Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:

Ability (be able, capable,
know how, can)
into grammar expressing:
Permissive (allowed, may).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:English can > permissive,
similarly German kann > permissive,
Middle Chinese de > permissive.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Ability (be able, capable,
knows how, can)
into grammar expressing:
Possibility (could be, might).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: German kann, Middle Chinese
de

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Ablative (from, coming
from)
into grammar expressing:
Agent (by).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: German von, Bulgarian ot

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Ablative (from, coming
from)
into grammar expressing:
Comparative (than,
compared to).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Tibetan nas, Bulgarian ot;
these words for from came to be used
with a comparative (smaller, older) or,
in Tibetan, a describing noun (such as
chun-ba, small one) to introduce the
thing an object is being compared to.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Ablative (from, coming
from)
into grammar expressing:
Material ([made] from, of,
out of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Bulgarian ot, English from. In
some languages a verb like made will be
necessary, in others the meaning stands
on its own.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Ablative (from, coming
from)
into grammar expressing:
Partitive (of/ bit of, a few, a
piece of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: German von, Bulgarian ot. In
many languages the ablative first
develops use for possession, then
partitive.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Ablative (from, coming
from)
into grammar expressing:
Near Past (come from, just).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: French viens de, Pitta-Pitta
ablative suffix inya. An affected verb
may be habitually used in present
tense, or past; or no verb may be
necessary.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Ablative (from, coming
from)
into grammar expressing:
A-Possessive (of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: German von, Hawaiian no.
Note, Hawaiian no Kimo Kimos
requires a verb, like the house is
Kimos rather than simply Kimos
house.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Ablative (from, coming
from)
into grammar expressing:
Since (ever since, from that
time).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Romanian de, Persian az,
Polish od.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
All
into grammar expressing:
Plural (more than one).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English yall, Wankumara
buka (word meaning all which is used
to mark words plural)

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
All
into grammar expressing:
Superlative (best, worst,
most, of all)
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Latvian viss (all) became
superlative prefix vis-, Estonian koik (all)
became a superlative marker used like of
all, Hamer wul-na (to all) used with an
adjective (such as sana (fast)) expresses
superlative (wul-na sana, fast to all,
fastest).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Allative (Locative) (to, over
to; direction toward)
into grammar expressing:
Complementizer (to [do
something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English to, originally allative,
complementizes as in I want to ask you
something. French descends from Latin
ad (to). This process may generally follow
Allative > Purpose > Infinitive >
Complementizer.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Allative (Locative) (to, over
to; direction toward)
into grammar expressing:
Dative (to, give to; indirect
object).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English preposition to, Tamil
suffix -itam, Lezgian suffix
-z (allative > benefactive / malefactive
(person action benefits/hurts) > dative).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Allative (Locative) (to, over
to; direction toward)
into grammar expressing:
Patient (object or
experiencer).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Imonda -m, Lezgian -z.

The patient may or may not be the
object of a sentence.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Allative (Locative) (to, over
to; direction toward)
into grammar expressing:
Purpose (to, for, for to).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English to, Albanian pr.
Purposives might take noun phrases (like
English for), or phrases (like to).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Allative (Locative) (to, over
to; direction toward)
into grammar expressing:
Temporal (on, during).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: German zu (zum
Wochenende, on the weekend),
Albanian pr.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Allative (Locative) (to, over
to; direction toward)
into grammar expressing:
Until (during the whole
period before something).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: German bei zu (with to) >
bis (until), Old Norse til (goal) >
English till, Russian do (to > until).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Alone (without company)
into grammar expressing:
Only (nothing else, merely,
just).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: German allein, Swahili peke
yake.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Also (Focus) (too)
into grammar expressing:
NP-And (and used on noun
phrases).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Cayuga hni, Kxoe tama-xa.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
VP-And (and used with
verbs)
into grammar expressing:
Subordinator (if, as soon as,
because of)
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Mingrelian da (and) became da
(if); Mingrelian do (and) became do (as
soon as), !Xun ta (and) became ta
(because of).

Many subordinators are possible.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Anticausative (non-actor like
it in it is Sunday, What
time is it?)
into grammar expressing:
Passive (like get ed in
youll get reviewed; leaves
out subject).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: !Xun / (body) > reflexive (-
self) > anticausative > passive marker,
acting as the object (literally, the water
drank it > the water got drunk).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Area (region)
into grammar expressing:
Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Imonda la (area) > locative
adverbial suffix -la, Kpelle pele (also
became suffix).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Arrive (arrive at, reach)
into grammar expressing:
Ability (be able, capable,
know how, can).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Koranko ke (verb takes new
sentence), Mandarin do (suffix on verb
of action makes verb of capability).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Arrive (arrive at, reach)
into grammar expressing:
Allative (Locative) (to, over
to; direction toward).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Chinese do, which can be a
verb (arrive), can act as a preposition
(to) with a second verb. Zande verb da
(reach, arrive) > preposition da (to, as far
as, until).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Arrive (arrive at, reach)
into grammar expressing:
Succeed (manage to)
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Mandarin do (suffix on
verb of action makes verb of success).
Lahu g, as a particle after the main
verb, turned from meaning reach to
manage to do. (Not sure if took
another noun for thing
reached/managed, or altered verb.)

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Arrive (arrive at, reach)
into grammar expressing:
Until (during the whole
period before something).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Khmer verb dl (arrive)
became an adverbial subordinator
(meaning until), Zande verb da
(arrive) > preposition da (as far as,
until).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Back (body part)
into grammar expressing:
After (temporal).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Thai noun l(back) >
adverbial subordinator l-cag
(literally, back from, but meaning
after). Icelandic bak.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Back (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Behind (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Icelandic bak (back) > a bak
(to the back of, behind) > bak (behind),
Tzotzil noun pat (back, bark, shell) >
locative marker pat (behind, outside).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Back (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Cause (because of, since)
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Only African examples are
known. Mor noun pr (back) >
postposition pr (makes noun into adj
meaning after _) > postposition pr
(causal). Wolof ginnaaw (back, body part
noun) > subordinating
conjunction ginnaaw (causal since).


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Back (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Earlier (prior, before, ago).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English back, e.g. five years
back, Nanay xamasi, Estonian tagasi, and
many others evolved identically.

These expressions might be relative to
the sentences main tense, or the time of
utterance.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Back (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Then (afterward, after _).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Kikuyu thutha (back) > adv
taking optional noun phrase, Egyptian
r-s3 (toward the back of) > temporal
subordinator r-s3 (after).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Back (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Up (over, on top of, above).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Mixtec si-ki (animal-back) > si-
ki (over), Susu noun fari (back, surface) >
postposition fari (on, over, above).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Bad (terrible)
into grammar expressing:
Intensifier (very, extremely).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English adjectives bad, mean,
stupid, adverbs aweful, awefully, German
adverb furchtbar (terrible), Baka noun
siti (evil, malice) > adverb siti (very, very
well).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Beat (beat, hit, strike)
into grammar expressing:
Pro-Verb (make, do, act;
verb making their object
into an action).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Approximate English strike
up conversation, hit the bar. Swahili
ku-piga (beat, hit) > ku-piga (make).
Ewe fo: fo da, literally beat hair, >
plait hair; fo nu, beat mouth, >
speak.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Begin (start)
into grammar expressing:
First (numeral).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Swahili verb (infinitive) ku-
anza (begin) > adj. -a kwanza (the
first).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Begin (start)
into grammar expressing:
First (temporal).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Swahili verb (infinitive) ku-
anza (begin) > adverb kwanza (first).
Approximate English begin with,
beginning in certain contexts.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Begin (start)
into grammar expressing:
Inceptive (start to).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Lingala -banda (start) >
ingressive auxiliary -banda.

