This document provides guidance on answering questions related to diagnostic tests, treatments, and management steps for various cardiology conditions that may be seen on the USMLE Step 2 CK exam. It emphasizes choosing tests with good sensitivity for initial diagnosis and tests with good specificity for confirming diagnoses. It also stresses selecting treatments based on cost-effectiveness, safety, and evidence from studies. Several examples are given to illustrate how to determine the best initial test, most accurate test, best initial treatment, and next best management step for different clinical scenarios.
This document provides guidance on answering questions related to diagnostic tests, treatments, and management steps for various cardiology conditions that may be seen on the USMLE Step 2 CK exam. It emphasizes choosing tests with good sensitivity for initial diagnosis and tests with good specificity for confirming diagnoses. It also stresses selecting treatments based on cost-effectiveness, safety, and evidence from studies. Several examples are given to illustrate how to determine the best initial test, most accurate test, best initial treatment, and next best management step for different clinical scenarios.
In USMLE step 2 CK, we get few different kind of questions like which of the following is the best initial test? Which of the following is the most accurate test? Which of the following is the best initial treatment? Which of the following is the most accurate treatment? Which of the following is the best next step in the management of this patient? Which of the following is the first step in the management of this patient? To give answer to this kind of questions, understand following concepts. Test with good sensitivity is the best initial test. For example, EKG has good sensitivity to diagnose and differentiate chest pain so it will be the best initial test for patient with chest pain. Test with good specificity is the best accurate test. For example, barium esophagus is the best initial test to diagnose and differentiate dysphagia due to obstruction or motility disorder but esophageal manometry is the most accurate test to diagnose dysphagia due to motility disorder. Other important points in choosing test are cost effectiveness and safety of test. Same way in the treatment, look at the cost effectiveness and safety of the treatment. For example, atropine and pace maker, both are good to start heart in first degree heart block but we use pace maker as a last resort because atropine is more safe and as effective as pace maker and very easy to use (just give IV). The most difficult question is the next best step in the management of this patient. It depends on the condition of the patient when patient arrives at the hospital / clinic or patient leaving the hospital / clinic [Stable, Unstable or discharging time]. For example, patient with chest pain admitted to the hospital and treated with Aspirin, Clopidogrel, Morphine and Angioplasty, now its time to discharge, which of the following is the best next step in the management of this patient? (a) Stress test, (b) Metoprolol, (c) Captopril, (e) Furosemide. Answer is Metoprolol. Studies have shown that beta blockers have improved mortality rate in patient with recent MI so adding Metoprolol to patients regimen will be the best next step in the management of this patient. Another example, patient with upper GI bleed comes to ER, BP 90/60, which of the following is the best next step in the management of this patient? (a) Upper GI endoscopy, (b) IV normal saline, (c) fresh blood (e) Barium Esophagus. Answer is IV normal saline. First we need to stabilize the patient then we can order imaging studies. Fresh blood comes with its disadvantages like infectious diseases so not a good idea! I hope youve got a better idea by now about how to give an answer to the step 2 CK questions. I have written best initial test, most accurate test, best initial treatment, most accurate treatment, next best step and first step in the parenthesis in my notes so it will be easy for you to recognize and remember everything. These notes are for exam purpose only so I have written them in a way that they ask question on the real exam. In the real life, patient can present with many different ways and we deal them accordingly but always remember standard recommendation and current modification / new in the management.
Good Luck
S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 2 CARDIOLOGY
Myocardial Ischemia / Myocardial Infarction: Substernal squeezing chest pain [pressure / heavy feeling on chest] Pericarditis: chest pain relieve by leaning forward Costochondritis: chest pain reproduce by palpation Dissecting aortic aneurism: tearing chest pain radiate to back Pneumonia: pleuritic (increase on inspiration) chest pain Pulmonary embolism: pleuritic chest pain, dyspnea, tachypnea Esophageal spam (nut cracker disease): h/o GERD, gastritis, pain occur after eating, normal EKG
Stable angina: chest pain after exertion Unstable angina: chest pain at rest [ST Depression] [D E] Myocardial Infarction: chest pain at rest [ST Elevation] Prinzmetal angina: chest pain at rest [ST elevation Transmural Ischemia] [due to coronary artery spam. Pain may relieve by little exercise like patient gets up and walking and pain relieve because exercise causes increase in Adenosine which is a potent coronary vasodilator] [Best diagnostic test Angiography shows No atherosclerosis] [Treatment: Ca ++ channel blockers (CCB), Nitrates] [Not Aspirin and -blockers]
How will you differentiate unstable / Prinzmetal angina and MI? Angina means chest pain comes and goes so even though chest pain occur at rest in unstable / Prinzmetal angina, you can easily diagnose from the presentation in the question.
Patient with Stable/Unstable angina and MI should receive Aspirin, Nitrates and -blockers (if no contraindications like Asthma, etc.) Patient should also receive oxygen (if oxygen saturation is low) and morphine (if patient is still having chest pain) Unstable Angina (clot is forming): above 2 steps + Heparin (not thrombolytics) + Statins MI (clot is already formed): above 2 steps + Thrombolytics (If certain criteria meets) + Statins + Low molecular weight Heparin (If not contraindicated) + ACE inhibitors (only If CHF due to acute MI) + Lidocaine (only If ventricular arrhythmias)
Thrombolytics (If it is not contraindicated, if Angioplasty is not readily available) Within 12 hrs of the onset of MI. > 1 mm ST segment elevation in two contiguous EKG. New LBBB (Left Bundle Branch Block).
