Solid-Fueled Rocket

When the fuel in a solid-fueled rocket is ignited, the gases formed during combustion are
forced out the nozzle and the rocket moves forward. The fuel is called the grain and is often
formed with a hollow core for longer burning times.
Solid rockets are rockets with a motor that uses solid propellants (fuel/oxidizer). The
Chinese invented solid rockets and were using them in warfare by the !th century. "ll
rockets used some form of solid or powdered propellant up until the #$th century. %olid
rockets are considered to be safe and reliable due to the long engineering history and
simple design.
Basic Concepts
simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing& nozzle& grain (propellant charge)& and
igniter.
The grain behaves like a solid mass& burning in a predictable fashion and producing
exhaust gases. The nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a design chamber
pressure& while producing thrust from the exhaust gases.
'nce ignited& a solid rocket motor cannot be shut off.
(odern designs may also include) steerable nozzle for guidance& avionics& recovery
hardware (parachutes)& self destruct mechanisms& "*+,s& and thermal management
materials.
Design
-esign begins with the total impulse re.uired& this determines the fuel/oxidizer mass.
/rain geometry and chemistry are then chosen to satisfy the re.uired motor
characteristics.
The following are chosen or solved simultaneously. The results are exact dimensions for
grain& nozzle and case geometries)
The grain burns at a predictable rate& given its surface area and chamber pressure.
The chamber pressure is determined by the nozzle orifice diameter and grain burn
rate.
"llowable chamber pressure is a function of casing design.
The length of burn time is determined by the grain ,web thickness,.
The grain may be bonded to the casing& or not. Case bonded motors are much more
difficult to design& since deformation of both the case and grain& under operating
conditions& must be compatible.
Common modes of failure in solid rocket motors are) fracture of the grain& failure of case
bonding& and air pockets in the grain. "ll of these produce an instantaneous increase in
burn surface area& and a corresponding increase in exhaust gas and pressure& and rupture
of the casing.
"nother failure mode is casing seal design. %eals are re.uired in casings that have to be
opened to load the grain. 'nce a seal fails& hot gas will erode the escape path and result in
failure. This was the cause of the %pace %huttle Challenger disaster.
Grain
%olid fuel grains are usually molded from a thermoset elastomer (which doubles as fuel)&
additional fuel& oxidizer& and catalyst. 0T*1 is commonly used for this purpose.
"mmonium perchlorate is the most common oxidizer used today.
The fuel is cast in different forms for different purposes. %low& long burning rockets have
a cylinder shaped grain& burning from one end to the other. (ost grains& however& are cast
with a hollow cross section& burning from the inside out (and outside in& if not case
bonded)& as well as from the ends.
The thrust profile over time can be controlled by grain geometry. 2or example& a star
shaped hole down the center of the grain will have greater initial thrust because of the
additional surface area. "s the star points are burned up& the surface area and thrust are
reduced.
Casing
The casing may be constructed from a range of materials. Cardboard is used for model
engines. %teel is used for the space shuttle boosters. 2ilament wound graphite epoxy
casings are used for high performance motors.
Nozzle
" Convergent -ivergent design accelerates the exhaust gas out of the nozzle to produce
thrust.
%ophisticated solid rocket motors use steerable nozzles for rocket control.
Performance
%olid fuel rocket motors have a typical specific impulse of #34 lbf5s/lb (#.3 k65s/kg). This
compares to #74 lbf5s/lb (#.7 k65s/kg) for kerosene/8ox and 9!7: lbf5s/lb (!.7 k65s/kg)
for li.uid hydrogen/8ox

. 2or this reason solids are generally used as initial stages in a

rocket& with better performing li.uid engines reserved for final stages. 0owever& the
venerable %tar line motors manufactured by Thiokol have a long history as the final boost
stage for satellites. This is due to their simplicity& compactness and high mass fraction.
The ability of solid rockets to remain in storage for long periods& and then reliably launch
at a moments notice& makes them the design of choice for military applications.
Amateur rocketry
%olid fuel rockets can be bought for use in model rocketry) they are normally small
cylinders of fuel with an integral nozzle and a small charge that is set off when the fuel is
exhausted. This charge can be used to ignite a second stage& trigger a camera& or deploy a
parachute.
-esigning solid rocket motors is particularly interesting to amateur rocketry enthusiasts.
The design is simple& materials are inexpensive and constructions techni.ues are safe.
;arly amateur motors were gunpowder. 8ater& zinc/sulfur formulations were popular.
Typical amateur formulations in use today are) sugar (sucrose& dextrose& and sorbitol are
all common)/potassium nitrate& 0T*1 (a rubber like epoxy)/magnesium/ammonium
nitrate& and 0T*1 or *1"6/aluminum/ammonium perchlorate. (ost formulations also
include burn rate modifiers and other additives& and also possibly additives designed to
create special effects& such as colored flames& thick smoke& or sparks.