The distinction is grammatical; the
abstraction Begin represents an
ordinary verb. Inceptive can be a
helping verb or other structure.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Behind (Locative)
into grammar expressing:
After (temporal).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Lezgian guguna behind >
guguniz after, Udmurt
beryn behind > bere after, many
similar.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Belly (stomach)
into grammar expressing:
In (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Atoli noun ii(belly) >
preposition ii (in, into, at the time of).
Albanian noun bark (belly) > noun bark
(interior).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Benefactive (for, for the
good of)
into grammar expressing:
Dative (to, give to; indirect
object).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Ewe na (give) can appear as
an extra verb in a sentence to
introduce a person benefitting, but has
also developed a pure dative use.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Benefactive (for, for the
good of)
into grammar expressing:
A-Possessive (of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Arabic preposition li-
(benefactive) > li-/l-, genitive case (used
like English s).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Benefactive (for, for the
good of)
into grammar expressing:
Purpose (for, to, for to).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English for, Bulgarian za
(adjective; eg, milk for the children >
milk for drinking).

The Purpose phrase resulting from this
grammaticalization might behave like an
adjective, adverb, or both.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Body
into grammar expressing:
Reflexive (yourself, oneself) or
Intensive-Reflexive (Focus) (ones
own self).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Vai buu wa (body itself) >
buu wa (emphatic reflexive), Ibibio
idem (body) > reflexive or emphatic
reflexive, Moru ru (body) > refl.,
emphat. refl, or reciprocal marker
(reciprocal meaning each other).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Bottom (lower part, bottom
side, underside)
into grammar expressing:
Down (under, below,
beneath).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Kpelle relational noun mu
(bottom side) > postposition mu
(under), Kwami noun tilli (bottom) >
adverb tilli (below).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Body
into grammar expressing:
Reciprocal (each other).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Yoruba ara (body) > ara (self,
each other), Moru ru (body) > ru (self,
very self, each other), Bura dza (body) >
dzi- (self, each other, antipassive
antipassive lets Bura speakers leave out
the sentences object).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Boundary (border)
into grammar expressing:
Until (during the whole
period before something).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Swahili noun m-paka
(boundary) > preposition mpaka
(until). All known examples are
African, and take nouns (English until
can subordinate a clause).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Bowels (guts, intestines)
into grammar expressing:
In (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Namakaru noun napyalau
(bowel) > preposition napyalau (in),
Hungarian noun bel (intestines, interior
organ) > prefix bel- (inside).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Branch (twig, bough)
into grammar expressing:
Classifier (most similar to
head [of cattle], grains [of
rice]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Ulithian noun se-raa (branch)
> classifier se-raa (bough, tree cutting,
part of a magic formula). Classifiers allow
mass nouns (eg, English water) to be
addressed in units, counted, made
singular/plural, etc.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Breast (chest, front of torso)
into grammar expressing:
Front (Locative) (in front of,
near).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Welsh ger bron (near breast)
> ger bron (in front of, near).


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Buttocks (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Behind (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Dogon noun bolo (buttock) >
adverb bolo (behind), Tzotzil noun
chak(il) (buttock) > locative marker
chak(il) (behind [an animal]).


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Buttocks
into grammar expressing:
Down (under, below,
bottom).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Shuswap noun ep (buttocks) >
suffix -ep (bottom of), Bambara nouns ju
(buttocks) + koro (basis, ground) >
postpositional adverb jukoro (under,
below).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Center (middle)
into grammar expressing:
Between (in the middle,
amidst).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Albanian noun midis
(center) > preposition midis (between)

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Center (middle)
into grammar expressing:
In (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Lingala ntei (middle) >
preposition ntei (in), Dullay kitte (of
the middle) > kittace (between, within).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Change-of-state (become,
turn into, wax)
into grammar expressing:
Copula (is/are, is one, is
[something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Ngalakan verbalizing suffix -
men (become) > verb -men (was; be in
imperfect past).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Change-of-state (become,
turn into, wax)
into grammar expressing:
Future Tense (will, going to,
shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: German verb werden (to
become) > future tense auxiliary
werden.

Grammaticalization
Change a word or phrase expressing:
Child (kid, baby, son,
daughter)
into grammar expressing:
Classifier (most similar to head [of
cattle], grains [of rice]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Vietnamese con (child) >
classifier for moving living things. Kilivila
noun gwadi > gudi, classifier for young
humans. Classifiers allow mass nouns (eg,
English water) to be addressed in units,
counted, made singular/plural, etc.


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Child (kid, baby, son,
daughter)
into grammar expressing:
Diminutive (little).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Awtuw noun yn (child) >
suffix -yn (young [with animal], small
[with tool]), Chinese ER (child, son) > -
ER (diminutive suffix), Lingala noun
mwana (child) > particle mwa (little).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Child (kid, baby, son,
daughter)
into grammar expressing:
Partitive (of, a bit of, a few,
a piece of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Ewe sukli (sugar) + vi (child)
> suklivi (piece of sugar, sugar cube).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Children
into grammar expressing:
Plural (more than one).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Ik noun wik (children) > plural
noun suffix -ik, Boni noun ijaal (small
children) > animate noun plural suffix -
ijaal. (most animate nouns in Boni are
kinship terms.)

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Circle (ring, disc)
into grammar expressing:
Around (Locative) (near,
circling).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English circling, around,
German Ring (ring) > rings (around),
Latin in gyru (in a circle) > Basque noun
ingiru (vicinity).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Come (move to/toward)
into grammar expressing:
Consecutive (and then, now,
next; narrative marker).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Kxoe noun yaa (come) >
particle yaa/ya (new event, pay
attention), Goldie verb yi (come) >
particle yi. Approximate English come
and, as in then he come and hugged
her.Note then still appears; this is
common in other languages too.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Come (move to/toward)
into grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Spanish verb venir (come) +
present participle > progressive marker,
Tater gerund + kil (come) >
progressive.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Come (move to/toward)
into grammar expressing:
Hortative (hey, well, now,
come on).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: German verb komm (come!) >
komm ! (solidarity imperative; do like
the rest of us), English come on (come
forward) > come on! (imperative to put
forth effort or cooperate). Some
hortatives make commands more polite,
some strengthen them, some mark them.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Come (move to/toward)
into grammar expressing:
Venitive (hither, in this
direction).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Fijian mai (come) > ventitive
marker mai (hither, in this direction),
Aranda verb intye (come) > verbal
suffix -intye (do the verbs action while
coming), Haitian verb vini (come) >
vini (here, toward here), English come
> Tok Pisin -kam (-ward).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Come From
into grammar expressing:
Ablative (from, coming
from, ever since)
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Ewe verb tso (come from) >
preposition tso (from), Lingala verb -uta
(come from) > prepositions uta (since),
ut o (from)

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Come From
into grammar expressing:
Near Past (temporal /
tense).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Jiddu verb -ooku (come) >
tense marker -ooku (near past). Tesu
verb -bu plural -potu (come) > past
perfect auxiliary -bu plural -potu.


