THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Most complex and elavorate system of biological structure in human body

Composed of central and peripheral nervous system

Neuron
Basic unit of the nervous system
Transmit and receive electrical signals
Parts of the Neuron
Dendrites
Fine and tiny hairlike structures that look like branches of a tree
Receive and send aerve impulses
Axon
Carries away the stimulus signalled by the cell body to another neuron
Myelin sheath
A fatty material that covers and protects the axon
Speeds up the conduction of nerve impulses
Nodes
They serve as a breake of the momentum of the speed of transmitting
nerve impulses

3 Types of Neuron : according to their functions
1.Sensory neurons(afferent or receptor neurons)
Receive stimuli from the environment through the sense organs
and transmits them to the central nervous system
2.Motor neurons(efferent neurons)
Carry information or messages from the central nervous system to
the muscles and glands
3.Interneurons(connecting or associating neurons)
Most numerous in the human body
Serves as integrators or coordinators of brain activities and bodily
processes.

Gial cells(neuroglia)
Smaller than neurons
They provide support to the neuron by supplying them
nutrients,releasing chemical,clearing away their waste, and helping
to separate them from other neurons

Nerve Impulse
An electro-chemical substance that passed by a dendrite inward to
a cell body, then to the axon
There are three characteristics involved in the nerve impulse
:Theshold,All or none principle and Repractory period.



Synapse
A junction or microscopic gap
Neurotransmitters
These are chemical substances released by one neuron through
then synapse and affect or influence the receiving neuron
They are responsible for sensation,perception,cognitive and motor
behavior

Some types of neurotransmitters are:
Acetycholine(cholinergic)(ACH)
Found in the limbic system
Controls muscle constraction
Dopamine(dopaminergic)
A transmitter located at the midbrain
is involved in voluntary movements,learning,memory and emotional
behaviour
Cathechollamines
composed of epinephrine (adrenalin) and norepinephrine(non-adrenalin)
located at the hindbrain
this transmitter are involve wakefulness,learning,process,memory,eating,and
regulation of moods
Serotonin
is an inihibitory transmitter which is involved in body temperature,
sleep,moods and pain sensation
Endorphins
pain-killers synthesised by your body in response to stress and injury
GABA(Gamma-aminobutylic acid)
Is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that excites the action of the neuron

DIVISION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
I.Central Nervous System
Responsible for all mans behaviour ,the root of human behaviour
Stores and retrieves information
Composed of brain and spinal cord

A.Brain
Brain is the control system of the nervous system
It is the most intricate,complex and unique mechanism of the human body
The brain is enclosed inside the cranium(the hardest portion of the skull) to
protect it from injury
It is a sponge-like organ or firm gelatin that weighs about 1,350 g(1.36 kilo
of an adult size brain)
The brain is divided into halves(cerebral hemispheres).The left hemispheres
is responsible in abstract and verbal (language) ability.The right hemispheres
Is responsible for artistic,musical spatial,visual skills and whole pattern
perception.It is also involved in the control emotions


There are 3 major subdivisions of the brain;
1.Hindbrain
It is composed of the;
a.Medulla oblongala
Then of lowest portion of the brain and is connected with the spinal
cord
b.Pons Varolii
Responsible in transmitting neurotransmitters of motor information
permitting the coordination of muscles and and integration of
movement between the right and left body
c.Cerebelum
It is responsible in control of the body movement and motor
movement
d.Reticular formation
Its function is to keep the cerebral cortex alert and conscious
2.Midbrain
Smallest division of the brain
Lies between the hindbrain and midbrain
Acts like a switchboard
Transmits neural impulses upward to the higher center of the brain and
downward to the spinal cord
Contains neurons that are important for visual and auditory functions
It also contain the reticular formation(upper portion)
3.Forebrain
The largest part of the brain
It is composed of three main parts;
a.Thalamus
Brains relay station
b. Limbic System
It receives sensory images the visceral organs and helps control their
activites
Consist of;
Amygdala
Involved in emotion and is responsible for self preservation
Hippocampus
Transforms many kinds of fleeting memories into permanent
long term memory
Hypothalamus
It controls our sleep/wake cycles,heartaction, degistion,
breathing,hunger,thirst,body temperature,water balance,blood
pressure,reproductive behavior,pleasure,hostility and pain
c.Cerebrum
Largest part of the brain
Divided into two halves called the cerebral hemispheres;
Each hemisphere is divided into 4 parts:



