasted for a period of three weeks until the
:indus and !uslims began working together again In other words, he did not eat anything at all
during this time #hey stopped fighting because they loved and respected -andhi and returned to
political cooperation
-andhi not only fought against the British but he also fought against social problems in India :e
tried to protect the poorest people C the untouchables #hese people had no political or social rights
before -andhi?s time :e introduced new ideas to them #hey decided to sell clothes and tools they had
made as a means of earning a living #hese reforms boosted the economy of the country :e played a
maFor role in introducing a new educational system, which greatly helped the untouchables because
they had no schools before this time
Although -andhi was successful in putting social reforms into effect, he was unable to solve the
problem of religious intolerance Because the :indus and !uslims could not live together peacefully,
the British colony divided into two states, India and +akistan, in IO=L #here was a massive forced
migration of people according to religion between the two new countries During this time, there was
much violence, and unfortunately, -andhi also became a victim of it A young :indu fanatic shot and
killed him in IO=J
#he world still remembers -andhi as a great leader and thinker :e mi*ed Eastern and Western
ideas +eople throughout the world are still using his political method of non,violent resistance to gain
political rights !any people think that -andhi was not only a hero but also a saint, a truly good man
901 !ir rnest !h,ckleton+ The D(lorer
#wo of the most difficult places to e*plore on Earth are the $orth and 4outh +oles because of the
e*treme weather conditions there #here are many stories of bravery and endurance in the history of
+olar e*ploration "ne of the most e*traordinary was 4ir Ernest 4hackleton?s Fourney to the seas of the
4outhern :emisphere
4hackleton, an Irishman, was born in IJL= :e worked on merchant ships for some time before he
became an officer in the British $avy In IO/I, he Foined &aptain Robert 4cott, another famous
e*plorer, on his first Antarctic e*pedition #heir final aim was to reach the 4outh +ole, but they
couldn?t In fact, this was not possible until IOI. In IO/J, 4hackleton went on a second e*pedition and
reached 2atitude J.X .N? 4outh on >anuary O, IO/O :e was the first man to reach that far south
3inally, in IOI=, 4hackleton became the leader of his own e*pedition :e wanted to cross the
Antarctic continent from the Atlantic side to the +acific side 7nfortunately, his ship Endurance, got
stuck in an ice pack, which carried the ship northwards for ten months before it finally crushed the
ship
#he e*plorers and seamen on the Endurance were able to get into two small whaleboats before the
ship sank #hey were able to save only a small amount of e)uipment and food #hey drifted northward
among the ice pack for five mote months until they finally reached Elephant Island "n the island, they
had only their boats for shelter #hey caught seals and lived on seal meat for many months $o one
knew that they were even alive
When the weather improved on Elephant Island, 4hackleton decided to go to get help :e chose
five of his fittest men and took one of the whaleboats #he other .. men were not strong enough to
make the Fourney, so 4hackleton decided that he would have to leave them behind and rescue them
later Although they had very little food, 4hackleton managed to cross one of the world?s stormiest seas
:e had to sail almost .,/// kilometres to reach the Island of 4outh -eorgia, the nearest island on
which people lived
:owever, 4hackleton?s problems did not end when they reached 4outh -eorgia #hey landed on
the wrong side of the island, away from the whaling station #hey were too weak to go to the other side
by boat, so 4hackleton decided to cross the island on foot #hey crossed over the snowy mountains and
reached the whaling station in .= hours It was a great success considering the fact that a British army
team followed the same route in IOJ/, and it took them longer to do this, despite their modern
e)uipment
#he story is still not finishedT #here were still .. men on Elephant Island While they were
waiting for 4hackleton, they almost lost hope #hey had many difficulties 4hackleton attempted to
rescue them four times, but he had to give up each time because of bad weather 3inally, he was
successful the fifth time C a full two years after the unlucky e*pedition started
After 4hackleton and his men returned to England, he began organi'ing another e*pedition
7nfortunately, he never completed the Fourney :e died while he was trying to get to the Antarctic
again in IO.. :is men buried him at sea, the proper place for such a courageous man who had so
many adventures at sea
&!&ATION C LI!$&
904 The "irt),l .e,ch .)t &e,l F)n