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Come To (Locative Verb)
into grammar expressing:
Benefactive (for, for the
good of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Pilara pa (come) >
benefactive marker pa (to [someone]),
Lahu verb la (come) > benefactive
particle la (indicates sentence is for
someone presents benefit; for
you/me/us)

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Come To (Locative Verb)
into grammar expressing:
Change-of-state (become,
turn into, wax).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Toabaita verb mai (come) >
ingressive/resultative marker -mai (alters
tense, eg from was to has become),
English verb come > helping verb come
(as in come true, come undone), Fa
dAmbu bi (come) > resulatative aspect
marker bi (marks result of other phrase).


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Come To (Locative Verb)
into grammar expressing:
Future Tense (will, going to,
shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Bambara verb na (come) >
remote future marker na, Bambara
auxiliary verb be + verb na > near future
marker bena.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Come To (Locative Verb)
into grammar expressing:
Proximative (almost, about to,
on the verge of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Lahu verb la (come) >
ventative aspect la > proximative aspect
marker la (nearly, almost coming to),
Tchien Krahn verb gi (come) > adverb
gi (almost).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Come To (Locative Verb)
into grammar expressing:
Purpose (for, to, for to).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Chinese lai (come) >
subordinating conjunction of purpose
clauses lai, Sapo verb di (come) >
goal/purpose clause marker di.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Comitative (with, together
with)
into grammar expressing:
Agent (by).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Swahili preposition na (with) >
preposition na (by), French avec (with) >
Seychelles preposition (av)ek (with) >
(av)ek (by).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Comitative (with, together
with)
into grammar expressing:
NP-And (and used on noun
phrases).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Limbu suffix -nu (with) also
acts and and with nouns, suffixed to
all but the final noun in a list, Dogon -
le (with) acts as and, placed on every
element of list.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Comitative (with, together
with)
into grammar expressing:
S-And (and used with
sentences)
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Swahili preposition na (with) >
conjunction na (NP-and) > conjunction
na (S-and).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Comitative (with, together
with
into grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Ngbaka MaBo preposition te
(with) > progressive marker te used with
verbal nouns (ie infinitives), Umbundu
preposition l (with) > progressive marker
used with copula kasi (is) and infinitive.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Comitative (with, together
with)
into grammar expressing:
Exist (exists, there is).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Swahili preposition na (with)
> preposition (location word)-na
(forms complete sentence stating
object of preposition exists), Baka
preposition te (with) behaves similarly
but with a person/number marker
instead of location.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Comitative (with, together
with)
into grammar expressing:
Instrument (with, using, by).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Numerous languages have a
preposition for with come to mean
using, by use of etc. Others use
suffixes, eg Hungarian case marker -val
(with) > suffix marking instrument.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Comitative (with, together
with)
into grammar expressing:
Manner (with, with an air
of, in a way).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English with in with care,
with speed, German preposition mit
(with) in mit Absicht (on purpose).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Comitative (together with)
into grammar expressing:
Passive (like get ed in
youll get reviewed; leaves
out subject).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Baka preposition te (with) >
passive marker te (comes after verb to
mark passive; compare English it was
messed with), Lamang preposition nda
(with) > passive marker before verb.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Comitative (with, together
with)
into grammar expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Hausa preposition da (with)
> verb (continuous aspect marker) + da
(have), Swahili preposition na (with) >
verb (person/number inflection)-na (be
with) > verb (inflection)-na (have)

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Comitative (with, together
with)
into grammar expressing:
Temporal (on, during).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Basque suffix -ekin (with) >
suffix -ekin (during, on). German
preposition mit (with) > preposition mit
(at [an age]).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Comparative (more, than, -
er) + Negation
into grammar expressing:
No Longer.
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English not any more,
German adjective mehr (more) + kein
(not, none) > kein mehr (no longer)

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Complementizer (that
[something happens])
into grammar expressing:
Purpose (so that)
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Bulgarian (that) + (let)
> (so that), Kupto compl. ga >
purpose clause marker, Dogon ga (that)
> purpose clause marker for future tense
or nominalized verb.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Comrade (companion,
friend, neighbor, relative)
into grammar expressing:
Comitative (with, together
with).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Balto-Finnic noun kansa
(society, comrade) > Estonian
postposition kaas (together with, in
company of) > Estonian case marker ga
(with).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Comrade (companion,
friend, neighbor, relative)
into grammar expressing:
Reciprocal (each other).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Gola dave (comrade) >
reciprocal particle (each other), Gabu
akusi (their neighbors) > reciprocal
marker, Russian drug (friend) +
accusative druga > drug druga (one
another).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Conditional (if)
into grammar expressing:
Concessive (despite the fact
that, even though).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English if as in an interesting ,
if complicated, solution

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive)
into grammar expressing:
Habitual (from time to time,
occasionally, every so often).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Kxoe //oe (lie, be lying) >
present tense > continuous > habitual,
Kui verb manba (to live, exist) > auxiliary
verb (continuous past tense) > habitual
past tense

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive)
into grammar expressing:
Present Tense (now, is,
currently).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.

(Historically, usually a continuous
which is restricted to present tense will
come to be required in all present
tense.)

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Copula (is/are, is one, is
[something])
into grammar expressing:
Avertive (almost did, nearly
happened).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Russian bylo (was) > avertive
(nearly did, was about to [but didnt]),
Romanian era (was) + conj. + main
verb > nearly did [main verb].


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Copula (is/are, is one, is
[something])
into grammar expressing:
Conditional (if).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Swahili i-ki-wa (it being that) >
if, Japanese nara (be) > if, Russian est li
(is it?) > esli (if).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Copula (is/are, is one, is
[something])
into grammar expressing:
Consecutive (and then, now,
next; narrative marker).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Vai a mu (it was) >
narrative connectors amu (and), amo
(then). Shona emphatic copula ndi >
clitic ndi (and then). Kxoe verb na (be)
+subordinator ko (thus) > conjunction
nako (and).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Copula (is/are, is one, is
[something])
into grammar expressing:
Focus (even, also; marks as
new or contrasting).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Cora piriki (be) > focus marker
following a sentence-initial pronoun or
demonstrative, Papiamentu copula ta >
focus marker ta.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Copula (is/are, is one, is
[something])
into grammar expressing:
Future Tense (will, going to,
shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Russian budu (I will be) +
infinitive > future (literally, I will be to
eat / to dance / to see etc.).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Copula (is/are, is one, is
[something])
into grammar expressing:
Obligation (have to, should,
must).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English it is to be done,
Latin copula esse + dative mihi (to me)
/ tibi (to you) etc. + infinitive verb >
obligation, Chinese shi (be) + _-de (_-
ing) > obligation (Balla shi chi-de,
guavas are for eating)

