LSAT Notes.

LSAT Logical Reasoning

Premises and Conclusions | Indicators
I. Premise Indicators
- Because
- Since
- For
- For Example
- For the Reason That
- In That
- Given That
- As Indicated By
- Due To
- Owing To
- This Can Be Seen From
- We Know This By
II. Conclusion Indicators
- Thus
- Therefore
- Hence
- Consequently
- As a Result
- So
- Accordingly
- Clearly
- Must Be That
- Shows That
- Conclude That
- Follows That
- For This Reason

NOTES
-
Premises and conclusions can be constructed without any indicator words present
-
A fact set does not contain a conclusion; an argument must contain a conclusion
-
Additional premise indicators includes: furthermore, moreover, besides, in addition, whats
more
can be central to argument or secondary
determine importance of these indicators by evaluating entire argument
-
Counter-premise indicators bring up points of opposition or comparison. Examples of these
include: but, yet, however, on the other hand, admittedly, in contrast, although, even though, still,
whereas, in spite of, despite, after all
-
Look for validity (versus truth) in LSAT arguments
-
If the stimulus contains an argument, determine whether the argument is strong or weak.
-
LSAT authors do not tend to deceive you; assume that any argument posed by the argument is
believed 100%; the test producers are the ones that intend to deceive.
-
Always read closely and know precisely what the author said. Do not generalize.
-
Make sure everything is within the scope of the argument.
-
On average, 1 minute and 25 seconds for each questions

Last Update: Sunday, December 1, 2013
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LSAT Notes.
-
Read carefully and identify the question stem Do not assume that certain words are
automatically assumed with certain question types.
Question Types
I. Must Be True/Most Supported
A. Identify the answer choice that is best proven from the information in the stimulus
II. Main Point
A. Find the primary conclusion made by the authors
III. Point at Issue
A. Identify a point of contention between 2 speakers
IV. Assumption
A. Identify what author must assume in order for the argument to be valid
V. Justify the Conclusion
A. Supply a piece of information that, when added to the premises, proves the conclusion.
VI. Strength/Support
A. Select the answer choice that provides the most support for the authors argument or
strengthens it in some way.
VII. Resolve the Paradox
A. Stimulus contains a discrepancy or seeming contradiction. Find the answer choice that
resolves this situation
VIII.Weaken
A. Attack or undermine the authors argument
IX. Method of Reasoning
A. Describe, in abstract terms, the way in which the author made their argument.
X. Flaw in the Reasoning
A. Describe, in abstract terms, the error of reasoning committed by the author
XI. Parallel Reasoning
A. Identify the answer choice that contains reasoning most similar in structure to the
reasoning presented in the stimulus.
XII.Evaluate the Argument
A. Decide which answer choice allows you to determine the logical validity of the argument
XIII.Cannot Be True
A. Identify answer choice that cannot be true or is most weakened based on the
information from the stimulus.



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LSAT Notes.
Question Types: Keys and Explained.
I. Main Point Questions: Conclusion of argument is the main point. Avoid answers that may be
true but dont contain the main point or that repeat the premise of argument.
II. Must Be True: Use fact testreference the stimulus to prove correct answer. Keep within the
scope of the argument. Look for answers that combine 2+ phrases from stimulus.
III. Conditional/Formal Logic: Sufcient-> Necessary. Contrapositive: ip the order and
negate.
- Conditional Linkage: If A->B and C->A; then C->A->B or rather C->B
- Either/Or: At least one and maybe both need to be present.
- Multiple Conditions: In order to NECESSARY you must be SUFFICIENT 1 and
SUFFICIENT 2; Contrapositive-If you are not SUFFICIENT 1 or SUFFICIENT 2, then you will
not NECESSARY.
- Bi-Conditionals: If and only if; Either both are present or neither are present.
- Double Not Arrow: If one is present, the other cannot be.
IV. Weaken: Look for answer choice that weakens the conclusion of the argument
- Conclusion doesnt follow premise
- Authors assumptions
- Error of assumption
- How did the author arrive at his/her conclusion?
Incomplete info can be weakened with new info
Qualied conclusionmay limit the conclusion all none
Improper comparison2 items being compared are very different.
A. Always attack the necessary condition
V. Causal Conclusions: Always look for the assumption
VI. Strengthen: Support the argument (ie: the conclusion) in any way to any degree.
VII.Justify the Conclusion: Strengthen so that the conclusion is 100% proven.
- Premises + correct answer choice = the conclusion
- An answer with a new element in the conclusion will be incorrect
- If element is in premise and conclusion and answer choice, then skip itit will probably be
incorrect.
- An answer with new elements that are in premises but not conclusions
VIII.Assumption: This is the unstated premise that the argument relies on.
- Supporter: Connects rouge pieces/info
- Defender: protects argument from ideas that could weaken conclusion.
- Assumption Negation Technique
Logically Negate Answer Choice
Negated answer choice will attack and weaken argument if correct answer
- Quirks to look for:
At lease one/some
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LSAT Notes.
Avoid answers that claim something was authors top priority or main purposes
Watch for not or negatives in A.C.
Formal Logic
-
This is the study of the properties of propositions and deductive reasoning by abstraction and
analysis of the form rather than the content of the propositions under consideration.
-
Standard way of translating relationships into symbols and then making inferences from those
symbolized relations.
-
Basis for Formal Logic Terms are terms such as all, none some and most
-
Every Formal Logic Relationship features at least 2 separate variables linked in a relationship
Variables represent groups of ideas
-
Diagraming Formal Logic Questions
Choose symbols to represent each variable.
Use conditional reasoning terms and diagrams (arrows)
-
The Single Arrow (>) Introduced by sufcient and necessary words/conditions.
Sufcient on the left, necessary on the right. Contrapositive, ip the order and negate.
- The Double Arrow (<>) Introduced by if and only if or by situations where the
author implies that the arrow goes both ways by adding terms like vice versa