" hybrid rocket propulsion system typically comprises a solid fuel and a li.uid or gas
oxidizer. These systems are superior to solid propulsion systems in the respects of safety&
throttling& restartability& and environmental cleanliness. 0owever& hybrid systems are
slightly more complex than solids& and conse.uently they are heavier and more
expensive.
Common oxidizers include gaseous or li.uid oxygen and nitrous oxide.
The <eaction <esearch %ociety (<<%)& although known primarily for their work with
li.uid rocket propulsion& has a long history of research and development with hybrid
rocket propulsion.
%everal universities have recently experimented with hybrid rockets. 1=+& the +niversity
of +tah and +tah %tate +niversity launched a student>designed rocket called +nity ?@ in
::4 which burned the solid fuel 0ydroxy>terminated polybutadiene (0T*1) with an
oxidizer of gaseous oxygen& and in #$$! launched a larger version which burned 0T*1
with nitrous oxide.
*ortland %tate +niversity also launched several hybrid rockets in the early #$$$,s.
%pace%hip'ne& the first private manned spacecraft& is powered by a hybrid rocket burning
0T*1 with nitrous oxide. The hybrid rocket engine was manufactured by %pace-ev.
%pace-ev partially based its motors on experimental data collected from the testing of
"(<'C,s ("merican <ocket Company) motors at 6"%",s %tennis %pace Center,s ;
test stand. (otors ranging from as small as $$$ lbf (A.4 k6) to as large as #4$&$$$ lbf
(. (6) thrust were successfully tested. %pace-ev purchased "(<'Cs assets after the
company was shut down due to lack of funding.
Rocket fuel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Bump toC navigation& search
Rocket fuel is the propellant which is burned with an oxidizer to produce thrust in
rockets.
Contents
DhideE
'verview
# %olid propellants
! 8i.uid propellants
A 0ybrid propellants
4 (ixture ratio
3 *ropellent density
F %ee also
7 ;xternal links
DeditE
Overview
<ockets create thrust by expelling mass backwards with velocity. Chemical rockets& the
subGect of this article& create thrust by reacting propellants into very hot gas& which then
expands in a nozzle out the back. The thrust produced is the mass flow rate of the
propellants multiplied by their exhaust velocity (relative to the rocket)& as specified by
6ewton,s third law of motion. ?t is the e.ual and opposite reaction that moves the rocket&
and not any interaction of the exhaust stream with air around the rocket (but see base
bleed). ;.uivalently& one can think of a rocket being accelerated upwards by the pressure
of the combusting gases in the combustion chamber and nozzle. <ockets can move faster
in outer space& because they do not need to overcome air resistance.
The velocity that a rocket can attain is primarily a function of its mass ratio and its
exhaust velocity. The relationship is described by the rocket equationC V
f
H V
e
ln(M
$
/ M
f
).
The mass ratio is Gust a way to express how much of the rocket is fuel when it starts
accelerating. Typically& a single>stage rocket might have a mass fraction of :$I
propellant& which is a mass ratio of /(>$.:) H $. The exhaust velocity is often reported
as specific impulse.
The first stage will usually use high>density (low volume) propellants to reduce the
amount of volume exposed to atmospheric drag. Thus& the "pollo>%aturn @ first stage
used kerosene>li.uid oxygen rather than the li.uid hydrogen>li.uid oxygen used on the
upper stages (hydrogen is highly energetic per kilogram& but not per cubic metre).
%imilarly& the %pace %huttle uses high>thrust& high>density %<1s for its lift>off with the
li.uid hydrogen>li.uid oxygen %%(;s used partly for lift>off but primarily for orbital
insertion.
There are three main types of propellantsC solid& li.uid& and hybrid.
DeditE
Solid propellants
The earliest rockets were created hundreds of years ago by the Chinese& and were used
primarily for fireworks displays and as weapons. They were fueled with black powder& a
type of gunpowder consisting of a mixture of charcoal& sulfur and potassium nitrate
(saltpeter). <ocket propellant technology did not advance until the end of the :th
century& by which time smokeless powder had been developed& originally for use in
firearms and artillery pieces.
%olid fuels (and really& all rocket fuels) consist of an oxidizer (substance providing
oxygen) and a fuel. ?n the case of gunpowder& the fuel is charcoal& the catalyst is sulfur
and the oxidizer is the potassium nitrate. (ore contemporary recipies employ such
compounds as sodium or potassium chlorate and powdered aluminum. (This mixture is
sometimes known as Jwhite powderJ) not only is it different in appearance than black
powder& it has a considerably higher energy density.)
0owever& white powder has insufficient specific impulse for orbital or near>orbital
boosters. -uring the :4$s and 3$s researchers in the +nited %tates developed what is
now the standard high>energy solid rocket fuel. The mixture is primarily ammonium
perchlorate powder (an oxidizer)& combined with fine aluminum powder (a fuel)& held
together in a base of *1"6 or 0T*1 (rubber>like fuels). The mixture is formed as a
li.uid at elevated temperatures& poured into the rocket casing& and cools to form a single
grain bonded to that casing.
