Chapter 3

Position, Speed, and Acceleration

Measurement
This chapter is about measurement of position and movement, both linear and
rotary. It does not specifically deal with measurement of physical dimensions
(metrology), though some of the techniques described are also used in this
field. A section on vibration measurement and interpretation is included.
3.1 Linear position
For manual measurement, traditional instruments such as micrometers,
vernier scales, and dial indicators are all used, and give accuracy down to 5
or 10 pm. Electronic versions of these are now commonly used, with
digital readouts and the capability to be linked into computers and
dataloggers. The electronic versions usually give 2 to 4 times higher
resolution than their purely mechanical equivalents.
The electronic micrometer or caliper is usually in the same form as its
mechanical equivalent, but with a linear encoder unit incorporated. These
typically use capacitance sensors, with multiple sender plates fed with
alternating current (a.c.) voltages of different phases. The induced current
on the receiver plate varies in phase as the sender and receiver plates move
relative to one another. Early versions of these devices had a habit of
giving errors if they were moved too rapidly, or if dirt contaminated the
sensor surfaces. However, these problems have largely been eliminated
with later designs.
Linear transducers vary enormously in terms of accuracy, range, and cost.
Some of the principal types are described below.
Potentiometers are relatively low-cost, low-accuracy devices, with errors
of the order of 1 or 2% typically. Higher accuracy versions are available, at
higher cost. They are available in linear forms with operating ranges from
a few mm to hundreds of mm.
18 Engineering Measuremerits
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs) are cornrnonly used and
highly accurate. They consist of a core whose displacement gives rise to
the signal or measurement by flux linking the energizing coil to the
detecting coil, in proportion to the displacement.
The detecting coil is actually split, so that moving in a particular direction
will increase the flux linkage with one, and decrease it with the other. The
two halves are connected in opposition, as shown in Fig. 3.1, so that the
output is the difference between the two signals (hence differential). This
doubles the sensitivity of the transducer. The output is then normalized by
dividing by the sum of the two signals, and hence susceptibility to external
influences such as temperature is decreased.
The excitation and signal processing may be either built into the
instrument, or supplied externally. These are of linear rather than angular
action, and achieve a fairly high degree of linearity, as well as resolution
into the nanometer range. Often the resolution is limited only by the
number of bits on the display used. They are available with ranges from
less than 1 mm up to 100 mm or so.
Various types of proximity sensor exist for measuring small displacements,
operating on inductive, capacitative, or Hall effect principles. These are
only suitable for movements of at most a few mm, and typically 1 mm or
less. One typical use is for monitoring the position of a shaft in a plain
bearing, to indicate the thickness of the lubricating oil film. A mention of
the use of a Hall effect sensor for
needle is given in Chapter 10.
I
measuring the lift of a diesel fuel injector
I
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
=vo-vb
L V b I
DISPLACEMENT
1
Fig. 3.1 The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
Position, Speed, and Acceleration Measurernetit 19
Another highly accurate non-contacting method is the silicon
semiconductor position sensitive detector. An example of its use is given in
the case study at the end of this chapter on Position sensing of photo
masks using a semiconductor sensor.
For larger distances, from hundreds of mm to tens or hundreds of metres,
various forms of rangefinder exist. The oldest type is the optical
rangefinder as used on older cameras, where two images are adjusted until
they are superimposed, and the distance is read from a mechanical scale.
Modern versions use infra-red, ultrasound, or radio waves (e.g. radio-
altimeters, radar), detecting phase differences or time lags between the
transmitted and reflected signals. All of these methods require a good
target for reflecting the signal. It may be speculated that poor signal
reflection from forested hillsides could upset radio-altimeters and
contribute to some aircraft crashes.
None of these can be regarded as particularly precise, but they are often the
only realistic options, and are sufficiently accurate for many purposes. A
typical source of errors for the ultrasound method is temperature changes
or gradients in the air, affecting the speed of transmission of the signal.
One example of the use of ultrasound distance measurement is for
detecting the level of product in large tanks and silos. This generally works
well for liquids, but for solids such as plastic granules a problem arises
with coning, such that the silo empties from the middle outwards and the
granules take up an inverted cone shape, so that the quantity of product
may be significantly different from that predicted by the level
measurement. The method has the merit that it can be easily retro-fitted to
an existing installation, and is therefore often used, particularly for liquids.