Either both variables occur or both dont

- The Double Not Arrow (</>) Introduced by conditional statements where exactly
one of the terms is negative or by statements using words such as no and none that
imply that the two variables cannot go together.

Either Term 1, Term 2, or (in some instances) neither.

- The Concept of Some

Dened as at least one, possibly all

Some are notcould mean none

Ways to say some on the LSAT

- Some
- At least some
- At least one
- A few
- A number
- Several
- Part of
- A portion

-
The Concept of Most
Dened as a majority, possibly all
Most are notcould mean none
Ways to say most on the LSAT
-
Most
-
A majority
-
More than half
-
Almost all
-
Usually
-
Typically
-
There is not a contrapositive for most or some statements
- Formal Logic Numerically

All= 100

Most= 51 to 100 (a majority)

Some Are Not & Not All= 0 to 99

Most Are Not= 0 to 49

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LSAT Notes.

Some= 1 to 100 (at least one)

None=0
-
All and none are precise.
- The Rules of Reversibility
The relationship between the 2 variables has exactly the same meaning regardless of which
side of the relationship is the starting point of your analysis
-
None, some, some are not and double arrow statements are reversible
-
Some As are not Bs
Reversal of this is Some things that are not B are A
Statements that are non-reversible have a single direction meaning that the relationship
between the 2 variables is not the same.
-
All and most are non-reversible
- Formal Logic Inferences

Additive: result from combining multiple statements through a common term and then
deducing a relationship that does not include the common term

Inherent: follow from a single statement. Know this inference to be true simply from the
relationship between the 2 variables.

The Logic Ladder:

- All [Most (Some)]

The Negative Logic Ladder:

- None [Most Are Not (Some Are Not)]
- Always try to make formal logic additive inferences once you have listed whats inferred.

Start by looking at the ends of the chain

Vast majority of additive inferences require either an all or none statement somewhere in the
chain

When looking to make inferences, do not start with a variable involved in a double-not arrow
relationship and then try to go across the double-not arrow

The Some Train: look for arrow that leads away from the some relationship
- Look for the weakest link in the chain to make inference
- The presence of relevant negativity

The Most Train: similar to some train, but produces stronger inferences.

Arrows and double-not arrows almost always elicit additive inferences

Use inherent inferences

Watch for the relevant negativity

- Either the rst or last rem is negated or
- There is a double-not arrow in the chain

Some and Most Combinations

- 2 consecutive somes, mosts or a some and a most in succession will not yield any
inferences.

