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EASA Module 1 - Mathematics

This document provides an overview of mathematics topics covered in the EASA 66 Category B1 Module 1, including arithmetic, algebra, numbers, geometry, graphs, trigonometry, coordinate geometry, and calculus. It introduces arithmetic terms and operations, and states that mathematics is an essential tool for aviation maintenance technicians.

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GEETHRANASINGHE
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100% found this document useful (14 votes)
4K views112 pages

EASA Module 1 - Mathematics

This document provides an overview of mathematics topics covered in the EASA 66 Category B1 Module 1, including arithmetic, algebra, numbers, geometry, graphs, trigonometry, coordinate geometry, and calculus. It introduces arithmetic terms and operations, and states that mathematics is an essential tool for aviation maintenance technicians.

Uploaded by

GEETHRANASINGHE
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOC, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 112

EASA 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
CONTENTS
1 ARITHMETIC..................................................................................1-1
1.1 Introduction...........................................................................1-1
1.2 Arithmetic Terms...................................................................1-1
1.3 directed numbers..................................................................1-3
1.4 factors...................................................................................1-4
1.4.1 Prime Numbers........................................................1-4
1.4.2 Highest Common Factor HCF!...............................1-"
1.4.3 #o$est Common %u&ti'&e #C%!.............................1-"
1." Arithmetica& Precedence.......................................................1-(
1.".1 )odmas *+am'&e.....................................................1-(
1.( Fractions...............................................................................1-,
1.(.1 Addition of Fractions................................................1-,
1.(.2 -ubtraction of Fractions...........................................1-.
1.(.3 %u&ti'&ication of Fractions........................................1-1/
1.(.4 0i1ision of Fractions................................................1-1/
1., decima& fractions...................................................................1-11
1.,.1 Addition 2 -ubtraction.............................................1-11
1.,.2 %u&ti'&ication 2 0i1ision...........................................1-12
1.3 4eights and %easures.........................................................1-13
1.. 5atio and Pro'ortion.............................................................1-14
1.1/ A1erages and 'ercentages...................................................1-1"
1.1/.1 A1erages..................................................................1-1"
1.1/.2 Percentage...............................................................1-1(
1.11 Po$ers and 5oots................................................................1-1,
1.11.1 Po$ers.....................................................................1-1,
1.11.2 5oots........................................................................1-13
2 ALGEBRA.......................................................................................2-1
2.1 Introduction...........................................................................2-1
2.1.1 6'eration.................................................................2-1
2.1.2 )asic #a$s...............................................................2-3
2.2 *7uations..............................................................................2-4
2.2.1 -o&1ing #inear *7uations.........................................2-4
2.3 Trans'osition in *7uations...................................................2-3
2.3.1 Construction of *7uations.......................................2-1/
2.4 -imu&taneous *7uations.......................................................2-11
2." 7uadratic e7uations..............................................................2-13
Issue / Page i
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
3 NUMBERS......................................................................................3-1
3.1 Indices and Po$ers..............................................................3-1
3.1.1 -tandard Form.........................................................3-3
3.2 Numbering -8stems.............................................................3-3
3.2.1 0ecima& -8stem of Numeration...............................3-3
3.2.2 )inar8 -8stem of Numeration..................................3-"
3.2.3 6cta& -8stem of Numeration....................................3-(
3.2.4 Con1ersion to other bases.......................................3-,
3.3 &ogarithms.............................................................................3-.
4 GEOMETRY....................................................................................4-1
4.1 angu&ar measurement...........................................................4-1
4.1.1 Ang&es associated $ith 'ara&&e& &ines.......................4-2
4.2 9eometric Constructions......................................................4-3
4.2.1 Triang&e....................................................................4-3
4.2.2 -imi&ar 2 Congruent Triang&es.................................4-4
4.2.3 Po&8gon....................................................................4-4
4.2.4 :uadri&atera&s..........................................................4-"
4.2." Para&&e&ogram...........................................................4-"
4.2.( 5ectang&e.................................................................4-(
4.2., 5hombus..................................................................4-(
4.2.3 -7uare.....................................................................4-(
4.2.. Tra'e;ium................................................................4-(
4.2.1/ Circ&es......................................................................4-,
4.3 Area and <o&ume..................................................................4-1/
4.3.1 Area.........................................................................4-1/
4.3.2 <o&umes...................................................................4-14
5 GRAPHS.........................................................................................5-1
".1 construction.........................................................................."-1
".1.1 9ra'hs and %athematica& Formu&ae......................."-4
".1.2 Function and -ha'e................................................."-"
".2 Nomogra'hs........................................................................."-3
6 TRIGONOMETRY...........................................................................6-1
(.1.1 Trigonometrica& Ca&cu&ations 2 Formu&a..................(-2
(.1.2 Construction of Trigonometrica& Cur1es..................(-4
(.2 1a&ues in 4 7uadrants...........................................................(-(
7 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY..........................................................7-1
Issue / Page ii
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
8 COMPLEX NUMBERS...................................................................8-1
3.1 TH* A59AN0 0IA95A%....................................................3-2
3.1.1 Addition and subtraction of com'&e+ numbers........3-3
3.1.2 %u&ti'&ication and di1ision of com'&e+ numbers......3-3
3.1.3 Po&ar=rectangu&ar coordinates..................................3-"
9 CALCULUS.....................................................................................9-1
..1 F>NCTI6N- AN0 #I%IT-.....................................................-1
..1.1 Functions..................................................................-1
..1.2 gradients...................................................................-2
..1.3 infintesima&s and &imits..............................................-4
