239150825.

doc Pgina 1 de 40
Centrifugal Pumps: Basic Concepts of Operation, Maintenance, and
Troubleshooting (Part- I)
Introduction
The operating manual of any centrifugal pump often starts ith a general statement!
"#our centrifugal pump ill gi$e you completely trou%le free and satisfactory ser$ice
only on the condition that it is installed and operated ith due care and is properly
maintained.&
'espite all the care in operation and maintenance! engineers often face the statement "the
pump has failed i.e. it can no longer %e (ept in ser$ice&. )na%ility to deli$er the desired
flo and head is *ust one of the most common conditions for ta(ing a pump out of ser$ice.
There are other many conditions in hich a pump! despite suffering no loss in flo or
head! is considered to ha$e failed and has to %e pulled out of ser$ice as soon as possi%le.
These include seal related pro%lems +lea(ages! loss of flushing! cooling! ,uenching
systems! etc-! pump and motor %earings related pro%lems +loss of lu%rication! cooling!
contamination of oil! a%normal noise! etc-! lea(ages from pump casing! $ery high noise
and $i%ration le$els! or dri$er +motor or tur%ine- related pro%lems.
The list of pump failure conditions mentioned a%o$e is neither e.hausti$e nor are the
conditions mutually e.clusi$e. /ften the root causes of failure are the same %ut the
symptoms are different. 0 little care hen first symptoms of a pro%lem appear can sa$e
the pumps from permanent failures. Thus the most important tas( in such situations is to
find out hether the pump has failed mechanically or if there is some process deficiency!
or %oth. 1any times hen the pumps are sent to the or(shop! the maintenance people do
not find anything rong on disassem%ling it. Thus the decision to pull a pump out of
ser$ice for maintenance 2 repair should %e made after a detailed analysis of the symptoms
and root causes of the pump failure. 0lso! in case of any mechanical failure or physical
damage of pump internals! the operating engineer should %e a%le to relate the failure to the
process unit3s operating pro%lems.
0ny operating engineer! ho typically has a chemical engineering %ac(ground and ho
desires to protect his pumps from fre,uent failures must de$elop not only a good
understanding of the process %ut also thorough (noledge of the mechanics of the pump.
4ffecti$e trou%leshooting re,uires an a%ility to o%ser$e changes in performance o$er
time! and in the e$ent of a failure! the capacity to thoroughly in$estigate the cause of the
failure and ta(e measures to pre$ent the pro%lem from re5occurring.
The fact of the matter is that there are three types of pro%lems mostly encountered ith
centrifugal pumps6
design errors
poor operation
poor maintenance practices
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The present article is %eing presented in three parts! co$ering all aspects of operation!
maintenance! and trou%leshooting of centrifugal pumps. The article has %een ritten
(eeping in mind the le$el and interests of students and the %eginners in operation. 0ny
comments or ,ueries are most elcome.
or!ing Mechanism of a Centrifugal Pump
or!ing Mechanism of a Centrifugal Pump
0 centrifugal pump is one of the simplest pieces of e,uipment in any
process plant. )ts purpose is to con$ert energy of a prime mo$er +a
electric motor or tur%ine- first into $elocity or (inetic energy and
then into pressure energy of a fluid that is %eing pumped. The energy
changes occur %y $irtue of to main parts of the pump! the impeller and
the $olute or diffuser. The impeller is the rotating part that con$erts
dri$er energy into the (inetic energy. The $olute or diffuser is the
stationary part that con$erts the (inetic energy into pressure energy.
"ote: 0ll of the forms of energy in$ol$ed in a li,uid flo
system are e.pressed in terms of feet of li,uid i.e. head.
#eneration of Centrifugal $orce
The process li,uid enters the suction no77le and then into eye +center- of a re$ol$ing
de$ice (non as an impeller. 8hen the impeller rotates! it spins the li,uid sitting in the
ca$ities %eteen the $anes outard and pro$ides centrifugal acceleration. 0s li,uid
lea$es the eye of the impeller a lo5pressure area
is created causing more li,uid to flo toard the
inlet. 9ecause the impeller %lades are cur$ed!
the fluid is pushed in a tangential and radial
direction %y the centrifugal force. This force
acting inside the pump is the same one that
(eeps ater inside a %uc(et that is rotating at the
end of a string. :igure 0.01 %elo depicts a side
cross5section of a centrifugal pump indicating
the mo$ement of the li,uid.
Con%ersion of &inetic 'nerg( to Pressure
'nerg(
The (ey idea is that the energy created %y the
centrifugal force is kinetic energy. The amount of energy gi$en to the li,uid is
proportional to the velocity at the edge or $ane tip of the impeller. The faster the
impeller re$ol$es or the %igger the impeller is! then the higher ill %e the $elocity of the
li,uid at the $ane tip and the greater the energy imparted to the li,uid.
$igure )*+,: -i.uid flo/ path
inside a centrifugal pump
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This (inetic energy of a li,uid coming out of an impeller is harnessed %y creating a
resistance to the flo. The first resistance is created %y the pump $olute +casing- that
catches the li,uid and slos it don. )n the discharge no77le! the li,uid further
decelerates and its $elocity is con$erted to pressure according to 9ernoulli3s principle.
Therefore! the head +pressure in terms of height of li,uid- de$eloped is appro.imately
e,ual to the $elocity energy at the periphery of the impeller e.pressed %y the folloing
ell5(non formula6
0 handy formula for peripheral $elocity is6
This head can also %e calculated from the readings on the pressure gauges attached to
the suction and discharge lines.
One fact that must always be
remembered:
A pump does not create pressure, it only
provides flow. Pressure is a just an
indication of the amount of resistance to
flow.
Pump cur$es relate flo rate and pressure +head- de$eloped %y the pump at different
impeller si7es and rotational speeds. The centrifugal pump operation should conform to
the pump cur$es supplied %y the manufacturer. )n order to read and understand the
pump cur$es! it is $ery important to de$elop a clear understanding of the terms used in
the cur$es. This topic ill %e co$ered later.

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0efinition of Important Terms
The (ey performance parameters of centrifugal pumps are capacity!
head! 9;P +9ra(e horse poer-! 94P +9est efficiency point- and
specific speed. The pump cur$es pro$ide the operating indo
ithin hich these parameters can %e $aried for satisfactory pump
operation. The folloing parameters or terms are discussed in detail
in this section.
<apacity
;ead
o =ignificance of using ;ead instead of Pressure
o Pressure to ;ead <on$ersion formula
o =tatic =uction ;ead! h
1

o =tatic 'ischarge ;ead! h
d

o :riction ;ead! hf
o >apor pressure ;ead! h%p
o Pressure ;ead! hp
o >elocity ;ead! h%
o Total =uction ;ead 2
1

o Total 'ischarge ;ead 2
d

o Total 'ifferential ;ead 2
T

?P=;
o ?et Positi$e =uction ;ead @e,uired "P12r
o ?et Positi$e =uction ;ead 0$aila%le "P12a
Poer +9ra(e ;orse Poer! 9.;.P- and 4fficiency +9est 4fficiency Point! 9.4.P-
=pecific =peed +?s-
0ffinity Aas
Capacit(
<apacity means the flo rate ith hich li,uid is mo$ed or pushed %y the pump to the
desired point in the process. )t is commonly measured in either gallons per minute
+gpm- or cu%ic meters per hour +m
3
2hr-. The capacity usually changes ith the changes
in operation of the process. :or e.ample! a %oiler feed pump is an application that
needs a constant pressure ith $arying capacities to meet a changing steam demand.
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The capacity depends on a num%er of factors li(e6
Process li,uid characteristics i.e. density! $iscosity
=i7e of the pump and its inlet and outlet sections
)mpeller si7e
)mpeller rotational speed @P1
=i7e and shape of ca$ities %eteen the $anes
Pump suction and discharge temperature and pressure conditions
:or a pump ith a particular impeller running at a certain speed in a li,uid! the only
items on the list a%o$e that can change the amount floing through the pump are the
pressures at the pump inlet and outlet. The effect on the flo through a pump %y
changing the outlet pressures is graphed on a pump cur$e.
0s li,uids are essentially incompressi%le! the capacity is directly related ith the
$elocity of flo in the suction pipe. This relationship is as follos6
2ead
=ignificance of using the head term instead of the pressure term
The pressure at any point in a li,uid can %e thought of as %eing caused %y a $ertical
column of the li,uid due to its eight. The height of this column is called the static
head and is e.pressed in terms of feet of li,uid.
The same head term is used to measure the (inetic energy created %y the pump. )n
other ords! head is a measurement of the height of a li,uid column that the pump
could create from the (inetic energy imparted to the li,uid. )magine a pipe shooting
a *et of ater straight up into the air! the height the ater goes up ould %e the head.
The head is not e,ui$alent to pressure. ;ead is a term that has units of a length or
feet and pressure has units of force per unit area or pound per s,uare inch. The
main reason for using head instead of pressure to measure a centrifugal pumpBs
energy is that the pressure from a pump ill change if the specific gra$ity +eight-
of the li,uid changes! %ut the head ill not change. =ince any gi$en centrifugal
pump can mo$e a lot of different fluids! ith different specific gra$ities! it is simpler
to discuss the pumpBs head and forget a%out the pressure.
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=o a centrifugal pump3s performance on any ?etonian fluid! hether itBs hea$y
+sulfuric acid- or light +gasoline- is descri%ed %y using the term Dhead3. The pump
performance cur$es are mostly descri%ed in terms of head.