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Copula (is/are) + Locative
(around, at)
into grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Godie verb ku (be at) >
progressive aspect, Maninka ye la (be
at) > progressive or durative, Lingala verb
zala (be at) > durative auxiliary.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Copula (is/are) + Locative
(around, at)
into grammar expressing:
Equative Copula (is/are, is
one, is [something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Kenya Pidgin Swahili iko (be
at) > equative copula.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Copula (is/are) + Locative
(around, at)
into grammar expressing:
Exist (exists, there is).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English there is, Swahili verb
-ko (be at) which always requires a
place (unlike there he is) > -ko (exist)
with no place included, Limbu locative
copula ya.kma (to be [somewhere]) >
existential copula with locative
implications; for example there is no
salt (in it implied).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Copula (is/are) + Locative
(around, at)
into grammar expressing:
Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Ewe verb le (be at) >
preposition le (at), Chinese verb zai
(be at) > preposition zai (at, in).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Copula (is/are) + Locative
(around, at)
into grammar expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Lezgian gwa (be at) > marker
of temporary possession, awa (be in) >
marker of possession, So negative copula
mek + locative case
-a > has no, does not have.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Cross (travel over/through)
into grammar expressing:
Across (to the other side).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Thai verb khaam (cross
over) > preposition (across), Tamil
participle taanti (crossed) >
postposition (across, beyond),
Mandarin verb guo (cross) > verbal
suffix -guo (makes movement verbs be
over or across something).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Dative (to, give to; indirect
object)
into grammar expressing:
Comparative (than,
compared to).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Easter Island preposition ki
(to) > preposition (compared to) (ie,
word order like this boy small to that
boy), Susu postposition be (to, for the
good of) > postposition (compared to).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Dative (to, give to; indirect
object)
into grammar expressing:
Patient (object or
experiencer).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Old English pronoun hire /
him (third person dative) > Modern
English her / him (accusative / dative),
Spanish preposition a (dative) >
preposition marking accusative animate
objects.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Dative (to, give to; indirect
object)
into grammar expressing:
A-Possessive (Of, -s).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Armenian dative inflection -i;
Petrosi (to peter) > Petrosi (Peters),
Baka preposition pe (dative,
benefactive) > prefix pe- (s).


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Dative (to, give to; indirect
object) + Copula (is/are)
into grammar expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Lezgian direction marker -z (-
ward) > dative marker > possessive
marker (used with locative copula),
Breton am (to me) + eus (is) > am eus (I
have).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Definite (the)
into grammar expressing:
Superlative (best, worst,
most, of all).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: French la as in la plus sage,
literally the more wise but meaning the
wisest (more wise/wiser leaves out la).
Compare English that is THE best.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Demonstrative (this, these,
that, those)
into grammar expressing:
Complementizer (to [do
something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English that, demonstrative >
complementizer, German
demonstrative and definite article das >
complementizer dass.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Demonstrative (this, these, that,
those) + adverb or preposition
into grammar expressing:
Consecutive (and then, now, next;
narrative marker).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Khasi demonstrative -ta (that)
+ adverb nang (on; continual) > nangta
(and then), German das (that, the) + mit
(with) > damit (then, with that).
Approximately like English therefore,
thereon, thereafter etc.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Demonstrative (this, these,
that, those)
into grammar expressing:
Copula (is/are, is one, is
[something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Egyptian pw (this) > verb pw
(is), Vai me (this) > nominal suffix -me
(here is).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Demonstrative (this, these,
that, those)
into grammar expressing:
Definite (the).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English demonstrative that >
definite article the, Bizkaian Basque a
(that) > suffix -a (definite article), Vai me
(this) > -me (the, nominalizer).


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Demonstrative (this, these,
that, those)
into grammar expressing:
Focus (even, also; marks as
new or contrasting).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Ambulas pronoun wan (that,
those) > adjective/adverb wan
(focus; like stressing the word), Mokilese
deictic ioar (that, the one Im pointing at)
> focus.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Demonstrative (this, these,
that, those)
into grammar expressing:
Third Person Pronoun (he,
she, it, they).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Latin ille (that) > French il
(he), Egyptian pw (this) > third person
pronoun (he, she, it, they).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Demonstrative (this, these,
that, those)
into grammar expressing:
Relative Pronoun (who,
which, that; as in the X
which Y).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English that, Baka ke (this) >
relative pronoun.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Demonstrative (this, these,
that, those)
into grammar expressing:
Subordinator (if, as soon as,
because of, when).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: !Xun pronoun ka-ng (this) >
conjunction ka-ng (when), Sango so (this,
that) > conjunction (when, because).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Deontic (Obligation / Permissive)
(should, must, ought; responsibility)
into grammar expressing:
Epistemic (Possibility / Probability)
(certainly is, could be; probability or
truth).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English will, must and should
(e.g. you must be here on time > I must
have been, he must know already).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Deontic (Obligation /
Permissive) (should, must,
ought; responsibility)
into grammar expressing:
Future Tense (will, going to,
shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English will (want) > future
tense marker. In other languages,
obligation tends to become future
tense in third person but not in second
person.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Descend (fall, go downward)
into grammar expressing:
Down (under, below,
beneath).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Ewe verb di(go down, descend)
> adverb di (downward, beforehand),
Imonda verb peha (go down) > serial
verb (downward).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Do (to do, to make)
into grammar expressing:
Causative (cause to be, cause to
do, cause to make).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Wankumara verb munk-
(make, do) > verbalizing suffix -munka-
(make, cause), English make as in Susie
made John wash the car, Moru verb ba
(make, put) > causative auxiliary verb,
Lahu verb te (do) > causativizer and
transativizer.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Do (to do, to make)
into grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Southern Barasano verb ya
(do) stacked after main verb >
progressive, Bongo d- (do, make) +
nominalized verb (-ing) > progressive.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Do (to do, to make)
into grammar expressing:
Emphasis (very, actual, even,
still).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English He did arrive versus
He arrived, Imonda fe (make, do) >
Emphasis.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Do (to do, to make)
into grammar expressing:
Obligation (have to, should,
must).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Punjabi kar (do) > strong
obligation, Korean hada (do) + ya (only) >
ya hada (weak obligation).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Do (to do, to make)
into grammar expressing:
Pro-Verb (make, do, act;
verb making their object
into an action).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English verb do, as in do a
shot or do a U-turn, Japanese verb suru
(do) >continuous pro-verb (doing / be
doing).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Dual (pair, both, those two)
into grammar expressing:
NP-And (and used on noun
phrases).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Alyawarra dual number suffix -
athirra > suffix meaning with or and,
Kxoe third person dual -tca > conjunction
for joining two (only two) noun phrases.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Ear (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Tzotzil noun chikin (ear) >
locative marker (region around the
corner), Finnish korvassa (in the ear) >
korvassa (at the edge of, toward).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Earth (earth, soil, land,
ground)
into grammar expressing:
Down (under, below,
beneath).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Bulu noun si (earth, land,
landscape) > adverb and preposition
meaning below or under, Kikuyu
noun thi (earth, world) > adverb
down, thi ya (of earth) > preposition
under.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Eat (consume, dine)
into grammar expressing:
Passive (like get ed in
youll get reviewed; leaves
out subject).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Chinese CHI (eat) > passive
marker, Korean meg (eat) > passive
marker. Compare (rare) English eat the
insult, dine on the attention (though,
these arent acting on verbs).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Edge (relational noun)
into grammar expressing:
Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Kpelle noun da (edge, end) >
postposition da (at, in front of), Italian
noun canto (edge) > preposition accanto
a (beside).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Environs (neighborhood,
vicinity)
into grammar expressing:
Around (Locative) (near,
circling).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Icelandic hverfi (neighborhood)
> umhverfis (around).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Exceed (defeat, surpass, pass)
into grammar expressing:
Comparative (than, compared to,
more than, -er).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Duala buka (exceed) > marker
of standard in comparative (than),
Cantonese KWO (surpass) > marker of
standard, Igbo ka (exceed) > comparative
marker ka (more), Swahili ku-shinda (to
defeat) > kushinda (more than).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Exceed (defeat, surpass,
pass)
into grammar expressing:
Elative (overly, too,
excessively).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Baka woto (pass, go on,
overtake) > comparative > elative (too
much), Mor loghe (pass, exceed) >
adverb loghe (too much). Compare
English exceedingly.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Exist (exists, there is)
into grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Kongo verb kala (to be, exist,
remain) > progressive marker ka(la),
Yagaria verb hano (exist, be) >
progressive-marking prefix no- / ne-.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Exist (exists, there is)
into grammar expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: North !Xun intransitive verb ge
(exist) > transitive ge (have), Turkish
adjective var (existent) with suffix m
(my) > have; Taken literally, my car is
existent is the way of expressing I have a
car.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Eye (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Front (Locative) (in front of,
near).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Bambara nye (eye, face)
(optionally + fe (at)) > postposition nye
(fe) (in front of), Susu ya (eye) + -ra
(locative, topic) > yara (in front of)