..2 0IFF*5*NTIATI6N...............................................................-(
..2.1 gradient of a straight &ine..........................................-(
..2.2 gradient of a cur1e....................................................-,
..2.3 the differentia& coefficient deri1ati1e!.......................-.
..2.4 the genera& ru&e.........................................................-1/
..3 %A?I%A AN0 %INI%A..........................................................-12
..4 INT*95ATI6N......................................................................-14
..4.1 Area under a gra'h...................................................-1"
..4.2 Integra&s....................................................................-1,
..4.3 Indefinite integra&s.....................................................-2/
..4.4 0efinite integra&s.......................................................-22
Issue / Page iii
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LET BLAN!
Issue / Page i1
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
1 ARITHMETIC
1.1 INTRODUCTION
%athematics is the basic &anguage of science and techno&og8. It is an e+act
&anguage that has a 1ocabu&ar8 and meaning for e1er8 term. -ince mathematics
fo&&o$s definite ru&es and beha1es in the same $a8 e1er8 time@ scientists and
engineers use it as their basic too&.
#ong before an8 meta& is cut for a ne$ aircraft design@ there are &itera&&8 mi&&ions
of mathematica& com'utations made. A1iation maintenance technicians 'erform
their duties $ith the aid of man8 different too&s. #iAe the $rench or scre$dri1er@
mathematics is an essentia& too& in the maintenance@ re'air and fabrication of
re'&acement 'arts. 4ith this in mind@ 8ou can see $h8 8ou must be com'etent in
mathematics to an acce'tab&e &e1e&. These notes co1er the com'&ete
mathematics s8&&abus re7uired to com'&8 $ith the BA5-(( )1 and )2 &icence
&e1e&.
Arithmetic is the basic &anguage of a&& mathematics and uses rea&@ non-negati1e
numbers. These are sometimes Ano$n as counting numbers. 6n&8 four
o'erations are used@ addition@ subtraction@ mu&ti'&ication and di1ision. 4hi&st
these o'erations are $e&& Ano$n to 8ou@ a re1ie$ of the terms and o'erations
used $i&& maAe &earning the more difficu&t mathematica& conce'ts easier.
1.2 ARITHMETIC TERMS
The most common s8stem of numbers in use is the "#$%&'( s8stem@ $hich uses
the ten digits /@ 1@ 2@ 3@ 4@ "@ (@ ,@ 3@ ..
These ten $ho&e numbers from ;ero to . are ca&&ed %)*#+#,-. Abo1e the number
nine@ the digits are re-used in 1arious combinations to re'resent &arger numbers.
This is accom'&ished b8 arranging the numbers in co&umns based on a mu&ti'&e of
ten. 4ith the addition of a minus -! sign@ numbers sma&&er than ;ero are
indicated.
To describe 7uantities that fa&& bet$een $ho&e numbers@ fractions are used.
C.&&.) /,'$*%.)- are used $hen the s'ace bet$een t$o integers is di1ided
into e7ua& segments@ such as 7uarters. 4hen the s'ace bet$een integers is
di1ided into ten segments@ "#$%&'( /,'$*%.)- are t8'ica&&8 used.
Issue / Page 1
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
-tudents $i&& be fami&iar $ith this s8stem and the basic o'erations@ $hich ma8
in1o&1e Addition@ -ubtraction@ %u&ti'&ication and 0i1ision.
4hen numbers are added@ the8 form a -0&.
4hen numbers are subtracted@ the8 create a "%//#,#)$#.
4hen numbers are mu&ti'&ied@ the8 form a 1,."0$*.
4hen one number the "%2%"#)"! is di1ided b8 another the "%2%-.,!@ the resu&t is
a 30.*%#)*.
It is usefu& if a student is 'roficient at sim'&e menta& arithmetic@ and this is on&8
'ossib&e if one has a Cfee&D for numbers@ and the si;e of numbers. A Ano$&edge of
sim'&e Ctimes tab&esD is a&so usefu&.
TIMES TABLE
The fo&&o$ing sim'&e tests for di1isibi&it8 ma8 be usefu&. A number is di1isib&e b8E
2 if it is an e1en number.
3 if the sum of the digits that form the number is di1isib&e b8 3.
4 if the &ast t$o digits are di1isib&e b8 4.
" If the &ast digit is / or ".
1/ if the &ast digit is /
Issue / Page 2
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
1.3 DIRECTED NUMBERS
0irected numbers are numbers $hich ha1e a F or G sign attached to them.
0irected numbers can be added@ subtracted@ etc. etc@ but care shou&d be taAen to
ensure a correct so&ution. The fo&&o$ing ru&es shou&d assist.
To '"" se1era& numbers of the -'&# sign@ add them together and ensure sign of
the sum is the same as the sign of the numbers.
To '"" 2 numbers $ith "%//#,#)* signs@ -04*,'$* the sma&&er from the &arger. The
sign of the resu&tant the difference! is the same as the sign of the &arge number.
eg. -12 F ( H 12 - (! H ( -(
If there are more than 2 numbers@ carr8 out the o'eration 2 numbers at a time@ or
'roduce t$o numbers b8 adding u' a&& the numbers $ith &iAe signs. And then
a''&8 the ru&es abo1e.
eg. -1" - 3 F 13 - 1. F ( H -1" - 3! H -23 F 13 H -1/ - 1. H -2. F ( H - 23
or -1" F -3! F -1.! H -42 and F13 F( H F1.
-42 F 1. H - 23
To -04*,'$* directed numbers@ change the sign of the number to be subtracted
and add the resu&ting numbers.
eg. -1/ - -(! H - 1/ F ( H - 4
, - F13! H , - 3 H -11
A minus in front of bracAets shou&d be taAen to mean G1. >sing the abo1e
e+am'&e G-(! shou&d be read as G1-(! i.e. minus 1 times minus si+. -imi&ar&8@ a
'ositi1e sign in front of bracAets shou&d be read as F1@ so F-(! shou&d be read as
F1-(! i.e. '&us 1 times minus (.
The 1,."0$* of t$o numbers $ith &iAe signs is 'ositi1e F1e!@ the 'roduct of
numbers $ith un&iAe signs is negati1e -1e!.
4hen "%2%"%)+ numbers $ith &iAe signs@ the 7uotient of the resu&t is F1e. 4hen
di1iding numbers $ith un&iAe signs@ the 7uotient is G1e.
This can be summarised as fo&&o$sE
567 8 567 9 567 5-7 8 567 9 5-7
567 8 5-7 9 5-7 5-7 8 5-7 9 567
Issue / Page 3
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
1.4 ACTORS
4e Ano$ that 2 + ( H 12. 2 and ( are /'$*.,- of12. 4e cou&d a&so state that@ as
3 + 4 H 12@ 3 and 4 are a&so factors of 12. -imi&ar&8 12 and 1.
This ma8 seem ob1ious@ but it is sometimes usefu& to IfactoriseI a number@ i.e.
determine the factors that maAe u' the number. %ore common&8 it is necessar8
to find the factors of an a&gebraic e+'ression.
E8'&1(#
Find the 'ossib&e factors of (/.
in other $ords@ find the integers that di1ide into (/!.
The factors $i&& beE
1@ 2@ 3@ 4@ "@ (@ 1/@ 12@ 1"@ 2/@ 3/ and (/
ChecA them 8ourse&f.
1.4.1 PRIME NUMBERS
A 'rime number is a number $hose on&8 factors are 1 and itse&f.
The 'rime numbers bet$een 1 and 3/ areE
1@ 2@ 3@ "@ ,@ 11@ 13@ 1,@ 1.@ 23 and 2..
ChecA them 8ourse&f.
It is sometimes usefu& to e+'ress the factors of a gi1en number in terms of 'rime
numbers.
For e+am'&e@ &et us &ooA at the factors of (/ again@ taAing 4 and 1" as 2 factors.
4 + 1" H (/!@ but 4 has factors of 2 and 2@ and 1" has factors of " and 3. Hence
the number (/ can be e+'ressed as 2 + 2 + 3 + "@ $hich are a&& factors of (/.
NoteE $e ha1e no$ factorised the number (/ in terms of 'rime numbers.
Issue / Page 4
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
1.4.2 HIGHEST COMMON ACTOR 5HC7
The highest common factor is the biggest factor number! that $i&& di1ide into the
numbers being e+amined. -u''ose that $e taAe 3 numbers@ 1,(4@ 21// and
2.4/. The highest common factor of these numbers is 34. In some instances
8ou $i&& be ab&e to identif8 this 1a&ue sim'&8 b8 &ooAing at the numbers@ in others
8ou $i&& need to ca&cu&ate it. To ca&cu&ate the HCF@ $e must identif8 the factors of
each number in terms of 'rime numbersE
4e then se&ect the common 'rime factors and mu&ti'&8 them together to 'roduce
the High Common Factor@ in this caseE
1.4.3 LO:EST COMMON MULTIPLE 5LCM7
The &o$est common mu&ti'&e of a set of numbers is the sma&&est number into
$hich each of the gi1en numbers $i&& di1ide e+act&8. The #C% can be found b8
mu&ti'&8ing together '(( of the factors common to each of the indi1idua& numbers.
Consider the 're1ious three numbers@ 1,(4@ 21// and 2.4/ and their factors.
The #o$est Common %u&ti'&e of these three numbers $i&& beE
2 + 2 in a&&! + 3 + 3 in 1,(4! + " + " in 21//! + , + , in 1,(4 and 2.4/!
-oE 2 + 2 + 3 + 3 + " + " + , + , H 44@1// is the #.C.%
1,(4 + 2" H 44@1//
21// + 21 H 44@1//
2.4/ + 1" H 44@1//
.
Issue / Page 5
34 , 3 2 2
2.4/ , , " 3 2 2
21// , " " 3 2 2
1,(4 , , 3 3 2 2