%olid fueled rockets are much easier to store and handle than li.uid fueled rockets& which
makes them ideal for military applications. The 8/(>!$ (inuteman and 8/>7"
*eacekeeper ((K) missiles are four>stage rockets capable of intercontinental suborbital
flights. The first three stages are solid fuelled& and in each case the last stage is a
precision maneuverable li.uid>fuelled bus used to fine tune the traGectory of the reentry
vehicle.
Their simplicity makes solid rockets a good choice whenever large amounts of thrust are
needed and cost is an issue. The %pace %huttle and many other orbital launch vehicles use
solid fuelled rockets in their first stages (solid rocket boosters) for this reason.
0owever& solid rockets have lower specific impulse than li.uid fueled rockets. ?t is also
difficult to build a large mass ratio solid rocket because almost the entire rocket is the
combustion chamber& and must be built to withstand the high combustion pressures. ?f a
solid rocket is used to go all the way to orbit& the payload fraction is very small. (2or
example& the 'rbital %ciences *egasus rocket is an air>launched three>stage solid rocket
orbital booster. 8aunch mass is #!&!$ kg& low earth orbit payload is AA! kg& for a
payload fraction of .:I. Compare to a -elta ?@ (edium& #A:&4$$ kg& payload 73$$ kg&
payload fraction !.AI without air>launch assistance.)
%olid rockets are difficult to throttle or shut down before they run out of fuel. ;ssentially&
the burning grain must be vented to lower the chamber pressure. @enting generally
involves destroying the rocket& and is usually only done by a range safety officer if the
rocket goes awry. The third stages of the (inuteman and (K rockets have precision
shutdown ports which& when opened& reduce the chamber pressure so abruptly that the
interior flame is blown out. This allows a more precise traGectory which improves
targetting accuracy.
2inally& casting very large single>grain rocket motors has proved to be a very tricky
business. -efects in the grain can cause explosions during the burn& and these explosions
can increase the burning propellant surface enough to cause a runaway pressure increase&
until the case fails.
DeditE
i!uid propellants
Main article: Liquid rocket propellants
8i.uid fueled rockets have better specific impulse than solid rockets and are capable of
being throttled& shut down& and restarted. 'nly the combustion chamber of a li.uid fueled
rocket needs to withstand combustion pressures and temperatures. 'n vehicles employing
turbopumps& the fuel tanks can be built with less material& permitting a larger mass
fraction. 2or these reasons& most orbital launch vehicles and all first> and second>
generation ?C1(s use li.uid fuels for most of their velocity gain.
The primary performance advantage of li.uid propellants is the oxidizer. %everal practical
li.uid oxidizers (li.uid oxygen& nitrogen tetroxide& hydrogen peroxide) are available
which have much better specific impulse than ammonium perchlorate when paired with
comparable fuels.
(ost li.uid propellants are also cheaper than solid propellants. 2or orbital launchers& the
cost savings do not& and historically have not mattered) the cost of fuel is a very small
portion of the overall cost of the rocket& even in the case of solid fuel.
The main difficulties with li.uid propellants are also with the oxidizers. These are
generally difficult to store and handle& either due to extreme toxicity (nitric acids)&
extreme cold (li.uid oxygen)& or both (li.uid fluorine is a perennial favorite of wild>eyed
enthusiasts). %everal exotic oxidizers have been proposedC li.uid ozone ('
!
)& Cl2
!
& and
Cl2
4
& all of which are unstable& energetic& and toxic.
8i.uid fuelled rockets also re.uire troublesome and highly stressed pressurization
systems& plumbing and combustion chambers& which greatly increase the cost of the
rocket. (any employ turbopumps which raise the cost still more.
Though all the early rocket theorists proposed li.uid hydrogen and li.uid oxygen as
propellants& the first li.uid>fuelled rocket& launched by <obert /oddard on (arch 3&
:#3& used gasoline and li.uid oxygen. 8i.uid hydrogen was first used by the 8ockheed
C8>A$$ %untan reconnaissance aircraft in the mid>:4$s. ?n the mid>:3$s& the Centaur
and %aturn upper stages were both using li.uid hydrogen and li.uid oxygen.
The highest specific impulse chemistry ever test>fired in a rocket engine was lithium and
fluorine& with hydrogen added to improve the exhaust thermodynamics (making this a
tripropellant). The combination delivered 4A# seconds (4A# lbf5s/lb& 4.!# k65s/kg& 4!#$
m/s) specific impulse in a vacuum. The impracticality of this chemistry highlights why
exotic propellants are not actually usedC to make all three components li.uids& the
hydrogen must be kept below >#4# LC (Gust # M) and the lithium must be kept above 7$
LC (A4! M). 8ithium and fluorine are both extremely corrosive& lithium ignites on contact
with air& fluorine ignites on contact with most fuels& and hydrogen& while not hypergolic&
is an explosive hazard. 2luorine and the hydrogen fluoride (02) in the exhaust are very
toxic& which trashes the environment& makes work around the launch pad difficult& and
makes getting a launch license that much more difficult. The rocket exhaust is also
ionized& which would interfere with radio communication with the rocket. 2inally& both
lithium and fluorine are expensive and rare& enough to actually matter.
