1

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The Integrating A/D Converter (ICL7135)
Introduction
Integrating A/D converters have two characteristics in
common. First, as the name implies, their output represents
the integral or average of an input voltage over a fixed period
of time. Compared with techniques which require that the
input is frozen with a sample-and-hold, the integrating
converter will give repeatable results in the presence of high
frequency noise (relative to the measurement period). A
second and equally important characteristic is that they use
time to quantize the answer, resulting in extremely small
nonlinearity errors and no possibility of missing output
codes. Furthermore, the integrating converter has very good
rejection of frequencies whose periods are an integral
multiple of the measurement period. This feature can be
used to advantage in reducing line frequency noise, for
example in laboratory instruments (Figure 1).
In addition, a competitive instrument-quality product should
have the following features:
1. Single Reference Voltage. This is strictly a convenience to
the user; but since many designs are available with single
references that contribute negligible error, products
requiring dual references are rapidly becoming obsolete.
2. Auto-Zero. This eliminates one trim-pot and a
troublesome calibration step. Furthermore, it allows the
manufacturer to use op amps with up to 10mV offset
while still achieving system offsets of only a few
microvolts.
3. High Input Impedance. Recently developed monolithic
FET technology allows input impedances of 1000M and
leakages of a few pico amps to be achieved fairly readily.
The unique characteristics of the integrating converter have
made it the natural choice for panel meters and digital
voltmeter applications. For this reason, overall usage of
integrating converters exceeds the combined total of all
other conversion methods. Furthermore, the availability of
low cost one chip converters will encourage digitizing at the
sensor in applications such as process control. This
represents a radical departure from traditional data logging
techniques which in the past have relied heavily on the
transmission of analog signals. The availability of one chip
microprocessor system (with ROM and RAM on chip) will
give a further boost to the conversion at the sensor concept
by facilitating local data processing. The advantage of local
processing is that only essential data, such as significant
changes or danger signals, will be transmitted to the central
processor.
The Dual Slope Technique - Theory and
Practice
The most popular integrating converter is the dual-slope
type, the basic operating principles of which will be
described briefly. However, most of the comments relating to
linearity, noise rejection, auto-zero capability, etc., apply to
the whole family of integrating designs including charge
balancing, triple ramps, and the 101 other techniques that
have appeared in the literature. A simplified dual-slope
converter is shown in Figure 2.
The conversion takes place in three distinct phases
(Figure 3).
FIGURE 1. NORMAL MODE REJECTION OF DUAL-SLOPE
CONVERTER AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY
N
M
R