For even larger distances, the Global Positioning System (GPS) can locate
the absolute position of an object in the open air (i.e. an aircraft or a
surface vehicle) to within 50 metres or so, by reference to a system of
orbiting satellites. The military versions of this technology are believed to
be considerably more accurate than this, but are not readily available for
civilian use. The system gives vertical heights above sea level in addition
to horizontal coordinates.
It is frequently convenient to convert linear distance or motion into rotary
motion by means of a wheel, rack and pinion, or cable and drum, and then
use a rotary measurement technique as described in Section 3.2.2. A
20 Engineering Measurements
typical example is a surveyors wheel, a much more convenient device than
the traditional chain.
3.2 Angular position and rotation
3.2. I Level measurement and navigation
A simple form of angular position reference is the spirit level, often
combined with an angular scale or protractor. The familiar builders spirit
level is not a particularly sensitive device, but reversing it can give
reasonably accurate self-checking results. Levels used for surveying
purposes (in theodolites and similar instruments) can be accurate to better
than 1 minute of arc (0.3 milliradians). The spirit level works by gravity
and therefore is subject to lunar and solar attraction. This has been
calculated to cause a maximum error of less than lo4 radians on
approximately a daily cycle. This error is insignificant for most practical
engineering purposes.
There is an electronic version of the spirit level, the fluid level
inclinometer. The case study on Borehole probe at the end of this chapter
describes a particular application of this device. Various types of
inclinometer exist, working either on a fluid level or a pendulum principle.
A magnetic compass is another familiar device, again typically of low
accuracy of the order of a degree. Versions used for ships and aircraft can
be more accurate, by a factor of 10 or so. Magnetic compasses are affected
by large magnetic objects in the ground or even on the sea-bed, and also by
magnetic materials and electromagnetic effects within the vehicle in which
they are mounted. Quite small electric currents drawn by adjacent
instruments can have a significant effect.
Many mechanical types of compass create large errors due to accelerations
in an East-West direction. This is a consequence of the inclination to the
horizontal of the earths magnetic flux and the way in which the compass
needle is suspended. This is why a small boats or aircrafts compass may
swing dramatically in rough conditions or while changing direction.
Electronic flux-gate type compasses and certain special mechanical types
do not suffer from motion error.
Gyroscopes mounted in gimbals can provide an accurate angular position
reference for only a short period. Friction in the gimbals and in the gyro
bearings causes drift, and also the rotation of the earth requires
Position, Speed, and Acceleration Measurenient 21
compensating for. A gyro-compass is a combination of gyroscope and
compass, with the compass compensating for the drift of the gyro, and the
gyro stabilizing the short-term fluctuations of the compass.
3.2.2 Relative angles
The rotary potentiometer, as with the linear potentiometer, is an
economical and commonly used angle transducer with an accuracy
typically of the order of 1%. Higher accuracy can be achieved at higher
cost. An interesting variant is the multiple turn potentiometer, often with
10 turns, which is a convenient way of measuring angular position varying
by more than 360, and which also gives higher accuracy of the order of
0.25%. The resistive track and wiper follow a helical path, but the drive
shaft rotates normally.
Digital shaft encoders exist in various forms. Incremental encoders are
essentially slotted discs with an optical detector which counts the slots and
deduces the relative shaft position. These are used when the prime
measurement is rotary speed, and are therefore described in a later section
(3.4.2). The more certain method for angular position is the absolute shaft
encoder which requires a lot more information than the incremental
encoder.
In the absolute shaft encoder, the rotating element is a digitally encoded
disc with several concentric tracks, and the output is a binary code. If it is
in standard binary, then a single increment can mean that several of the
digits have to change at once, so if one or more is slow to change then the
output is momentarily entirely wrong. Some encoders use the Gray code,
which avoids this problem. It has the advantage that it changes only one bit
for each increment, so that if a bit is slow to change, then it just means the
previous value will be present for a little longer, instead of giving a
completely false reading. However, the need for Gray code has
substantially disappeared with modem signal processing, which can detect
and correct the type of error described above.