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Face (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Front (Locative) (in front of,
near).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Mixtec noun nuu (face) >
preposition nuu (on top of, in front
of), Alamblak ninga-tik (eye platform)
> ningatik (face) > ningatik (in front of
[some living being]).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Face (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Up (over, on top of, above).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Nama noun ai-s (face,
blanket) > postposition ai (on, at),
Copala Trique noun rian (face) > on
top of.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Fail (fail, lack, miss)
into grammar expressing:
Avertive (almost did, nearly
happened).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: French verb faillir (fail, sin,
err) > past participle taking infinitive failli
(was on the verge of but did not),
Turkish verb -yaz- (sin, err, fail, miss) >
auxiliary verb -yaz- (was on the verge of
but did not), Tariana verb maya (make
mistake, forget, do, get wrong) > enclitic
(almost happened but I prevented).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Fall (topple, drop)
into grammar expressing:
Down (under, below,
beneath).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Ijo verb koro (to fall) >
adverb (down), Bulu verb ke (flow
down; only used with water) > adverb
(below, down, eastward).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Fall (topple, drop)
into grammar expressing:
Passive (like get ed in
youll get reviewed; leaves
out subject).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Korean verb ji- (fall) >
passive suffix -ji- (be _-ed), Tamil patu
(fall, happen) > passive suffix -pat (be
_-ed). Compare English befell.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Father (male parent)
into grammar expressing:
Male (he, he- (as in he-
goat)).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: !Xoo noun aa (father) >
adjective (male).Compare child-directed
English, daddy goat / daddy bird etc.


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Field (open area)
into grammar expressing:
Out (outside).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Basque noun landa (field) >
adverb/preposition (outside, since,
through), Latvian noun lauks (field) >
adjective/adverb lauka (outside).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Finish (complete, end)
into grammar expressing:
After (temporal).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Turkish noun son (end) >
sonra (after), Nanay verb xoi- (finish,
end) > xoipia (after), Indonesian verbs
sudah, telah, habis (finish) + se (one,
same, all) > adverbs sesudah, setelah,
sehabis (after).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Finish (complete, end)
into grammar expressing:
Already (Focus).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English adjective done >
colloquial adverb done as in he done
woke up, Tongan intrans. verb osi (to
be done) > transitive osi (already; osis
obj. becomes a verb), Burmese verb -
pi- (finish) > suffix -pi (already),
Vietnamese verb roi (to finish, to be
idle) > adverb already.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Finish (complete, end)
into grammar expressing:
Completive (thoroughly, all
the way, up).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Eighth century Chinese
stacking verb liao (finish, accomplish) >
completive marker le (up, to the end),
Lingala verb
-sila (finish, end) > egressive auxiliary
verb (stop doing, finish doing).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Finish (complete, end)
into grammar expressing:
Consecutive (and then, now,
next; narrative marker)
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Swahili i-ki-isha (if it is
finished) > consecutive marker kasha
(then), Kxoe ta-xu-no (if it is over like
that; literally thus-finish-if) > taxuno
(and then), Ani tio khuri nu (then
when finished) > after that.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Finish (complete, end)
into grammar expressing:
Perfective (-ed; an event
with a distinct end).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Lhasa verb tshaa (finish) >
perfective marker, Burmese verb pi
(finish) > perfective auxiliary verb, Kongo
verb mana (finish) > perfective aspect
marker.