(
d
B
)
f
30
20
10
0
0.1
T
1
T
10
T
T = MEASUREMENT PERIOD
f = INPUT FREQUENCY
FIGURE 2. SIMPLIFIED DUAL-SLOPE CONVERTER
CONTROL LOGIC
AND CLOCK
V
REF
INTEGRATION CAP.
COMP
AMP
-
+
V
IN
Application Note February 1999 AN017
2
Phase 1, Auto-Zero. During auto-zero, the errors in the
analog components (buffer offset voltages, etc.) will be
automatically nulled out by grounding the input and closing a
feedback loop such that error information is stored on an
auto-zero capacitor.
Phase 2, Signal Integrate. The input signal is integrated for
a fixed number of clock pulses. For a 3
1
/
2
-digit converter,
1,000 pulses is the usual count; for a 4
1
/
2
-digit converter,
10,000 is typical. On completion of the integration period, the
voltage V in Figure 3 is directly proportional to the input
signal.
Phase 3, Reference Integrate. At the beginning of this
phase, the integrator input is switched from V
IN
to V
REF
.
The polarity of the reference is determined during Phase 2
such that the integrator discharges back towards zero. The
number of clock pulses counted between the beginning of
this cycle and the time when the integrator output passes
through zero is a digital measure of the magnitude of V
IN
.
The beauty of the dual slope technique is that the theoretical
accuracy depends only on the absolute value of the
reference and the equality of the individual clock pulses
within a given conversion cycle. The latter can easily be held
to 1 part in 106, so in practical terms the only critical
component is the reference. Changes in the value of other
components such as the integration capacitor or the
comparator input offset voltage have no effect, provided they
dont change during an individual conversion cycle. This is in
contrast to Successive Approximation converters which rely
on matching a whole string of resistor values for
quantization.
In a very real sense the designer is presented with a near
perfect system; his job is to avoid introducing additional error
sources in turning this textbook circuit into a real piece of
hardware.
From the foregoing discussion, it might be assumed that
designing a high performance dual-slope converter is as
easy as falling off the proverbial log. This is not true,
however, because in a practical circuit a host of pitfalls must
be avoided. These include the non-ideal characteristics of
FET switches and capacitors, and the switching delay in the
zero crossing detector.
Analyzing the Errors
At this point it is instructive to perform a detailed error
analysis of a representative dual slope circuit, Intersils
ICL7135. This is a 4
1
/
2
-digit design, as shown in Figure 4.
The error analysis which follows relates to this chip -
however, the principles behind the analysis apply to most
integrating converters.
The analog section of the converter is shown in Figure 5.
Typical values are shown for 120kHz clock and 3
measurements/second. Each measurement is divided into
three parts. In part 1, the auto-zero FET switches 1, 2 and 3
are closed for 10,000 clock pulses. The reference capacitor
is charged to V
REF
and the auto-zero capacitor is charged to
the voltage that makes dV/dt of the integrator equal to zero.
In each instance the capacitors are charged for 20 or more
time constants such that the voltage across them is only
limited by noise.
In the second phase, signal integrate, switches 1, 2 and 3
are opened and switch 4 is closed for 10,000 clock pulses.
The integrator capacitor will ramp up at a rate that is
proportional to V
IN
. In the final phase, de-integrate, switch 4
is opened and, depending on the polarity of the input signal,
switch 5 or 6 is closed. In either case the integrator will ramp
down at a rate that is proportional to V
REF
. The amount of
time, or number of clock pulses, required to bring the
integrator back to its auto-zero value is 10,000
.
Of course, this is a description of the ideal cycle. Errors
from this ideal cycle are caused by:
1. Capacitor droop due to leakage.
2. Capacitor voltage change due to charge suck-out (the
reverse of charge injection) when the switches turn off.
3. Nonlinearity of buffer and integrator.
4. High-frequency limitations of buffer, integrator and
comparator.
5. Integrating capacitor nonlinearity (dielectric absorption).
6. Charge lost by C
REF
in charging C
STRAY
.
Each of these errors will be analyzed for its error contribution
to the converter.
FIGURE 3. THE THREE PHASES OF DUAL-SLOPE
CONVERSION
V
AUTO-ZERO SIGNAL
INTEGRATE
REFERENCE INTEGRATE
L
A
R
G
E

V
I
N
F
I
X
E
D

S
L
O
P
E
S
M
A
L
L
VIN
FIXED NUMBER NUMBER OF CLOCK
PULSES PROPORTIONAL OF CLOCK
PHASE III PHASE II PHASE I
TO V
IN
PULSES
t
V
IN
V
REF
---------------