44@1// , , " " 3 3 2 2
2.4/ , , " 3 2 2
21// , " " 3 2 2
1,(4 , , 3 3 2 2



EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
1.5 ARITHMETICAL PRECEDENCE
The term Arithmetic Precedence means the order in $hich $e carr8 out arithmetic
functions. -ometimes it doesnJt matter $hat order $e carr8 them out.
Consider the e+'ression 2 F 3 H ". It maAes no difference if $e $rite 3 F 2 H ".
Again@ consider 3 + 4 H 12@ there is no difference if $e $rite 4 + 3 H 12.
Ho$e1er@ if I $rite 2 F 3 + 4@ $hat is the ans$erK
If $e first add 2 F 3@ $e $i&& get " and then " + 4 H 2/.
A&ternati1e&8@ mu&ti'&8ing 3 + 4 H 12@ adding 2 $e get 14.
If $e are going to agree on the ans$er $e must first agree on the ru&es $e use.
This introduces the to'ic Ano$n as arithmetica& 'recedence@ and is most easi&8
remember b8 the term BODMAS. )60%A- indicates the 'recedence@ or the
order in $hich $e 'erform our ca&cu&ationsE
B stands for )racAets
O stands for I6fI
D stands for 0i1ision
M stands for %u&ti'&ication
A stands for Addition
S stands for -ubtraction
1.5.1 BODMAS EXAMPLE
Find the 1a&ue ofE (4 -1(! F -, -12! - -2. F3(!-2 F.!
This e+'ression becomesE
(4 -1(! F -1.! - ,!,! )
H -4! F -1.! - ,!,! 0
H -4! F -1.! - 4. %
H - 23 - 4. A
H - ,2 -
Issue / Page 6
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
1.6 RACTIONS
is an e+am'&e of a P,.1#, ,'$*%.)@ genera&&8 abbre1iated to fraction.
It has the same meaning as 11 1(@ that is@ 11 di1ided b8 1(.
The number '4.2# the &ine is the N0&#,'*.,L the number 4#(.; the &ine is the
D#).&%)'*.,.
is a&so a fraction@ but because 23 is greater than 4@ it is ca&&ed an I&1,.1#,
/,'$*%.). It $i&& norma&&8 be $ritten as @
$hich is the same as H H H .
-imi&ar&8@ cou&d be con1erted to because 3 + , H
so .
1.6.1 ADDITION O RACTIONS
The im'ortant thing to remember here is that on&8 fractions $ith the same a
common! denominator can be added or subtracted.
E8'&1(# 1 H H 1
If the denominators are not the same@ then it is necessar8 to find the (.;#-*
C.&&.) D#).&%)'*., 5LCD7 and to 'ut each fraction in terms of this 1a&ue.
Finding the #o$est Common 0enominator is essentia&&8 the same as finding the
#o$est Common %u&ti'&e@ $hich $as co1ered in a 're1ious to'ic.
E8'&1(# 2
In this e+am'&e@ the #C0 of 1(@ 12 and 3 is 43. In some cases it ma8 be 7uicAer
to find a common denominator b8 sim'&8 mu&ti'&8ing the denominators together
i.e. 1( + 12 + 3 H 1"3(. Note@ this is not the #C0.
Issue / Page 7
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
Ha1ing found the #C0@ each fraction no$ needs to be e+'ressed in terms of the
#C0. This is achie1ed b8 di1iding the #C0 b8 the denominator and mu&ti'&8ing
the resu&t b8 the numerator.
0i1ide the #C0 b8 the denominator 43 1( H 3
%u&ti'&8 the resu&t b8 the numerator 3 + , H 21
and so can be $ritten as
A&ternati1e&8@ di1ide the #C0 b8 the denominator 43 1( H 3
And mu&ti'&8 to' and bottom of the fraction b8 the resu&t
so is the same as .
-imi&ar&8@ 0i1ide the #C0 b8 the denominator 43 M 12 H 4
%u&ti'&8 to' and bottom of fraction b8 4
Fina&&8 con1erts to .
-o the 3 fractions become
4ith the common denominator in '&ace@ the addition becomes .
Issue / Page 8
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
E8'&1(# 3
in this case $e ha1e 3 im'ro'er fractions
First add the $ho&e numbers together@ so the ca&cu&ation becomes.
.
The #C0 of 3@ ( and 12 is 12. >sing this@ the sum becomes.
H H ( F .
This sim'&ifies to become ( F 2 F .
1.6.2 SUBTRACTION O RACTIONS
The basic 'rocedure is 1er8 simi&ar to that used for additionL find the #C%@
con1ert the indi1idua& fractions@ but subtract the numerators instead of adding.
There ma8 be one difference $hich is im'ortant.
E8'&1(# 4
1
st
subtract the $ho&e numbers@ 3 - 1 H 2@ so the ca&cu&ation becomes
. The #C% is 12@ so the sum becomes .
No$@ is +,#'*#, than and so H1! is Iborro$edI from the 2@ so
becomes @ $ritten as .
To a1oid confusion@ 8ou ma8 find it easier to con1ert the &%8#" )0&4#,- 3! to
im'ro'er fractions !@ find the #C%@ 'erform the subtraction and then sim'&if8 the
ans$er.
Issue / Page 9
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
1.6.3 MULTIPLICATION O RACTIONS
These ca&cu&ations are genera&&8 easier to 'erform than addition and subtraction.
E8'&1(# 1
-im'&8 mu&ti'&8 the numerators together and mu&ti'&8 the denominators together.
-o and then con1ert to a mi+ed number or sim'&if8 as necessar8.
E8'&1(# 2
Con1ert into im'ro'er fractions@ so becomes and becomes .
Then mu&ti'&8 as before. @ and con1ert to a mi+ed number .
1.6.4 DI<ISION O RACTIONS
To di1ide t$o fractions $e in1ert the "%2%-., the number $e are di1iding b8! and
mu&ti'&8.
E8'&1(# 1