Best Initial test: EKG; Stress test for Stable angina Most accurate diagnostic test: Angiography (Ischemia) / Cardiac Troponin & CK-MB (Infarction) [Both begin to elevate in 4-6 hrs] [Cardiac Troponin remains S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 3 elevated for 1-2 wks] [CK-MB remains elevated for 2-3 days] [best test to check re-infarction within a week CK-MB because it disappears in 2-3 days] Most accurate treatment for MI / Unstable angina: Angioplasty Most important is to know when you will do diagnostic test and when you will start treatment. Answer what they asked like best initial / most accurate If patient comes with chest pain for last 1-hr and still having pain, what will you do first or best initial test? EKG If patient comes with chest pain for last 1-hr and still having pain, EKG shows ST depression / ST elevation, what will you do now? Start treatment (all patient should receive above treatment depends upon what they have like Unstable angina or MI or stable angina or Prinzmetal angina) If patient comes with c/o chest pain off & on but no pain at present, what will you do first? Stress test (EKG may not show anything cause no pain now) Patient with past medical h/o CAD & other comorbidities (which restrict from exercise) present with symptoms suggestive of ischemia (i.e. c/o chest discomfort or feeling heavy in chest for few mins and goes away), next step? Adenosine myocardial perfusing imaging (to see the progression of ischemia and risk stratification of CAD) [Adenosine and Dipyridamole scan are C/I in patient with COPD / Asthma. Use Dobutamine in those patient] If above scenario but patient is able to exercise, next step? exercise stress test Different Ischemia scenario: Patient present with typical / atypical intermittent chest pain (exercise stress test); Patient present with typical / atypical intermittent chest pain with comorbidities which restrict patient from doing exercise (Adenosine scan); Patient present with typical / atypical intermittent chest pain with comorbidities which restrict patient from doing exercise and has Asthma / COPD (Dobutamine scan); Patient with previous Unstable angina / MI / bypass present with typical chest pain, EKG show changes (depression) or Stress test show ST depression (Angiography useful in further Mx Angioplasty / Bypass) Any male patient present with chest pain (usually 2-3 hrs after dinner to confuse us on the exam), next step? EKG. If EKG is done & is normal and patients pain relieved by sub-lingual nitroglycerine, next step? cardiac enzymes (always rule out cardiac problem first) Cocaine induced transmural ischemia (ST elevation on EKG), next step? initial management of ischemia (Oxygen, Aspirin, Nitroglycerin, Morphine) and Benzodiazepines; If patient continues to have pain after administration of benzodiazepines, next step? Give Phentolamine [alpha 1 -blocker] [cocaine causes increase in Norepinephrine which causes HTN by prominent alpha1 action] If still c/o pain, next step? Angiography Chest pain didnt relieve by nitroglycerine & EKG is non-specific, next step? admit the patient and serial monitoring of cardiac enzymes (always try to rule out cardiac cause first)
* Complication of MI : Ventricular Arrhythmia (MCC of Death) Rupture (Ant Wall, Papillary muscles, Interventricular Septum) 3-7 days Autoimmune Pericarditis (Dresslers Syndrome) 6-8 weeks PostMI Tx: NSAIDs S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 4 - Sexual activity can be resumed after 2-4 weeks post-MI - Management of bradycardia following acute MI IV Atropine. If bradycardia persist for more than 24-hrs Transcutaneous pacemaker - Alternate tachycardia and bradycardia in a patient who had MI Sick sinus syndrome Tx: Pacemaker - Acute right ventricular infarction IV normal saline bolus (first step); then if it fails to improve hypotension, give ionotropic agents like dobutamine
at 70% of target rate (after 5-7 days) Stress Test PostMI at 80% of target rate (after 2-3 weeks)
EKG changes in Acute MI: Peak tall T-wave ST elevation T-wave inversion Q-wave Inferior wall MI [RC]: II, III, aVF Anterior wall MI [LAD]: V 2 V 4
Anteroseptal [LAD]: V 1 V 3
Lateral wall MI [LAD / Circumflex]: I, aVL, V 4 V 6
Two main factors that reduce risk of CAD reduce LDL & HTN (in DM patient)
* Unstable Angina (Acute Coronary Syndrome): Stress Test Contra indicated (C/I) [Other C/I of stress test acute myocardial infarction within 48 hours, symptomatic severe aortic stenosis, uncontrolled arrhythmia, aortic dissection, pulmonary embolism, and pericarditis] Statins are best initial drugs for management of high LDL. Generalized aches & pain with extremely high CPK in patient taking Statins, next step? stop Statins
S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 5 Congestive Heart Failure
Right Sided Left Sided JVD Pulmonary Edema Hepatomegaly Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea (PND) Ascites Orthopnea Pedal edema S 3 gallop & murmurs
Positive Hepato jugular reflex is seen in right side heart failure is helpful in differentiate cause of lower extremity edema from Heart problem / Liver problem
Diagnosis : - History & Physical Examination - CXR , Echocardiography - MUGA scan / radionuclide ventriculography for measurement of ejection fraction (most accurate test) Treatment : - Acute CHF (c/o short of breath, etc) 1 st step give Oxygen Next step Diuretics (reduce pre-load) [Nitrates, Morphine are helpful too] If still no improvement give Dobutamine (ionotropic agent) [Digoxin takes time; Dopamine increase after-load by vasoconstriction] - After stabilization ACE inhibitor (reduce after-load) / Angiotensin II receptor antagonist (those who dont tolerate ACE inhibitors), -blockers (Studies have shown decrease in mortality by beta blockers in patient with CHF) - Chronic CHF patients should be on Diuretics, ACE inhibitors, -blockers, Digoxin - Spironolactone have been shown to reduce mortality when added with all of the above chronic CHF drugs
- Asymptomatic patient with low ejection fraction (means heart is failing), next step? find out etiology (IHD most common cause so order a stress test)