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
First (temporal; earliest)
into grammar expressing:
Before (earlier, earlier than).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Italian adjective primo (first)
> adverb prima (at first, earlier) >
prima di (before), Old Indic prathama-
(first) > Punjabi preposition pailaa
(before), Latvian adverb pirmis (first) >
adverb pirms (before).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Flank (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Side (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Ani noun gam-si (flank) >
locative postposition gam-si (beside),
Abkhaz noun avara (flank, side) > a-
vara (beside).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Follow
into grammar expressing:
According To.
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Latin verb sequi (follow) >
gerund secundus (following) >
preposition secundum (along,
immediately after, according to, for the
benefit of), Swahili ku-fuatana na (to
follow each other) > kufuatana na
(following, according to).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Follow
into grammar expressing:
Behind (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Albanian transitive verb
pason (follow) > adverb and
preposition pas (behind).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Follow
into grammar expressing:
Comitative (with, together
with).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Ainu tura (follow) > case
marker on animate nouns
-tura (with), Mandarin verb gen
(follow) > preposition (with).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Foot (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Down (under, below,
beneath).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Footprint
into grammar expressing:
Behind (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Forehead (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Front (Locative) (in front of,
near).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Front (Locative) (in front of,
near)
into grammar expressing:
Before (earlier, earlier than).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Front (Locative) (in front of,
near)
into grammar expressing:
Later (then, thereafter,
afterwards, later on).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Future Tense (will, going to,
shall)
into grammar expressing:
Epistemic (Possibility / Probability)
(certainly is, could be; probability
or truth).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English auxiliary will (future
tense as in we will be there) >
epistemic (as in, upon hearing the
doorbell, that will be Susie, or will
have happened by now), similarly
Bulgarian ste.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:
Ability (be able, capable,
know how, can).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:
Change-Of-State (become,
turn into, wax).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:
Obligation (have to, should,
must).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:
Passive (like get ed in
youll get reviewed; leaves
out subject).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:
Past Tense (was, has, -ed).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:
Permissive (allowed, may).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:
Possibility (could be, might).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Get (receive, obtain)
into grammar expressing:
Succeed (manage to).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Give (hand over, transfer
ownership)
into grammar expressing:
Benefactive (for, for the
good of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Cahuilla verb max (give) >
benefactive affix, Thai verb haj (give) >
co-verb (to, for, benefitting ), Efik n
(give) > benefactive preposition (to, for).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Give (hand over, transfer
ownership)
into grammar expressing:
Causative (cause to do,
cause to make).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Give (hand over, transfer
ownership)
into grammar expressing:
Concern (about,
concerning).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Give (hand over, transfer
ownership)
into grammar expressing:
Dative (to, give to; indirect
object).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Give (hand over, transfer
ownership)
into grammar expressing:
Purpose (to, for, for to, so
that).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Go (travel, move)
into grammar expressing:
Andative (go away, go and
X, X off).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Go (travel, move)
into grammar expressing:
Change-Of-State (become,
turn into, wax).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Go (travel, move)
into grammar expressing:
Consecutive (and then, now,
next; narrative marker)
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Go (travel, move)
into grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Go (travel, move)
into grammar expressing:
Distal Demonstrative (that,
those).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Go (travel, move)
into grammar expressing:
Habitual (from time to time,
occasionally, every so often).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Go (travel, move)
into grammar expressing:
Hortative (hey, well, now,
come on).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Go To (Locative Verb)
(approach, travel to)
into grammar expressing:
Allative (Locative) (to, over
to; direction toward).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Chinese verb Chinese verb
YU (go to) > preposition (to, at), Ewe
verb yi (go) > allative co-verb (to,
going), Ani verb kun-a-na (going to) >
preposition (toward, until).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Go To (Locative Verb)
(approach, travel to)
into grammar expressing:
Future Tense (will, going to,
shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Go To (Locative Verb)
(approach, travel to)
into grammar expressing:
Purpose (to, for, for to, so
that).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Hand (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Agent (by).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Hand (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Five (cardinal).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Hand (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Hand (body part)
into grammar expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Head (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Front (Locative) (in front of,
near).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Head (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Intensive-Reflexive (Focus)
(ones own self).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Head (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Middle (oneself, to oneself).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Head (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Reflexive (yourself, oneself).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Head (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Up (over, on top of, above).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Heart (body part)
into grammar expressing:
In (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Here
into grammar expressing:
Cause (because of, since).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Lingala adverb awa (here) >
conjunction (while, when) >
conjunction (since, because), Albanian
adverb ke (here) > conjunction
(because).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Here
into grammar expressing:
Demonstrative (this, these,
that, those).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Here
into grammar expressing:
Personal Pronoun (I, we)
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Huojia dialects noun ZHER
(here) > pronoun ZHER (we, us),
Japanese noun kotira (here) > pronoun
kotira (I, me). Typically here becomes
used as a 1
st
person pronoun while there
becomes 2
nd
person.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Here
into grammar expressing:
Relative Pronoun (who,
which, that; as in the X
which Y).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Home
into grammar expressing:
Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Home
into grammar expressing:
A-Possessive (Of, -s).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Kabiye noun te (homestead,
hometown) > genitive marker of
alienable possession, Acholi noun paaco
(homestead) > preposition pa (of),
Ngiti adverb ibha (at home) >
postposition bha (of) for alienable
possessions of individuals.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
House
into grammar expressing:
Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
How? (W-question)
into grammar expressing:
Comparative (more, than,
-er).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
How? (W-question)
into grammar expressing:
Simile (like, as if, thus).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
In (Locative)
into grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
In (Locative)
into grammar expressing:
Temporal (on, during).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Instrument (with, using, by)
into grammar expressing:
Ergative (by; marker present
on all verbs agents).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Instrument (with, using, by)
into grammar expressing:
Manner (with, with an air
of, in a way).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Intensive-Reflexive (Focus)
(ones own self)
into grammar expressing:
Even (Focus).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Intensive-Reflexive (Focus)
(ones own self)
into grammar expressing:
Reflexive.
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Interior
into grammar expressing:
In (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Interior
into grammar expressing:
Temporal (on, during).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Iterative (over and over,
repeatedly)
into grammar expressing:
Habitual (from time to time,
occasionally, every so often).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Iterative (over and over,
repeatedly)
into grammar expressing:
Still (even now).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Keep (hold, retain)
into grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Keep (hold, retain)
into grammar expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Know
into grammar expressing:
Ability (be able, capable,
know how, can).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Know
into grammar expressing:
Habitual (from time to time,
occasionally, every so often).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Lack (be missing, loes)
into grammar expressing:
Negation (do not, no, not).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Leave (depart from, forsake,
abandon, let go)
into grammar expressing:
Ablative (from, coming
from).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Leave (depart from, forsake,
abandon, let go)
into grammar expressing:
Completive (thoroughly, all
the way, up).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Leave (depart from, forsake,
abandon, let go)
into grammar expressing:
Egressive (stop doing, quit).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English leave off,

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Leave (depart from, forsake,
abandon, let go)
into grammar expressing:
Hortative (hey, well, now,
come on).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Leave (depart from, forsake,
abandon, let go)
into grammar expressing:
Negation (do not, no, not).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Leave (depart from, forsake,
abandon, let go)
into grammar expressing:
Permissive (allowed, may).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Lie (rest, recline, lie down)
into grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Limit (boundary, edge)
into grammar expressing:
Until (during the whole
period before something).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Lip (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Live (live, be alive, stay,
dwell)
into grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Live (live, be alive, stay,
dwell)
into grammar expressing:
Habitual (from time to time,
occasionally, every so often).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Live (live, be alive, stay,
dwell)
into grammar expressing:
Locative Copula (is around,
is at).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Live (live, be alive, stay,
dwell)
into grammar expressing:
Exist (exists, there is).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Liver (the internal organ)
into grammar expressing:
Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Locative (around, at)
into grammar expressing:
Agent (by).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Locative (around, at)
into grammar expressing:
Cause (because of, since).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Locative (around, at)
into grammar expressing:
Comparative (than,
compared to).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Locative (around, at)
into grammar expressing:
Concern (about,
concerning).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Locative (around, at)
into grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Locative (around, at)
into grammar expressing:
A-Possessive (Of, -s).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Locative (around, at)
into grammar expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Locative (around, at)
into grammar expressing:
Subordinator (if, as soon as,
because of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Locative (around, at)
into grammar expressing:
Temporal (on, during).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Love
into grammar expressing:
Avertive (almost did, nearly
happened).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Cahuilla transitive verb -
ayaw- (to love) > suffix marking verb
which is intended and not (yet) wholly
realized.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Love
into grammar expressing:
Future Tense (will, going to,
shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English verb like > Tok Pisin
future auxiliary laik (will), Albanian do
(love, need, wish) > future auxiliary (will).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Love
into grammar expressing:
Intention (to intend to).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Lingala verb -linga (love, want)
> auxiliary expressing attention (mean to,
like to).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Love
into grammar expressing:
Proximative (almost, about to,
on the verge of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English verb like > Tok Pisin
proximative auxiliary laik (about to),
Lingala verb -linga (love, want) >
proximative marker (almost).