Pressure to ;ead <on$ersion formula
The static head corresponding to any specific pressure is dependent upon the eight
of the li,uid according to the folloing formula6
?etonian li,uids ha$e specific gra$ities typically ranging from 0.5 +light! li(e light
hydrocar%ons- to 1.8 +hea$y! li(e concentrated sulfuric acid-. 8ater is a %enchmar(!
ha$ing a specific gra$ity of 1.0.
This formula helps in con$erting pump gauge pressures to head for reading the pump
cur$es.
The $arious head terms are discussed %elo.
"ote6 The =u%scripts 3s4 refers to suction conditions and 3d4 refers to discharge
conditions.
o =tatic =uction ;ead! h
1

o =tatic 'ischarge ;ead! h
d

o :riction ;ead! hf
o >apor pressure ;ead! h%p
o Pressure ;ead! hp
o >elocity ;ead! h%
o Total =uction ;ead 2
1

o Total 'ischarge ;ead 2
d

o Total 'ifferential ;ead 2
T

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239150825.doc Pgina E de 40
o ?et Positi$e =uction ;ead @e,uired "P12r
o ?et Positi$e =uction ;ead 0$aila%le "P12a
Static Suction Head +h
1
- 6 ;ead resulting from ele$ation of the li,uid relati$e to the
pump center line. )f the li,uid le$el is a%o$e pump centerline! h
1
is positi$e. )f the
li,uid le$el is %elo pump centerline! h
1
is negati$e. ?egati$e h
1
condition is
commonly denoted as a "suction lift& condition
Static Discharge Head +h
d
-6 )t is the $ertical distance in feet %eteen the pump
centerline and the point of free discharge or the surface of the li,uid in the discharge
tan(.
Friction Head +hf)6 The head re,uired to o$ercome the resistance to flo in the
pipe and fittings. )t is dependent upon the si7e! condition and type of pipe! num%er
and type of pipefittings! flo rate! and nature of the li,uid.
Vapor Pressure Head +h%p-6 >apor pressure is the pressure at hich a li,uid and its
$apor co5e.ist in e,uili%rium at a gi$en temperature. The $apor pressure of li,uid
can %e o%tained from $apor pressure ta%les. 8hen the $apor pressure is con$erted to
head! it is referred to as $apor pressure head! h%p. The $alue of h%p of a li,uid
increases ith the rising temperature and in effect! opposes the pressure on the
li,uid surface! the positi$e force that tends to cause li,uid flo into the pump
suction i.e. it reduces the suction pressure head.
Pressure Head +hp-: Pressure ;ead must %e considered hen a pumping system
either %egins or terminates in a tan( hich is under some pressure other than
atmospheric. The pressure in such a tan( must first %e con$erted to feet of li,uid.
'enoted as hp! pressure head refers to a%solute pressure on the surface of the li,uid
reser$oir supplying the pump suction! con$erted to feet of head. )f the system is
open! hp e,uals atmospheric pressure head.
Velocity Head +h%-6 @efers to the energy of a li,uid as a result of its motion at some
$elocity D%4. )t is the e,ui$alent head in feet through hich the ater ould ha$e to
fall to ac,uire the same $elocity! or in other ords! the head necessary to accelerate
the ater. The $elocity head is usually insignificant and can %e ignored in most high
head systems. ;oe$er! it can %e a large factor and must %e considered in lo head
systems.
Total Suction Head +2
1
-6 The suction reser$oir pressure head (hp
1
- plus the static
suction head +h
1
- plus the $elocity head at the pump suction flange +h
>=
- minus the
friction head in the suction line +hf
1
-.
2
1
F hp
1
5 h
1
G h%
1
H hf
1
The total suction head is the reading of the gauge on the suction flange! con$erted to
feet of li,uid.
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239150825.doc Pgina 8 de 40
Total Discharge Head +2
d
-6 The discharge reser$oir pressure head +hp
d
- plus static
discharge head +h
d
- plus the $elocity head at the pump discharge flange +h%
d
- plus
the total friction head in the discharge line +hf
d
-.
2
d
F hp
d
5 h
d
G h%
d
G hf
d
The total discharge head is the reading of a gauge at the discharge flange! con$erted
to feet of li,uid.
Total 'ifferential ;ead +2
T
-6 )t is the total discharge head minus the total suction
head or
2
T
6 2
d
5 2
1
(/ith a suction lift)
2
T
6 2
d
- 2
1
(/ith a suction head)
"P12
8hen discussing centrifugal pumps! the to most important head terms are ?P=;r and
?P=;a.
?et Positi$e =uction ;ead @e,uired! ?P=;r
?P=; is one of the most idely used and least understood terms associated ith
pumps. Inderstanding the significance of ?P=; is $ery much essential during
installation as ell as operation of the pumps.
Pumps can pump only liquids, not vapors
The satisfactory operation of a pump re,uires that $apori7ation of the li,uid %eing
pumped does not occur at any condition of operation. This is so desired %ecause
hen a li,uid $apori7es its $olume increases $ery much. :or e.ample! 1 ft
3
of ater
at room temperature %ecomes 1E00 ft
3
of $apor at the same temperature. This ma(es
it clear that if e are to pump a fluid effecti$ely! it must %e (ept alays in the li,uid
form.
ise in temperature and fall in pressure induces vapori!ation
The $apori7ation %egins hen the $apor pressure of the li,uid at the operating
temperature e,uals the e.ternal system pressure! hich! in an open system is alays
e,ual to atmospheric pressure. 0ny decrease in e.ternal pressure or rise in operating
temperature can induce $apori7ation and the pump stops pumping. Thus! the pump
alays needs to ha$e a sufficient amount of suction head present to pre$ent this
$apori7ation at the loest pressure point in the pump.

"P#$ as a measure to prevent liquid vapori!ation
The manufacturer usually tests the pump ith ater at different capacities! created
%y throttling the suction side. 8hen the first signs of $apori7ation induced
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239150825.doc Pgina 9 de 40
ca$itation occur! the suction pressure is noted +the term ca$itation is discussed in
detail later-. This pressure is con$erted into the head. This head num%er is
pu%lished on the pump cur$e and is referred as the Jnet positi$e suction head
re,uired +?P=;r- or sometimes in short as the ?P=;. Thus the "et Positi%e
1uction 2ead ("P12) is the total head at the suction flange of the pump less the
%apor pressure con%erted to fluid column height of the li.uid*
"P#$r is a function of pump desi%n
?P=; re,uired is a function of the pump design and is determined %ased on actual
pump test %y the $endor. 0s the li,uid passes from the pump suction to the eye of the
impeller! the $elocity increases and the pressure decreases. There are also pressure
losses due to shoc( and tur%ulence as the li,uid stri(es the impeller. The centrifugal
force of the impeller $anes further increases the $elocity and decreases the pressure of
the li,uid. The ?P=; re,uired is the positi$e head in feet a%solute re,uired at the pump
suction to o$ercome these pressure drops in the pump and maintain the ma*ority of the
li,uid a%o$e its $apor pressure.
The ?P=; is alays positi$e since it is e.pressed in terms of a%solute fluid column
height. The term J?etJ refers to the actual pressure head at the pump suction flange and
not the static suction head.
"P#$r increases as capacity increases
The ?P=; re,uired $aries ith speed and capacity ithin any particular pump. The
?P=; re,uired increase as the capacity is increasing %ecause the $elocity of the li,uid
is increasing! and as anytime the $elocity of a li,uid goes up! the pressure or head
comes don. Pump manufacturerBs cur$es normally pro$ide this information. The
?P=; is independent of the fluid density as are all head terms. "ote: )t is to %e noted
that the net positi$e suction head re,uired +?P=;r- num%er shon on the pump cur$es
is for fresh ater at 20K< and not for the fluid or com%inations of fluids %eing pumped.
?et Positi$e =uction ;ead a$aila%le! ?P=;a

"P#$a is a function of system desi%n
?et Positi$e =uction ;ead 0$aila%le is a function of the system in hich the pump
operates. )t is the e.cess pressure of the li,uid in feet a%solute o$er its $apor
pressure as it arri$es at the pump suction! to %e sure that the pump selected does not
ca$itate. )t is calculated %ased on system or process conditions.
"P#$a calculation
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The formula for calculating the ?P=;a is stated %elo6
"ote6
1. )t is important to correct for the specific gra$ity of the li,uid and to con$ert all
terms to units of Jfeet absoluteJ in using the formula.
2. 0ny discussion of ?P=; or ca$itation is only concerned a%out the suction side
of the pump. There is almost alays plenty of pressure on the discharge side of
the pump to pre$ent the fluid from $apori7ing.