- Management of acute pulmonary edema due to any cause Oxygen, Morphine, Loop Diuretics. If it is due to hypertensive crisis Give Nitroglycerin or Nitroprusside. If it is due to acute heart failure Dobutamine. Next step after stabilization of patient with acute pulmonary edema of unknown etiology echocardiography (to rule out MS or AI)
Pt on multiple drugs for multiple problems including digoxin, furosemide, next step? serum electrolyte measurement (furosemide cause hypokalemia which may cause digoxin toxicity)
Mitral valve Prolapse: Mid-late Systolic Click - Presentation Asymptomatic, Palpitation (most common presentation), Chest pain, Syncope, Sudden death S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 6 - Marfan Syndrome / Asymptomatic - Most common cause of mitral regurgitation in U.S. * Treatment No specific treatment in most cases - Endocarditis Prophylaxis Only If murmur present - - blockers if chest pain occurs, palpitation and autonomic symptoms - Antiarrhythmic if arrhythmia occurs
Infective Endocarditis: Splinter hemorrhages , Roths spot in eye , Janeway lesions, Valve regurgitation - Pathophysiology of Roths spot & Oslers node immune vasculitis; Janways lesion septic emboli - Strep. Viridians most common overall cause (previously damage valve ) - Staph. Aureus IV drug abuse ( Normal / Previously damage valve ) Tricuspid Valve - Staph. Epidermidis Prosthetic devices - Strep. bovis ulcerative colitis / colorectal cancer patient
- Conditions that do not require infective Endocarditis Prophylaxis pt. with cardiac pacemaker and defibrillation Mitral valve prolapsed without regurgitation (without murmur) Surgically repaired ASD, VSD, PDA h/o Rheumatic fever without valvular dysfunction h/o Kawasaki disease without valvular dysfunction h/o isolated bypass surgery h/o isolated ostium secondum ASD
Prophylaxis of Infective Endocarditis in patient allergic to Penicillin: Dental, oral, respiratory, esophageal procedure Clindamycin, Azithromycin GI & genitourinary High risk Vancomycin + Gentamycin Low risk Vancomycin First step start empiric antibiotics after drawing blood for culture Next step Transesophageal echocardiography to see vegetation Empiric antibiotic for IE in IV drug abuser Vancomycin + Gentamycin In general Nafcillin + Gentamycin
- Loeffler Endocarditis restricive cardiomyopathy prominent Eosinophil infiltrates leading to the fibrotic thickening of portions of the heart
S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 7 Valvular Heart Disease :
Stenosis Problem in opening of valve therefore murmur occurs during opening of the valve Regurgitation Problem in closing of valve therefore murmur occurs during closing of the valve
Mitral Stenosis Aortic Regurgitation
Mitral Regurgitation Aortic Stenosis Diastolic murmur Diastolic decrescendo Holosystolic radiate to the Axilla Systolic ejection radiate to carotid Opening snap
Austin Flint murmur
CXR double density Right heart Border.
Echocardiograph y Echocardiograph y Echocardiograph y Echocardiograph y
Treatment Treatment Treatment Treatment Diuretics (best initial) Endocarditis Prophylaxis Digitalis Endocarditis Prophylaxis Balloon valvuloplasty (if diuretics dont help) Diuretic, ACE inhibitors Diuretics , ACE inhibitors Surgery if valve area < 0.8 cm 2
( Normal 2.5-3 cm 2 ) Valve replacement (If both of above fail to relieve symptoms) Valve replacement ( Presence of Austin Flint murmur indicates the need for replacement of the valve ) Anticoagulant Balloon valvuloplasty Digitalis(if AF) Anticoagulant (if AF) Valve replacement Indication for surgery chest pain / Syncope during exercise in elders; Stable angina due to stenosis next step? Echocardiography [not stress test]
Austin Flint murmur: regurgitant stream from incompetent Aortic valve hits anterior mitral valve leaflet producing a diastolic murmur.
S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 8 Right sided murmur increase in intensity with Inspiration Cardiomyopathies
Dilated Hypertrophic Restrictive
Echocardiography Echocardiography Echocardiography CHF following URTI Autosomal Dominant chromosome 14
Catheterization: square root sign on tracing ventricular pressure Treatment thickening of Interventricular septum Mimic Constrictive Pericarditis - Diuretics Mechanism of mitral regurgitation systolic anterior motion of mitral leaflet No good treatment - Vasodilators ejection fraction 80-90 % ( Normal 60% 5% ) Consider Heart transplant - Digoxin Sudden Death in athletes EKG low voltage If Arrhythmia Treatment - blockers Procainamide / Quinidine Ca + 2 channel blockers Anticoagulants Disopyramide
speckled pattern on echocardiography cardiac amyloidosis
Valsalva / Standing: Preload Obstruction Squatting / Hand grip: Preload Obstruction Increase in Pre-load decrease murmur in Mitral valve prolapse and Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.
S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 9
Relieved by leaning forward SBP more than 10 mmHg on normal inspiration jugular venous distension with inspiration Pericardial friction rub (Diagnostic) Neck vein distension with clear lung Pericardial knock EKG diffuse ST segment elevation (In MI ST elevation is in different leads according to involvement of heart and it is convex) Shock [Becks triad Hypotension, JVP, muffled heart sound], next step? Pericardiocentesis. If no blood on pericardiocentesis, next? Thoracotomy (blood is clotted in pericardial sac) EKG low voltage Treatment involves treating its etiology Echocardiography
small Heart Catheterization: square root sign
Treatment
D/D: Restrictive cardiomyopathy - Pericardiocentesis CT scan - best choice to demonstrate thickened Pericardium - Subxiphoid Surgical drainage. Treatment
- Diuretics - Pericardiectomy
Pericardial Effusion :
Serosanguineous TB / neoplasm CXR water bottle configuration of cardiac silhouette Echocardiography (Best test) Treatment : Fluid Aspiration, Treat etiology
S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 10
Arrhythmias
Heart Block
1 st Degree 2 nd Degree 3 rd Degree
PR interval > 0.2 sec. Type 1 Type -2 All atrial beasts are blocked. usually asymptomatic ( Wenckebach ) dropped beat occur suddenly No PR lengthening Ventricles beat by a focus distal to the site of block. (Automaticity of heart) Tx: usually none. If Symptomatic Atropine.