First&8@ con1ert into im'ro'er fractions. Then in1ert the second fraction and
mu&ti'&8.
so H + H H 14.
N.*#. *1er8 o''ortunit8 shou&d be taAen to sim'&if8 b8 Icance&&ingI numbers
abo1e and be&o$ the &ine $here1er 'ossib&e.
For e+am'&e H + $hich becomes , + 2 H 14
a , abo1e and be&o$ the &ine cance&s@ as does an 3!.
Issue / Page 1=
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
1.7 DECIMAL RACTIONS
0ecima& fractions are fractions $here the 0enominator is e7ua& to some 'o$er of
1/@ i.e. 1//@ 1///@ 1//// etc.
For e+am'&e@ is a decima& fraction.
0ecima& fractions are usua&&8 re-$ritten as decima&s. This is 1er8 easi&8 done b8
using a D#$%&'( P.%)*. TaAe the e+am'&e .
P&ace a decima& 'oint to the right of the numerator to' number!. Then mo1e the
decima& 'oint to the &eft@ b8 a number of '&aces e7ua& to the number of InoughtsI
in the denominator bottom number!. 5emo1e one nought from the denominator
for each mo1e.
-o@ starts as becomes then and fina&&8 an8 1a&ue o1er 1 is e7ua& to that
1a&ue so the ans$er becomes N12"
$ou&d become 12." etc.
A)> /,'$*%.) $') 4# /.,&#" %)*. ' "#$%&'(? 4> "%2%"%)+ *@# )0&#,'*., 4> *@#
"#).&%)'*.,.
For e+am'&e becomes /.3,". Found b8 a 'rocess of &ong di1ision .
1.7.1 ADDITION A SUBTRACTION
The main thing to remember $hen adding or subtracting decima& numbers is to
ensure the8 are correct&8 &ined u' using the decima& 'oint as a reference.
E8'&1(# 1
2.(33 F 34.41
the ans$er is 3,/.3
Issue / Page 11
2 N ( 3 3
3 4 N 4 1 /
3 , N / . 3
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
1.7.2 MULTIPLICATION A DI<ISION
%u&ti'&ication of 0ecima&s is the same as ordinar8 I&ongI mu&ti'&ication@ but the
number of decima& '&aces in the ans$er must e7ua& the sum of decima& '&aces in
the numbers being mu&ti'&ied.
E8'&1(# 1
(.24 + 3.121
There are t$o digits after the decima& '&ace in the first number and 3 in the
second. Therefore@ there must be " digits after the decima& '&ace in the ans$er@
so the ans$er becomes 1.N4,"/4.
Common sense he&'s here. A number s&ight&8 greater then ( is mu&ti'&ied b8
another number s&ight&8 greater then 3. #ogica&&8 the ans$er shou&d be
a''ro+imate&8 13!.
0i1ision is a&so the same as ordinar8 &ong di1ision@ but again a sim'&e ru&e he&'s
to sim'&if8 the 'rocess O0o not tr8 to di1ide b8 a fractionJ. %u&ti'&8 both the di1isor
and di1idend b8 a 'o$er of ten mo1e the decima& '&ace to the right! so that the
di1isor becomes a $ho&e number.
E8'&1(#-
3("/ 4"."( - %u&ti'&8 both numbers b8 1// 1/
2
! to gi1e 3("/// 4""(
,(. /3(4 - %u&ti'&8 both numbers b8 1/// 1/
3
! to gi1e ,.(/// 3(4
Issue / Page 12
(243121(241243/
(24//13,2///1.4
,"/4
B
N
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
1.8 :EIGHTS AND MEASURES
A $ide number of different $eights and measures are used during the
maintenance of aircraft. The ones that come to mind first are 'robab&8 fue&
ca'acities@ t8re 'ressures@ tem'eratures and s'eeds. There are ho$e1er 1er8
man8 others@ $hich 8ou $i&& meet as 8ou 'rogress through 8our course.
First&8@ the most common&8 used s8stem in a1iation toda8 is the S>-*#&#
I)*#,)'*%.)'(# -I!. This s8stem is based on mu&ti'&es of 1/ and has been
acce'ted $ide&8@ $ith one or t$o e+ce'tions. It consists of a standard set of units
for (#)+*@ 5&#*,#7@ &'-- 5C%(.+,'&7@ *%&# 5-#$.)"7@ *#&1#,'*0,# 5!#(2%)7@
$0,,#)* 5'&1#,#7 and (%+@* 5$')"#('7. There are se1era& other units $hich@
$hi&st not being 'art of the basic -.I. ones abo1e@ are in common use and sti&& use
the metric s8stem for ca&cu&ations.
An o&der s8stem that is sti&& used in some countries toda8@ is the I&1#,%'(
S>-*#&? $hich uses a mi+ture of o&d units such as feet and inches for &ength@
'ounds for $eight@ ga&&ons for ca'acit8 and Fahrenheit for tem'erature.
Pou $i&& occasiona&&8 meet a mi+ture of s8stems@ $hich $i&& re7uire con1ersion
from one to another. A good e+am'&e is the amount of fue& 'ut into an aircraftQs
tanAs. Pou $i&& find this being measured in im'eria& ga&&ons@ American ga&&ons@
im'eria& 'ounds@ -I Ai&ograms or metric &itres.
Changing a 7uantit8 in one unit to a 7uantit8 in another unit re7uires a
$.)2#,-%.) /'$*.,. 4hen the 7uantit8 in the first unit is mu&ti'&ied b8 the
con1ersion factor@ the resu&t is the 7uantit8 in the second units. For e+am'&e@ to
con1ert im'eria& ga&&ons to &itres@ the8 must be mu&ti'&ied b8 4."4(
E8'&1(# 1
Con1ert 2" ga&&ons into &itres.
2" + 4."4( H 113.(" #itres.
E8'&1(# 2
Con1ert 1"// mi&es into Ai&ometres using the con1ersion factor 1(/.4
1"// + 1(/.4 H 2413. Ri&ometres.
NoteE Pou $i&& norma&&8 be gi1en the con1ersion factor@ ho$e1er@ 8ou ma8 ha1e to
trans'ose a formu&a in order to use it.
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1.9 RATIO AND PROPORTION
This to'ic is an e+tension of se1era& 're1ious to'ics. 5atio and 'ro'ortion are
essentia&&8 statements that &inA t$o or more I7uantitiesI together. For e+am'&e@ a
O3 to1 mi+ of sand and cementJ@ $hich ma8 be $ritten as a 3E1 mi+ of sand and
cement@ means Omi+ 3 'arts of sand to 1 'art of cementI. This is a common&8
used statement $hich 8ou $i&& notice has no forma& units@ a&though 1o&ume is
inferred. Parts cou&d be re'resented b8 sho1e&s fu&&@ bucAets fu&&@ $hee&barro$s
fu&& etc.
The mi+ture sim'&8 has a tota& of 4 'arts@ of $hich 3 'arts@ @ is sand@ and 1 'art
is cement.
A ratio therefore sim'&8 'ro1ides a means of com'aring one 1a&ue $ith another.
For e+am'&e@ if an engine turns at 4///r'm and the 'ro'e&&er turns at 24//r'm@
the ratio of the t$o s'eeds is 4/// to 24//@ or O" to 3J $hen reduced to its &o$est
terms. This re&ationshi' can a&so be e+'ressed as "=3 or "E3.
The use of ratios is common in a1iation@ such as $hen considering the
com'ression ratio in an engine. This is the ratio of c8&inder dis'&acement@ $hen
the 'iston is at the bottom of its stroAe com'ared $ith the dis'&acement $hen it is
at the to'. For e+am'&e@ if the 1o&ume of the c8&inder at the bottom of its stroAe is
24/ cm
2
and at the to' becomes 3/ cm
2
the ratio is 24/E3/ or@ reduced to its
&o$est terms@ 3E1.
Another t8'ica& ratio is that of different gear si;es. For e+am'&e@ the ratio of a
dri1e gear $ith 1" teeth to a dri1en gear $ith 4" teeth is 1"E4" or 1E3 $hen
reduced. This means that for e1er8 one tooth of the dri1e gear there are three
teeth on the dri1en gear. Ho$e1er@ $hen $orAing $ith gears@ the ratio of teeth is
o''osite the ratio of re1o&utions. In other $ords@ since the dri1e gear has one third
as man8 teeth as the dri1en gear@ the dri1e gear must com'&ete three re1o&utions
to turn the dri1en gear once. This resu&ts in a ,#2.(0*%.) ,'*%. of 3E1@ $hich is the
o''osite of the ratio of teeth.
A 'ro'ortion is a statement of e7ua&it8 bet$een t$o or more ratios and re'resents
a con1enient $a8 to so&1e 'rob&ems in1o&1ing ratios. For e+am'&e@ if an engine
has a reduction gear ratio bet$een the cranAshaft and the 'ro'e&&er of 3E2@ and
the engine is turning at 2,//r'm@ $hat is the rotationa& s'eed of the 'ro'e&&erK In
this 'rob&em &et <
1
re'resent the unAno$n 1a&ue@ $hich in this case is the s'eed
of the 'ro'e&&er. Ne+t@ set u' a 'ro'ortiona& statement using the fractiona& form@
3=2 H 2,//=<
'
. To so&1e this e7uation@ cross mu&ti'&8 to arri1e at the e7uation 3<
'