"P#$a in a nutshell
)n a nutshell! ?P=; a$aila%le is defined as6
?P=;a F Pressure head G =tatic head 5 >apor pressure head of your product H :riction
head loss in the piping! $al$es and fittings.
"0ll terms in feet a%solute&
)n an e.isting system! the ?P=;a can also %e appro.imated %y a gauge on the
pump suction using the formula6
"P12a 6 hp
1
- h%p
1
hg
1
5 h%
1
hp
1
6 9arometric pressure in feet a%solute.
h%p
1
F >apor pressure of the li,uid at ma.imum pumping temperature! in feet
a%solute.
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239150825.doc Pgina 11 de 40
hg
1
F Lauge reading at the pump suction e.pressed in feet +plus if a%o$e
atmospheric! minus if %elo atmospheric- corrected to the pump centerline.
h%
1
F >elocity head in the suction pipe at the gauge connection! e.pressed in
feet.
#i%nificance of "P#$r and "P#$a
The ?P=; a$aila%le must alays %e greater than the ?P=; re,uired for the pump
to operate properly. )t is normal practice to ha$e at least 2 to 3 feet of e.tra ?P=;
a$aila%le at the suction flange to a$oid any pro%lems at the duty point.
Po/er and 'fficienc(
9ra(e ;orse Poer +9;P-
The or( performed %y a pump is a function of the total head and the eight of the
li,uid pumped in a gi$en time period.
Pump input or brake horsepower (HP! is the actual horsepoer deli$ered to the
pump shaft.
Pump output or hydraulic or water horsepower ("HP! is the li,uid horsepoer
deli$ered %y the pump. These to terms are defined %y the folloing formulas.
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239150825.doc Pgina 12 de 40
The constant 39C0 is o%tained %y di$iding the num%er or foot5pounds for one
horsepoer +33!000- %y the eight of one gallon of ater +8.33 pounds-.
B2P can also %e read from the pump cur$es at any flo rate. Pump cur$es are %ased on
a specific gra$ity of 1.0. /ther li,uids3 specific gra$ity must %e considered.
The %ra(e horsepoer or input to a pump is greater than the hydraulic horsepoer or
output due to the mechanical and hydraulic losses incurred in the pump.
Therefore the pump efficiency is the ratio of these to $alues.
9est 4fficiency Point +94P-
The ;! ?P=;r! efficiency! and 9;P all $ary ith flo rate! M. Best 'fficienc(
Point (B'P) is the capacity at ma.imum impeller diameter at hich the efficiency
is highest. 0ll points to the right or left of 94P ha$e a loer efficiency.
1ignificance of B'P
&'P as a measure of optimum ener%y conversion
hen si7ing and selecting centrifugal pumps for a gi%en application the pump
efficienc( at design should be ta!en into consideration* The efficienc( of
centrifugal pumps is stated as a percentage and represents a unit of measure
describing the change of centrifugal force (e8pressed as the %elocit( of the fluid)
into pressure energ(* The B*'*P* (best efficienc( point) is the area on the cur%e
/here the change of %elocit( energ( into pressure energ( at a gi%en gallon per
minute is optimum9 in essence, the point /here the pump is most efficient*
&'P as a measure of mechanically stable operation
The impeller is su%*ect to non5symmetrical forces hen operating to the right or left
of the 94P. These forces manifest themsel$es in many mechanically unsta%le
conditions li(e $i%ration! e.cessi$e hydraulic thrust! temperature rise! and erosion and
separation ca$itation. Thus the operation of a centrifugal pump should not %e outside
the furthest left or right efficiency cur$es pu%lished %y the manufacturer. Performance
in these areas induces premature %earing and mechanical seal failures due to shaft
deflection! and an increase in temperature of the process fluid in the pump casing
causing sei7ure of close tolerance parts and ca$itation.
&'P as an important parameter in calculations
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239150825.doc Pgina 13 de 40
94P is an important parameter in that many parametric calculations such as specific
speed! suction specific speed! hydrodynamic si7e! $iscosity correction! head rise to shut5
off! etc. are %ased on capacity at 94P. 1any users prefer that pumps operate ithin
80N to 110N of 94P for optimum performance.
1pecific 1peed
=pecific speed as a measure of the geometric similarity of pumps
=pecific speed +?
s
- is a non5dimensional design inde. that identifies the geometric
similarity of pumps. )t is used to classify pump impellers as to their type and
proportions. Pumps of the same ?s %ut of different si7e are considered to %e
geometrically similar! one pump %eing a si7e5factor of the other.
=pecific speed <alculation
The folloing formula is used to determine specific speed6
0s per the a%o$e formula! it is defined as the speed in re$olutions per minute at hich a
geometrically similar impeller ould operate if it ere of such a si7e as to deli$er one
gallon per minute flo against one5foot head.
The understanding of this definition is of design engineering significance only! hoe$er!
and specific speed should %e thought of only as an inde. used to predict certain pump
characteristics.
=pecific speed as a measure of the shape or class of the impellers
The specific speed determines the general shape or class of the impellers. 0s the
specific speed increases! the ratio of the impeller outlet diameter! '2! to the inlet or eye
diameter! '1! decreases. This ratio %ecomes 1.0 for a true a.ial flo impeller. #adial
$low impellers de$elop head principally through centrifugal force. @adial impellers are
generally lo flo high head designs. Pumps of higher specific speeds de$elop head
partly %y centrifugal force and partly %y a.ial force. 0 higher specific speed indicates a
pump design ith head generation more %y a.ial forces and less %y centrifugal forces.
0n a.ial flo or propeller pump ith a specific speed of 10!000 or greater generates its
head e.clusi$ely through a.ial forces. 0.ial flo impellers are high flo lo head
designs.
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239150825.doc Pgina 14 de 40
=pecific speed identifies the appro.imate accepta%le ratio of the impeller eye
diameter +'1- to the impeller ma.imum diameter +'2- in designing a good
impeller.
?s6 500 to 5000O '12'2 P 1.5 5 radial flo pump
?s6 5000 to 10000O '12'2 Q 1.5 5 mi.ed flo pump
?s6 10000 to 15000O '12'2 F 1 5 a.ial flo pump
=pecific speed is also used in designing a ne pump %y si7e5factoring a smaller
pump of the same specific speed. The performance and construction of the
smaller pump are used to predict the performance and model the construction of
the ne pump.
=uction specific speed +?ss-
=uction specific speed +?ss- is a dimensionless num%er or inde. that defines the
suction characteristics of a pump. )t is calculated from the same formula as ?s %y
su%stituting ; %y ?P=;r.
)n multi5stage pump the ?P=;r is %ased on the first stage impeller ?P=;@.
=pecific speed as a measure of the safe operating range
?ss is commonly used as a %asis for estimating the safe operating range of
capacity for a pump. The higher the ?ss is! the narroer is its safe operating
range from its 94P. The num%ers range %eteen 3!000 and 20!000. 1ost users
prefer that their pumps ha$e ?ss in the range of 8000 to 11000 for optimum and
trou%le5free operation.
The )ffinit( -a/s
The 0ffinity Aas are mathematical e.pressions that define changes in pump capacity!
head! and 9;P hen a change is made to pump speed! impeller diameter! or %oth.
0ccording to %$$inity &aws6
Capacit(, : changes in direct proportion to impeller diameter 0 ratio! or to
speed " ratio6
:2 6 :1 8 ;02<01=
:2 6 :1 8 ;"2<"1=
2ead, 2 changes in direct proportion to the s,uare of impeller diameter 0
ratio! or the s,uare of speed " ratio6
22 6 21 8 ;02<01=
2
22 6 21 8 ;"2<"1=
2
B2P changes in direct proportion to the cu%e of impeller diameter ratio! or
the cu%e of speed ratio6
14
239150825.doc Pgina 15 de 40
B2P2 6 B2P1 8 ;02<01=
3
92P2 6 B2P1 8 ;"2<"1=
3
8here the su%script6 1 refers to initial condition! 2 refer to ne condition
)f changes are made to %oth impeller diameter and pump speed the e,uations can %e
com%ined to6
:2 6 :1 8 ;(028"2)<(018"1)=
22 6 21 8 ;(028"2)<(018"1)=
2
B2P2 6 B2P1 8 ;(028"2)<(018"1)=
3
This e,uation is used to hand5calculate the impeller trim diameter from a gi$en pump
performance cur$e at a %igger diameter.
The )ffinit( -a/s are %alid onl( under conditions of constant efficienc(*
>nderstanding Centrifugal Pump Performance Cur%es
The capacity and pressure needs of any system can %e defined ith the help of a graph
called a system curve. =imilarly the capacity vs' pressure $ariation graph for a
particular pump defines its characteristic pump performance curve.
The pump suppliers try to match the system cur$e supplied %y the user ith a pump
cur$e that satisfies these needs as closely as possi%le. 0 pumping system operates
here the pump cur$e and the system resistance cur$e intersect. The intersection of the
to cur$es defines the operating point of %oth pump and process. ;oe$er! it is
impossi%le for one operating point to meet all desired operating conditions. :or
e.ample! hen the discharge $al$e is throttled! the system resistance cur$e shift left and
so does the operating point.