Progressive Tx: Prolongation of Pace - PR until a P wave maker is completely (no resp- Blocked & onse to Dropped Atropine) Beat
Tx : Pacemaker Tx: usually none. If Symptomatic give Atropine.
Premature atrial beats and PVC (premature ventricular contraction) observe (never required any treatment)
Sinus Bradycardia Sinus Tachycardia PSVT
Rate < 60 / min Rate > 100 / min Rate 130-220 / min QRS complex Normal QRS complex - Normal Regular rhythm Treatment None if asymptomatic Treatment Right carotid sinus massage Treatment IV Adenosine.
Atropine (1 st choice) Pacemaker S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 11
morphology of P wave varies from beat to beat 2 : 1 block 300-500 impulse / min Cardioversion if hemodynamically unstable Tx : cardioversion if hemodynamically unstable Tx : cardioversion if hemodynamically unstable or AF is due to angina / MI If hemodynamically stable then give Digitalis / Calcium Channel Blockers (CCB) If hemodynamically stable then give Digitalis / -blockers (IV Metoprolol) / CCB (IV Diltiazam) to lower the HR [below 100] and then elective cardioversion Patient with following sign / symptoms should consider as hemodynamically unstable: - Hypotension - Chest pain - Confusion
If AF for 48 hrs then give Warfarin 3 weeks before elective cardioversion and continue 4 wks after normal sinus rhythm or do echocardiography to see if there is any clot or not and then do cardioversion Digoxin preferred if poor LV function CCB & -blockers are C/I in patient with poor LV function
- DOC for Paroxysmal Atrial fibrillation Amiodarone - First step in management (Mx) of stable patient with Multifocal Atrial Tachycardia rule out etiology [hypoxia, hypokalamia, hypomagnesemia]
Wolff Parkinson White Syndrome ( WPW ): - Short PR interval followed by a wide QRS complex with a Slurred initial deflection, or delta wave, that represent early ventricular activation (Pre excitation Syndrome) - Tx: Cardioversion if hemodynamically unstable - Procainamide is DOC for WPW - Digoxin & Ca + ++ + 2 channel blockers are contraindicated S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 12 Torsade de Pointes: - Prolong QT interval, wide QRS complex - Drugs : Quinidine Procainamide which Disopyramide block K + channel Anti- Psychotics [Phenothiazine & Thioridazine] - Tx: Magnesium
- First step in management of patient with Torsade de pointes immediate defibrillation. DOC for Tx & prevention IV Mg (give Mg regardless of patients Mg level)
Ventricular Arrhythmias
Ventricular Tachycardia Ventricular Fibrillation
Rate > 120 beats / min Significant electrical activity on EKG with no signs of an organized pattern IHD (most commonly seen) QRS complexes are wide and often bizarre
VT (Pulse)
Pulseless VT / VF
Cardioversion Stable unstable
IV lidocaine 1 mg/kg cardioversion or Amiodarone / Procainamide (Amiodarone is preferred when poor LV function)
Asystole : 1mg Epinephrine every 3-5 mins
1 mg Atropine every 3-5 mins
2-5 mg Epinephrine every 3-5 mins
Patent ostium primum (patent foramen ovale) failure of septum primum to fuse with endocardial cushions Atrial Septal Defect (ASD) incomplete adhesion b/w septum primum & septum secondum Wide fixed split S2 VSD defect in membranous interventricular septum S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 13 PDA machinery murmur associated with congenital rubella PGE 2 keep it open it shunts pulmonary artery blood to aorta in fetus
Coarctation of Aorta: Turners syndrome Rib notching on CXR, MRI of chest (best test) Tx: surgery Endocarditis prophylaxis required
Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF): Pulmonary stenosis, VSD, RVH and Over riding of aorta Boot shaped hert on CXR Murmur disappears & cyanosis improves when child squats Single or soft S2 Tx: Surgery Endocarditis prophylaxis required
Transposition of great vessels: - Cyanosis in first 24-hrs of life, Infants of diabetic mothers - Give PGE1 to keep open PDA until surgical correction done
Acute Rheumatic fever: - Aschoff bodies (pathognomic) [central area of necrosis surrounded by reactive Histiocytes (Anitschkow cells)] - Pericarditis, Polyarthritis, Chorea, Erythema marginatum and subcutaneous Nodules (Jones criteria) - Usually occur 1-3 weeks after a preceding Strep. Pyogens pharyngitis - ASO titers - Treatment of acute infection and monthly Penicillin prophylaxis then after. - Tx of Sydenhams Chorea (seen several months after acute attack of Rheumatic fever; carditis and arthritis manifest within 21 days) Oral penicillin for 10 days immediately
Yong child with Mitral stenosis due to Acute Rheumatic fever without any symptoms, next step? Penicillin prophylaxis; If AF develop then consider anticoagulation
Cardiac Myxoma left atria mesenchymal tumor embolic episode in young person (next step? Send thrombus for pathologic examination, order echo), syncopal episode young adult S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 14 Rhabdomyoma children associated with tuberous sclerosis hemartoma
Best step in management of patient with Acute Aortic Dissection emergent surgery. First step give IV beta blockers [Type A Ascending aorta (emergent surgery) Type B Descending aorta (IV beta blockers)] Diagnostic test for Aortic dissection Transesophageal echocardiography or CT scan
Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm pulsatile abdominal mass, next step? USG (first step) / CT scan (before repair) < 4 cm (observe), > 6 cm (elective repair) - Tender AAA / Excruciating back pain, fainting episodes, unequal femoral pulses in patient with known case of AAA Emergency surgery [Retroperitoneal bleed causes fainting attacks] - Complication of AAA repair Ischemic colitis [30% of cases IMA is the only artery which supply sigmoid colon and by repairing AAA obstruct IMA which present as severe abdominal pain, foul smelling diarrhea 2-3 days after repair, next step? Sigmoidoscopy followed by exploration]
Lerich Syndrome: Aortoillio atherosclerosis atherosclerosis of hypogastric artery c/o impotence and claudication
Deep vein thrombosis: Duplex USG (Best initial test) Venography (most accurate test) If Duplex USG positive, next step? LMW Heparin (sc) for 5-7 days followed by Warfarin for 3-6 months (INR 2-3) [only in patient with metallic heart valve keep INR at 3-4]
Sign & Symptoms of DVT, next step? Compression UGS to confirm diagnosis before anticoagulation treatment (to avoid potentially serious side effects of anticoagulation therapy in unnecessary pt.)