Analyze compound statements

Once an inference bridge is built, it does not need to be built again

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LSAT Notes.
Conditional Reasoning
-
A sufcient condition can be denite as an event or circumstance whose occurrence indicates
that a necessary condition must also occur
-
A necessary condition can be dened as an event or circumstance whose occurrence is
required in order for the sufcient condition to occur
-
Logical Features of Conditional Reasoning
The sufcient conditional does not make the necessary condition occur. Rather, it is a sign or
indicator that the necessary condition will/must occur
Temporally speaking, either conditional can occur rstor, they can occur at the time time
The conditional relationship statement by the author does not have to reect reality
-
Develop the contrapositive by reversing the terms and negating. The contrapositive denies the
necessary condition, thereby making it impossible for the sufcient condition to occur.
-
Valid and Invalid Inferences
Repeat form simply restates the elements in the original order the appeared; valid
Mistaken reversal (reverses the terms without negating); invalid
Mistaken negation (negating both conditions but not reversing terms); invalid
- Sufcient Condition Indicators
If
When
Whenever
Every
All
Any
People Who
In order to
- Necessary Condition Indicators
Then
Only
Only If
Must
Required
Unless
Except
Until
Without
- Unless Equation
Whatever term is modied by unless, except or without becomes the necessary condition
The remaining term is negated and becomes the sufcient condition
-
When a stimulus that contains Conditional Reasoning is combined with a Must Be True
questions stem, immediately look for the Repeat or Contrapositive in the answer choices.
-
Always look for the most difcult./longest answertest makers like to use this as the correct
answer (chain inference)
- With and/or If and is used in sufcient condition, or must be used in contrapositive.
- Conditional reasoning can occur in many different question types
Cause and Effect Reasoning
-
Causality occurs when one event is said to make the other one occur. The cause is the event
that makes the other occur and the effect is the event that follows from the cause
-
Most causal conclusions are awed because:
There can be alternate explanations for the stated relationship
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LSAT Notes.
Some other cause could account for the effect
Some third event may have caused both the stated cause and effect
The situation may be reversed
The events may be related, but not causally
The entire occurrence could be by the result of chance.
-
Conditional Reasoning versus Causal Reasoning
The chronology of the 2 events can differ.
-
For cause and effect, cause must come before the effect. For conditional, order does not
matter.
The connection between the events is different.
-
In cause and effect statements, the events are related in a direct waythe cause physically
makes the effect happen. In conditional statements, the sufcient and necessary conditions
are often related directly, but they do not have to be.
The language used to introduce the statements is different.
-
Words that introduce each type of relationship are very different. Causal indicators are
active, powerful words while most conditional indicators do not possess those traits.
-
Causal statements can be used in the premise or conclusion of an argument.
If causal statement is the conclusion, the reasoning is awed.
If its in the premise, the argument may be awed, but not because of the causal statement.
-
Scenarios that lead to causal conclusions in LR Questions
One event occurs before another
Two or more events occur at the same time
-
If LSAT speaker concludes that the occurrence caused another, the speaker also assumes that
the stated cause is the only possible cause of the effect and agh the stated cause will always
produce the effectFLAW?
-
In Weaken Questions, attacking a cause and effect relationship almost always consists of
performing one of the following tasks:
Find an alternative cause for the stated effete
Show that even when the cause occurs, the effect doesnt
Show that although the effect occurred the cause did not
Show that the stated relationship is reversed
Show a statistical problem exists with the data to make the causal statement
-
Causal reasoning occurs in many different question types
Numbers and percentages
-
Words used to introduce numerical ideas:
Amount
Sum
Total
Quantity
Count
Tally
-
Words used to introduce percentage ideas:
Percent Proportion Fraction
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LSAT Notes.
Ratio
Incidence
Likelihood
Probability
Segment
Share
-
Misconceptions Regarding Numbers and Percentages:
Increasing percentages automatically lead to increasing numbers
Decreasing percentages automatically lead to decreasing numbers
Increasing numbers automatically lead to increasing percentages
Decreasing numbers automatically lead to decreasing percentages
Large numbers automatically mean large percentages and small numbers automatically mean
small percentages
Large percentages automatically mean large numbers and small percentages automatically
mean small numbers
-
Use the following rules for Must Be True Questions
If the stimulus contains percentages of proportion information only, avoid answers that contain
hard numbers [Ex: The car market share of Company X declined this year]
-
Company X sold a smaller number of cars this year
-
Company X sold a greater amount of cars this year
If the stimulus contains only numerical information, avoid answers that contain percentage or
proportion information [Company Y sold fewer computers this year]
-
Company Y now has a lower share of the computer market
-
Company Y now has a higher share of the computer market
If the stimulus contains both percentage and numerical information, any answer choice that
contains numbers, percentages or both may be true.
-
Use the following rules for Weaken and Strengthen Questions
To weaken or strengthen an argument containing numbers and percentages, look carefully for
information about the total amounts does the argument make an assumption based on
one of the misconceptions discussed above?
- Market Share is simply the portion of a market that a company controls. It ca be measured in
either terms of revenues (sales) or units sold. Regardless of the size of a market, total market
share always add up to 100%.. It is a comparative term.
- Numerical situation hinge on three elements:

Overall Total

A number within the total

Percentage within the total.