1.Frontal lobe
In front of the central sulcus and is the seat of personality and
movement
2.Pariental lobe
Responsible for skin senses and sense of body position
3.Occipital lobe
Involved with visual sensation and memory
4.Temporal lobe
Involve in hearing,speaking,understanding verbal and writing
materials
B.Spinal cord
A long tapering tube which occupies the hollow interior of the vertebral
column
The spinal cord is the brains link to the peripheral nervous system
Receives information from the skin and muscles and transmit them to the
brain ,and from the brain it sends message down to the muscles and glands
of the body-like a relay action
It also initiates commands for relax responses

II.The Peripheral Nervous System
It is composed of nerves.The nerves carrying sensory input to the central
nervous system are the affrenet nerves.The nerves carrying the motor output
away from the central nervous system to muscles and glands are the efferent
nerves
Its is subdivided into;
Somatic nervous system(voluntary)
Transmits sensation from the outside world to the spinal cord and
brain and relays message to skeletal muscles
Autonomic nervous system
Controls heart action,digestion,excretion,salvation,sexual orgasm, and
perspitation
It has 2 divisions
Sympathetic division
Operates in emergencies and stressful situation when vigorous action is
needed
Parasympathetic division
It is used in relaxed situation

CARE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1.Protect the brain from injury
2.Avoid stress;frustration,and conflict
3.Rest and sleep are good for the mid
4.Give your body enough sunlight and fresh air
5.Eat well balanced diet.
6.Never take too much alcohol and never take prohibited and dangerous
drugs

The Endocrine Glands (Ductless Glands)
Made up of numerous glands that secrete various chemical called hormones
The various endocrine glands are the pituitary gland,pineal gland ,thyroid
gland,parathyroid gland,adrenal gland and gonads

The Connecting Mechanism- The Nervous System

A.Neuron
The basicconducting unit of the nervous system
It has 3 principal parts:
Dendrites
Are specialized signal-receiving structures where the
impulse(input)enters
Cell body(the central region)
Integregates input and output
Axon
Where the output is discharge
There are approximately 12 billion neurons in the central nervous system

Types of Neuron
1.According to speed
Impulses in the fastest neuron move at the rate of 110 m/s;in the slowest,
0.5 ./s.
2.According to basic function
Sensory Neuron(afferent fibers)
Conduct impulses to the nervous system
Association Neuron(central or connecting)
Conduct impulses within the nervous system
Motor Neuron(efferent fibers)
Conduct impulses away from the nervous system

B.Levels of Synaptic Connections
1.Simple reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli
2.An instinct is a complex unlearned bahavior of a species set off by relatively
simple stimuli
3.The cortex level involves more neuron and may take more time before reaction or
responses takes place

C.Stimulation and homoestasis
Stimulation is the action of stimuli on nerves by which activity is evoked
Homeostatisis is the tendency of the body to maintain its natural
equilibrium
D.Nerve Impulses
Are the potencial changes moving along a nerve fiber





Two Important Principle Related to Nerve Impulses:

1.The All-or-None Law
States that the impulse is independent of the properties of the stimulus
which started it
2.The Frequency Principle
States that there are more impulses per second with stronger stimulus than
with the weaker stimulus