Fludrocortisone is the first line medicine for orthostatic hypotension but should be tried after non-pharmacologic trial fail like discontinue dugs causing orthostatic hypotension [Nitrates, CCB, TCA, Opiates analgesics]
Best initial test / next step in management of patient with acute syncope EKG
S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 15 Preventive Medicine: Mx of exposed health care worker to TB place PPD now and repeat it in 3-wks Nicotine replacement is preferred over buproprion for the management of nicotine withdrawal during early stage of smoking cessation give behavioral counseling and nicotine patch [First counseling then treatment; If you have never counseled patient regarding smoking cessation, do not pick prescribe nicotine patch or any other treatment for smoking cessation (most probably wrong answer)] CXR is not done routinely for screening purpose for lung cancer There are no screening test indicated routinely for many cancers like bladder CA, Ovarian CA, pancreatic CA, lung CA, Hepatocellular CA, etc so do not pick answer telling you order this screening test to rule out this CA Prophylaxis of meningococcal meningitis Rifampin Prophylaxis of meningococcal meningitis in women taking OCP ciprofloxacin HRT can cause significant elevation in triglyceride. If hypertriglyceridemia doesnt solve after discontinuation of HRT and dietary modification , start treatment Smoking cessation has shown benefit in patient with osteoporosis Cigarette smokers have been shown to have more wrinkles than do nonsmokers Dehydration aggravate skin damage and therefore patient going on vacation in a area with lot of sun exposure should be educated to drink more water and wear protective clothes Prevention of malignant melanoma Protective clothing Most important risk factor in stroke HTN A clear association has been found b/w excessive alcohol intake & development of hypertension Several studies has suggested strong correlation b/w alcohol intake and colon CA Colonoscopy should be started at age of 50 yrs in a general population with average risk and at age of 40 yrs or 10 yrs earlier than detection of colon CA in family member, whichever come first Patient with ulcerative colitis and pancolitis should begin surveillance colonoscopy after 8 yrs of having the disease Do nothing after complete resection of <2cm pedunculated adenomatous polyp; surveillance colonoscopy after 3 yrs; If negative at 3 yrs follow up, surveillance colonoscopy period can be extended to 5 yrs. Mammography screening started b/w 40-49 yrs of age every 2 yrs; After 50 yrs of age annually [The American Medical Association, American College of Radiology, American Cancer Society, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, and the USPSTF all support mammography screening beginning at age 40; In patient with h/o breast CA in first degree relative, begin at 10 yrs earlier than detection of breast CA in family member] Pap smear within 3 yrs after onset of sexual activity or age of 21 yrs, whichever occur first [some says age of 18 yrs] [If 3 annual pap smears are negative, then do pap smear every 2 yrs until age of 70 yrs] [Annual pap smear screening is recommended for all women regardless of their sexual orientation (hetero/homosexual women)] S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 16 Prostate CA screening African-American and individual with family h/o prostate CA should begin annual screening (PSA level and digital rectal exam) at age of 40 yrs; at age of 50 yrs for everyone else Screening of DM is indicated in everyone aged 45 yrs or older. [FBS] Gestational Diabetes Screen b/w 24-28 wks 1-hr 50g oral GTT (screening test) If level >140 mg/dl, do definitive test (3-hrs 100g oral GTT done after overnight fasting) FBS (<126 gm/dl), After 100g oral GTT at 1-hr (<180 gm/dl), at 2-hrs (<155 mg/dl), at 3-hrs (<140 mg/dl) Triple marker screen b/w 15-20 wks MS-AFP, hCG, Estriol - (MS-AFP & Estriol), hCG Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), next step? Amniocentesis; (All three) Trisomy 18, next step? Amniocentesis for karyotyping Rh-isoimmunization Blood typing at first prenatal visit If Rh-negative mother, Indirect Coombs test at 28 wks of gestation [<1:8 no fetal risk]; give RhoGAM to all Rh-negative mothers at 28-wks of gestation RhoGAM is given to Rh-negative mothers at 28-wks of gestation, after delivery of Rh-positive infant, within 72-hrs of amniocentesis, D&C, chorionic villous sampling Chlamydia Trachomatis Screening All sexually active women age 24-yrs and younger and in other women who are at increased risk of STDs CDC recommended vaccination id Adult Td (every 10 yrs after age of 18 / last booster at age of 50), acellular Pertusis (booster b/w age of 19-64), Influenza (All adults >50 yrs of age IM route; Healthy 5-49 yrs of age, non-pregnant women Intranasal), Pneumococcal (All adults >65 yrs of age) Vaccination in HIV positive patient Influenza (IM), MMR, S. pneumoniae, Hepatitis First trimester screening tests CBC, Rubella IgG antibody, Hep B, Blood type, Rh & Antibody screen, cervical culture, urine culture, PPD, VDRL/RPR, Pap smear and HIV ELISA [require specific consent] Screening tests for All newborn Hypothyroidism, Galactosemia, Phenylketonuria Voiding after intercourse has been shown to decrease the risk of UTI in sexually active females Breast cancer prevention trial suggest that Tamoxifen reduce the risk of breast cancer in patients who have an increased risk of developing breast cancer [Ideal body weight for female 5 feet height = 100 lbs then add 5 lbs for each inch increase in height; Ideal body weight for male 5 feet height = 106 lbs then add 6 lbs for each inch increase in height]
Drugs Decrease long term mortality in different condition ACE inhibitors CHF, Prevent diabetic nephropathy, reduce insulin resistance Beta blockers Acute MI, Perioperative period Aspirin Acute MI Home Oxygen COPD, Right sided heart failure due to pulmonary hypertension Spironolactone With ACE inhibitors in CHF
S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 17
HPV subtypes associated with cervical CA 16, 18, 31, 33, 35 Atypical squamous cells (ASC) on pap smear ASC-US or ASC-H (cant exclude HSIL)