- LSAT questions will often give you one of the elements, but without at least two of these
elements present, you cannot make a denite judgement about what is occurring with another
element.
- Knowledge of a percentage is insufcient to allow you to determine anything about the size of
the number because the exact size of the overall total is unknown and changes in the overall
total will directly affect the internal numbers and percentages.

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LSAT Notes.
Principle Questions
-
A principle is a broad rule that species what actions or judgements are correct in certain
situations
-
The degree of generality of principles can vary considerably
-
Presence of principle indicator in a question stem serves to broaden the scope of the question.
-
Question becomes more abstract and you must analyze the problem identify the underlying
relationships
-
Must Be True Principle Questions
Must us the principle presented in the stimulus and then apply it to the situation in each
answer choice.
The answer choice can address a scenario not specically included in the stimulus; therefore,
your job is to nd the answer that follows from the application of the principle.
-
Questions are often lengthy; may be the type to skip.
-
In conditional principle questions, you can conclude:
If the sufcient condition is met in one of the scenarios in the answer choice, then it can be
concluded that the necessary condition occurred.
If the necessary conditional is not met in one of the scenarios in the answer choices, then it
can be concluded that the sufcient condition has not occurred.
If the sufcient condition is not met in one of the scenarios in the answer choices, you can
conclude that the necessary conniption may or may not have occurred.
If the necessary condition is met in one of the scenarios in the answer choice, you can
conclude that the sufcient condition may or may not have occurred.
-
Correct answer will always feature a scenario that addresses each part of the principle
-
Strengthen/Justify Principle Questions
Each answer choice contains a principle that acts as an additional, board premise that
supports or proves the conclusion.
Askif this answer is true, does it support or prove the conclusion?
Do not eliminate an answer because you disagree with the principle in its answer choice
Correct answer provides a broad premise that can be added to the argument to help prove
the conclusion.
-
When you encounter a Principle Question, prepare to apply the principle to a situation that falls
under the purview of the principle but is not necessarily directly addressed by the principle.
First Family: Must Be/Prove Family
1. Must Be True
2. Main Point
3. Point at Issue

4. Method of Reasoning
5. Flaw in Reasoning
6. Parallel Reasoning

Take information from the stimulus to support & select correct answer choice
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LSAT Notes.
Must Be True
-
Correct answers will either be:

Paraphrased Answer
-
These are answers that restate a portion of the stimulus in different terms.
-
Test your ability to discern the authors exact meaning.
-
Can appear to be almost too obvious. Dont be afraid to pick the easy/obvious choice!

Answers that are the sum of 2 or more stimulus statements (combination answers)
-
Any answer choice that would result from combining 2 or more statements in the stimulus
will be correct.
-
Incorrect answers in must be true questions
Could be true or likely to be true answers
-
select the answer choice that must occur
Exaggerated answers
-
take information from the stimulus and then stretch that information to make a broader
statement that is not supported by the stimulus.
-
often paraphrased, but uses terms like most, none, all, etc.
New Information Answers
-
Always be wary of any answer choice that does not directly reference information that was
stated in the stimulus.
-
Examine the scope of the argument to make sure that information does not fall within the
sphere of a term or concept in the stimulus before ruling it out.
-
Examine the answer to make sure its not a consequence of combining stimulus elements
The Shell Game
-
An idea of concept is raised in the stimulus and then a very similar idea appears in the
answer choice, but the idea is changed just enough to be incorrect, yet still attractive.
Opposite Answer
-
Answer is completely opposite of the stated facts of the stimulus.
Reverse Answer
-
Contains familiar elements but presents them in the opposite way they are supposed to be
presented. Rearranges elements to create a new, unsupported statement
-
Must be true questions require you to select an answer choice that is proven by the info
presented in the stimulus.
-
All MBT answer choice must pass the Fact Test in order to be correct.
The correct answer to a MBT questions can always be proven by referring to the facts stated
in the stimulus
-
The scope of the stimulusespecially if that scope is broadoften helps to eliminate one or
more of the answer choices
-
Stimulus of most MBT questions do not have a conclusion/argumentreally just a set of facts.