3rom >apan, the country that brought you the virtual pet and the virtual pop star, comes the latest
leisure idea8 the virtual seaside resort #his is the "cean Dome at !ya'aki, southwest of #okyo, the
biggest artificial indoor beach in the world, where overstressed >apanese office workers can kick off
their shoes and walk on the beautiful cool white sand @et, it is not real sandCit?s fake, made entirely
from crushed stone
In fact, everything under the dome is fake, from the I=/,meter,long beach to the air temperatureC
kept at a steady N/X& by an incredible giant, ultra,modern central,heating system If that?s too hot for
you, you can order an attractive plastic palm tree to provide shade With fake waves and fake sunshine,
but not fake crowds, the "cean Dome has become such a cra'e that the average >apanese office worker
usually has to share it with about I/,/// other sun seekers
#he fake sea covers about three times the area of the beach and has I0,J.M tons of waterC that?s
about the same as ten "lympic swimming pools It is kept at a constant temperature of .J X&
But why spend so much money on a man,made beach when the real thing is freeE Well, bathing
off the >apanese coast isn?t much fun because the sea is cold, polluted, and full of sharks
And after that, what could be better than a run on the ski,slopeE >ust half an hour from downtown
#okyo, there is a huge artificial ski,slope where even more overstressed workers can practice their
skiing on perfect, powdery snowCindoors, of courseT
905 Ni,g,r,
$iagara is a perfect holiday destination and it is one of the world?s most popular tourist attractions
It means different things to more than IJ million visitors #o families, $iagara is the $iagara 3alls
4tate +ark #here is so much to see in the park @ou can enFoy a walk, visit the huge a)uarium, dine at
the #op of the 3alls Restaurant or bring the children to the new Discovery &enter with lots of activities
#o sportsmen, $iagara is more than =/ golf courses and N/ private campgrounds Also, fishermen love
$iagara #hey can go boat,fishing on 2ake "ntario and 2ake Erie and ice,fishing in the bays around
+ort Dalhousie and >ordan :arbor $iagara is very famous among young couples Each year, thousands
of couples go to $iagara hand,in,hand to start a new life #hey can have a beautiful and enFoyable
wedding ceremony at a reasonable price #o newlyweds, $iagara is the honeymoon capital of the
world
#o almost everyone, $iagara is the most dynamic four,season destination in the world #he long
winters can be cold, but the trees with lots of snow are wonderful to look at &hristmas is unforgettable
there and, of course, in the spring and summer, flowers are everywhere #he autumn season is
wonderful +eople enFoy the cooler temperatures after a summer of hot weather #hey travel to see
beautiful autumn leaves
$iagara has more than I=,/// hotel rooms and lots of bed and breakfast homes to suit every need
and budget 1isitors can have a view of $iagara 3alls from their window and watch ships from around
the world
$iagara is also becoming famous as a dining destination #here are about =0/ restaurants #hey
serve locally,grown food products with local wines
If shopping is an important part of their holiday e*perience, visitors will love $iagara 4hopping
in $iagara is a lot of fun 3rom large shopping centers to attractive bouti)ues, from factory outlets to
small souvenir shops, $iagara 3alls is a shopper?s dream come true
907 The %e-rides Isl,nds
#he :ebrides Islands are in the north,west of 4cotland $ot many people live there because it is
difficult to make a living in the :ebrides #he land is not good for farmingCthe people on the
:ebrides Islands cannot grow fruits or vegetables there #he :ebrides Islands are not for everyone, but
if you like unusual places, these islands can be very interesting to visit #he winters are long, cold and
wet "n the other hand, the summers are short, and even summer days are not hot and are often too
windy #he water is too cold for swimming #here are not many trees but a lot of rocks 4ometimes the
view from the top of the hills is like pictures of the moon @et, there is beauty in this wild place 3rom
the beach, you can often see all the way to the top 3rom the top, you can see far out to the other
islands and the open sea #he colors, too, are fantastic Blue is everywhere It is in the sky and in the
sea It is in the small flowers that grow on the islands In the spring, there is also green In the summer
and autumn, there is purple, and often the air is soft and gray with clouds and rain
In these islands, you forget about everything @ou forget about your work, and city problems like
noise, dirt and traffic #he nights are )uiet, since the restaurants close early, and there is not much
nightlife #here are not even many hotels !ost visitors stay in guest houses, or ?Bed and Breakfast?