That means: Mild dysplasia = CIN-I = LSIL Moderate dysplasia = CIN-II = HSIL Severe dysplasia / CIS = CIN-III = HSIL Dysplasia CIN Bethesda Mild I LSIL Moderate II HSIL Severe III CIS How will it present to us? Abnormal routine Pap smear (Atypical Sqmaous Cells) c/o Post-coital bleeding Next step? Next step? HPV DNA testing & Colposcopy Cervical Biopsy If abnormal findings (mosaicism, punctuation, white lesions, abnormal blood vessels), Next step? If biopsy confirms invasive CA, Next step? Ectocervical biopsy of above colposcopic findings Endocervical curettage (ECC) (All non-pregnant women) Metastatic work-up Managements If Pap smear finding is worse than histology or If abnormal ECC, Next step? Cone Biopsy Cervical Cancer S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 18 Management of Pre-cancerous lesions:
ASC-US, CIN-I: repeat Pap smear in 4-6 months (If patient is unreliable for follow-up, do Colposcopy instead of waiting for patient to come back for Pap smear) CIN-I, CIN-II, CIN-III: Cryotherapy, laser, LEEP, cold-knife conization Biopsy confirmed recurrent CIN-II,III: Hysterectomy
Management of Invasive Cervical CA: Depend upon stage Stage 0 - full-thickness involvement of the epithelium without invasion into the stroma (carcinoma in situ) Stage I - limited to the cervix o IA - diagnosed only by microscopy; no visible lesions IA1 - stromal invasion less than 3 mm in depth and 7 mm or less in horizontal spread IA2 - stromal invasion between 3 and 5 mm with horizontal spread of 7 mm or less o IB - visible lesion or a microscopic lesion with more than 5 mm of depth or horizontal spread of more than 7 mm IB1 - visible lesion 4 cm or less in greatest dimension IB2 - visible lesion more than 4 cm Stage II - invades beyond cervix o IIA - without parametrial invasion, but involve upper 2/3 of vagina o IIB - with parametrial invasion Stage III - extends to pelvic wall or lower third of the vagina o IIIA - involves lower third of vagina o IIIB - extends to pelvic wall and/or causes hydronephrosis or non- functioning kidney Stage IVA - invades mucosa of bladder or rectum and/or extends beyond true pelvis Stage IVB - distant metastasis
Stage-Ia1: simple hysterectomy Stage-Ia2: hysterectomy + lymphnodes removal Stage Ib1 and IIa less than 4 cm: radical hysterectomy with removal of the lymph nodes or radiation therapy. Stage Ib2 and IIa more than 4 cm: radiation therapy and cisplatin-based chemotherapy, hysterectomy or cisplatin chemotherapy followed by hysterectomy Stage-IIb, III, IV: Radiation and Chemotherapy (cis-platinum)
Pregnancy & Cervical CA: Diagnosis & management is same as in non- pregnant women except ECC is not done in pregnant women
S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 19 Endometrial CA: Prolong Estrogen (E) exposure without Progesterone (P) Post-menopausal bleeding (most common presentation) Next step? Endometrial sampling If negative histology Hormone replacement therapy If positive histology Surgery, Radiotherapy, Chemotherapy
Leiomyomas: most common benign uterine tumor Intramural within the wall of the uterus Submucous located beneath the Endometrium; causes Menorrhagia (heavy bleeding) and Metrorrhagia (irregular bleeding in between menses) Subserosal located beneath uterine serosa Asymmetric, Non-tender, enlarged uterus in the absence of the pregnancy Tx: GnRH analog (3-6 months), myomectomy, embolization, Hysterectomy
Adenomyosis: endometrial glands and stoma located within the myometrium of the uterine wall (uterus) Pain immediately before and during menses Symmetric, tender, enlarged uterus in the absence of the pregnancy Tx: levonorgestrel intrauterine system
Endometriosis: endometrial glands and stoma located outside the uterus Chocolate cyst of the ovary, utero-sacral ligament nodularity, pain during intercourse (dyspareunia), infertility Dx: Laparoscopy Tx: OCPs (oral contraceptive pills)
Vulvar neoplasm: c/o intense vulvar pruritus Melanoma black lesions biopsy & excision Pagets disease red lesions biopsy & excision Squamous cell CA HPV association whitish lesions biopsy & excision Hypertrophic dystrophy of the Vulva corticosteroid ointment Atrophy of Vagina Estrogen cream
Pagets disease (of breast, cervix) Adenocarcinoma Pagets disease of bone isolated elevation of Alkaline phosphate in elderly Patient with normal Ca+2, Po4 & amino transferase level - Worrisome changes in Pagets disease of bone sarcomatous (1-3%) Tx: asymptomatic Pagets disease of bone nothing; symptomatic bisphosphonates
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Simple Cyst on US: <7 cm, next step? observe for 6-8 wks, resolved spontaneously, start OCPs to prevent further functional cysts fro forming; >7 cm or already on OCP (for atleast 2-months), next step? Laparoscopy Complex mass on US: Cystectomy (to preserve ovarian function); Oophorectomy if conservative failed Any cyst in pregnancy which is greater than 5 cm should be removed during second trimester of pregnancy
Most common benign ovarian tumor serous cystadenoma Most common malignant ovarian tumor serous cystadenocarcinoma Granulosa-theca cell tumors secrete estrogen Sertoli-Leyding cell tumors secrete testosterone Krukenbergs tumor contains signet ring cells from Metastatic stomach cancer Dysgerminoma resembles Seminoma of the testis Meigs Syndrome Ovarian fibroma, Ascites & right sided pleural effusion Abdominal pain + Adnexal mass, diagnosis? Torsion of the ovary, next step? surgical intervention (exploratory laparotomy)
Immature teratoma primitive epithelial cells & developing skeletal muscles, potentially malignant [teratoma derivatives of all 3 germ layers [ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm hair, tooth, thyroid gland, etc]
Adnexal Mass Pre-Pubertal Reproductive Age Post-Menopausal Germ cell tumors Simple cyst Complex mass [Teratoma (Dermoid cyst)] Ectopic Pregnancy Ovarian Cancer Next step? Obtain tumor markers LDH Dysgerminoma -HCG Choriocarcinoma AFP Endodermal sinus tumors (Yolk- sac tumors) -HCG US (ultrasonography) Next step? Next step? Find GI tract and Urinary tracts lesions S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 21 Dermoid cyst: A dermoid cyst is a mature cystic teratoma containing hair and other structures characteristic of normal skin and other tissues derived from the ectoderm. The term is most often applied to teratoma on the skull sutures and in the ovaries of females. Struma ovarii: mature teratoma that contains mostly thyroid tissue.