Application Note 017
3
Capacitor Droop Due to Leakage
Typical leakage (I
DOFF
) of the switches at normal operating
voltage is 1pA each and 2pA at each input of the buffer and
integrator op amps. In terms of offset voltage caused by
capacitor droop, the effect of the auto-zero and reference
capacitors is differential, i.e., there is no offset if they droop
an equal amount. A conservative typical effect of droop on
offset would be 2pA discharging 1F for 83ms (10,000 clock
periods), which amounts to an averaged equivalent of 083V
referred to the input. The effect of the droop on rollover error
(difference between equal positive and negative voltages
near full scale) is slightly different. For a negative input
voltage, switch 5 is closed for the de-integrate cycle. Thus
the reference capacitor and auto-zero capacitor operate
differentially for the entire measurement cycle. For a positive
voltage, switch 6 is closed and the differential compensation
of the reference capacitor is lost during de-integrate. A
typical contribution to rollover error is 3pA discharging 1F
capacitor for 166ms, equivalent to 0.249V when averaged.
These numbers are certainly insignificant for room
temperature leakages but even at 100
o
C the contributions
should be only 15V and 45V respectively. A rollover error
of 45V is less than 0.5 counts on this 20,000 count
instrument.
Charge Suck-Out When the Switches Turn-Off
There is no problem in charging the capacitors to the correct
value when the switches are on. The problem is getting the
switches off without changing this value. As the gate is
driven off, the gate-to-drain capacitance of the switch injects
a charge on the reference or auto-zero capacitor, changing
its value. The net charge injection of switch 3 turning off can
be measured indirectly by noting the offset resulting by using
a 0.01F auto-zero capacitor instead of 1.0F. For this
condition the offset is typically 250V, and since the signal
ramp is a straight line instead of a parabola the main error is
due to charge injection rather than leakage. This given a net
injected charge of 2.5pC or an equivalent C
gd
of 0.16pF. The
effect of switches 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6 are more complicated
since they depend on timing and some switches are going
on while others are going off. A substitution of an 0.01F
28
27
26
25
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
24
SET V
REF
= 1.000V
V
REF
IN
SIGNAL
-5V
+5V
100k
27
100k
100K
ANALOG
GND
INPUT
1F
0.47F
1F
0.1F
100k
ICL7135
CLOCK IN
120kHz
0V
6
ANODE
DRIVER
TRANSISTORS
SEVEN
SEG.
DECODE
DISPLAY
FIGURE 4. THE ICL7135 FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM
FIGURE 5. ANALOG SECTION OF A DUAL SLOPE CONVERTER
-
+
C
STRAY
-
+
BUFFER INTEGRATOR
ZERO
CROSSING
DETECTOR
100K
C
INT
0.2F
COMPARATOR
C
AUTO-ZERO
1F
Sw3
Sw2
Sw6 Sw1
Sw5
Sw4
C
REF
1F
V
REF
(-10,000V)
V
IN
Application Note 017
4
capacitor for reference capacitor gives less than 100V
offset error. Thus, a conservative typical offset error for a
1.0F capacitor is 2.5V. There is no contribution to rollover
error (independent of offset). Also this value does not
change significantly with temperature.
Nonlinearity of Buffer and Integrator
In this converter, since the signal and reference are injected
at the same point, the gain of the buffer and integrator are
not of first-order importance in determining accuracy. This
means that the buffer can have a very poor CMRR over the
input range and still contribute zero error as long as it is
constant, i.e., offset changes linearly with common mode
voltage. The first error term is the nonlinear component of
CMRR. Careful measurement of CMRR on 30 buffers
indicated rollover errors from 5V to 30V. The contribution
of integrator nonlinearity is less than 1V in each case.
High Frequency Limitations of Amplifiers
For a zero input signal, the buffer output will switch from zero
to V
REF
(1.0V) in 0.5s with an approximately linear
response. The net result is to lose 0.25s of de-integrate
period. For a 120kHz clock, this is 3% of a clock pulse or
3V. This is not an offset error since the delay is equal for
both positive and negative references. The net result is the
converter would switch from 0 to 1 at 97V instead of 100V
in the ideal case.
A much larger source of delay is the comparator which
contributes 3s. At first glance, this sounds absolutely
ridiculous compared to the few tens of nanoseconds delay of
modern IC comparators. However, they are specified with 2
to 10mV of overdrive. By the time the ICL7135 comparator
gets 10mV of overdrive, the integrator will have been
through zero-crossing or 20 clock pulses! Actually, the
comparator has a 300MHz gain-bandwidth product which is
comparable to the best ICs. The problem is that it must
operate on 30V of overdrive instead of 10mV. Again, this
delay causes no offset error but means the converter
switches from 0 to 1 at 60V, from 1 to 2 at 160V, etc. Most
users consider this switching at approximately
1
/
2
LSB more
desirable than the so-called ideal case of switching at
100V. If it is important that switching occur at 100V, the
comparator delay may be compensated by including a small
value resistor (20) in series with the integration capacitor.
(Further details of this technique are given on page 5 under
the heading Maximum Clock Frequency.) The integrator
time delay is less than 200ns and contributes no measurable
error.
Integrating Capacitor Dielectric Absorption
Any integrating A/D assumes that the voltage change across
the capacitor is exactly proportional to the integral of the
current into it. Actually, a very small percentage of this
charge is used up in rearranging charges within the
capacitor and does not appear as a voltage across the