If it is only required to detect one or a few angular positions accurately,
then a toothed or slotted steel wheel with a suitably positioned inductive
sensor can be used. This can accurately detect the leading or trailing edge
of each tooth, and this method is used for providing accurate timing signals
for the spark on internal combustion (IC) engines, or for synchronizing
various actions on high-speed machinery.
22 Engineering Measurements
To ensure high accuracy with any of the above, the alignment must be
good. The rotating component, if mounted directly on the shaft being
measured, must be accurately concentric with the shaft, and the stationary
component containing the pickups must be also accurately concentric. If
the shaft moves radially, as for example an engine crankshaft is likely to
do, then it may be necessary to connect the shaft encoder to the shaft via a
flexible coupling.
3.3 Linear speed and velocity
Many of the position measurement techniques described above are used
also for speed or velocity measurement by differentiating the signals with
respect to time. In a similar fashion, velocity information is often derived
by integration from accelerometer signals (described later in this chapter).
In addition, there are certain techniques which measure linear speed or
velocity directly.
Doppler effect devices measure the frequency difference between a
transmitted and a reflected signal, and deduce the relative velocity from
this. A well-known manifestation of this effect is the change in pitch of a
siren on a vehicle as it goes past a stationary observer. Devices based on
ultrasound and microwave beams are available.
Photographic methods can directly show the velocity of moving particles
or markers (e.g. lights) on larger objects. If the time of exposure is known,
the velocity can be found from the length and direction of the streaks on
the photograph. This method is very useful for flow visualization, and is
discussed in more detail under flow measurement, Section 6.3.3. There are
particular types of errors which can occur with this method when focal
plane shutters (as on a typical SLR camera) are used, and these are covered
in the same section.
Another photographic principle is the time and distance method where a
time exposure photograph is taken of a target marker under stroboscopic
lighting. This can be a good method to reveal varying speeds.
Frequently it is convenient to mechanically convert linear motion to rotary
motion, then measure the speed by one of the techniques in the next
section.
Position, Speed, and Acceleration Measurement 23
3.4 Rotational speed and angular velocity
3.4.1 Basic methods
The familiar car speedometer uses a small magnet and an aluminium disc;
the magnet is rotated by an arm, inducing eddy currents in the disc which is
restrained by a hair-spring; the disc is deflected in proportion to the eddy
current drag. The usual output is a pointer on a circular scale. Mechanical
tachometers generally work on this principle or on a centrifugal principle.
Electrical tachometers (tachogenerators) use the dynamo principle: a
rotating magnet is used as in the previous paragraph, but instead of
generating eddy current drag the magnet induces a direct current (d.c.)
voltage in the stator winding. If required this voltage can be fed back to a
controller for closed-loop control.
Pulse counting methods are very commonly used, and appear in a number
of forms. The optical tachometer detects pulses of light from
discontinuities on a rotating shaft. These may be slots in a disc, a patch of
white or reflective paint, or perhaps the blades on a propeller. Reflection
from oil streaks have been known to give inadvertent extra signals.
Magnetic equivalents using rotating magnets or slotted steel discs and
inductive pick-ups are also commonly found. Inductive pick-up types can
sometimes give double the number of expected pulses, due to the two flux
changes at the leading and trailing edges of each slot. A particularly
economical version is a rotating magnet actuating a reed switch, which is
used in bicycle speedometers, hand-held cup anemometers and other
relatively low-speed applications.
Pulse counting methods are applicable up to very high speeds, rotational
speeds of the order of 3000 revolutions per second (1 80 000 rpm) having
been measured accurately.
Stroboscopic methods, using a stroboscopic light or a mechanical
stroboscope, are occasionally used. With stroboscopes there is a very real
danger of gross errors caused by illuminating only every second or third
revolution and under-indicating the speed by a factor of 2 or 3. If only part
of the shaft circumference is visible, then it is also possible to over-
indicate the speed by a factor of 2, due to the second image at 180" being
invisible. One way of avoiding this is to use a helical marker around the
shaft (if space is available), which will help in detecting double
illumination. When using stroboscobic methods, great care is needed,
24 Engineering Measurements
preferably using a second indicating method as an approximate cross-
check.