15
239150825.doc Pgina 1C de 40
$igure 0*+,: T(pical s(stem and pump performance cur%es
0e%eloping a 1(stem Cur%e
The system resistance or system head curve is the change in flo ith respect to head of
the system. It must be de%eloped b( the user based upon the conditions of ser%ice*
These include physical layout! process conditions! and fluid characteristics. )t
represents the relationship %eteen flo and hydraulic losses in a system in a graphic
form and! since friction losses $ary as a s,uare of the flo rate! the system cur$e is
para%olic in shape. ;ydraulic losses in piping systems are composed of pipe friction
losses! $al$es! el%os and other fittings! entrance and e.it losses! and losses from
changes in pipe si7e %y enlargement or reduction in diameter.
0e%eloping a Pump Performance Cur%e
0 pumpBs performance is shon in its characteristics performance curve here its
capacity i.e. flo rate is plotted against its de$eloped head. The pump performance
cur$e also shos its efficiency +94P-! re,uired input poer +in 9;P-! ?P=;r! speed +in
@P1-! and other information such as pump si7e and type! impeller si7e! etc. This cur$e
is plotted for a constant speed +rpm- and a gi$en impeller diameter +or series of
diameters-. It is generated b( tests performed b( the pump manufacturer* Pump
cur$es are %ased on a specific gra$ity of 1.0. /ther specific gra$ities must %e
considered %y the user.
"ormal Operating ?ange
0 typical performance cur$e +:igure '.01- is a plot of Total ;ead $s. :lo rate for a
specific impeller diameter. The plot starts at 7ero flo. The head at this point
1C
239150825.doc Pgina 1E de 40
corresponds to the shut5off head point of the pump. The cur$e then decreases to a point
here the flo is ma.imum and the head minimum. This point is sometimes called the
run5out point. The pump cur$e is relati$ely flat and the head decreases gradually as the
flo increases. This pattern is common for radial flo pumps. 9eyond the run5out
point! the pump cannot operate. The pumpBs range of operation is from the shut5off
head point to the run5out point. Trying to run a pump off the right end of the cur$e ill
result in pump ca$itation and e$entually destroy the pump.
(n a nutshell) %y plotting the system head cur$e and pump cur$e together! you can
determine6
1. 8here the pump ill operate on its cur$eR
2. 8hat changes ill occur if the system head cur$e or the pump performance
cur$e changesR
?e.uirements for Consistent Operation
<entrifugal pumps are the ultimate in simplicity. )n general there are to %asic
re,uirements that ha$e to %e met at all the times for a trou%le free operation and longer
ser$ice life of centrifugal pumps.
The first re,uirement is that no ca$itation of the pump occurs throughout the %road
operating range and the second re,uirement is that a certain minimum continuous flo
is alays maintained during operation.
0 clear understanding of the concept of ca$itation! its symptoms! its causes! and its
conse,uences is $ery much essential in effecti$e analyses and trou%leshooting of the
ca$itation pro%lem.
Sust li(e there are many forms of ca$itation! each demanding a uni,ue solution! there
are a num%er of unfa$ora%le conditions hich may occur separately or simultaneously
hen the pump is operated at reduced flos. =ome include6
o <ases of hea$y lea(ages from the casing! seal! and stuffing %o.
o 'eflection and shearing of shafts
o =ei7ure of pump internals
o <lose tolerances erosion
o =eparation ca$itation
o Product ,uality degradation
o 4.cessi$e hydraulic thrust
o Premature %earing failures
1E
239150825.doc Pgina 18 de 40
4ach condition may dictate a different minimum flo lo re,uirement. The final
decision on recommended minimum flo is ta(en after careful "techno5economical&
analysis %y %oth the pump user and the manufacturer.
The conse,uences of prolonged conditions of ca$itation and lo flo operation can %e
disastrous for %oth the pump and the process. =uch failures in hydrocar%on ser$ices
ha$e often caused damaging fires resulting in loss of machine! production! and orst of
all! human life.
Thus! such situations must %e a$oided at all cost hether in$ol$ing modifications in the
pump and its piping or altering the operating conditions. Proper selection and si7ing of
pump and its associated piping can not only eliminate the chances of ca$itation and lo
flo operation %ut also significantly decrease their harmful effects.
Centrifugal Pumps: Basic Concepts of Operation, Maintenance, and
Troubleshooting
(Part- II, >nderstanding Ca%itation)
Introduction
)n Part ) of the article! to %asic re,uirements for trou%le free operation and longer
ser$ice life of centrifugal pumps are mentioned in %rief.
1. P@4>4?T <0>)T0T)/?
<a$itation of the pump should not occur throughout its operating
capacity range.
2. 1)?)1)T4 A/8 :A/8 /P4@0T)/?
<ontinuous operation of centrifugal pumps at lo flos i.e. reduced
capacities! leads to a num%er of unfa$ora%le conditions. These include
reduced motor efficiency! e.cessi$e radial thrusts! e.cessi$e temperature
rise in the pumping fluid! internal re5circulation! etc. 0 certain minimum
continuous flo +1<:- should %e maintained during the pump
operation.
/perating a pump under the condition of ca$itation for e$en a short period of time can
ha$e damaging conse,uences for %oth the e,uipment and the process. /perating a pump
at lo flo conditions for an e.tended duration may also ha$e damaging conse,uences
for the e,uipment.
The condition of ca$itation is essentially an indication of an a%normality in the pump
suction system! hereas the condition of lo flo indicates an a%normality in the entire
18
239150825.doc Pgina 19 de 40
pumping system or process. The to conditions are also interlin(ed such that a lo flo
situation can also induce ca$itation.
The concept of ca$itation is e.plored in detail under folloing topics6
1. 1eaning of the term Dca$itation3 in the conte.t of centrifugal pumps.
2. )mportant definitions6 =tatic pressure! 'ynamic pressure! Total pressure! =tatic
pressure head! >elocity ;ead! >apor pressure.
3. 1echanism of ca$itation.
4. Leneral symptoms of ca$itation and its effects on pump performance and pump
parts.
5. Types of ca$itation6
a. >aporous ca$itation
i. <lassic ca$itation
ii. )nternal re5circulation ca$itation
%. Laseous ca$itation
i. 0ir ingestion induced ca$itation
C. 1ethods to pre$ent ca$itation
The topics 1 to 4 are co$ered in detail in this part of the article. The topics 5 to C shall
%e e.plored in ne.t part of the article.
@eaders of Part ) shoed (een interest and appreciation a%out the approach in hich the
topic of <entrifugal Pumps has %een discussed. The same enthusiasm! response and
feed%ac( are solicited from the readers.
Concept of Ca%itation
<a$itation is a common occurrence %ut is the least understood of all pumping pro%lems.
<a$itation means different things to different people. =ome say hen a pump ma(es a
rattling or (noc(ing sound along ith $i%rations! it is ca$itating. =ome call it slippage
as the pump discharge pressure slips and flo %ecomes erratic. 8hen ca$itating! the
pump not only fails to ser$e its %asic purpose of pumping the li,uid %ut also may
e.perience internal damage! lea(age from the seal and casing! %earing failure! etc.
(n summary) cavitation is an abnormal condition that can result in loss o$ production)
e*uipment damage and worst o$ all) personnel in+ury'
The plant engineer3s *o% is to ,uic(ly detect the signs of ca$itation! correctly identify
the type and cause of the ca$itation and eliminate it. 0 good understanding of the
concept is the (ey to trou%leshooting any ca$itation related pumping pro%lem.
Meaning of the Term @Ca%itation@ in the Conte8t of the Centrifugal Pump
The term Dca$itation3 comes from the Aatin ord ca$us! hich means a hollo space or a ca$ity. 8e%ster3s 'ictionary defines
the ord Dca$itation3 as the rapid formation and collapse of ca$ities in a floing li,uid in regions of $ery lo pressure.
19
239150825.doc Pgina 20 de 40
)n any discussion on centrifugal pumps $arious terms li(e $apor poc(ets! gas poc(ets! holes! %u%%les! etc. are used in place of
the term ca$ities. These are one and the same thing and need not %e confused. The term %u%%le shall %e used hereafter in the
discussion.
(n the conte,t o$ centri$ugal pumps) the term cavitation implies a dynamic process o$ $ormation o$ bubbles inside the li*uid)
their growth and subse*uent collapse as the li*uid $lows through the pump'
Lenerally! the %u%%les that form inside the li,uid are of to types6 >apor %u%%les or Las %u%%les.
1. >apor %u%%les are formed due to the $aporisation of a process li,uid that is %eing pumped. The ca$itation condition
induced %y formation and collapse of $apor %u%%les is commonly referred to as >aporous <a$itation.
2. Las %u%%les are formed due to the presence of dissol$ed gases in the li,uid that is %eing pumped +generally air %ut may %e any
gas in the system-. The ca$itation condition induced %y the formation and collapse of gas %u%%les is commonly referred to as
Laseous <a$itation.
9oth types of %u%%les are formed at a point inside the pump here the local static pressure is less than the $apor pressure of the
li,uid +$aporous ca$itation- or saturation pressure of the gas +gaseous ca$itation-.
Vaporous cavitation is the most common form of ca$itation found in process plants.
Lenerally it occurs due to insufficiency of the a$aila%le ?P=; or internal recirculation
phenomenon. )t generally manifests itself in the form of reduced pump performance!
e.cessi$e noise and $i%rations and ear of pump parts. The e.tent of the ca$itation
damage can range from a relati$ely minor amount of pitting after years of ser$ice to
catastrophic failure in a relati$ely short period of time.
-aseous cavitation occurs hen any gas +most commonly air- enters a centrifugal pump
along ith li,uid. 0 centrifugal pump can handle air in the range of U N %y $olume. )f
the amount of air is increased to CN! the pump starts ca$itating. The ca$itation
condition
is also referred to as 0ir %inding. )t seldom causes damage to the impeller or casing. The
main effect of gaseous ca$itation is loss of capacity.
The different types of ca$itation! their specific symptoms and specific correcti$e actions
shall %e e.plored in the ne.t part of the article. ;oe$er! in order to clearly identify the
type of ca$itation! let us first understand the mechanism of ca$itation! i.e. ho ca$itation
occurs. Inless otherise specified! the term ca$itation shall refer to $aporous ca$itation.
Important 0efinitions
To enable a clear understanding o$ mechanism o$ cavitation) de$initions o$ $ollowing
important terms are e,plored'
Static pressure)
Dynamic pressure)
Total pressure)
Static pressure head)
Velocity head) and
Vapor pressure'
1tatic Pressure, p
s
20
239150825.doc Pgina 21 de 40
The static pressure in a fluid stream is the normal force per unit area on a solid
%oundary mo$ing ith the fluid. )t descri%es the difference %eteen the pressure inside
and outside a system! disregarding any motion in the system. :or instance! hen
referring to an air duct! static pressure is the difference %eteen the pressure inside the
duct and outside the duct! disregarding any airflo inside the duct. )n energy terms! the
static pressure is a measure of the potential energy of the fluid.
0(namic pressure, p
d
0 mo$ing fluid stream e.erts a pressure higher than the static pressure due to the (inetic
energy +U m$
2
- of the fluid. This additional pressure is defined as the dynamic pressure.
The dynamic pressure can %e measured %y con$erting the (inetic energy of the fluid
stream into the potential energy. )n other ords! it is pressure that ould e.ist in a fluid
stream that has %een decelerated from its $elocity D$3 to D7ero3 $elocity.
Total pressure, p
t