The common li.uid propellant combinations in use today areC
8'K and kerosene
(<*>). +sed for the
lower stages of most
<ussian and Chinese
boosters& and the
first stage of the
%aturn 4. @ery
similar to <obert
/oddard,s first
rocket. This
combination is
widely regarded as
the most practical for
civilian orbital
launchers.
8'K and li.uid
hydrogen& used in
the %pace %huttle&
the Centaur upper
stage& the newer
-elta ?@ rocket& and
most stages of the
;uropean "riane
rockets.
6itrogen tetroxide
(6
#
'
A
) and hydrazine
(6
#
0
A
)& ((0& or
+-(0. +sed in
military& orbital and
deep space rockets&
because both li.uids
are storable for long
periods at reasonable
temperatures and
pressures. 0ydrazine
decomposes
energetically to
nitrogen and
hydrogen& making it
a fairly good
monopropellant all
by itself. This
combination is
hypergolic& making
for attractively
simple ignition
se.uences. The only
inconvenience is that
these propellants are
toxic& hence re.uire
careful handling.
DeditE
"y#rid propellants
" hybrid rocket usually has a solid fuel and a li.uid or gas oxidizer. The fluid oxidizer
can make it possible to throttle and restart the motor Gust like a li.uid fuelled rocket.
0ybrid rockets are also cleaner than solid rockets because practical high>performance
solid>phase oxidizers all contain chlorine& versus the more benign li.uid oxygen or
nitrous oxide used in hybrids. 1ecause Gust one propellant is a fluid& hybrids are simpler
than li.uid rockets.
0ybrid motors suffer two maGor drawbacks. The first& shared with solid rocket motors& is
that the casing around the fuel grain must be built to withstand full combustion pressure
and often extreme temperatures as well. (odern composite structures handle this
problem well.
The primary remaining difficulty with hybrids is with mixing the propellants before
burning. ?n solid propellants& the oxidizer and fuel are mixed in a factory in carefully
controlled conditions (and even then it is tricky). 8i.uid propellants are generally mixed
by the inGector at the top of the combustion chamber& which directs many small fast>
moving streams of fuel and oxidizer into one another. 8i.uid fuelled rocket inGector
design has been studied at great length and still resists reliable performance prediction. ?n
a hybrid motor& the mixing happens at the surface of the melting or evaporating surface of
the fuel. The mixing is not a well controlled process and generally .uite a lot of
propellant is left unburned& which limits the efficiency and thus the exhaust velocity of
the motor.
There has been much less development of hybrid motors than solid and li.uid motors.
2or military use& ease of handling and maintenance have driven the use of solid rockets.
2or orbital work& li.uid fuels are enough better than hybrids that most development has
concentrated there. There has recently been an increase in hybrid motor development for
nonmilitary suborbital workC
The <eaction
<esearch %ociety
(<<%)& although
known primarily for
their work with
li.uid rocket
propulsion& has a
long history of
research and
development with
hybrid rocket
propulsion.
%everal universities
have recently
experimented with
hybrid rockets.
1=+& the +niversity
of +tah and +tah
%tate +niversity
launched a student>
designed rocket
called +nity ?@ in
::4 which burned
the solid fuel
0ydroxy>terminated
polybutadiene
(0T*1) with an
oxidizer of gaseous
oxygen& and in #$$!
launched a larger
version which
burned 0T*1 with
nitrous oxide.
*ortland %tate
+niversity also
launched several
hybrid rockets in the
early #$$$,s.
%pace%hip'ne& the
first private manned
spacecraft& is
powered by a hybrid
rocket burning
0T*1 with nitrous
oxide. The hybrid
rocket engine was
manufactured by
%pace-ev. %pace-ev
partially based its
motors on
experimental data
collected from the
testing of "(<'C,s
("merican <ocket
Company) motors at
6"%",s %tennis
%pace Center,s ;
test stand. (otors
ranging from as
small as $$$ lbf
(A.A k6) to as large
as #4$&$$$ lbf (.
(6) thrust were
successfully tested.
%pace-ev purchased
"(<'Cs assets
after the company
was shut down for
lack of funding.
DeditE
$i%ture ratio
The theoretical exhaust velocity of a given propellant chemistry is a function of the
energy released per unit of propellant mass (specific energy). +nburned fuel or oxidizer
drags down the specific energy. %urprisingly& most rockets run fuel>rich.
The usual explanation for fuel>rich mixtures is that fuel>rich mixtures have lower
molecular weight exhaust& which by reducing M increases the ratio & which is
approximately e.ual to the theoretical exhaust velocity. This explanation& though found in
some textbooks& is wrong. 2uel>rich mixtures actually have lower theoretical exhaust
velocities& because decreases as fast or faster than M.