3.4.2 Shaft encoders
For high accuracy, shaft encoders are used, and these give both speed
and/or position information; furthermore, unlike basic pulse counting
methods, they can detect the direction of rotation when used with two
signals 90" out of phase with each other. The direction is determined from
which signal appears first. Readily available encoders may give up to 6000
pulses per revolution or operate to 12 000 rpm and above. They differ from
the tachogenerators in giving a digital output, which may have to be
converted to analogue for uses such as feedback control of motor speed.
An incremental optical encoder works in a similar way to the toothed
wheel and slotted opto-switch, with a series of fine lines or grating on the
rotating element, and light-emitting diodes to transmit and photodiodes or
equivalent to receive the light. However, the light passes first through the
rotating element and then through a second (stationary) grating to give
diffraction fringes. This has the advantage that instead of the signal
ramping from light to dark as each line passes, the whole field goes light or
dark, so that a square wave is obtained.
It is the movement of these fringes that occurs when the encoder turns that
is then sensed by the photodiodes. If electrical noise is a problem then
opposing signals are available from sensors positioned in antiphase. Used
with a difference amplifier, these can give an output sensitive to the signal
itself, but relatively insensitive to noise, which affects both the signals.
Sometimes a phototransistor may be used instead of a photodiode, to give
an amplified signal at the encoder itself.
It is important that both the rotating and stationary part of the encoder are
mounted concentrically to the rotating shaft or the fringes can be affected
and measurements missed by the sensor. On a dynamometer with an
optical encoder fitted, the encoder casing was mounted to the dynamometer
on plastic spacers. The mounting screws became loose and the casing
moved slightly relative to the shaft, giving incorrect readings varying from
zero up to the actual shaft speed.
3.4.3 Gyroscopic devices
A gyroscope which is restrained (i.e. not gimbal mounted) and has its axis
of rotation forcibly rotated, exerts a moment on its mounts proportional to
Position, Speed, and Acceleration Measiirenient 25
the absolute rate of axis rotation. This moment can be measured using load
cells, or used to directly deflect a needle against a spring force. This latter
principle is used in a simple rate-of-turn indicator used in light aircraft.
This method is obviously very valuable for angular velocity measurement
where there is no readily available static reference.
The fibre-optic gyroscope which incorporates a very long loop of optical
fibre coiled up, with laser light sources and detectors, has been known for
some time. Its principle of operation is that when two light beams
propagate in opposite directions around a common path, they experience a
relative phase shift depending upon the rotation rate of the plane of the
path. This device therefore detects rotation rate, and the output can be
integrated to give the absolute heading. These devices are of sufficiently
low cost and high accuracy to be used in navigation systems for cars.
Miniature low-cost gyroscopes based on a vibrating beam principle are
becoming available, and these too should be appropriate for this purpose.
3.5 Acceleration
Acceleration can be deduced by differentiation of a velocity signal, or
double differentiation of a displacement signal. This applies equally to
linear acceleration and angular acceleration.
Where acceleration is required to be measured directly, the most
commonly used device is the piezo-electric accelerometer, which measures
the force required to accelerate a small mass mounted within the device.
The only significant problem with this type is the low-frequency response,
so when signals of less than about 5 Hz are required to be measured
accurately, it may be necessary to consider other types of sensor, for
example ones based on strain gauges.
For measuring angular acceleration a pair of carefully matched
accelerometers can be mounted parallel and a small distance apart, and
their outputs subtracted.
3.6 Vibration measurement and interpretation
Vibration measurement can be considered as a sub-set of motion and
displacement measurement. It is widely used as a technique for diagnosing
machinery problems and for monitoring the health of machinery, and
26 Engineering Measurenients
therefore it is carried out in relatively uncontrolled conditions in the field,
sometimes with inadequate understanding of how to ensure correct results,
and how to interpret the results. Therefore it merits a section to describe
the techniques and the pitfalls.
A simple steady sinusoidal vibration signal has a specific value of
frequency, a specific value of displacement, and also values for velocity
and acceleration which can be calculated from the amplitude and
frequency. The values for displacement, velocity, and acceleration can be
quoted as peak-to-peak, or amplitude (= half of peak-to-peak), or root
mean square (RMS). RMS is the most commonly quoted, but the other
values are used, so when using an instrument or interpreting results, it is
important to ascertain which is being used.