Main Point Questions
-
Incorrect Main Point Answers
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LSAT Notes.
Answers that are true but do not encapsulate the authors loin
Answers that repeat premises of the argument
-
The main point is the same as the conclusion of the argument
-
Correct answer choice must not only be true according to the stimulus, it must also summarize
the authors point.
-
Avoid answers that are true but miss the point of the authors argument
-
Fill in the Bank questions are Main Point questions in disguise
emphasis of these questions is on using the contextual clues provided in the stimulus to nd
the voice that best ts the blank

Method of Reasoning
-
Can only use information found in the stimulus to prove the correct answer choice.
-
Any answer choice that describes an element or situation that does not occur in the stimulus is
incorrect
-
These questions are simply abstract Must Be True questions
- Fact Test
If an answer choice describes an event that did not occur in the stimulus, that answer is
incorrect.
Watch out for answers that are partially true.
-
Stimulus will contain an argument and the argument can contain either valid or invalid reasoning.
-
Must watch for the presence of the premises and conclusion
-
Incorrect Answers in Method of Reasoning Questions:
New Element Answers
Half Wrong, Half Right Answers
Exaggerated Answers
The Opposite Answer
The Reverse Answer
- Argument Part Questions
Question stem cites a specic part of the stimulus and then asks you to identify the role that
the cited portion plays in the structure of the argument
These tend to be more complex than the average LSAT stimulus
Often feature 2 conclusionsa main conclusion and a subsidiary conclusion
-
The main conclusion is typically placed in the rst or second sentence and the last sentence
contains the subsidiary conclusion
-
Subsidiary conclusion is often preceded by a conclusion indicator such as thus or
therefore while the main conclusion is not prefaced by such indicator
Avoid answers that may be correct but reference a different part of the question stem.

Flaw in the Reasoning
-
Very similar to method of reasoning questions.
-
Solve these questions by:
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LSAT Notes.
Identifying errors of reasoning made in the stimulus
Identifying answer choices that describe a common error of reasoning
Types of Flaws
I. Uncertain use of a term or concept.
- Term is not used in a constant, coherent fashion
- Ex: Depending on the ambiguous use of a key term
II. Source argument/ad hominem
- Attacks the person (or source) instead of the argument they advance
- Focusing on the motives of the source
- Focusing on the actions of the source
- Ex: Makes an attack on the character of their opponent
III. Circular Reasoning
- Author assumes as true what is supposed to be proven
- This essay is the best because its better than others
- Ex: Assumes what it seeks to establish
IV. Errors of Conditional Reasoning
- Taking the nonexistence of something as evidence that a necessary pre-condition for that
thing also did not exist
- Mistakes being sufcient to justify something for being necessary
- Confuses necessary condition for a sufcient condition or vice versa
- Mistaken Negation and Mistaken Reversal
V. Mistaken Cause and Effect
- Assuming causal relationship on the basis of the sequence of events (mistakes a temporal
relationship for a causal relationship)
- Assuming causal relationship when only a correlation exists (confusing the coincidence of 2
events with a causal relationship between the two.)
- Failure to consider an alternative cause for the effect of the cause and effect (fails to exclude
an alternative explanation for the observed effect)
- Failure to consider that the events might be reversed
VI. Straw Man
- Attempt to attack an opponents position by ignoring the actual statements made by the
opposing speaker and instead distorts and refashions the argument, making it weaker and
easier to attack in the process
- Ex: Refutes a distorted version of an opposing position
VII. General Lack of Relevant Evidence for the Conclusion
- Fail to provide any info to support their conclusion
VIII.Internal Contradiction
- Authors mistakes conicting statements
- Ex: Bases a conclusion on claims that are inconsistent with each other
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LSAT Notes.
IX. Appeal to Authority
- Uses opinion of an authority in an attempt to persuade the reader
- Ex: judgement of experts is applied to a matter in which their expertise is irrelevant
X. Appeal to Popular Opinion/Numbers
- States that a position is true because the majority believes it to be true
XI. Appeal to Emotion
- Emotions or emotionally charged language is used as an attempt to persuade the reader
XII.Survey Errors
A. Uses biased sample that is unrepresentative of population to draw a conclusion
B. Improperly constructed questions
1. Survey questions are confusing or misleading
2. Misleading and presumes questions
C. Inaccurate Responsespeople do not always tell the truth when responding to surveys
XIII.Exceptional Cause and Overgeneralization
- Takes a small number of instances and treated those instances as though they support a
broad, sweeping conclusion
XIV.Errors of Composition and Division
- Judgement is made about groups and parts of a group based on a characteristic of part of the
group. Author attributes a characteristic of part of the group to the group as a whole or each
member
XV. False Analogy
- Author uses analogy that is too dissimilar to the original situation to be accurate
XVI. False Dilemma
- Assumes only two courses of action are available when there may be others
XVII. Errors in the Use of Evidence
A. Lack of evidence for a position is taken to prove that the position is false; treats failure to
prove a claim as constitutional denial of that claim.
B. Lack of evidence against a position is taken to prove that that position is truejust
because there has not yet been evidence introduced to disprove a position does not mean
that the position is true.
C. Evidence against a position is taken to prove that a position is false. Introduction of
evidence against a position only weakens the position; it does not necessarily prove the
position to be false.
D. Some evidence for a position is taken to prove that the position is true.
XVIII.Time Shift Errors
- Assuming that the conditions will remain constant over time
- Ex: Treats a claim about what is currently the case as if it were a claim about what will
happen for an extended about of time
XIX.Numbers and Percentage Errors
- Author improperly equates a percentage with a denite quantity
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LSAT Notes.
- Or, uses quantity information to make a judgement about the percentage represented by that
quantity.