The nozzle of the rocket converts the thermal energy of the propellants into directed
kinetic energy. This conversion happens in a short time& on the order of one millisecond.
-uring the conversion& energy must transfer very .uickly from the rotational and
vibrational states of the exhaust molecules into translation. (olecules with fewer atoms
(like C' and 0
#
) store less energy in vibration and rotation than molecules with more
atoms (like C'
#
and 0
#
'). These smaller molecules transfer more of their rotational and
vibrational energy to translation energy than larger molecules& and the resulting
improvement in nozzle efficiency is large enough that real rocket engines improve their
actual exhaust velocity by running rich mixtures with somewhat lower theoretical exhaust
velocities.
The effect of exhaust molecular weight on nozzle efficiency is most important for nozzles
operating near sea level. 0igh expansion rockets operating in a vacuum see a much
smaller effect& and so are run less rich. The %aturn>?? stage (a 8'K/80
#
rocket) varied its
mixture ratio during flight to optimize performance.
8'K/hydrocarbon rockets are run only somewhat rich ('/2 mass ratio of ! rather than
stoichiometric of !.A to A)& because the energy release per unit mass drops off .uickly as
the mixture ratio deviates from stoichiometric. 8'K/80
#
rockets are run very rich ('/2
mass ratio of A rather than stoichiometic 7) because hydrogen is so light that the energy
release per unit mass of propellant drops very slowly with extra hydrogen. ?n fact&
8'K/80
#
rockets are generally limited in how rich they run by the performance penalty
of the mass of the extra hydrogen tankage& rather than the mass of the hydrogen itself.
"nother reason for running rich is that off>stoichiometric mixtures burn cooler than
stoichiometric mixtures& which makes engine cooling easier. "nd as most engines are
made of metal or carbon& hot oxidizer>rich exhaust is extremely corrosive& where fuel>
rich exhaust is less so. "merican engines have all been fuel>rich. %ome %oviet engines
have been oxidizer>rich.
"dditionally& there is a difference between mixture ratios for optimum ?sp and optimum
thrust. -uring launch& shortly after takeoff& high thrust is at a premium. This can be
achieved at some temporary reduction of ?sp by increasing the oxidiser ratio initially& and
then transitioning to more fuel>rich mixtures. %ince engine size is typically scaled for
takeoff thrust this permits reduction of the weight of rocket engine& pipes and pumps and
the extra propellant use can be more than compensated by increases of acceleration
towards the end of the burn by having a reduced dry mass.
DeditE
Propellent density
"lthough li.uid hydrogen gives a high ?sp& its low density is a significant disadvantageC
hydrogen occupies about Fx more volume per kilogram than dense fuels such as
kerosene. This not only penalises the tankage& but also the pipes and fuel pumps leading
from the tank& which need to be Fx bigger and heavier. (The oxidiser side of the engine
and tankage is of course unaffected.) This makes the vehicle,s dry mass very much
higher& so the use of li.uid hydrogen is not such a big win as might be expected. ?ndeed&
some dense hydrocarbon/8'K propellant combinations have higher performance when
the dry mass penalties are included.
-ue to lower ?sp& dense propellant launch vehicles have a higher takeoff mass& but this
does not mean a proportionately high cost) on the contrary& the vehicle may well end up
cheaper. 8i.uid hydrogen is .uite an expensive fuel to produce and store& and causes
many practical difficulties with design and manufacture of the vehicle.
1ecause of the higher overall weight& a dense>fuelled launch vehicle necessarily re.uires
higher takeoff thrust& but it carries this thrust capability all the way to orbit. This& in
combination with the better thrust/weight ratios& means that dense>fuelled vehicles reach
orbit earlier& thereby minimizing losses due to gravity drag. Thus& the effective delta>v
re.uirement for these vehicles are reduced.
0owever& li.uid hydrogen does give clear advantages when the overall mass needs to be
minimised) for example the %aturn @ vehicle used it on the upper stages) this reduced
weight meant that the dense>fuelled first stage could be made proportionately smaller&
saving .uite a bit of money.
<'CM;T *<'*;88"6T%
Introduction
Liquids
Solids
!brids
Tables of "ro#erties
Propellant is the chemical mi$ture burned to #roduce thrust in rockets and consists
of a fuel and an o$idizer. % fuel is a substance which burns when combined with
o$!gen #roducing gas for #ro#ulsion. %n oxidizer is an agent that releases o$!gen for
combination with a fuel. "ro#ellants are classified according to their state - liquid,
solid, or h!brid.
The gauge for rating the efficienc! of rocket #ro#ellants is specific impulse, stated in
seconds. S#ecific im#ulse indicates how man! #ounds &or kilograms' of thrust are
obtained b! the consum#tion of one #ound &or kilogram' of #ro#ellant in one second.