Mostly, vibration signals are not steady or sinusoidal, but a complete
mixture of frequencies, often varying with time. For such a signal there is
not a readily calculable relationship between displacement, velocity, and
acceleration. In order to be able readily to compare vibration levels
between different machines, it is common to use RMS vibration velocity
over a broad band of frequencies.
The most commonly used sensor is an accelerometer (see Section 3.5). The
output of this can be converted to velocity by integration of the signal, and
to displacement by double integration. Basic instruments will usually give
a reading of velocity, while more refined ones give a choice of
acceleration, velocity or displacement. Care is needed with the units of
measurement, particularly for acceleration which may be in m/s2 or
alternatively in gs, i.e. multiples of 9.81 m/s2.
Other sensors are also used. For example proximity probes are used in
plain bearings on turbomachinery to monitor relative movement and
vibration between the shaft and the casing. In this case the output is
displacement, which requires differentiation to convert to velocity or
acceleration.
A British Standard [BS 7854, (2)J and various equivalent national and
international standards (e.g. I S0 108 16) define evaluation standards for
vibration in various classes of machinery. These standards cover machine
speeds from 600 to 12 000 rpm, and the vibration limits are based on RMS
vibration velocity over a frequency band of 10 to 1000 Hz. Velocity is
chosen rather than displacement or acceleration, because it has been found
Position, Speed, arid Acceleration Measurement 27
that by using vibration velocity, the acceptable levels are largely
independent of machine speed.
The acceptable level depends on the type and size of the machine, and also
on the nature of the mountings and foundations. The acceptable limits for a
machine mounted on a flexible steel framework are substantially higher
than for the same machine mounted on a solid concrete base. It is also
worth noting that the users subjective view of vibration level is often
based on what he feels through the soles of his feet. Instances of reported
bad vibration have been found to be resonances of steel floorplates
adjacent to the machine, rather than problems with the machine itself.
The vibration measurements may vary substantially depending on the axis
of measurement. The nature of machine mountings and foundations usually
(but not always) means that vibration in horizontal directions is greater
than in vertical directions. The standards are not totally clear on whether
the vibration acceptance criteria should be different in a horizontal
direction from in a vertical direction. Therefore it is important that the
direction of measurement should be recorded so that subsequent
interpretation is not confused.
Although vibration measurement can be quite precise, interpretation of the
measurements is less so, and it is usually impossible to deduce very much
about the health of a particular machine from a single set of measurements,
even when comparing the readings with those from another similar or
identical machine. This is because there are several factors which can
cause significant differences in vibration readings - manufacturing
tolerances, minor differences in mountings, minor differences in
operational conditions, etc. The best way to interpret vibration
measurements is by trend analysis. A progressive or a sudden change in
vibration levels, if it cannot be traced to a change in operational conditions,
is a strong indication that something is going wrong with the machine.
Spectral analysis of the vibration signal can be used to pinpoint specific
faults. Specific frequencies can be identified as emanating from a
particular gear, or bearing, or coupling, or turbine disc, etc. Again, trend
analysis is much more valuable than single measurements, and a
signature trace taken from the machine when new is very useful when
analysing later problems.
28 Engineering Measurements
With spectrum analysers, it is important to ensure that the frequencies of
interest are not being ignored or filtered out. During investigations of
vibration problems with some large fans, it was found that the principal
vibration with the largest displacement was at 5 to 10 Hz, while the
spectrum analyser (in combination with particular sensors) effectively
ignored everything below about 20 Hz.
Sometimes it is impossible to attach the vibration sensor directly to the
point where measurement is desired, and a metal extension bar may be
used. Such bars can have a number of lateral and longitudinal resonant
frequencies which can easily confuse the measurements. It should be
possible to identify these frequencies by applying the sensor and extension
bar to a static machine and applying small impulses to the extension bar.
Rolling bearings can produce high-frequency vibrations with specific
characteristics. There are special instruments developed to detect and
analyse these vibration signatures, to determine the state of health of the
bearing. As with general vibration measurements, single readings are not
very precise, but analysis of trends on a particular bearing can be a useful
guide to deterioration. Note that these instruments may not work reliably
for low-speed bearings (under 500 rpm), and bearings adjacent to other
sources of high-frequency vibrations (such as gears).