Gestational Trophoblastic Neoplasia (GTN): HTN in the first trimester, fundus larger than dates, snowstorm appearance on US, grape-like vesicles, high beta-hCG, hyperthyroidism Complete Mole: empty egg, 46XX (parental), No fetus, progression to malignancy (20%) Incomplete Mole: 69(XXX), fetal parts present, progression to malignancy (10%) Lung most common site of metastasis, Tx: Suction D&C After D&C for molar pregnancy, patient should be put on OCP so they dont get pregnant and beta-hCG level monitor effectively Follow-up with beta-hCG [upto 1-yr if benign; upto 5-yrs if malignant]
Hypotonic incontinence: Denervated bladder (DM, Multiple Sclerosis) c/o pelvic fullness, pudendal nerve sensation Mx: Intermittent self catheterization, cholinergic medications Fistula, Bypass incontinence: h/o radical pelvic surgery or h/o pelvic radiation therapy, c/o continuous leaking Mx: Surgical repair S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 22 Ectopic Pregnancy: Amenorrhea, vaginal bleeding and unilateral pelvic-abdominal pain Positive beta-hCG, no intrauterine pregnancy (IUP) on US IUP detected with vaginal sonogram at 1500 mIU beta-hCG titer IUP detected by abdominal sonogram at 6500 mIU beta-hCG titer Beta-hCG level in normal IUP doubles every 58-hrs Age is an important risk factor for an ectopic pregnancy besides PID (35-44 age group, 3 fold increase in risk for ectopic pregnancy) Mx: Confirm diagnosis (first step) (beta-hCG titer >1500 mIU, no IUP) Ruptured ectopic: immediate surgical intervention (salpingectomy) Unruptured ectopic: pregnancy mass <3.5 cm, beta-hCG level <6000 mIU, absent fetal heart motion, no folic acid supplementation Methotraxate If above criteria not met Laparoscopy (salpingostomy) Rh-negative mother should receive RhoGAM, follow-up with beta-hCG titer Beta-hCG routinely drawn on day 4 and day 7 of treatment of ectopic pregnancy with Methotraxate. If it drops 15% from day 4 to day 7, treatment of ectopic pregnancy is thought to be successful and patient returns for beta-hCG blood draw until it is negative
Bacterial Vaginosis: thin, grayish-white discharge, fishy odor, vaginal pH above 5, epithelial cells with smudged borders (clue cells) due to bacteria adherent to cell membranes Tx: Metronidazole (contraindicated in pregnancy, use Clindamycin during pregnancy)
Trichomonas Vaginitis: frothy, green discharge, itchy, burning pain with intercourse, vaginal pH above 5, sexually transmitted disease (STD), trichomonads on microscopic examination Tx: Metronidazole (treat both partners) - Tx of trichomoniasis in lactating women 2 g of Metronidazole single dose and ask her to discontinue breast feeding for 12-24 hrs
Yeast Vaginitis: curdy, white discharge, pH <4.5, not a STD, Pseudohyphae on microscopic examination Tx: single dose Fluconazole
Menstrual Cycle Hormones:
FSH: stimulate granulosa cells to secrete E & Inhibin (inhibits FSH release) Estrogen: Negative feedbacks to FSH Low E Negative feedbacks to LH High E Positive feedbacks to LH LH: stimulate production of androgens from theca cells, LH surge stimulates synthesis of prostaglandins to enhance follicular rupture & ovulation Progesterone: secreted by corpus luteum, prepare Endometrium for blastocyst implantation
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Puberty changes: Thelarchy (breast development) 9-10 yrs (E from the ovary) Adrenarchy (pubic & Axillary hair) 10-11 yrs (Adrenal hormones) Maximal growth rate 11-12 yrs Menarchy (onset of menses) 12-13 yrs
Precocious Puberty: development of puberty before age 8 in girls and before age 9 in boys GnRH stimulation test helpful to differentiate central Vs peripheral cause of precocious puberty - LH after GnRH injection indicates central cause Central: hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis disturbance Peripheral: ovarian tumor, adrenal tumor, exogenous estrogen, McCune-Albright Management of patient with precocious puberty GnRH agonist to inhibit secretion of estrogen to prevent premature fusion of the epiphyseal plates
Abnormal Vaginal Bleeding Premenarchal Reproductive Age Post-Menopausal Vaginal foreign body Sexual abuse Precocious puberty Sarcoma botryoides (grape like protrusion through vagina) Pregnancy Anatomic causes DUB (Dysfunctional Uterine Bleeding) Atrophic changes Endometrial carcinoma S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 24
Dysfunctional Uterine Bleeding: Anovulation (So no progesterone effect which left estrogen unopposed), no secretory phase, no mid-cycle rise in temperature Biopsy: Proliferative Endometrium with stromal breakdown. No secretory endometrium Tx: OCPs First step in management of heavy unremitting endometrial hemorrhage through menarche and perimenopause period high dose unconjugated estrogen (to suppress bleeding); Once stabilize D&C should be performed & pt should be put on OCP If perimenopausal women c/o an episode of heavy dysfunctional bleeding or irregular menses, then do endometrial surveillance in the form of vaginal ultrasound (to ensure endometrial thickness <4mm) or endometrial biopsy Precocious Puberty Gonadotropin Dependent Gonadotropin Independent CNS Pathology Sarcoidosis Meningitis Other causes Tx: treat pathology Idiopathic 80% of cases Tx: Leuprolide McCuneAlbright Syndrome Autonomous stimulation of aromatase enzyme which estrogen production from ovary Caf-au-lait skin spots Multiple cystic bone lesions (Polyostic fibrous dysplasia) Tx: Aromatase enzyme inhibitors McCune Albright syndrome has association with Cushings syndrome, not Cushings disease (which is due to Pituitary tumor) Granulosa cell tumor Secrete estrogen Tx: Surgical removal of tumor S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 25