The sum of static pressure and dynamic pressure is defined as the total pressure. )t is a
measure of total energy of the mo$ing fluid stream. i.e. %oth potential and (inetic
energy.

?elation bet/een p
s
, p
d
A p
t
)n an incompressi%le flo! the relation %eteen static! dynamic and total pressures can
%e found out using a simple de$ice called Pitot tu%e +named after ;enri Pitot in 1E32-
shon in :igure 1.
21
239150825.doc Pgina 22 de 40
$igure ,: ) 1imple 1!etch of a Pilot Tube
The Pitot tube has two tubes6
1. Static tube +%-6 The opening of the static tu%e is parallel to the direction of flo.
)t measures the static pressure! since there is no $elocity component
perpendicular to its opening.
2. (mpact tube +a-6 The opening of the impact tu%e is perpendicular to the flo
direction. The point at the entrance of the impact tu%e is called as the stagnation
point .0t this point the (inetic energy of the fluid is con$erted to the potential
energy. Thus! the impact tu%e measures the total pressure +also referred to as
stagnation pressure- i.e. %oth static pressure and dynamic pressure +also referred
to as impact pressure-.
The to tu%es are connected to the legs of a manometer or e,ui$alent de$ice for
measuring pressure.
The relation between p
s
, p
d
and p
t
can be derived by applying a simple energy balance.

22
239150825.doc Pgina 23 de 40
0s mentioned earlier! in the case of a fluid or gas the potential energy is represented %y
the static pressure and the (inetic energy %y dynamic pressure. The (inetic energy is a
function of the motion of the fluid! and of course itBs mass. )t is generally more
con$enient to use the density of the fluid +- as the mass representation.
&*'

6 p
d
6 B m %
C
6 B %
C
The corresponding pressure %alance e,uation is

)n place of the pressure terms as used a%o$e! it is more appropriate to spea( of the
energy during pumping as the energy per unit eight of the li,uid pumped and the units
of energy e.pressed this ay are foot5pounds per pound +?eton5meters per ?eton-
or *ust feet +meters- i.e. the units of head. Thus the energy of the li,uid at a gi$en point
in flo stream can %e e.pressed in terms of head of li,uid in feet.
The pressure term can %e con$erted to head term %y di$ision ith the factor D g4. :or
unit inter5con$ersions the factor D g<g
c
3 should %e used in place of D g4.
1tatic pressure head
The head corresponding to the static pressure is called as the static pressure head.
1tatic pressure head 6 p
s
< g
Delocit( head
The head corresponding to dynamic pressure is called the $elocity head.
Delocit( head 6 p
d
< g