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Man
into grammar expressing:
Classifier (most similar to
head [of cattle], grains [of
rice]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Man
into grammar expressing:
Exclamation (wow, oh).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Man
into grammar expressing:
Indefinite Pronoun
(something, someone).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Man
into grammar expressing:
Male (he, he- (as in he-
goat)).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Man
into grammar expressing:
Third Person Pronoun (he,
she, it, they).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Manner (with, with an air
of, in a way)
into grammar expressing:
Simile (like, as if, thus).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Matter (affair, news, thing,
talk, story, problem)
into grammar expressing:
Cause (because of, since).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Ani muqoa-si (matter) >
preposition (because of), Baka ee na ke
ne (which the matter ) >
therefore, Vai ko (news, thing, case,
matter) + a (to) > -koa (in order to,
on account of). Compare English the
thing was,


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Matter (affair, news, thing,
talk, story, problem)
into grammar expressing:
Complementizer (to [do
something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Matter (affair, news, thing,
talk, story, problem)
into grammar expressing:
Purpose (to, for, for to, so
that).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Mirative (I just learned,
surprisingly, oh, to my
amazement)
into grammar expressing:
Evidential (I saw it with my
own eyes) or
Inferential (It must be).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Mother (female parent)
into grammar expressing:
Female (she, she- (as in she-
goat)).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Mouth (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Front (Locative) (in front of,
near).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Near (Locative) (close to)
into grammar expressing:
After (temporal).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Near (Locative) (close to)
into grammar expressing:
Avertive (almost did, nearly
happened) or
Proximative (almost, about to,
on the verge of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Neck (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Need (require)
into grammar expressing:
Obligation (have to, should,
must).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Negation (do not, no, not)
into grammar expressing:
S-Question (right?, or no?;
indicates yes/no question).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Negation + Exist (there is
none, there is not)
into grammar expressing:
Negation (do not, no, not)
and/or
No! (nope, nah, no siree
bob; interjection).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Now (temporal)
into grammar expressing:
Still (even now).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Obligation (have to, should,
must)
into grammar expressing:
Probability (surely is, must
be, probably is).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
One
into grammar expressing:
Alone.
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:
Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
One
into grammar expressing:
Indefinite (a, some).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
One
into grammar expressing:
Indefinite Pronoun
(something, someone).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
One
into grammar expressing:
Only (alone, merely, just).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
One
into grammar expressing:
Other (another, some
other).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
One
into grammar expressing:
Same (the same, identical).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
One
into grammar expressing:
Singulative (an individual X,
one specific copy of X).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
One
into grammar expressing:
Some (a few, about).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
One
into grammar expressing:
Together (as one, in the
same place).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Or
into grammar expressing:
S-Question (right?, or no?;
indicates yes/no question).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Owe
into grammar expressing:
Obligation (have to, should,
must).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Owner
into grammar expressing:
Intensive-Reflexive (Focus)
(ones own self).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Pass (pass by, pass through)
into grammar expressing:
After (temporal).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Pass (pass by, pass through)
into grammar expressing:
Comparative (than,
compared to).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Pass (pass by, pass through)
into grammar expressing:
Past Tense (was, has,
-ed).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Pass (pass by, pass through)
into grammar expressing:
Path (through, via).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
People
into grammar expressing:
Plural (more than one).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Perfect (-ed as in baked
goods or wounded soldier;
relevant past)
into grammar expressing:
Past Tense (was, has,
-ed).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Perfect (-ed as in baked
goods or wounded soldier;
relevant past)
into grammar expressing:
Perfective (-ed; an event
with a distinct end).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Person
into grammar expressing:
Indefinite Pronoun
(something, someone).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Person
into grammar expressing:
1
st
-Person Plural Personal
Pronoun (we).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Plural Personal Pronoun
(we, you)
into grammar expressing:
Honorific Singular (Sir,
Maam).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
3
rd
-Person Personal Pronoun
(he, she)
into grammar expressing:
Agreement (subject-verb
agreement, adjective
agreement, etc.).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
3
rd
-Person Personal Pronoun
(he, she, they)
into grammar expressing:
Copula (is/are, is one, is
[something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
3
rd
-Person Plural Personal
Pronoun (they, them)
into grammar expressing:
Impersonal (one, someone).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
3
rd
-Person Plural Personal
Pronoun (they, them)
into grammar expressing:
Passive (like get ed in
youll get reviewed; leaves
out subject).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
3
rd
-Person Plural Personal
Pronoun (they, them)
into grammar expressing:
Plural.
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Piece (part, bit, fragment)
into grammar expressing:
Classifier (most similar to
head [of cattle], grains [of
rice]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Place (spot, location,
position)
into grammar expressing:
Cause (because of, since).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Place (spot, location,
position)
into grammar expressing:
Instead.
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Place (spot, location,
position)
into grammar expressing:
Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
A-Possessive (Of, -s)
into grammar expressing:
Partitive (of/ bit of, a few,
which is a piece of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own) +
Anticausative (non-actor like
it in It is raining)
into grammar expressing:
Exist (exists, there is).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: French il (it, anticausative) +
avoir (have) > il avoir (there is), German
da (there) + haben (have) > colloquial da
hat (there is).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own)
into grammar expressing:
Future Tense (will, going to,
shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Latin habere (have) > Spanish
future tense -re, Nyabo ko (have) >
future tense (literally, he has that he
goes > he will go).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own)
into grammar expressing:
Obligation (have to, should,
must).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English have to, German hat
zu (have to), and many similar
examples, verbs for have taking
infinitives or whole sentences.