S#ecific im#ulse is characteristic of the t!#e of #ro#ellant, however, its e$act value
will var! to some e$tent with the o#erating conditions and design of the rocket
engine.
Liquid "ro#ellants
In a liquid #ro#ellant rocket, the fuel and o$idizer are stored in se#arate tanks, and
are fed through a s!stem of #i#es, valves, and turbo#um#s to a combustion chamber
where the! are combined and burned to #roduce thrust. Liquid #ro#ellant engines
are more com#le$ then their solid #ro#ellant counter#arts, however, the! offer
several advantages. (! controlling the flow of #ro#ellant to the combustion chamber,
the engine can be throttled, sto##ed, or restarted.
% good liquid #ro#ellant is one with a high s#ecific im#ulse or, stated another wa!,
one with a high s#eed of e$haust gas e)ection. This im#lies a high combustion
tem#erature and e$haust gases with small molecular weights. owever, there is
another im#ortant factor which must be taken into consideration* the densit! of the
#ro#ellant. +sing low densit! #ro#ellants means that larger storage tanks will be
required, thus increasing the mass of the launch vehicle. Storage tem#erature is also
im#ortant. % #ro#ellant with a low storage tem#erature, i.e. a cr!ogenic, will require
thermal insulation, thus further increasing the mass of the launcher. The to$icit! of
the #ro#ellant is likewise im#ortant. Safet! hazards e$ist when handling,
trans#orting, and storing highl! to$ic com#ounds. %lso, some #ro#ellants are ver!
corrosive, however, materials that are resistant to certain #ro#ellants have been
identified for use in rocket construction.
Liquid #ro#ellants used b! ,%S% and in commercial launch vehicles can be classified
into three t!#es* #etroleum, cr!ogenics, and h!#ergolics.
Petroleum fuels are those refined from crude oil and are a mi$ture of com#le$
h!drocarbons, i.e. organic com#ounds containing onl! carbon and h!drogen. The
#etroleum used as rocket fuel is kerosene, or a t!#e of highl! refined kerosene called
-"-. &refined #etroleum'. "etroleum fuels are used in combination with liquid o$!gen
as the o$idizer. /erosene delivers a s#ecific im#ulse considerabl! less than cr!ogenic
fuels, but it is generall! the best #erformer among the non-cr!ogenic o#tions.
Liquid o$!gen and -"-. are used as the #ro#ellant in the first-stage boosters of the
%tlas01entaur and 2elta launch vehicles. It also #owered the first-stages of the
Saturn .( and Saturn 3 rockets.
Cryogenic #ro#ellants are liquefied gases stored at ver! low tem#eratures, namel!
liquid h!drogen &L4' as the fuel and liquid o$!gen &L54 or L56' as the o$idizer. L4
remains liquid at tem#eratures of -478 degrees 1 &-948 degrees :' and L56 remains
in a liquid state at tem#eratures of -.;8 degrees 1 &-4<; degrees :'.
(ecause of the low tem#eratures of cr!ogenic #ro#ellants, the! are difficult to store
over long #eriods of time. :or this reason, the! are less desirable for use in militar!
rockets which must be ke#t launch read! for months at a time. %lso, liquid h!drogen
has a ver! low densit! &=.7< #ounds #er gallon' and, therefore, requires a storage
volume man! times greater than other fuels. 2es#ite these drawbacks, the high
efficienc! of liquid o$!gen0liquid h!drogen makes these #roblems worth co#ing with
when reaction time and storabilit! are not too critical. Liquid h!drogen delivers a
s#ecific im#ulse about 9=> higher than other rocket fuels.
Liquid o$!gen and liquid h!drogen are used as the #ro#ellant in the high efficienc!
main engines of the s#ace shuttle. L560L4 also #owered the u##er stages of the
Saturn 3 and Saturn l( rockets as well as the second stage of the %tlas01entaur
launch vehicle, the +nited States? first L560L4 rocket &.<@4'.
Hypergolic #ro#ellants are fuels and o$idizers which ignite s#ontaneousl! on contact
with each other and require no ignition source. The eas! start and restart ca#abilit!
of h!#ergolics make them ideal for s#acecraft maneuvering s!stems. %lso, since
h!#ergolics remain liquid at normal tem#eratures, the! do not #ose the storage
#roblems of cr!ogenic #ro#ellants. !#ergolics are highl! to$ic and must be handled
with e$treme care.
!#ergolic fuels commonl! include h!drazine, monometh!l h!drazine &AA' and
uns!mmetrical dimeth!l h!drazine &+2A'. The o$idizer is t!#icall! nitrogen
tetro$ide &,459 or ,T5', though red-fuming nitric acid &-:,%' has also been used.
-:,% has largel! disa##eared from use since the .<@=s.
2es#ite the similarit! of the names, h!drazine, AA and +2A are different
com#ounds with unique chemical #ro#erties. !drazine gives the best #erformance
as a rocket fuel, but it has a high freezing #oint and is too unstable for use as a
coolant. AA is more stable and gives the best #erformance when freezing #oint is
an issue, such as s#acecraft #ro#ulsion a##lications. +2A has the highest freezing
#oint and is stable enough to be used in large regenerativel! cooled engines.