6 ( %
C
< C) < g 6 %
C
<Cg
:rom the reading h
m!
of the manometer $elocity of flo can %e calculated and thus
$elocity head can %e calculated. The pressure difference! dP +p
t
H p
s-
indicated %y the
manometer is the dynamic pressure.
dP 6 h
m (

m
- ) g 6 %
C
<C
Delocit( head 6 dP < g 6 h
m (

m
- ) <
Dapor pressure, p
%
>apor pressure is the pressure re,uired to (eep a li,uid in a li,uid state. )f the pressure
applied to the surface of the li,uid is not enough to (eep the molecules pretty close
together! the molecules ill %e free to separate and roam around as a gas or $apor. The
23
239150825.doc Pgina 24 de 40
$apor pressure is dependent upon the temperature of the li,uid. ;igher the temperature!
higher ill %e the $apor pressure.
Mechanism of Ca%itation
The phenomenon of ca$itation is a stepise process as shon in :igure 2.
$igure C: Phenomenon of Ca%itation
#tep One) Formation o$ bubbles inside the li*uid being pumped'
The %u%%les form inside the li,uid hen it $aporises i.e. phase change from li,uid to
$apor. ut how does vapori.ation o$ the li*uid occur during a pumping operation/
>apori7ation of any li,uid inside a closed container can occur if either pressure on the
li,uid surface decreases such that it %ecomes e,ual to or less than the li,uid $apor
pressure at the operating temperature! or the temperature of the li,uid rises! raising the
$apor pressure such that it %ecomes e,ual to or greater than the operating pressure at the
li,uid surface. :or e.ample! if ater at room temperature +a%out EE K:- is (ept in a
closed container and the system pressure is reduced to its $apor pressure +a%out 0.52
psia-! the ater ,uic(ly changes to a $apor. 0lso! if the operating pressure is to remain
constant at a%out 0.52 psia and the temperature is alloed to rise a%o$e EE
K
:! then the
ater ,uic(ly changes to a $apor.
Sust li(e in a closed container! $apori7ation of the li,uid can occur in centrifugal pumps
hen the local static pressure reduces %elo that of the $apor pressure of the li,uid at the
pumping temperature.
24
239150825.doc Pgina 25 de 40
?/T46 The $aporisation accomplished %y addition of heat or the reduction of static
pressure ithout dynamic action of the li,uid is e.cluded from the definition of ca$itation.
:or the purposes of this article! only pressure $ariations that cause ca$itation shall %e
e.plored. Temperature changes must %e considered only hen dealing ith systems that
introduce or remo$e heat from the fluid %eing pumped.
To understand vapori.ation) two important points to remember are:
1. 8e consider only the static pressure and not the total pressure hen
determining if the system pressure is less than or greater than the li,uid
$apor pressure. The total pressure is the sum of the static pressure and
dynamic pressure +due to $elocity-.
2. The terms pressure and head ha$e different meanings and they should not
%e confused. 0s a con$ention in this article! the term "pressure& shall %e
used to understand the concept of ca$itation hereas the term "head& shall
%e used in e,uations.

Thus! the (ey concept is 5 $apor %u%%les form due to $apori7ation of the li,uid
%eing pumped hen the local static pressure at any point inside the pump %ecomes
e,ual to or less than the $apor pressure of the li,uid at the pumping temperature.
How does pressure reduction occur in a pump system/
The reduction in local static pressure at any point inside the pump can occur under to
conditions6
1. The actual pressure drop in the e.ternal suction system is greater than that
considered during design. 0s a result! the pressure a$aila%le at pump suction is not
sufficiently high enough to o$ercome the design pressure drop inside the pump.
2. The actual pressure drop inside the pump is greater than that considered during the
pump design.

The mechanism o$ pressure reduction in the e,ternal and internal suction system o$ a
pump system is e,plored ne,t'
Pressure reduction in the e,ternal suction system o$ the pump

0 simple s(etch of a pump De.ternal suction system3 is shon in :igure 3.


25
239150825.doc Pgina 2C de 40
$igure E: '8ternal 1uction 1(stem
0omenclature used $or Figure 1
5 Ai,uid density in l%m 2 ft
3
L 5 0cceleration due to gra$ity in ft 2 s
2
Psn 5 p refers to local static pressure +a%solute-. =u%script s refers to suction and su%script n refers to the
point of measurement. The pressure at any point can %e con$erted to the head term %y di$ision ith
the factor 5 g
ps1 5 =tatic pressure +a%solute- of the suction $essel in psia
hps1 5 =tatic pressure head i.e. a%solute static pressure on the li,uid surface in the suction $essel! con$erted
to feet of head +ps12 g2gc-. )f the system is open! hps1 e,uals the atmospheric pressure head.
$s1 5 Ai,uid $elocity on the surface in the suction $essel in ft2s
h$s1 5 >elocity head i.e. the energy of a li,uid as a result of its motion at some $elocity D$s13. +$
2
s1 2 2g-. )t is
the e,ui$alent head in feet through hich the li,uid ould ha$e to fall to ac,uire the same $elocity! or
the head necessary to accelerate the li,uid to $elocity $s1. )n a large suction $essel! the $elocity head is
practically 7ero and is typically ignored in calculations.

hs 5 =tatic suction head. . . . i.e. head resulting from ele$ation of the li,uid relati$e to the pump centerline.
)f the li,uid le$el is a%o$e pump centerline! h= is positi$e. )f the li,uid le$el is %elo pump centerline!
h= is negati$e. 0 negati$e h= condition is commonly referred to as "suction lift&.

hfs 5 :riction head i.e. the head re,uired to o$ercome the resistance to flo in the pipe! $al$es and fittings
%eteen points 0 and 9! inclusi$e of the entrance losses at the point of connection of suction piping to
the suction $essel +point 0 in :igure 1-. The friction head is dependent upon the si7e! condition and
type of pipe! num%er and type of fittings! $al$es! flo rate and the nature of the li,uid. The friction
head $aries as the s,uare of the a$erage $elocity of the floing fluid.

ps2 5 0%solute static pressure at the suction flange in psia
2C
239150825.doc Pgina 2E de 40

hps2 5 =tatic pressure head at the suction flange i.e. a%solute pressure of the li,uid at the suction flange!
con$erted to feet of head 5 ps2 2 g2gc

$s2 5 >elocity of the mo$ing li,uid at the suction flange in ft2s. The pump suction piping is si7ed such that
the $elocity at the suction remains lo.

h$s2 5 >elocity head at suction flange i.e. the energy of a li,uid as a result of its motion at a$erage $elocity
D$s23 e,ual to $
2
s2 2 2g.

p$ 5 0%solute $apor pressure of the li,uid at operating temperature in psia.

hp$ 5 >apor Pressure head i.e. a%solute $apor pressure con$erted to feet of head +p$ 2 . g2gc-.

;s 5 Total =uction ;ead a$aila%le at the suction flange in ft.

?ote6 0s pressure is measured in a%solute! total head is also in a%solute.
The pump ta(es suction from a $essel ha$ing a certain li,uid le$el. The $essel can %e
pressurised +as shon in the :igure 3- or can %e at atmospheric pressure or under
$acuum.
2alculation o$ the Total Suction Head) 2
s
The e.ternal suction system of the pump pro$ides a certain amount of head at the
suction flange. This is referred to as Total =uction ;ead +T=;-! ;
s
.
T=; can %e calculated %y application of the energy %alance. The incompressi%le li,uid
can ha$e energy in the form of $elocity! pressure or ele$ation. 4nergy in $arious forms
is either added to or su%tracted from the li,uid as it passes through the suction piping.
The head term in feet +or meters- is used as an e.pression of the energy of the li,uid at
any gi$en point in the flo stream.
0s shon in :igure 3! the total suction head! ;
s
! a$aila%le at the suction flange is gi$en
%y the e,uation!
2
s
6 hp
s,
5 h%
s,
5 h
s
- hf
s
5 h%
sC
+1-
:or an e.isting system! ;s

can also %e calculated from the pressure gauge reading at
pump suction flange!
2
s
6 hp
sC
5 h%
sC
+2-
4,uations 1 and 2 a%o$e include the $elocity head terms h$
s1
and

h$
s2
!

respecti$ely.


% word about the velocity head term:
There is a lot of confusion as to hether the $elocity head terms should %e added
or su%tracted in the head calculations. To a$oid any confusion remem%er the
folloing6
2E
239150825.doc Pgina 28 de 40
o Sust li(e a static tu%e of Pitot! a pressure gauge can measure only the static
pressure at the point of connection. )t does not measure the dynamic pressure
as the opening of the gauge impulse pipe is parallel to the direction of flo
and there is no $elocity component perpendicular to its opening.