Case Study
Position sensing of photo masks using a semiconductor sensor
An inspection system was being developed to detect very small particles of
dust or contaminants in the region of 150 nm diameter (well below the
wavelength of visible light) on photo masks, prior to them being imaged on
to silicon wafers. The process is shown in Fig. 3.2; ultraviolet light from a
mercury lamp is converged by a condenser lens to give parallel light,
which then shines through the photo mask.
The photo mask consists of glass with a very fine pattern of lines in
chrome across it, which stops the light. The light which is not stopped by
the chrome then continues through the imaging lens to the silicon wafer
which is covered in a layer of material known as photo-resist, because it
develops a chemical resistance by being exposed to light. The wafer is then
inserted into a chemical bath which etches away the photo-resist where it
has not been exposed, allowing conducting copper pathways to be added in
its place.
Position, Speed, and Acceleration Measurement
MERCURY UMP
CONDENSER LENS
PHOTO MASK
29
PHOTO RESlSl
SILICON WAFER
Fig. 3.2 The imaging process
The importance of the particles on the photo mask is that they scatter the
light passing through, so that ultimately the copper pathways will be
incorrect. As each photo mask is used to produce very large quantities of
silicon chips, errors like this can lead to an extremely high rejection rate.
This led to the development of the inspection system shown in Fig. 3. 3, in
which a laser beam tracks rapidly across the surface of the photo mask.
The reflected light from a flat surface is absorbed by a metal plate, whilst
any particles on the surface of the mask scatter the light, which is then
picked up by a microscope system with a line sensing camera. The image
has then to be processed rapidly, and any contaminants identified.
Unfortunately the height of the chrome on the glass surface is comparable
with the size of the particles being measured, also causing diffraction of
the laser beam and being picked up by the camera, and this has to be
screened out during the image processing.
30
Engineering Measurements
LASER
AUTOMATED CAMERA
REFLECTED LIGHT
SCATTERED LIGHT
PLATE
Fig. 3.3 Sensing contaminants on the photo mask
In order to keep the image in focus, the distance L between the photo mask
and the objective lens had to be maintained to within about 250 nm during
the tracking process. The photo mask was mounted on piezo-actuators (see
Fig. 3.4) for fine levelling and for feedback control of position during
tracking. Coarse positioning and levelling was done with manual screw
adjustment, to within about 20 ,urn.
Height measurement had to be done using a method that was non-
contacting, with a high resolution and a rapid response time. For this a
silicon semiconductor position sensitive detector was used. This is not
dissimilar in operation to the LVDT, in that it is energized externally, and
has a split output to increase the responsivity of the instrument, and to
normalize the result to make it insensitive to temperature changes, for
example. However, in this case, instead of using a transformer and
requiring physical movement, the transducer acts by light falling on the
semiconductor surface and freeing electron-hole pairs which then migrate
in the direction offering least resistance.
Position, Speed, and Acceleration Measurement 31
LASER
POSITION SENSITIVE
DETECTOR
PHOTO MASK
PIEZO ACTUATOR
Fig. 3.4 Photo mask height measurement
The position sensitive detector was then checked for linearity over
different laser intensities, and it was found that varying the laser intensity
by a factor of 50 gave only 17% difference in signal output, which was
extremely good. The detector was first calibrated using a micrometer to
within 1 pm. However, this was the limit of the micrometer reading, and
the detector resolution was well within this, so a LVDT had to be used for
calibration purposes instead.
Case Sfudv
Borehole probes
In quarrying, when drilling the boreholes in which to pack the explosive, it
is important that the hole is neither too far from the blasting face, nor too
close. If it is too far then the boulders resulting from the blast are too large
to be useful, and if it is too close to the face then it can be dangerous, as
rocks can then be blown great distances by the blast.
The position of the top of each hole is found by conventional surveying
techniques. A laser mounted on a tripod and positioned in front of the
quarry face is used, first to triangulate between two known points to
determine its position, then to determine the three-dimensional profile of
32 Engineering Measiirements
the existing quarry face, by positioning the laser at different angles and
bouncing a beam off the surface, and calculating the distance by timing the
reflected light. Then the position of the tops of each borehole must be
found. As these will be out of sight from the quarry floor, a pole of known
height is stuck into the borehole, with a bubble to ensure it is vertical, and
a reflector to reflect back the laser beam.