Parallel Reasoning
-
Identify the answer choice that contains reasoning most similar in structure to the reasoning in
the stimulus
-
Parallel Flaw questions require that you nd an answer choice with the same awed reasoning
-
Evaluate and Solve Parallel Reasoning Questions by examining the following items:
Method of Reasoningrecognize the form used in stimulus and look for answer choice
with the same form.

Validity of the ArgumentValidity of the reasoning in the correct answer choice must
match the validity of the reasoning in the stimulus

The ConclusionNeed to match the certainty level or intent of the conclusion in the
stimulus. ie: probably, always, never, should.
- Look for identical wordingthese answer choices are at least contenders.

must, could, many, some, should, never, can

- Look for synonyms

most, majority, more than half

- Presence of a negative term is not grounds for dismissal

present, not absent

- Stimulus can have a positive conclusion and the correct answer choice can have a negative
term

The PremisesSame wording rules as with the conclusion apply.

- Make sure that you match all premises in form and quantity.
-
Does not need to be parallel

Topic of the Stimulus

Order of presentation of the premises and the conclusion in the stimulus

- Steps to Solving:

Match the Method of Reasoning

Match the Conclusion

Match the Premises

Match the Validity of the Argument

- Fall back on describing the stimulus in abstract terms and matching this abstract formula with
that of any possible contenders.

Point at Issue Questions
-
Comprised of two speakers who disagree about an issue that is generally ethical or decision-
oriented in nature, not factual.
-
Question stem directs you to choose the answer that describes the point of disagreement
between the two speakers or to identify the statement that the two speakers would disagree is
true.
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LSAT Notes.
-
Variant of Must Be True Questions
-
Incorrect Answers in Point at Issue Questions
Ethical vs. Factual Situations
-
When a stimulus addresses an issue that is ethical in nature, answer choices that are factual
in nature cannot be true.
Dual Agreement or Dual Disagreement
-
Incorrect answers will supply statements that both speakers will either agree or disagree
with. These answers choices are attractive because they raise issues that are addressed in
the stimulus; however, we need an answer that has one speaker agreeing and the other
disagreeing.
The View of One Speaker is Unknown
-
This is an answer choice where the view of one speaker would be known while the view of
the other would be unknownhe/she may agree or they may disagree.
-
Since the correct answer must contain a point of disagreement, this answer is incorrect.
- The Agree/Disagree Test

The correct answer must produce responses where one speak would say I agree, the
statement is correct and the other speak would say I disagree, the statement is incorrect.
- Watch for Point of Agreement questionsjust look for answer that both speakers would
agree with.
Second Family: Help/Strengthen Family
-
Use the information from the answer choices to support or strengthen the argument in the
stimulus.
-
This family includes: Assumption, Justify the Conclusion, Strengthen/Support and Resolve the
Paradox Question Types

Strengthen/Support
-
Strengthen an argument by:
Identifying the conclusion
Personalizing the argument
Looking for the weaknesses in the argument. These are the holes to you need to ll
-
Correct answer can strengthen by a lot of just a little bit.
-
Always try to strengthen an analogy or survey if present.
-
Strengthen a Cause and Effect Relationship by:
Eliminating any alternative causes for the effect
Showing that when the cause occurs, the effect occurs
Show that when the cause does not occur, the effect doesnt either.
Eliminate the possibility that the stated relationship is reversed
Show that data used to make causal statement is accurate and valid. Or, eliminate any possible
problems with the data.
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LSAT Notes.