)n :igure 4 %elo! flo through a pipe of $arying cross section area is shon.
$igure F: Measuring 1tatic Pressure
0s the cross section at point 9 reduces! the $elocity of flo increases. The
rise in (inetic energy happens at the e.pense of potential energy. 0ssuming
that there are no friction losses! the total energy +sum of potential energy and
(inetic energy- of fluid at point 0! 9 and < remains constant. The pressure
gauges at point 0! 9 and < measure only the potential energy i.e. the static
pressures at respecti$e points. The drop in static pressure from 10 psi +point
0- to 5 psi +point 9- occurs oing to rise the dynamic pressure %y 5 psi i.e.
increase in $elocity at point 9. ;oe$er the gauge at point 9 records only
the static pressure. The $elocity decreases from point 9 to < and the static
pressure is reco$ered again to 10 psi.
o 0t a particular point of flo! the total pressure is the sum of the static
pressure and the dynamic pressure.
Thus, theoreticall(, the %elocit( head terms must al/a(s be added and not
subtracted, in calculating Total 1uction 2ead (T12), 2
s
*
28
239150825.doc Pgina 29 de 40
;oe$er! practically spea(ing! the $alue of these terms is not significant in
comparison to the other terms in the e,uation.
o h$
s1
6 )n industrial scale suction $essels! the $alue of h$
s1
is practically 7ero
and it can %e safely ignored.
o h$
s26
)t is good piping design practice to reduce the friction losses and
pre$ent unnecessary flo tur%ulence %y si7ing the suction pipes for fluid
$elocities in the three to fi$e feet per second range only. The $elocity head
corresponding to a $elocity of 5 ft2s at the suction flange is only a%out 0.4 ft.
Thus! for all practical purposes! in high head systems the $elocity head at the
suction flange is not significant and can %e safely ignored. /nly in lo head
systems does the factor need to %e considered.

Therefore! neglecting the $elocity head terms! 4,uations 1 and 2 simplify to6
2
s
6 hp
s,
5 h
s
- hf
s
+3-
2
s
6 hp
sC
+4-
Two important in$erences can be drawn $rom the above e*uations6
The pressure reduction in the e.ternal suction system is primarily due to frictional
loss in the suction piping +4,uation 3-.
:or all practical purposes! the total head at the suction flange is the static pressure
head at the suction flange +4,uation 4-.

Therefore the pump3s e.ternal suction system should %e designed such that the static
pressure a$aila%le at the suction flange is alays positi$e and higher than the $apor
pressure of the li,uid at the pumping temperature.
:or no $apori7ation at pump suction flange!
(p
sC
G p
%)
or

(p
sC
- p
%
) or (hp
sC
- hp
%
) G +

+5-
0s the li,uid enters the pump! there is a further reduction in the static pressure. )f the
$alue of p
s2
is not sufficiently higher than p
$
! at some point inside the pump the static
pressure can reduce to the $alue of p
$
. )n pumping terminology! the head difference term
corresponding to 4,uation 5 +hp
s2
5 hp
$
- is called the ?et Positi$e =uction ;ead or
?P=;. The ?P=; term shall %e e.plored in detail in the ne.t part of the article. :or
no! the readers should focus only on ho the static pressure ithin the pump may %e
reduced to a $alue loer than that of the li,uid $apor pressure.
Pressure reduction in the internal suction system o$ the pump
29
239150825.doc Pgina 30 de 40
The pressure of the fluid at the suction flange is further reduced inside the internal
suction system of the pump.
Flow path o$ $luid inside the pump
The internal suction system is comprised of the pump3s suction no77le and impeller.
:igures 5 and C depict the internal parts in detail. 0 closer loo( at the graphic is a must
in understanding the mechanism of pressure drop inside the pump.
$igure H: Internal Pump -ocations
30
239150825.doc Pgina 31 de 40
$igure I: Internal Pump "omenclature
)n :igure E! it can %e seen that the passage from the suction flange +point 2- to
the impeller suction 7one +point 3- and to the impeller eye +point 4- acts li(e a $enturi
i.e. there is gradual reduction in the cross5section area.
$igure J: Pump Internal 1uction 1(stem
)n the impeller! the point of minimum radius +r
eye
- ith reference to pump
centerline is referred to as the "eye& of the impeller +:igure 8-.
31
239150825.doc Pgina 32 de 40
$igure K: Impeller '(e
How pressure reduction occurs as the $luid $lows inside the pump/
0ccording to 9ernoulli3s principle! hen a constant amount of li,uid mo$es through a
path of decreasing cross5section area +as in a $enturi-! the $elocity increases and the
static pressure decreases. )n other ords! total system energy i.e. sum of the potential
and (inetic energy! remains constant in a floing system +neglecting friction-. The gain
in $elocity occurs at the e.pense of pressure. 0t the point of minimum cross5section! the
$elocity is at a ma.imum and the static pressure is at a minimum.
The pressure at the suction flange! p
s2
+Point 2- decreases as the li,uid flos from the
suction flange! through the suction no77le and into the impeller eye. This decrease in
pressure occurs not only due to the $enturi effect %ut also due to the friction in the inlet
passage. ;oe$er! the pressure drop due to friction %eteen the suction no77le and the
impeller eye is comparati$ely small for most pumps. ;oe$er the pressure reduction
due to the $enturi effect is $ery significant as the $elocity at the impeller increases to 15
to 20 ft2s. There is a further drop in pressure due to shoc( and tur%ulence as the li,uid
stri(es and loads the edges of impeller $anes. The net effect of all the pressure drops is
the creation of a $ery lo5pressure area around the impeller eye and at the %eginning of
the trailing edge of the impeller $anes.
The pressure reduction profile ithin the pump is depicted in :igure 9.
32
239150825.doc Pgina 33 de 40
$igure L: Pressure Profile in a Pump
0s shon in :igure 9! the impeller eye is the point here the static pressure is at a
minimum! p
4.
'uring pump operation! if the local static pressure of the li,uid at the
loest pressure %ecomes e,ual to or less than the $apor pressure +p
$
-