1onsequentl!, +2A is often used in launch vehicle a##lications even though it is the
least efficient of the h!drazine fuels. %lso commonl! used are blended fuels, such as
%erozine 7=, which is a mi$ture of 7=> +2A and 7=> h!drazine. %erozine 7= is
almost as stable as +2A and #rovides better #erformance.
+2A is used in man! -ussian, Buro#ean, and 1hinese rockets while AA is used in
the orbital maneuvering s!stem &5AS' and reaction control s!stem &-1S' of the
S#ace Shuttle orbiter. The Titan famil! of launch vehicles and the second stage of the
2elta II use %erozine 7=.
!drazine is also frequentl! used as a mono-#ro#ellant in catalytic decomposition
engines . In these engines, a liquid fuel decom#oses into hot gas in the #resence of a
catal!st. The decom#osition of h!drazine #roduces tem#eratures of about <47
degrees 1 &.C== degrees :' and a s#ecific im#ulse of about 48= or 49= seconds.
Solid "ro#ellants
Solid #ro#ellant motors are the sim#lest of all rocket designs. The! consist of a
casing, usuall! steel, filled with a mi$ture of solid com#ounds &fuel and o$idizer'
which burn at a ra#id rate, e$#elling hot gases from a nozzle to #roduce thrust.
When ignited, a solid #ro#ellant burns from the center out towards the sides of the
casing. The sha#e of the center channel determines the rate and #attern of the burn,
thus #roviding a means to control thrust. +nlike liquid #ro#ellant engines, solid
#ro#ellant motors can not be shut down. 5nce ignited, the! will burn until all the
#ro#ellant is e$hausted.
There are two families of solids #ro#ellants* homogeneous and com#osite. (oth
t!#es are dense, stable at ordinar! tem#eratures, and easil! storable.
omogeneous #ro#ellants are either sim#le base or double base. % sim#le base
#ro#ellant consists of a single com#ound, usuall! nitrocellulose, which has both an
o$idation ca#acit! and a reduction ca#acit!. 2ouble base #ro#ellants usuall! consist
of nitrocellulose and nitrogl!cerine, to which a #lasticiser is added. omogeneous
#ro#ellants do not usuall! have s#ecific im#ulses greater than about 4.= seconds
under normal conditions. Their main asset is that the! do not #roduce traceable
fumes and are, therefore, commonl! used in tactical wea#ons. The! are also often
used to #erform subsidiar! functions such as )ettisoning s#ent #arts or se#arating
one stage from another.
Aodern com#osite #ro#ellants are heterogeneous #owders &mi$tures' which use a
cr!stallized or finel! ground mineral salt as an o$idizer, often ammonium #erchlorate,
which constitutes between @=> and <=> of the mass of the #ro#ellant. The fuel
itself is aluminum. The #ro#ellant is held together b! a #ol!meric binder, usuall!
#ol!urethane or #ol!butadienes. %dditional com#ounds are sometimes included, such
as a catal!st to hel# increase the burning rate, or other agents to make the #owder
easier to manufacture. The final #roduct is rubberlike substance with the consistenc!
of a hard rubber eraser.
1om#osite #ro#ellants are often identified b! the t!#e of #ol!meric binder used. The
two most common binders are #ol!butadiene acr!lic acid acr!lonitrile &"(%,' and
h!dro$!-terminator #ol!butadiene &T"('. "(%, formulations give a slightl! higher
s#ecific im#ulse, densit!, and burn rate than equivalent formulations using T"(.
owever, "(%, #ro#ellant is the more difficult to mi$ and #rocess and requires an
elevated curing tem#erature. T"( binder is stronger and more fle$ible than "(%,
binder. (oth "(%, and T"( formulations result in #ro#ellants that deliver e$cellent
#erformance, have good mechanical #ro#erties, and offer #otentiall! long burn times.
Solid #ro#ellant motors have a variet! of uses. Small solids often #ower the final
stage of a launch vehicle, or attach to #a!loads to boost them to higher orbits.
Aedium solids such as the "a!load %ssist Aodule &"%A' and the Inertial +##er Stage
&I+S' #rovide the added boost to #lace satellites into geos!nchronous orbit or on
#lanetar! tra)ectories.
The Titan, 2elta, and S#ace Shuttle launch vehicles use stra#-on solid #ro#ellant
rockets to #rovide added thrust at liftoff. The S#ace Shuttle uses the largest solid
rocket motors ever built and flown. Bach booster contains 9<<,=== kg &.,.==,===
#ounds' of #ro#ellant and can #roduce u# to .9,@;=,=== ,ewtons &8,8==,===
#ounds' of thrust.