H 2 + 2,//@ or "4//r'm. To so&1e for <
'
di1ide "4// b8 3. Thus@ the 'ro'e&&er
s'eed is 13//r'm.
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E8'&1(# 0i1ide S24/ bet$een 4 men in the ratio of .E11E13E1".
The norma& 'rocedure for this t8'e of 'rob&em is toE
A. Add a&& of the indi1idua& 'ro'ortions to find the tota& number of 'arts.
). 0i1ide the tota& amount b8 the number of 'arts to find the 1a&ue of each
'art.
C. %u&ti'&8 each ratio b8 the 1a&ue of each 'art.
-o. . F 11 F 13 F 1" H 43
S24/ di1ided b8 43 H S". Therefore each 'art is $orth S".
. + " H 4"
11 + " H ""
13 + " H ("
1" + " H ,"
The 'ro'ortions are therefore S4"@ S""@ S(" and S,"
A usefu& checA is to add the indi1idua& 'arts together@ to ensure the tota& is the
amount 8ou started $ith.
1.1= A<ERAGES AND PERCENTAGES
1.1=.1 A<ERAGES
4hen $orAing $ith numerica& information@ it is sometimes usefu& to find the
a1erage 1a&ue. 4hen estimating the time a 'articu&ar Tourne8 $ou&d be no 'oint in
basing the time on the s&o$est s'eed or the highest s'eed@ a&$a8s use an
a1erage s'eed.
4e $ou&d a&so use a1erage fue& consum'tion to estimate ho$ much fue& an
aircraft $ou&d use for a 'articu&ar f&ight.
In both of these t8'es of ca&cu&ation@ $e can on&8 $orA out the a1erage b8 di1iding
the tota& distance or fue& used b8 the time.
E8'&1(# 1
An aircraft tra1e&s a tota& distance of ,"/ Am in a time of 3 hours 4" minutes.
4hat is the a1erage s'eed in Am=hrK
A1erage s'eed H Tota& 0istance=Time H
hr = Am 2//
," . 3
,"/

Issue / Page 15
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E8'&1(# 2
An aircraft uses 3// ga&&ons of fue& for a f&ight of duration 4 hours. 4hat is the
a1erage fue& consum'tionK
A1erage Fue& Consum'tion H
hour = ga&&ons ,"
4
3//

4e often need to ca&cu&ate a1erages based on man8 data items.


E8'&1(# 3
The $eight of si+ items are as fo&&o$sE
.."@ 1/.3@ 3..@ ..4@ 11.2@ 1/.1 4hat is the a1erage $eightK
To ca&cu&ate this $e sim'&8 add the tota& $eights and di1ide b8 the number of
items.
The tota& $eight is "..4 Ag The a1erage is
Ag . . .
(
4 . ".