of the li,uid at the
operating temperature! $apori7ation of the li,uid +the formation of %u%%les- %egins i.e.
hen p
4
p
$.
)t is at the %eginning of the trailing edge of the $anes near the impeller eye here the
pressure actually falls to %elo the li,uid $apor pressure. The region of %u%%le
formation is shon in :igure 10.
33
239150825.doc Pgina 34 de 40
$igure ,+: Impeller Ca%itation ?egions
)n summary! $apori7ation of the li,uid +%u%%le formation- occurs due to the reduction of
the static pressure to a $alue %elo that of the li,uid $apor pressure. The reduction of
static pressure in the e.ternal suction system occurs mainly due to friction in suction
piping. The reduction of static pressure in the internal suction system occurs mainly due
to the rise in the $elocity at the impeller eye.
#tep (wo, -rowth o$ bubbles
Inless there is no change in the operating conditions! ne %u%%les continue to form and
old %u%%les gro in si7e. The %u%%les then get carried in the li,uid as it flos from the
impeller eye to the impeller e.it tip along the $ane trailing edge. 'ue to impeller
rotating action! the %u%%les attain $ery high $elocity and e$entually reach the regions of
high pressure ithin the impeller here they start collapsing. The life cycle of a %u%%le
has %een estimated to %e in the order of 0.003 seconds.
#tep (hree) 2ollapse o$ bubbles
34
239150825.doc Pgina 35 de 40
0s the $apor %u%%les mo$e along the impeller $anes! the pressure around the %u%%les
%egins to increase until a point is reached here the pressure on the outside of the
%u%%le is greater than the pressure inside the %u%%le. The %u%%le collapses. The
process is not an e.plosion %ut rather an implosion +inard %ursting-. ;undreds of
%u%%les collapse at appro.imately the same point on each impeller $ane. 9u%%les
collapse non5symmetrically such that the surrounding li,uid rushes to fill the $oid
forming a li,uid micro*et. The micro *et su%se,uently ruptures the %u%%le ith such
force that a hammering action occurs. 9u%%le collapse pressures greater than 1 LPa
+145.10
C
psi- ha$e %een reported. The highly locali7ed hammering effect can pit the
pump impeller. The pitting effect is illustrated schematically in :igure 11.
$igure ,,: Collapse of a Dapor Bubble
0fter the %u%%le collapses! a shoc( a$e emanates outard from the point of collapse.
This shoc( a$e is hat e actually hear and hat e call Jca$itationJ. The implosion
of %u%%les and emanation of shoc( a$es +red color- is shon in a small $ideo clip
a$aila%le here.
)n nutshell! the mechanism of ca$itation is all a%out formation! groth and collapse of
%u%%les inside the li,uid %eing pumped. 9ut ho can the (noledge of mechanism of
ca$itation can really help in trou%leshooting a ca$itation pro%lem. The concept of
mechanism can help in identifying the type of %u%%les and the cause of their formation
and collapse. The trou%leshooting method shall %e e.plored in detail in the ne.t part of
the article.
?e.t let us e.plore the general symptoms of ca$itation and its affects on pump
performance.
35
239150825.doc Pgina 3C de 40
#eneral 1(mptoms of Ca%itation and its )ffects on Pump Performance
and Pump Parts
Percepti%le indications of the ca$itation during pump operation are more or less loud
noises! $i%rations and an unsteadily or(ing pump. :luctuations in flo and discharge
pressure ta(e place ith a sudden and drastic reduction in head rise and pump capacity.
'epending upon the si7e and ,uantum of the %u%%les formed and the se$erity of their
collapse! the pump faces pro%lems ranging from a partial loss in capacity and head to
total failure in pumping along ith irrepara%le damages to the internal parts. )t re,uires
a lot of e.perience and thorough in$estigation of effects of ca$itation on pump parts to
clearly identify the type and root causes of ca$itation.
0 detailed description of the general symptoms is gi$en as under.
#eduction in capacity o$ the pump6
The formation of %u%%les causes a $olume increase decreasing the space a$aila%le for the
li,uid and thus diminish pumping capacity. :or e.ample! hen ater changes state from
li,uid to gas its $olume increases %y appro.imately 1!E00 times. )f the %u%%les get %ig
enough at the eye of the impeller! the pump "cho(es& i.e. loses all suction resulting in a
total reduction in flo. The une,ual and une$en formation and collapse of %u%%les
causes fluctuations in the flo and the pumping of li,uid occurs in spurts. This
symptom is common to all types of ca$itations.
Decrease in the head developed6
9u%%les unli(e li,uid are compressi%le. The head de$eloped diminishes drastically
%ecause energy has to %e e.pended to increase the $elocity of the li,uid used to fill up
the ca$ities! as the %u%%les collapse. 0s mentioned earlier! The ;ydraulic =tandards
)nstitute defines ca$itation as condition of 3 N drop in head de$eloped across the pump.
Ai(e reduction in capacity! this symptom is also common to all types of ca$itations.
Thus! the hydraulic effect of a ca$itating pump is that the pump performance drops off
of its e.pected performance cur$e! referred to as %rea( aay! producing a loer than
e.pected head and flo. The :igure 12 depicts the typical performance cur$es. The
solid line cur$es represent a condition of ade,uate ?P=;a hereas the dotted lines
depict the condition of inade,uate ?P=;a i.e. the condition of ca$itation.
3C
239150825.doc Pgina 3E de 40
$igure ,C: Pump Performance Cur%es
%bnormal sound and vibrations6
)t is mo$ement of %u%%les ith $ery high $elocities from lo5pressure area to a high5
pressure area and su%se,uent collapse that creates shoc(a$es producing a%normal
sounds and $i%rations. )t has %een estimated that during collapse of %u%%les the pressures
of the order of 10
4
atm de$elops.
The sound of ca$itation can %e descri%ed as similar to small hard particles or
gra$el rapidly stri(ing or %ouncing off the interior parts of a pump or $al$e. >arious
terms li(e rattling! (noc(ing! crac(ling are used to descri%e the a%normal sounds. The
sound of pumps operating hile ca$itating can range from a lo5pitched steady
(noc(ing sound +li(e on a door- to a high5pitched and random crac(ling +similar to a
metallic impact-. People can easily mista(e ca$itation for a %ad %earing in a pump
motor. To distinguish %eteen the noise due to a %ad %earing or ca$itation! operate the
pump ith no flo. The disappearance of noise ill %e an indication of ca$itation.
=imilarly! $i%ration is due to the une$en loading of the impeller as the mi.ture of $apor
and li,uid passes through it! and to the local shoc( a$e that occurs as each %u%%le
collapses. >ery fe $i%ration reference manuals agree on the primary $i%ration
characteristic associated ith pump ca$itation. :ormation and collapsing of %u%%les ill
alternate periodically ith the fre,uency resulting out of the product of speed and
num%er of %lades. =ome suggest that the $i%rations associated ith ca$itation produce a
%road%and pea( at high fre,uencies a%o$e 2!000 ;ert7. =ome suggest that ca$itation
follos the $ane pass fre,uency +num%er of $anes times the running speed fre,uency-
and yet another indicate that it affects pea( $i%ration amplitude at one times running
3E
239150825.doc Pgina 38 de 40
speed. 0ll of these indications are correct in that pump ca$itation can produce $arious
$i%ration fre,uencies depending on the ca$itation type! pump design! installation and
use. The e.cessi$e $i%ration caused %y ca$itation often su%se,uently causes a failure of
the pump3s seal and2or %earings. This is the most li(ely failure mode of a ca$itating
pump!
Damage to pump parts6
o 2avitation erosion or pitting

'uring ca$itation! the collapse of the %u%%les occurs at sonic speed e*ecting
destructi$e micro *ets of e.tremely high $elocity +up to 1000 m2s- li,uid strong
enough to cause e.treme erosion of the pump parts! particularly impellers. The
%u%%le is trying to collapse from all sides! %ut if the %u%%le is lying against a
piece of metal such as the impeller or $olute it cannot collapse from that side. =o
the fluid comes in from the opposite side at this high $elocity and %angs against
the metal creating the impression that the metal as hit ith a J%all pin
hammerJ. The resulting long5term material damage %egins to %ecome $isi%le %y
so called
Pits +see :igure 11-! hich are plastic deformations of $ery small dimensions
+order of magnitude of micrometers-. The damage caused due to action of
%u%%le collapse is commonly referred as <a$itation erosion or pitting. The
:igure 13 depicts the ca$itation pitting effect on impeller and diffuser surface.
$igure ,E: Photographic '%idence of Ca%itation
38
239150825.doc Pgina 39 de 40
<a$itation erosion from %u%%le collapse occurs primarily %y fatigue fracture due
to repeated %u%%le implosions on the ca$itating surface! if the implosions ha$e
sufficient impact force. The erosion or pitting effect is ,uite similar to sand
%lasting. ;igh head pumps are more li(ely to suffer from ca$itation erosion!
ma(ing ca$itation a "high5energy& pump phenomenon.
The most sensiti$e areas here ca$itation erosion has %een o%ser$ed are the
lo5pressure sides of the impeller $anes near the inlet edge. The ca$itation
erosion damages at the impeller are more or less spread out. The pitting has also
%een o%ser$ed on impeller $anes! diffuser $anes! and impeller tips etc. )n some
instances! ca$itation has %een se$ere enough to ear holes in the impeller and
damage the $anes to such a degree that the impeller %ecomes completely
ineffecti$e. 0 damaged impeller is shon in :igure 14.
$igure ,F: Ca%itation 0amage on Impellers
The damaged impeller shos that the shoc( a$es occurred near the outside
edge of the impeller! here damage is e$ident. This part of the impeller is
here the pressure %uilds to its highest point. This pressure implodes the gas
%u%%les! changing the ater3s state from gas into li,uid. 8hen ca$itation is less
se$ere! the damage can occur further don toards the eye of the impeller. 0
careful in$estigation and diagnosis of point of the impeller erosion on impeller!
$olute! diffuser etc. can help predict the type and cause of ca$itation.
The e.tent of ca$itation erosion or pitting depends on a num%er of factors li(e
presence of foreign materials in the li,uid! li,uid temperature! age of e,uipment
and $elocity of the collapsing %u%%le.
39
239150825.doc Pgina 40 de 40
o 3echanical de$ormations
0part from erosion of pump parts! in %igger pumps! longer duration of
ca$itation condition can result in un%alancing +due to un5e,ual distri%ution in
%u%%le formation and collapse- of radial and a.ial thrusts on the impeller. This
un%alancing often leads to folloing mechanical pro%lems6
%ending and deflection of shafts!
%earing damage and ru%s from radial $i%ration!
thrust %earing damage from a.ial mo$ement!
%rea(ing of impeller chec(5nuts!
seal faces damage etc.
These mechanical deformations can completely rec( the pump and re,uire
replacement of parts. The cost of such replacements can %e huge.
2avitation corrosion
:re,uently ca$itation is com%ined ith corrosion. The implosion of %u%%les
destroys e.isting protecti$e layers ma(ing the metal surface permanently acti$ated
for the chemical attac(. Thus! in this ay e$en in case of slight ca$itation it may
lead to considera%le damage to the materials. The rate of erosion may %e
accentuated if the li,uid itself has corrosi$e tendencies such as ater ith large
amounts of dissol$ed o.ygen to acids.

)avitation * heart attac+ of the pump
Thus fundamentally! ca$itation refers to an a%normal condition inside the pump
that arises during pump operation due to formation and su%se,uent collapse of $apor
filled ca$ities or %u%%les inside the li,uid %eing pumped. The condition of ca$itation
can o%struct the pump! impair performance and flo capacity! and damage the impeller
and other sensiti$e components. ,n short, )avitation can be termed as the heart
attac+ of the pump.
40