The hole depth, incline and azimuth are then needed, assuming the hole is
straight, to give an overall position of the hole relative to the face.
Traditionally this is done by lowering a torch on a measuring tape to the
bottom of the hole. The hole depth is read from the tape, the incline from
sighting an inclinometer on the torch, and the azimuth by sighting a
compass on the torch, which is difficult to do accurately.
However, if the hole is bent, or full of water, this method is not possible. A
solution to this is the borehole probe, which can measure distance,
inclination and azimuth at a series of positions along the length of the hole
with reference to its top point, and without having to be seen from the hole top.
The construction of the probe is as shown in Fig. 3.5. Its core is two
precision fluid level inclinometers mounted at right angles to one another,
and an electronic magnetometer acting as a compass. It is self-powered
using a rechargeable battery, and electronic circuitry mounted in the probe
excites the instruments and converts the output into useful data.
This entire sensor package is mounted in a sealed stainless steel sheath,
and is lowered by cable winch from a tripod into the borehole, on a flexible
suspension cable. This also contains wires to transmit the data from the
probe to a portable data recorder on the surface. An electronic cable length
measuring device is used to determine the distance travelled down the hole.
The fluid level inclinometer consists of two circular discs which act as
capacitors, milled out in the centre to contain the fluid. As the inclinometer
tilts, the fluid level in the inclinometer changes, so that the dielectric
constant between the two capacitor plates varies with the amount of liquid
or gas connecting them. The transducer is energized with a pulse, and a
pulse is returned, with the pulse width proportional to the angle of tilt. The
pulse width is then measured digitally.
The magnetometer or flux gate compass consists of an energizing coil,
pick-up coils and a ferrite ring. It operates inductively, with the field being
Position, Speed, and Acceleration Measurement 33
I,
I I
-
750 mm 1
(a) OUTSIDE MEW OF BOREHOLE PROBE
INCLINOMETER 2 INCLINOMETER 1
TI &m CIRCUIT 11 NiCd BATTERY
I I
/
COMPASS \- COMPASS BOARD
(MAGNETOMETER)
(b) PROBE INSTRUMENTATION
Fig. 3.5 Construction of the borehole probe
distorted by the earths magnetic field. There are two pick-up coils, and the
two output vectors are resolved to give the direction.
To measure total inclination, the inclinometers are mounted at right angles
to one another and a microprocessor combines the two readings to give the
absolute inclination of the probe. This is independent of the random
rotation which occurs when lowering the probe into the hole. The outputs
from the magnetometer are combined with the information from the
inclinometers to measure the magnetic azimuth. Using these and the
distance information from the cable length device, the position relative to
the hole top can be obtained at intervals down the hole.
The survey starts at the bottom, then the probe is drawn up gently from
station to station. It does not matter whether the probe rotates since each
station gets an independent set of readings. The pulling-up tends to ensure
that the probe stays in contact with the wall instead of hanging diagonally.
34 Engineering Mec~surements
When taking a reading the computer refuses to accept it until the signals
have become steady.
The linearity of the inclinometers up to 30" from vertical is within 0.5% or
less than 0.15". With a typical hole incline of 10" the azimuth accuracy
will be within ?la. Repeatability was found to be within 0.2 metres over a
20 metre hole. The only likely gross error in an electronic hole probe is
when there is a significant amount of magnetic material in the rock, in
which case the site is not suitable for this method of measurement.
The sensors used are able to withstand significant shock loading, such as
being dropped on the ground, or even down the hole. In one case the probe
was stuck in a hole, and the shot fired, then the probe recovered from the
rock pile. Although the casing was wrecked, the sensors were still working
and within calibration limits.
The software package which supports the instrument will plot profiles of
the quarry face and the borehole, so that if necessary the holes can be re-
drilled, or only part-packed with explosive. It can also be used to plan the
hole positions and directions before drilling, working out the 'burden' or
distance between the face and the explosives, and to calculate the rock yield.