Justify the Conclusion
-
Strengthen the argument so powerfully that the conclusion is made to be logical without a
doubt
-
100% evidence of proof
-
Justify Formula:
Premises + [Correct Answer Choice]= Conclusion
-
Justify questions all conform to the following relationship:
Answer Choice (correct) >Conclusion (valid)
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How to Recognize Justify the Conclusion Question Stimulus
The stem uses the word if or another sufcient condition indicator
The stem uses the phrase allows the conclusion to be properly drawn or enables the
conclusion to be properly drawn
The stem does not lessen the degree of justication
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Most Justify the Conclusion stimuli either use conditional reasoning or contain numbers and
percentages
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Solve these questions by reducing the stimulus to its comment parts (premises and conclusion)
and then identify which elements appear in the conclusion but not the premises. The following
rules apply:
Any new element in the conclusion will appear in the correct answer
Elements that are common to the conclusion and at least one premises or to two premises,
normally do not appear in the correct answer
Elements that appear in the premises but not the conclusion normally appear in the correct
answer

Assumption Questions
- An assumption is an unstated premise of the argument. It is an integral component of the
argument that the author takes for granted and leaves unsaid.
- For these questions, you need to identify a statement that the argument assumes or supposes.
Usually, this is just an unstated premise and what is necessary for the argument to be true.
- The answer choice that you select as correct must contain a statement that the author relies
upon and is fully committed to in the argument.
- Two Roles of Assumption Answers

Supporter Assumption
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Link together new or rogue elements in the stimulus or ll logical gaps in the argument.

Defender Assumption
- Contain statements that eliminate ideas or assertions that would undermine the conclusion.
- Defend the argument by showing that a possible source of attack has been eliminated.
- Assumption Negation Technique
Use this technique to decide between contenders or to conrm that the answer you have
chosen is correct.
Logically negate answer choices under consideration
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LSAT Notes.
The negated answer choice that attacks the argument will be the correct answer.
- Logical Opposite is the statement that denies the truth of the original statement.

Always vs. Not Always

Everywhere vs. Not Everywhere

Sometimes vs. Never

Somewhere vs. Nowhere.

All of the Time vs. None of the Time

Sweet vs. Not Sweet

Will vs. May Not

Could vs. Cannot

All vs. Not All

Some vs. None

Unless [NC]Will Not [SC] vs. Will [SC]

even if [NC]
- To negate a conditional statement, you must show that the necessary condition is not, in fact,
necessary.
- Assumptions in conditional reasoning

Premise: A->B->C; Conclusion A->D; Assumption: C->D or contrapositive

Deny scenarios where sufcient condition occurs and necessary does not.

Always look for the answer that conrms that the necessary condition is truly necessary
- Correct Answers for Assumption Questions
Eliminates any alternate cause for the stated effect
Shows that when the cause occurs, the effect occurs
Shows that when the cause does not occur, the effect does not occur
Eliminates the possibility that the stated relationship is reversed
Shows that the data used to make the causal statements are accurate or eliminates the
possibility of problems with the data.
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Assumption vs. Must Be True Questions
In Assumption Questions, answers contain statements used to make the conclusion. These
are the statements that the author must believe in order for the conclusion to be true.
However, they are not explicitly stated in the stimulus
In Must-Be-True Questions, answers contain statements that follow from arguments made
in the stimulus; or, in other words, they are answers proven by the info in the stimulus and do
not incorporate new info.
- Three Quirks of Assumption Question Answer Choices

Watch for answers starting with the phrase at least one or at least some; these are very
often the correct answer

Avoid answers that claim and ideas was the most important for the author, ie: a top priority or
their primary purpose

Watch for the use of not or negatives in assumption answer choicesmay be a defender
answer choice and, potentially, the correct one.

Resolve the Paradox
- Each RTP stimulus presents a situation where 2 ideas or occurrences contradict each other.
- Besides the discrepant or contradictory facts, most RTP stimuli contain the following features:

No conclusion

Language of Contradiction
- But - However - Yet
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LSAT Notes.
- Although - Paradoxically - Surprisingly
- Question Stem Features

An indication that the answer choices should be accepted as true

Key words that indicate your task is to resolve a problem.

- Action Words

Resolve, Explain, Reconcile

- Problem Words

Paradox, Discrepancy, Contradiction, Conict, Puzzle

- The correct answer will actively resolve the paradoxit will allow both sides to be factually
correct and it will either explain how the situation came into being or add a piece of new
information that shows how the 2 ideas or occurrences can coexist
- You are not seeking to disprove one side of the situationyou must select the answer choice
that contains a a possible cause of the situation

Ask yourself if the answer choice could lead to the situation in the stimulus. If so, correct.
- Incorrect answer choices:

Explain only one side of the paradox; the correct answer must show how both sides coexist
with each other.