Varieties of Neural Circuits

1.Spatial Summation involves a many-to-one principle
Some neurons require the simultaneous stimulation of a large number of
other neurons for activation
2.Temporal Summation
In Temporal Summation repeated stimulation from one or more nearby
neurons in a short period of time may be activated
3.Recruitment
In Recruitment there is a progressive increase in the number of nerve fibers
giving nerve impulses as the exciting impulse is repeated
4.Reverberation
Neurons are frequently arranged in cuircuits in which the fiber of one neuron
comes back and ends on a neuron whose fiber stimulates the first neuron
5.Reciprocal innervation
Reciprocal innervation Depends on the way muscles are arranged and
innervated.When the extensor muscles contract ,the flexor muscles relax and
vice versa
6.Inhibition
In Inhibition reflex actions may be stopped
7.Integration
The ability of the nervous system to function as a unit

E.Division of the Human Nervous System

1.Autonomic or Sympathetic Nervous System
This system is so called becausemany of its activities are autonomous or
self regulating
It consist of two antagonist
Sympathetic System
It is active in emotion
Parasympathetic System
Composed of fibers from cranial region,some below the sympathetic
system
This division acts or affect one organ at a time
The function of these system can also be described in terms of;
Compition when both fibers are connected to the same muscle or
gland
Cooperate-both being active at once or acting in sequence

2.The Cerebro-Spinal System:

a.The Central Nervous System-The Brain
Cerebrum: For sense perception,vouluntary movements,learning,remembering,
thinking,emotion,consciousness,personality integration
Hypothalamus:Control of visceral and somatic function as temperature and
metabolism
Thalamus:The way-station for impulses coming up the spinal cord to cerebrum
Midbrain:A conduction and switching center;pupillary light reflex
Cerebellum:For muscle tone, body balance, coordination of voluntary movement
Medulla:Has control over breathing swallowing,digestion,heartabeat
Reticular Formation:For the arousal and alertness of the organism,the change
from sleep to wakefulness
Corpus Callosum:Contains fibers connecting the two brain hemisphere

Brain Areas
1.Motor Area
2.Body-sense area
3.Visual area
4.Auditory Area
5.Speech Area
6.Association Area
7.Smell Area
8.Taste Area

B.The Peripheral Nervous System
Composed of cranial nerves,the spinal nerves and the nerves of the autonomic
nervous system
Cranial nerves:There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves made up of sensory,motor
and mixed nerves
Spinal nerves:There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves

Deseases of the Nervous System
1.Infection due to bacteria,viruses,yeast,fungi, etc.
2.Tumurs
3.Heredity disorders
4.Degenerative diseases
5.Congenital abnormalities
6.Convulsive disorders
7.Poison and toxins
8.Reflex disorder








ON BRAIN STUDIES

Doubtful researches:
1.That all brain areas are equipotential
2.taht special neutral processes of the brain are meant for specific function

Researches that have firmly established some truths which were considered
doubtful:
1.That all areas of the brain are not equipotential
2.In the higher mental processes like reasoning and problem solvinf,many,and not
only a few areas are involved in the process
3.While some functions of the brain are localized in certain fixed areas,many
function of the brain are duplicated in more than one brain area

Four methods popular among physiological psychologist and
neurophysicist in studying the brain are the ff:
1.Injury or Surgical ablation
2.Electrical or chemical stimulation
3.The use of the Electroencephalogram(EEG)
4.The use of refined microelectrodes

ALZHEIMER-A SLOW DEATH OF THE MIND
Is a degenerative brain disorder named after Alios Alzheimer,a German
neurologist,and is a cruel,incurable disease killing a person twice-firstthe
brain and then his body

Recent clues to the pathology of Alzheimer are the ff:
1.Tangles and Plaques
2.Hippocampus Blockage
3.Reduced RNA
4.Genetics
5.Slow Viruses
6.Interlocking causes

Cure:
1.They use drugs to raise the level of this neuro-transmitter.The most effective is
physostigmine
2Believing that not enough drug gets into the brain when taken orally,.A small
pump is implanted under the skin of the abdomen.Then a catheter inserts
acetylcholine drug(bethanechol) thru a hole in the skull and is continuously flowed
directly into the brains ventricles