capacitor. This is dielectric absorption. Probably the most
accurate means of measuring dielectric absorption is to use
it in a dual-slope A/D converter with V
IN
V
REF
. In this
mode, the instrument should read 1.0000 independent of
other component values. In very careful measurements
where zero-crossings were observed in order to extrapolate
a fifth digit and all delay errors were calculated out,
polypropylene capacitors gave the best results. Their
equivalent readings were 0.99998. In the same test
polycarbonate capacitors typically read 0.9992, polystyrene
0.9997. Thus, polypropylene is an excellent choice since
they are not expensive and their increased temperature
coefficient is of no consequence in this circuit. The dielectric
absorption of the reference and auto-zero capacitors are
only important at power-on or when the circuit is recovering
from an overload. Thus, smaller or cheaper capacitors can
be used if very accurate readings are not required for the
first few seconds of recovery.
Charge Lost by C
REF
in Charging C
STRAY
In addition to leakage and switching charge injection, the
reference capacitor has a third method of losing charge and,
therefore, voltage. It must charge C
STRAY
as it swings from
0 to V
IN
to V
REF
(Figure 5). However, C
STRAY
only causes
an error for positive inputs. To see why, lets look firstly at the
sequence of events which occurs for negative inputs. During
auto-zero C
REF
and C
STRAY
are both charged through the
switches. When the negative signal is applied, C
REF
and
C
STRAY
are in series and act as a capacitance divider. For
C
STRAY
= 15pF, the divider ratio is 0.999985. When the
positive reference is applied through switch #5, the same
divider operates. As mentioned previously, a constant gain
network contributes no error and, thus, negative inputs are
measured exactly.
For positive inputs, the divider operates as before when
switching from auto-zero to V
IN
, but the negative reference
is applied by closing switch #6. The reference capacitor is
not used, and therefore the equivalent divider network is
1.0000 instead of 0.999985. At full scale, this 15V/V error
gives a 30V rollover error with the negative reading being
30V too low. Of course for smaller C
STRAY
, the error is
proportionally less.
Summary
Error analysis of the circuit using typical values shows four
types of errors. They are (1) an offset error of 2.5V due to
charge injection, (2) a full scale rollover error of 30V due to
C
STRAY
, (3) a full scale rollover error of 5 to 30V due to
buffer nonlinearity and (4) a delay error of 40V for the first
count. These numbers are in good agreement with actual
results observed for the lCL7135. Due to peak-to-peak noise
of 20V around zero, it is possible only to say that any
offsets are less than 10V. Also, the observed rollover error
is typically
1
/
2
count (50V) with the negative reading larger
than the positive. Finally, the transition from a reading of
0000 to 0001 occurs at 50V.
Application Note 017
5
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Intersil Corporations quality certifications can be viewed at www.intersil.com/design/quality
Intersil products are sold by description only. Intersil Corporation reserves the right to make changes in circuit design, software and/or specifications at any time without
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These figures illustrate the very high performance which can
be expected from a well designed dual-slope circuit -
performance figures which can be achieved with no tricky
tweaking of component values. Furthermore, the circuit
includes desirable convenience features such as auto-zero,
auto-polarity and a single reference.
Maximum Clock Frequency
Because of the 3s delay in the comparator, the maximum
recommended clock frequency is 160kHz. In the error
analysis it was shown that under these conditions half of the
first reference integrate period is lost in delay. This means
that the meter reading will change from 0 to 1 at 50V, from
1 to 2 at 150V, etc. As was noted earlier, most users
consider this transition at midpoint to be desirable. However,
if the clock frequency is increased appreciably above
160kHz, the instrument will flash 1 on noise peaks even
when the input is shorted.
The clock frequency may be extended above 160kHz,
however, by using a low value resistor in series with the
integration capacitor. The effect of the resistor is to introduce
a small pedestal voltage on to the integrator output at the
beginning of the reference integrate phase (Figure 6). By
careful selection of the ratio between this resistor and the
integrating resistor (a few tens of ohms in the recommended
circuit), the comparator delay can be compensated and the
maximum clock frequency extended by approximately a
factor of 3. At higher frequencies, ringing and second order
breaks will cause significant nonlinearities in the first few
counts of the instrument.
Noise
The peak-to-peak noise around zero is approximately 20V
(peak-to-peak value not exceeded 95% of the time). Near full
scale, this value increases to approximately 40V.
Since much of the noise originates in the auto-zero loop,
some improvement in noise can be achieved by putting gain
in the buffer. A gain of about 5X is optimum. Too much gain
will cause the auto-zero switch to misbehave, because the
amplified V
OS
of the buffer will exceed the switch operating
range.
I
N
T
E
G
R
A
T
O
R
C
O
M
P
A
R
A
T
O
R

(
-
4
0
0
0
)
3s DELAY
5s
50V IN
V
FIGURE 6A. UNCOMPENSATED
t
C
O
M
P
A
R
A
T
O
R

(
-
4
0
0
0
)
3s DELAY
50V IN
V
t
I
N
T
E
G
R
A
T
O
R
FIGURE 6B. COMPENSATED
FIGURE 6. INTEGRATOR AND COMPARATOR OUTPUTS FOR
UNCOMPENSATED AND COMPENSATED
SYSTEMS
Application Note 017