Kallman Syndrome: anosmia + absent GnRH Tx: OCPs
Secondary Amenorrhea: absence of menses for 3 months if previously regular menses or for 6 months if previously irregular menses Hypogonadotropic (Hypothalamic or Pituitary dysfunction) Hypergonadotropic (ovarian follicular failure) Eugonadotropic (pregnancy, Anovulation, out-flow obstruction) First step in management beta-hCG titer to rule out pregnancy Next step? TSH level (hypothyroidism) Prolactin level (Hyperprolactinemia) Next step? Progesterone challenge test (PCT) If PCT positive diagnosis of Anovulation [Estrogen production is adequate] If PCT negative inadequate Estrogen / Out-flow obstruction Estrogen Progesterone challenge test (EPCT) If EPCT positive inadequate Estrogen [Y-chromosome mosaicism, savage syndrome (ovarian resistant syndrome)] If EPCT negative out-flow obstruction Primary Amenorrhea Breast Present (secondary sexual characteristics present) Uterus Absent Breast Absent Uterus Present Next step? Karyotyping and Testosterone level Next step? Karyotyping and FSH level Mullerian Agenesis (Rokitansky Kuster Hauser Syndrome) Androgen Insensitivity (Testicular feminization) Turners syndrome Hypothalamic Pituitary failure Normal female (XX) Normal Testosterone Tx: Surgical elongation of vagina Genetically male (XY) Secondary female sexual characteristics Tx: Remove testis and give estrogen supplement 45 (XO) FSH Streak ovary, cystic hygroma (web neck) Tx: OCP (oral contraceptive pills) FSH Absent secondary sexual characteristic S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 26 Cause of amenorrhea in patient who lost more weight estrogen deficiency (due to low LH and GnRH). They are also at risk of developing Osteoporosis
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS): wide range of physical & emotional symptoms occur, typically two weeks before menstruation and disappear with menses for atleast 3 consecutive cycles Tx: SSRIs (fluoxetine); If it fails, give Alprazolam; Diuretics, Vit-B6
First step in management of infertility in patient with PCOD weight loss; If it fails, try Clomiphen citrate or Metformin Metformin has shown to induce ovulation in patient with PCOD. It should be discontinued during pregnancy once pregnancy is documented
Hirsutism Virilization (Hirsutism + Musculinizing signs like clitorimegaly, baldness, etc.) Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Gradual onset 17-OH progesterone Tx: Corticosteroid replacement PCO (Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome) (Stein- Leventhal Syndrome) LH:FSH, Obese, Testosterone Cystic appearance of ovary (neckless) on US Tx: OCP, Metformin Idiopathic Positive family history Normal level of all hormones Tx: Spironolactone Adrenal Tumor Rapid onset DHEAS level Tx: Surgical removal Ovarian Tumor Rapid onset Testosterone level Tx: Surgical removal c/o hair growth in female S.S.Patel. All rights reserved. Registered with US copy right office 27 Infertility: First step in management semen analysis Screening test for ovulation BBT (basal body temp) & mid-cycle progesterone level Luteal phase Defect Abnormal basal body temperature curve & low mid-luteal progesterone level. Confirmation of diagnosis? Endometrial biopsy. Initial Treatment? Progesterone supplement; if it fails, then? Clomiphene citrate / hMG (human menopausal gonadotropin) Best measure for pt with premature ovarian failure who still want to conceive egg donation Once diagnosis of premature ovarian failure is made (< 35 yrs of age, low estrogen, high FSH) next step? Chromosome analysis to rule out presence of Y chromosome
Hormone replacement therapy in Menopause: Women with uterus Estrogen + Progesterone Women without uterus Estrogen Indication: vasomotor symptoms only (optimally do not exceeded 4 yrs) Estrogen alternatives: Tamoxifen, Raloxifen Raloxifen can be given in patient with positive family history for Breast CA to prevent osteoporosis First-line drug to prevent osteoporosis Bisphosphonates
Conclusion from WHI trial for HRT (Hormone Replacement Therapy) No cardiovascular benefit Increased risk for stroke with long term use Increased risk for Breast CA [but not with unopposed estrogen]
Contraception: Estrogen causes Thromboembolism, not progestin Contraception of choice in patient with bleeding disorders Depot Medroxyprogesterone acetate. (it is ideal for h/o PID, heavy menstrual bleeding, heavy smoking, fibroids, sickle cell disease) [Menorrhagia is the most common complication in women using Norplant (six capsules of levonorgestrel)] Emergency contraception levonorgestrel within 12-hrs (good efficacy within 48-hrs; appears to work up to 120-hrs after intercourse) OCP decrease chances of ovarian CA Pregnancy decrease chances of ovarian and breast CA OCP decrease the risk of Gonococcal PID [Basis it increases thickness of mucous & prevent gonococci to enter in fallopian tube] Advise regarding contraception in adolescents use barrier methods in addition to OCP (barrier method is useful to prevent STDs)