!brid "ro#ellants
!brid #ro#ellant engines re#resent an intermediate grou# between solid and liquid
#ro#ellant engines. 5ne of the substances is solid, usuall! the fuel, while the other,
usuall! the o$idizer, is liquid. The liquid is in)ected into the solid, whose fuel reservoir
also serves as the combustion chamber. The main advantage of such engines is that
the! have high #erformance, similar to that of solid #ro#ellants, but the combustion
can be moderated, sto##ed, or even restarted. It is difficult to make use of this
conce#t for var! large thrusts, and thus, h!brid #ro#ellant engines are rarel! built.
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID RO!ET PROPELL"#TS

ompound
hemic$l
Formul$
%olecul$r
&ei'ht
Density
%eltin'
Point
(oilin'
Point
8i.uid 'xygen '# !#.$$ .A g/ml >#7.7
o
C >7!.$
o
C
0ydrogen *eroxide 0#'# !A.$# .AA g/ml >$.A
o
C 4$.#
o
C
6itrogen Tetroxide 6#'A :#.$ .A4 g/ml >:.!
o
C #.4
o
C
6itric "cid 06'! 3!.$ .44 g/ml >A.3
o
C 7!
o
C
8i.uid 0ydrogen 0# #.$3 $.$F g/ml >#4:.!
o
C >#4#.:
o
C
-odecane (Merosene) C#0#3 F$.!A $.FA: g/ml >:.3
o
C #3.!
o
C
;thyl "lcohol C#04'0 A3.$F $.F7: g/ml >A.
o
C F7.#
o
C
0ydrazine 6#0A !#.$4 .$$A g/ml .A
o
C !.4
o
C
(ethyl 0ydrazine C0!6060# A3.$F $.733 g/ml >4#.A
o
C 7F.4
o
C
-imethyl 0ydrazine (C0!)#660# 3$.$ $.F: g/ml >47
o
C 3!.:
o
C
6'T;%C
Chemically& kerosene is a mixture of hydrocarbons) the chemical composition depends on its
source& but it usually consists of about ten different hydrocarbons& each containing from $ to 3
carbon atoms per molecule) the constituents include n)dodec$ne& alkyl benzenes& and naphthalene and
its derivatives.
6itrogen tetroxide and nitric acid are hypergolic with hydrazine& ((0 and +-(0. 'xygen is
not hypergolic with any commonly used fuel.
O%POSITIO# OF SOLID RO!ET PROPELL"#TS

Propell$nt Type omposition
1alistite
(+%")
-ouble 1ase
0omogeneous
6itrocellulose (4.4I)& 6itroglycerine (A!.$I)& *lasticiser (.$I)& 'ther
(A.4I)
Cordite
(%oviet)
-ouble 1ase
0omogeneous
6itrocellulose (43.4I)& 6itroglycerine (#7.$I)& *lasticiser (A.4I)& 'ther
(.$I)
%<1
*ropellant
Composite
"mmonium *erchlorate (3:.3I) as oxidizer& "luminum *owder (3I) as
fuel& ?ron 'xidizer *owder ($.AI) as catalyst& *olybutadiene "crylic "cid
"crylonitrile (#.$AI) as rubber>based binder& ;poxy Curing "gent
(.:3I)
6'T;%C
The density of solid rocket propellants range from .4 to .74 g/ml. %<1 propellant has a density
of .F3 g/ml.
SELETED RO!ETS "#D T*EIR PROPELL"#TS

Rocket St$'e En'ines Propell$nt Specific Impulse
"tlas/Centaur (:3#)
$

#
<ocketdyne =8<7:>6"F (x#)
<ocketdyne =8<$4>6"F
*NO <8>$">!>! (x#)
8'K/<*>
8'K/<*>
8'K/80#
#4:s sl / #:#s vac
##$s sl / !$:s vac
AAAs vacuum
Titan ?? (:3A)

#
"eroGet 8<>7F>"B>4 (x#)
"eroGet 8<>:>"B>4
6T'/"erozine 4$
6T'/"erozine 4$
#4:s sl / #74s vac
!#s vacuum
%aturn @ (:3F)

#
!
<ocketdyne 2> (x4)
<ocketdyne B># (x4)
<ocketdyne B>#
8'K/<*>
8'K/80#
8'K/80#
#34s sl / !$As vac
A#As vacuum
A#As vacuum
%pace %huttle (:7)
$

'(%
<C%
Thiokol %<1 (x#)
<ocketdyne %%(; (x!)
"eroGet '(% (x#)
Maiser (ar.uardt <>A$ N <>;
*1"6 %olid
8'K/80#
6T'/((0
6T'/((0
#A#s sl / #37s vac
!3!s sl / A4!s vac
!!s vacuum
#7$s vacuum
-elta ?? (:7:)
$

#
Castor A" (x:)
<ocketdyne <%>#F
"eroGet "B$>7M
0T*1 %olid
8'K/<*>
6T'/"erozine 4$
#!7s sl / #33s vac
#3As sl / #:4s vac
!#$s vacuum