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own)
into grammar expressing:
Perfect (-ed as in baked
goods or wounded soldier;
relevant past).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: English have as in I have
done that, Cantonese yau > verbal
aspect marker (did, have).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Property (possession)
into grammar expressing:
A-Possessive (Of, -s).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Purpose (to, for, for to, so
that)
into grammar expressing:
Cause (because of, since).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Purpose (to, for, for to, so
that)
into grammar expressing:
Infinitive (to as in I like to
walk, to see is to believe).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Put (place, position)
into grammar expressing:
Completive (thoroughly, all
the way, up).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
S-Question (right?, or no?;
indicates yes/no question)
into grammar expressing:
Conditional (if).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
W-Question (what, who,
which, how)
into grammar expressing:
Complementizer (to [do
something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
W-Question (what, who,
which, how)
into grammar expressing:
Indefinite Pronoun
(something, someone).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
W-Question (what, who,
which, how)
into grammar expressing:
Relative Pronoun (who,
which, that; as in the X
which Y).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Reflexive (yourself, oneself)
into grammar expressing:
Anticausative (non-actor like
it in it is Sunday).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Reflexive (yourself, oneself)
into grammar expressing:
Middle (oneself, to oneself).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Reflexive (yourself, oneself)
into grammar expressing:
Passive (like get ed in
youll get reviewed; leaves
out subject).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Reflexive (yourself, oneself)
into grammar expressing:
Reciprocal (each other).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Relative Pronoun (who,
which, that; as in the X
which Y)
into grammar expressing:
Complementizer (to [do
something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Remain (still exist, stay, stay
in place)
into grammar expressing:
Durative (still, stick with,
keep).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Remain (still exist, stay, stay
in place)
into grammar expressing:
Habitual (from time to time,
occasionally, every so often).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Resemble
into grammar expressing:
Comparative (than,
compared to).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Resemble
into grammar expressing:
Complementizer (to [do
something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Resemble
into grammar expressing:
Simile (like, as if, thus).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Return (go back)
into grammar expressing:
Iterative (over and over,
repeatedly).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Same (the same, identical)
into grammar expressing:
Intensive-Reflexive (Focus)
(ones own self).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Say
into grammar expressing:
Cause (because of, since).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Say
into grammar expressing:
Complementizer (to [do
something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Say
into grammar expressing:
Conditional (if).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Say
into grammar expressing:
Evidential (I saw it with my
own eyes).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Say
into grammar expressing:
Purpose (to, for, for to, so
that).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Say
into grammar expressing:
Quotative (said; for exact
quotes).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Say
into grammar expressing:
Simile (like, as if, thus).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Say
into grammar expressing:
Subordinator (if, as soon as,
because of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
See
into grammar expressing:
Allative (Locative) (to, over
to; direction toward).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
See
into grammar expressing:
Passive (like get ed in
youll get reviewed; leaves
out subject).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Shoulder (body part)
into grammar expressing:
Up (over, on top of, above).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Side (edge, face)
into grammar expressing:
Beside (by, by the side of,
on the side of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Side (by the side of, on the
side of)
into grammar expressing:
Locative (around, at).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Side (by the side of, on the
side of)
into grammar expressing:
Near.
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Simile (like, as if, thus)
into grammar expressing:
Complementizer (to [do
something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Simile (like, as if, thus)
into grammar expressing:
Quotative (said; for exact
quotes).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Since (ever since, from that
time)
into grammar expressing:
Cause (because of, since).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Sit
into grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Sit
into grammar expressing:
Copula (is/are, is one, is
[something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Sit
into grammar expressing:
Habitual (from time to time,
occasionally, every so often).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Sky
into grammar expressing:
Up (over, on top of, above).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Song
into grammar expressing:
Classifier (most similar to
head [of cattle], grains [of
rice]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Stand
into grammar expressing:
Continuous (during some
whole period of time;
progressive).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Stand
into grammar expressing:
Copula (is/are, is one, is
[something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Stop (cease doing, come to
rest)
into grammar expressing:
Prohibitive (must not).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Suffer (receive, be put
through)
into grammar expressing:
Passive (like get ed in
youll get reviewed; leaves
out subject).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Suitable (to be sufficient,
enough, fitting)
into grammar expressing:
Ability (be able, capable,
know how, can).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Suitable (to be sufficient,
enough, fitting)
into grammar expressing:
Obligation (have to, should,
must).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Surround
into grammar expressing:
Around (Locative) (near,
circling).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Take (take away, seize)
into grammar expressing:
Causative (cause to do,
cause to make).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Take (take away, seize)
into grammar expressing:
Comitative (with, together
with).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Take (take away, seize)
into grammar expressing:
Completive (thoroughly, all
the way, up).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Take (take away, seize)
into grammar expressing:
Future Tense (will, going to,
shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Take (take away, seize)
into grammar expressing:
Instrument (with, using, by).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Take (take away, seize)
into grammar expressing:
Patient (object or
experiencer).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Take (take away, seize)
into grammar expressing:
H-Possessive (have, own).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Temporal (on, during)
into grammar expressing:
Adversative (but, however,
nevertheless).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Temporal (on, during)
into grammar expressing:
Cause (because of, since).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Temporal (on, during)
into grammar expressing:
Concessive (despite the fact
that, even though).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Temporal (on, during)
into grammar expressing:
Conditional (if).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Then (afterward, after _)
into grammar expressing:
Future Tense (will, going to,
shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
There (Distal, Locative)
into grammar expressing:
Distal Demonstrative (that,
those).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: French la (there) > -la (that),
Baka adverb k (there) > demonstrative
(that), Hausa adverb can (there) >
demonstrative (that).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Thing (object, matter)
into grammar expressing:
Complementizer (to [do
something]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Thing (object, matter)
into grammar expressing:
Indefinite Pronoun
(something, someone).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Thing (object, matter)
into grammar expressing:
A-Possessive (Of, -s).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Three (numeral)
into grammar expressing:
Trial (three of X) or
Plural.
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Throw
into grammar expressing:
Perfect (-ed as in baked
goods or wounded soldier;
relevant past).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Diyara verb wara- (throw) >
auxiliary verb marking perfect; eg, she
threw cooking[ly] becomes she cooked,
Palaung verb pet (throw away, finish) >
perfect or completive marker, Japanese
shimau (put away, finish) > perfect
marker

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Time (the noun, as in every
time, we have time, etc.)
into grammar expressing:
Temporal (on, during, until,
while).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Tomorrow
into grammar expressing:
Future Tense (will, going to,
shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Tomorrow
into grammar expressing:
Next (adjective)
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Top (top side)
into grammar expressing:
Up (over, on top of, above).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Trace (track, leaving)
into grammar expressing:
After (temporal).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Trace (track, leaving) +
Locative (at, in)
into grammar expressing:
Behind (Locative).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Kono noun gba (trace) + a (at,
in) > adverb/preposition gbaa (back,
backward, behind), Bambara noun no
(trace) + fe (at) > no fe (behind in a line).

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Tree
into grammar expressing:
Classifier (most similar to
head [of cattle], grains [of
rice]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
True (real, true, actually,
legitimate, truth)
into grammar expressing:
Intensifier (very, extremely).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Two (numeral)
into grammar expressing:
Dual (pair, both, those two).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Two (numeral)
into grammar expressing:
Noun-Phrase And (and
used with nouns).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Until (during the whole
period before something)
into grammar expressing:
Equative Comparative (as,
as _ as).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Up (over, on top of, above)
into grammar expressing:
Additive (and used with
numbers).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Up (over, on top of, above)
into grammar expressing:
Comparative (than,
compared to).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Up (over, on top of, above)
into grammar expressing:
Concern (about,
concerning).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Use (make use of)
into grammar expressing:
Habitual (from time to time,
occasionally, every so often).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Venitive (hither, in this
direction)
into grammar expressing:
Future Tense (will, going to,
shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Want + Past (wished,
desired)
into grammar expressing:
Avertive (almost did, nearly
happened).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Want (wish, desire)
into grammar expressing:
Future Tense (will, going to,
shall).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Want (wish, desire)
into grammar expressing:
Proximative (almost, about to,
on the verge of).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Woman (female person,
wife)
into grammar expressing:
Classifier (most similar to
head [of cattle], grains [of
rice]).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:


Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Woman (female person,
wife)
into grammar expressing:
Female.
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Yesterday
into grammar expressing:
Past Tense (was, has,
-ed).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples:

Grammaticalization

Change a word or phrase expressing:
Definite (the)
into grammar expressing:
Nominalize (-ing, to,
-ness).
This may simplify pronunciation, and
may preserve or remove the original
usage.
Examples: Haitian -la (the) > -(l)a (the
ing).