places as they are called in 4cotland #hese are really people?s homes #hey get money from the
tourists for the night, and they serve breakfast to their guests #hese homes may be simple, but guests
are usually comfortable there @ou can meet some friendly people of the islands in this way It is also a
way to learn more about life on the islands
@ou do not feel much like a tourist in the :ebrides #here are not many historic places #here are
no museums and only four or five small shops In fact, there is not much to do on the :ebrides Islands,
but people still visit the :ebrides #hey come to walk in this peaceful place #hey come for the )uiet
beauty and the scenery
91: The New Im,ge Of M)se)ms
In recent years, there have been many changes in the way museums present their e*hibits to the
public #he days of large, dusty rooms full of glass cases with ?D" $"# #"7&:? signs on them are
long gone, together with free admission 7ntil recently, most museums in Britain did not charge
admission fees #hey received a grant from the government that covered the cost of running the
museum :owever, these grants have been abolished or reduced &onse)uently, many museums now
charge for admission and need to attract large numbers of visitors in order to produce the income to
maintain the building, pay the staff, finance research, and buy new e*hibits In order to persuade people
that it is worth paying for a )uite e*pensive admission ticket, museums have tried to make their
e*hibitions brighter and more appealing !any museums, especially those devoted to science and
technology, now have ?interactive e*hibits,? which means that you can, in fact, touch the e*hibits 3or
e*ample, you can learn how a television camera works by actually using one, or how to operate the
controls of an airplane and watch the wings and tail move 4uch e*hibits appeal strongly to children
and encourage them to visit the museum "ne of the biggest changes to take place in recent years is
that large numbers of teachers are now employed by museums #heir task is to prepare material that
makes the museum interesting to children^ and young people and to advise the museum officials on
how to create strong links with schools and colleges
!useums have also introduced new features that appeal to adults 3or e*ample, you can Foin, for
an annual fee, a society linked to your favorite museum that will enable you to visit the museum
without paying or to visit at times when it is normally closed, so that you can then admire the e*hibits
when the crowds have gone #hese societies usually publish regular newsletters to inform the public
about the upcoming e*hibitions Indeed, because of their need to increase their income, many museums
can be hired for social events a room full of dinosaur skeletons, old locomotives, or mummies makes
an interesting setting for a party !any museums now have impressive cafes and restaurants In
addition to these, they have large gift shops selling books, reproductions, and models #hese are often
more crowded than the museum itself !useums also seek commercial sponsorship as another way of
increasing their income
$owadays, some museums create a realistic environment into which the visitor can enter An
e*ample of this kind of museum is >amestown in $ew England, where a ILth century village has been
re,created #here are actors in ILth century dress performing ILth century tasks If you speak to them
as you wander around, they will reply using ILth century English accents and vocabulary At Blists :ill
"pen Air !useum in England, an entire street from the early IOth century has been re,created, and the
visitor can enter commercial and industrial sites from the time of the Industrial Revolution and observe
working machinery and old methods of production
919 The M,gic Of The !il3er !creen
"n .J December IJO0, in a cafe in +aris, the 2umiere brothers, 2ouis and Auguste, gave a public
show #hey showed a motion picture for the first time #his event, hardly noticed at the time, marks the
beginning of one of the world?s maFor entertainment industries #he earliest films were very short, Fust
snippets in fact, but the audiences were easily impressed #hey were very pleased to watch them Early
film makers liked the scenes of wild animals attacking the audience and those which showed cowboys
shooting straight at them "ne film by the 2umiere brothers showed a train arriving at a station It
caused some of the audience to flee, that is, to escape in terror, believing that the train would hit them
#echnical development was very rapid, ie, )uick, which made films even more attractive By
IOI=, feature films were up to two hours long and most of the techni)ues used by modern film makers
had been discovered &olor films were made in the early IO//s, although they did not become common
until the IO=/s E*periments with sound began as early as IJOM, but the first film with synchroni'ed
sound was ?#he >a'' 4inger? AIO.LB 7ntil that time, live piano music accompanied performances of
silent films "ne of the disadvantages of ?talkies? is that if you can?t understand the language, you can?t
understand the film if it is not sub,tided or dubbed Back proFection was being used by IOIN and is still
used very effectively in modern films such as ?4uperman? AIOLJB Back proFection involves shooting a
background scene, proFecting that scene onto a screen and then filming the actors in front of the screen
In this way, the viewers get the impression that 4uperman is flying over a landscape that has, of course,
previously been filmed from an aircraft 4pecial effects of various kinds, including the use of models,