1.1=.2 PERCENTAGE
Percentages are s'ecia& fractions $hose denominator is 1//. The decima&
fraction /.33 is the same as 33=1// and is e7ui1a&ent to 33 'ercent or 33U. Pou
can con1ert common fractions to 'ercentages b8 first con1erting them to decima&
fractions and then mu&ti'&8ing b8 1//. For e+am'&e@ "=3 e+'ressed as a decima&
is /.(2"@ and is con1erted to a 'ercentage b8 mo1ing the decima& 'oint t$o
'&aces to the right@ the same as mu&ti'&8ing b8 1//. This becomes (2."U.
To find the 'ercentage of a number@ mu&ti'&8 the number b8 the decima&
e7ui1a&ent of the 'ercentage. For e+am'&e@ to find 1/U of 2//@ begin b8
con1erting 1/U to its decima& e7ui1a&ent@ $hich is /.1. This is achie1ed b8
di1iding the 'ercentage figure b8 1//. No$ mu&ti'&8 2// b8 /.1 to arri1e at the
1a&ue of 2/.
If 8ou $ant to find the 'ercentage one number is of another@ 8ou must di1ide the
first number b8 the second and mu&ti'&8 the 7uotient b8 1//. For instance@ an
engine 'roduces 3"h' from a 'ossib&e 12"h'. 4hat 'ercentage of the tota&
horse'o$er a1ai&ab&e is being de1e&o'edK To so&1e this@ di1ide the 3" b8 12" and
mu&ti'&8 the 7uotient b8 1//.
*+am'&eE
3" M 12" H /.(3 + 1// H (3U 'o$er.
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Another $a8 that 'ercentages are used@ is to determine a number $hen on&8 a
'ortion of the number is Ano$n. For e+am'&e@ if 413/r'm is 33U of the ma+imum
s'eed@ $hat is the ma+imum s'eedK To determine this@ 8ou must di1ide the
Ano$n 7uantit8@ 413/r'm@ b8 the decima& e7ui1a&ent of the 'ercentage.
*+am'&eE
413/ M /.33 H 11@///r'm ma+imum
A common mistaAe made on this t8'e of 'rob&em is mu&ti'&8ing b8 the 'ercentage
instead of di1iding. 6ne $a8 of a1oiding maAing this error is to &ooA at the
'rob&em and determine $hat e+act&8 is being asAed. In the 'rob&em abo1e@ if
413/r'm is 33U of the ma+imum then the ma+imum must be greater than 413/.
The on&8 $a8 to get an ans$er that meets this criterion is to di1ide b8 /.33.
1.11 PO:ERS AND ROOTS
1.11.1 PO:ERS
4hen a number is mu&ti'&ied b8 itse&f@ it is said to be raised to a gi1en 'o$er. For
e+am'&e@ ( + ( H 3(L therefore (
2
H 3(. The number of times the 4'-# )0&4#, is
mu&ti'&ied b8 itse&f is e+'ressed as an #81.)#)* and is $ritten to the right and
s&ight&8 abo1e the base number. A 'ositi1e e+'onent indicates ho$ man8 times a
number is mu&ti'&ied b8 itse&f.
*+am'&eE
3
2
is read I3 s7uaredI or I3 to the 'o$er of 2I. Its 1a&ue is found b8 mu&ti'&8ing 3
b8 itse&f.
3 + 3 H .
2
3
is read I2 cubedI or I2 to 'o$erI. Its 1a&ue is found b8 mu&ti'&8ing 2 b8 itse&f 3
times.
2 + 2 + 2 H 3
If the e+'onent is a negati1e integer@ the minus sign indicates the in1erse or
reci'roca& of the number $ith its e+'onent made 'ositi1e.
*+am'&eE
2
-3
is the same as the reci'roca& of 2
3
$hich is so
2
-3
H
3
1
2 2 2
1


Issue / Page 17
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An8 number@ e+ce't ;ero@ that is raised to the ;ero 'o$er e7ua&s 1. 4hen a
number is $ritten $ithout an e+'onent@ the e+'onent 1a&ue is assumed to be 1.
Furthermore@ if the e+'onent does not ha1e a sign@ F or -! 'receding it@ the
e+'onent is assumed to be 'ositi1e.
1.11.2 ROOTS
The ,..* of a number is that 1a&ue $hich@ $hen mu&ti'&ied b8 itse&f a certain
number of times@ 'roduces that number. For e+am'&e@ 4 is a root of 1( because
$hen mu&ti'&ied b8 itse&f@ the 'roduct is 1(. Ho$e1er@ 4 is a&so a root of (4
because 4 + 4 + 4 H (4. The s8mbo& used to indicate a root is the ,'"%$'( sign
x ! '&aced o1er the number. If on&8 the radica& sign a''ears o1er a number@ it
indicates 8ou are to e+tract the -30',# ,..* of the number under the sign. The
s7uare root of a number is the root of that number@ $hen mu&ti'&ied b8 itse&f@
e7ua&s that number. 4hen asAed to e+tract a root other than a s7uare root@ an
%)"#8 )0&4#, is '&aced outside the radica& sign.
For e+am'&e@ the cube root of (4 is e+'ressed as
(4
3