Similarities and Differences

- If the stimulus contains a paradox where two items are similar, then an answer choice that
explains a difference between the two cannot be correct.
- A similarity cannot explain a difference and a difference cannot explain a similarity
- Always address the facts of the situation.

Evaluate the Argument
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Combination of the Second and Third Families
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Question stems include: Evaluate, Judge, Assess
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Search for the reasoning error present.
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Answer choices are accepted as given and information in the stimulus is suspect. Task is to
determine the answer choice that best helps determine the validity of the argument.
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Consider question statistic or piece of information that would best help to dene the logical
validity of the argument in the stimulus.
- The Variance Test
Supply two opposite responses to the question posed in the answer choice and then analyze
how he varying responses affect the conclusion in the stimulus.
If different responses produce different effects on the conclusion, the answer choice is correct.
If different responses do not produce different effects, the answer choice is incorrect.
Only apply to contenders.
Third Family: Hurt/Weaken Family
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Use info from the answer choices to hurt/weaken the argument in the stimulus
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LSAT Notes.
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Look for the answer choice that undermines the authors argument by evaluating and attacking:
Incomplete Info
Improper Comparison
Qualied Conclusion (limiting)
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Rules of Weakening Questions
The stimulus will contain an argument
Focus on the conclusion
The information in the stimulus is suspect. They are often reasoning errors present and you
must read the argument very carefully
Weaken questions often yield strong pre phrases
The answer choices are accepted as given even if they include new information
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Conclusion of the argument is the best place to attack, but the correct answer will not simply
contradict the conclusion but rather undermine the conclusion by shown that the conclusion
fails to account for some other element or possibility.
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Three Incorrect Answer Choices to Avoid:
Opposite Answers
Shell Game Answers
Answers that are out of the scope of the argument
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To weaken a conditional conclusion, attack the necessary condition by showing that the
necessary condition does not need to occur in order for the sufcient condition to occur.

fourth Family: Cannot be True Family
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Use information from the stimulus to select the answer that cannot be true.
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Task is to identify the answer choice that cannot be true or is most weakened by the
information in the argument.
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Answers that could be true are incorrect.
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The stimulus in a Cannot Be True question rarely contains a conclusion
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Accept the information in the stimulus and use only it to prove that one of the answer choices
cannot occur
If an answer choice contains information that does not appear directly in the stimulus or as a
combination of items in the stimulus, then that answer choice could be true and thus is
incorrect.
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Mentally prepare yourself to eliminate the answers that could be true or a possible and select
the answer that is absolutely impossible
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In problems that revolve around numbers and percentages, the stimulus will often supply enough
information for you to determine that certain outcomes must occur. The correct answer then
violates this outcome.
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In problems featuring conditional statements, many different scenarios can occur except the
following:
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LSAT Notes.
The sufcient condition occurs but the necessary condition does not.
Actively seek the answer above in Cannot Be True questions with conditional reasoning.
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Questions can be viewed in 2 ways:
Polar Opposites Must Be True Question
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Instead of proving an answer, you must disprove the answer
Reverse Weaken Question
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Use the information in the stimulus to attack one of the answers
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Look for the following question stems:
Stating that the answer cannot be true or does not follow
Stating that the answer could be true EXCEPT
Stating that the answer choice must be false (not in caps, watch for this)

Section Strategy and time Management
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On average, the rst ten questions are much easier than the last ten questions
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Answer the rst 10 questions as quickly as possible
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Do not get caught up trying to answer 1 questions; if it is giving you problems, move.
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If you have spent a minute and a half on a question, decide if you can solve or if you need to
move on. If you see a clear path, continue. If not, move.
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Must transfer answers during 35 minutes
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Decide how many questions you want to have answered at the 10, 20 and 30 minute marks.
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Re-check troublesome problems if you have timenote these problems on the side to make
them easy to go back to
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24 questions: 1 minute 27 seconds
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25 questions: 1 minute 24 seconds
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26 questions: 1 minute 20 seconds
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Know strengths and weaknesses and make decisions to skip questions if necessary
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As time winds down, go with gut and move on.
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Three or four of the same answers in a row is okay.
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Guess D.
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At the very end, start with evaluating D and E answer choices.


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