were introduced by -eorges !elies in his fantasy film ?1oyage to the !oon? AIO/.B Another film that
used models effectively was ?5ing 5ong? AIONNB #he gorilla, which seemed to be as tall as a house,
was in fact a =/ cm model With the techni)ue of stop action Ain which the film is started againB, first
used by -eorges !elies, 5ing 5ong was made to move fairly realistically 4ometimes models are life,
si'e, like the shark in ?>aws? AIOL0B
During the first half of the ./th century, going to the cinema was a very popular activity, and
audiences were huge In other words, a great number of people watched movies 3rom the IO0/s
onwards, however, audiences declined and many cinemas were forced to close as more and more
people bought television sets #he film industry introduced several technological innovations against
television, such as ultra,wide screens, stereophonic sound, and, less successfully, films that could be
seen in three dimensions if special glasses were worn $owadays, films are technically advanced, and
this developed technology is advantageous, since it provides an e*perience that television cannot
match
912 Cinem,
#he origins of cinema as we know it lie in a machine patented in IJOI by #homas Edison the
kinetoscope #his machine rotated rapidly showing different frames, thus giving the impression of a
moving picture Early films were produced solely to show off the ingeniousness of the machines that
proFected them, and were only one or two minutes long, but by the early IO//s films started to tell
stories During the years of the 3irst World War, American cinema flourished, and technical
innovations were made By IO.L, the,use of sound on film became commercially viable, and the film
#he <a%% Singer which was recogni'ed as the first successful sound movie, was released
It was in the late IO./s that the :ollywood golden era really began With the advent of
commercial film,making in the early IO//s, various film production companies had started up in the
7nited 4tates in fierce competition with each other !any of these companies became associated with
stars still popular and famous today, for e*ample, &harlie &haplin, who became a founder in IOIO of
7nited Artists By the ION/s, most of these studios were in financial difficulties because of the
Depression #hey had to make certain compromises to survive, which in part led to the development of
film genres A genre is a number of films, all containing characteristics in common, including sets andI
stars &ertain studios started producing a number of films from one genre in order to use the same sets,
and to use contracted stars who were becoming popular with audiences 3or e*ample, Warner Brothers
was associated with a large number of gangster films and 7niversal with horror films, while others
were associated with melodramas or musicals It was this studio system that typified the golden age of
:ollywood, but by the IO0/s it was somewhat in decline, with a stronger European film industry and
the rising popularity of television hitting their bo*,office takings
"ne continuing feature of the studio,system is that of the film star 4tudios vied with each other to
find and contract popular film stars as a way of increasing audience share 4ome of the biggest stars of
the ION/s and ?=/s were closely associated with particular studios, for e*ample, Rita :ayworth with
&olumbia #hrough the IO=/s and ?0/s the popularity of stars such as :umphrey Bogart, !arilyn
!onroe, and >ohn Wayne continued to grow 3ilm stars became part of people?s everyday lives and
began to take an interest in other areas, for e*ample, politics As everyone knows, Ronald Reagan, a
movie actor of the ?=/s and ?0/s, was voted +resident of the 74 in IOJ/T
Actors are not the only stars of the film industry &ertain film directors have achieved star status in
the past, such as "rson Welles, whose innovative &iti'en 5ane is the only film to appear consistently in
the critics? top tens, and Alfred :itchcock, who really gave the thriller genre its name with films such
as +sycho and 3ren'y &ontemporary directors are e)ually as popular, and are finding success in areas
other than feature films, for e*ample, television and pop promotional videos
$ot all cinema comes from :ollywood !uch early European cinema has, in fact, had a lasting
influence on :ollywood with, for e*ample, the low,key lighting and strange camera angles of -erman
E*pressionism being transferred to :ollywood ?film noir? Apart from :ollywood cinema, over the last
=/ years we have seen very strong film industries emerge from many countries In some cases, these
herald new movements, for e*ample, the 3rench $ew Wave and Italian $eo,RealismH in others, they
feature particular directors, such as Ingmar Bergman in 4weden and Akira 5urosawa in >apan In fact,
while most people believe 2os Angeles to be the biggest ?production village,? that honor goes to
Bombay, India, which has the most prolific film industry of any country in the world
In many countries, film,makers take their role in society more seriously than they do in
:ollywood European cinema focuses on contemporary issues, such as the sociology of the inner city,
violence, poverty, the psychology of marriage, and racism +ossibly the most striking developments in
the film industry over the years, however, have been those in technology and special effects, bringing
us images of space travel and strange creatures in films such as 4tar Wars, and the mi*ture of reality
and animation in Who Frame! 4oger 4a..it@ #his film did little more than to carry on the tradition of
the greatest cartoon film,maker of all time C Walt Disney, who was one of the most financially
successful producers ever