Another $a8 of indicating roots is b8 sho$ing the root of a number is b8 sho$ing
an e+'onent as in 'o$ers. In the case of roots@ ho$e1er@ the e+'onent is sho$n
as a fraction.
The cube root of (4 can a&so be e+'ressed as
3
1
(4
The s7uare root of 1( $ou&d be e+'ressed as
2
1
1(
Issue / Page 18
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
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MATHEMATICS
2 ALGEBRA
2.1 INTRODUCTION
<er8 often students $i&& c&aim that the8 ne1er ha1e and ne1er $i&& understand
A&gebra. The8 sa8 the8 can understand and $orA $ith numbers@ but not $ith
&etters@ and 8et A&gebra is designed to maAe matters sim'&e and c&ear.
For e+am'&e@ su''ose a room is " metres &ong b8 3 metres $ide and $e need to
Ano$ ho$ much car'et is needed to co1er the f&oor. No one $ou&d ha1e an8
hesitation in ca&cu&ating the ans$er@ 1" s7uare metres m
2
!. )ut that ans$er on&8
a''&ies to that room. The +#)#,'( ans$er is that the area is found b8
&0(*%1(>%)+ (#)+*@ b8 ;%"*@ or breadth!.
i.e. Area H &ength + breadth.
)ut it is easier to $rite A H # + b@ $here the &etters A@ #@ b re'resent in this case
Area@ #ength and breadth@ and that is $hat A&gebra is a&& aboutL &etters re'resent
some 1ariab&e and on&8 $hen 'articu&ar 1a&ues. i.e. numbers are Ano$n@ do $e
resort to them instead.
-o $hen using A&gebra@ it is im'ortant to state $hat the &etters re'resent. -ome
&etters are often used@ 'articu&ar&8 + and 8@ but g often re'resents acce&eration due
to gra1it8@ re'resents densit8@ and so on. This is $hat A&gebraic ).*'*%.) is
about.
2.1.1 OPERATION
A&gebraic o'erations are in essence the same as $hen using numbers.
-o A""%)+ a and b is $ritten a F b
S04*,'$*%)+ a and b is $ritten a - b
M0(*%1(>%)+ a and b is $ritten ab
D%2%"%)+ a b8 b is $ritten a=b
S30',%)+ a a
2
4e are not restricted to 2 &etters on&8.
a mu&ti'&ied b8 b and di1ided b8 c becomes@ &ogica&&8@
Issue / Page 1
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Note a&so that the order in $hich &etters a''ear is basica&&8 unim'ortant.
a + b + c + d H abcd H bdac H cadb etc. etc.
3 + 4 is ob1ious&8 the same as 4 + 3 etc.!
4hen s8mbo&s such as + and 8 are mu&ti'&ied together $e do not need to inc&ude
the mu&ti'&ication sign. This is the same if a number and a s8mbo& are mu&ti'&ied
together.
3 + 8@ 4 + ;@ s + '@ a + b@ 8 + ; + m
can a&& be $ritten $ithout the mu&ti'&ication sign as 38@ 4;@ s'@ ab and 8;m
The same is not true of numbers on their o$nE
, + 3@ 4 + " and ( + , cannot be $ritten as ,3@ 4" and (,.
L%C# T#,&- are terms com'rised of the same a&gebraic 7uantit8 - this is
im'ortant. ,+@ "+ and -3+ are a&& terms containing +
,a@ 4b@ 3a and -(b can be s'&it into t$o grou's of &iAe terms@ ,a and 3a@
and 4b and -(b.
If &iAe terms contain numerica& coefficients@ the8 can be sim'&ified.
,+ F "+ - 3+ H , F " - 3!+ H .+
,a F 3a F 4b - (b H 1/a - 2b.
Terms &iAe ab F cb - db ma8 be sim'&ified as a F c - d! b.
b is a common factor of the 3 terms!
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4hen dea&ing $ith a&gebraic terms and e+'ressions the abi&it8 to factorise is a
great asset. -imi&ar&8@ the abi&it8 to di1ide numerator and denominator b8 the
same terms i.e. cance&&ing to' and bottom! a&&o$s sim'&ification.
2.1.2 BASIC LA:S
A&gebra obe8s the same &a$s of 'rocedure as Arithmetic@ i.e. )60%A-.
Note that )racAets a''ear rather more often in A&gebra@ and are on&8 remo1ed
$hen there is a good reason to do so@ for e+am'&e@ $hen further o'erations
u&timate&8 &ead to greater sim'&ification.
3+ F ,8! - 4+ F 38! H 3+ F ,8 - 4+ - 38 H -+ F 48
Note es'ecia&&8 that $hen remo1ing bracAets@ a&& the terms inside the bracAets
are mu&ti'&ied b8 $hat is immediate&8 outside the bracAets. The basic 'rocedure
is as fo&&o$s.
a + F 8! H a+ F a8
a F b + F 8! H a F b+ F b8 both + and 8 are mu&ti'&ied b8 b!
a F b! + F 8! H a+ F a8 F b+ F b8 + and 8 are mu&ti'&ied b8 aFb!
a F b!
2
H a F b! a F b! H a + a! F a + b! F b + a! F b + b!
H a
2
F ab F ab F b
2
H a
2
F 2ab F b
2
4hen /'$*.,%-%)+@ e+amine each term is order to &ooA for common factors.
the common factors of a
2
b and -2ab
2
are a and b the8 a''ear in both!@
hence a
2
b - 2ab
2
can be $ritten ab!a - 2b!.
ab! and a - 2b! are both factors of the com'&ete e+'ression a
2
b and -2ab
2
.
As a&read8 stated@ the abi&it8 to IseeI factors is an asset.
Issue / Page 3
2b
a

b b a (
b a a 3

ab (
b 3a

2
2

/
/
/
/

EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
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MATHEMATICS
a+ F b+ F a8 F b8
H + a F b! F 8 a F b! H + F 8! a F b!
or H a + F 8! F b + F 8! H + F 8! a F b!
A&gebra can be e+tended to inc&ude fractions.
e.g. F H bd is the #C0@ ad F cb is the Numerator!
2.2 EDUATIONS
The statement a G 4 H " is an e7uation. 4hat $e are sa8ing is that an unAno$n
7uantit8 minus 4 e7ua&s ". It does not taAe a genius to $orA out that the unAno$n
7uantit8 in this case is .@ there is on&8 one 1a&ue that $i&& be correct. The 1a&ue of
a can be ca&cu&ated using guess$orA or e&imination. The 'rocess of estab&ishing
that a H . is ca&&ed so&1ing the e7uation.
2.2.1 SOL<ING LINEAR EDUATIONS
A &inear e7uation is one containing on&8 the first 'o$er of the unAno$n 7uantit8.
"8 G " H 38 F . or "m G 2! H 1"
These are both &inear e7uations.
4hen $e so&1e &inear e7uations@ the a''earance of the e7uation ma8 change.
For e+am'&e@ the first e7uation cou&d be re-$ritten as "8 G 38 H . F " and the
second as "m G 1/ H 1". )oth of these &ooA different from the origina& form@ but
e7ua&it8 has been maintained and the8 are therefore the same.
The genera& ru&e for a&& e7uations isE
:@'*#2#, >.0 ". *. .)# -%"# ./ *@# #30'*%.)? >.0 &0-* ". *@# -'&#
*. *@# .*@#, -%"#.
)8 con1ention $e name each side of the e7uation #eft Hand -ide #H-! or 5ight
Hand -ide 5H-!
Issue / Page 4
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2.2.1.1 E30'*%.)- R#30%,%)+ M0(*%1(%$'*%.) ., D%2%-%.)
-o&1e the e7uation
4
"
+

If $e mu&ti'&8 both sides b8 " $e get


" 4 "
"
+

-o the so&ution is + H 2/
-o&1e the e7uation 4b H 2/
0i1iding both sides b8 4 $e get H
-o the so&ution is b H "
2.2.1.2 E30'*%.)- R#30%,%)+ A""%*%.) ., S04*,'$*%.)
The sim'&est t8'e of &inear e7uation is of this t8'eE
+ - ( H .
To so&1e a&& e7uations $e must mani'u&ate the e7uation to get the unAno$n on
one side and the Ano$n 1a&ues on the other side. In this case $e must e&iminate
the 1a&ue of G( from the #H-.
This can be done b8 adding ( to the #H-@ but $e must a&so add ( to the 5H-.
-o the e7uation becomes + - ( F ( H . F (
4e then S%&1(%/> the e7uation to obtain + H . F ( H 1"
-o the so&ution is + H 1"
A sim'&er $a8 of so&1ing this t8'e of e7uation is to s$itch 1a&ues from one side to
another. 4hen $e do this@ $e must@ ho$e1er change the sign.
*+am'&eE -o&1e 8 F 4 H 14
If $e s$itch the F 4 to the 5H- and change the sign it becomes
P H 14 G 4 -o the so&ution is 8 H 1/
Issue / Page 5
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If the e7uation has mu&ti'&es of the unAno$n 7uantit8@ such asE
-o&1e "+ G 12 H 3
the first stage is the same@ i.e. "+ H 3 F 12
-o "+ H 1"
It seems ob1ious that + H 3@ but ho$ mathematica&&8 is this achie1edK
If $e di1ide both sides b8 " $e $i&& get the so&ution + H 3.
2.2.1.3 E30'*%.)- C.)*'%)%)+ U)C).;)- .) 4.*@ S%"#-
In e7uations of this t8'e $e shou&d grou' the unAno$n 7uantities on one side and
the other terms on the other side.
For e+am'&e@ so&1e 38 F 4 H "8 F 22
If $e subtract 4 from both sides@ and a&so subtract "8 from both sides $e $i&& getE
38 H 13 The so&ution can then be obtained b8 di1iding each side b8 3.
H H 8 H (
NoteE As in a&& cases of so&1ing e7uations@ ;# $') ')" [email protected](" $@#$C .0,
-.(0*%.) is correct b8 substituting the so&ution in the origina& e7uation.
i.e. #H- 3 + 6! F 4 H 43 F 4 H "2
5H- " + 6! F 22 H 3/ F 22 H "2
2.2.1.4 E30'*%.)- C.)*'%)%)+ B,'$C#*-
The first ste' is to remo1e the bracAets and then so&1e as norma&
328 F 3! H 21 first e+'and the bracAets to obtain
(8 F . H 21 then subtract . from both sides
(8 H 12 then di1ide both sides b8 (
The so&ution is 8 H 2
To checA the so&ution is correct@ $e substitute 8 H 2 in the origina& e7uation.
#H- 32 + 2 F 3! H 34 F 3! H 3 + , H 21
5H- H 21
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MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
2.2.1.5 E30'*%.)- C.)*'%)%)+ ,'$*%.)-
In this case $e must mu&ti'&8 each term b8 the #C% of the denominators.
*+am'&e 1.
2
2
8 3
"
3
4
8
+
The #C% of the denominators 4@ " and 2 is 2/@ so $e must mu&ti'&8 each term in
the e7uation b8 2/
2/ 2 2/
2
8 3
2/
"
3
2/
4
8
+
4/ 8 3/ 12 8 " +
12 4/ 8 3/ 8 "
so
"2 8 2"
Note in this case $e ha1e negati1e 1a&ues on both sides. If $e s$a' them
around and change the signs i.e. s$a' the #H- for the 5H-
4e get
8 2" "2
Note this is e+act&8 the same as
"2 8 2"
. This can be 'ro1ed b8 taAing the
e7uation
"2 8 2"
and adding 2"8 to both sides@ and then adding "2 to both
sides.
*+am'&e 2. -o&1e the e7uation
4
2
1 + 2

3
4 +

The #C% of 3 and 2 is (@ so $e mu&ti'&8 a&& of the terms b8 (


( 4 (
2
1 + 2
(
3
4 +

( ) ( ) 24 1 + 2 3 4 + 2
24 3 + ( 3 + 2 +
24 " + 4 so 2. + 4 and the so&ution is
2" . ,
4
2.
+
Issue / Page 7
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
2.3 TRANSPOSITION IN EDUATIONS
Consider a formu&a e7uation! gi1en in a certain form.
(a F 11 H 2" - a
This contains one a&gebraic 7uantit8@ IaI@ $ithin an e7uation. ThinA of an
e7uation as a statement of Oba&anceJ. In this one@ (a F 11 on the #H- e7ua&s@ or
ba&ances@ 2" - a on the 5H-.
As $e ha1e one e7uation and one unAno$n OaJ@ there is on&8 one numerica& 1a&ue
$hich can 'roduce a ba&ance. 4hat is itK
)8 mani'u&ating *,')-1.-%)+ is the $ord! the e7uation@ it is 'ossib&e to iso&ate
the OaJ on the #H- and ba&ance it $ith an actua& number on the 5H-. This $i&&
then be the uni7ue 1a&ue of OaJ. #ooA again at the e7uation.
(a F 11 H 2" - a
To remo1e the OaJ on the 5H-@ $e must add OaJ to both sides.
(a F 11 F a H 2" - a F a
therefore ,a F 11 H 2"
To remo1e F 11@ $e must subtract 11 from both sides
,a F 11 G 11 H 2" - 11
so ,a H 14
and if ,a H 14 then a H 2
4e ha1e found that a H 2. This is the uni7ue 1a&ue $hich satisfies
(a F 11 H 2" - a.
-tud8 it again to see ho$ $e $orAed to iso&ate the re7uired term OaJ on one side@
and ,#&#&4#,@ $hat 8ou do to one side of an e7uation@ 8ou must do to the other
side if the ba&ance is to be maintained.
Here is another a formu&a in1o&1ing se1era& a&gebraic s8mbo&s.
Find N@ if C H
5emember@ $e $ant N on one side b8 itse&f. It is im'ortant to get a Qfee&Q for the
form of the e7uation. To he&'@ $e $i&& 'ut bracAets around N - n!.
-o C H
To remo1e the 2' $e must mu&ti'&8 both sides b8 2'
Issue / Page 8
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
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MATHEMATICS
C + 2' H + 2'
$hich gi1es 2C' H N G n!
To remo1e the -n@ $e must add n to both sides
2C' F n H N G n! F n H N
ThatQs it@ N H 2C' F n
HereQs another e+am'&e.
< H the 1o&ume of a cone!.
Find r the radius!@ ste' b8 ste'.
<+ 3 H .= mu&ti'&8 both sides b8 3!
H H r
2
di1ide both sides b8 h!
R#&#&4#,@ to find r@ taAe the s7uare root of r
2
and do the same to both sides.
This is $hat trans'osition is a&& about. 4e are re-arranging formu&as e+'ressed
as e7uations@ $hich then a&&o$s us to find a 'articu&ar numerica& 1a&ue for one
unAno$n! 7uantit8 if the other numerica& 1a&ues are gi1en.
6ne im'ortant 'oint@ it is on&8 'ossib&e to find an unAno$n 7uantit8 if a&& the other
1a&ues are Ano$n. This is Ano$n as Qso&1ing an e7uationQ.
The ru&e is@
6ne unAno$n 7uantit8 can be deduced from one e7uation@
T$o unAno$ns re7uire t$o different e7uations@
Three unAno$ns re7uired three different e7uations@
and so on.
2.3.1 CONSTRUCTION O EDUATIONS
As a&read8 stated@ %aths ser1es as a Itoo&I for *ngineers at the design stage.
0esign is the creation of a com'onent or mechanism .) 1'1#,@ i.e. before it taAe
sha'e in meta& or '&astic. The design engineer ho'efu&&8 maAes it strong enough
- his Ano$&edge of materia&s and their strengths a&&o$ him to do this b8
ca&cu&ation. He uses formu&as and e7uations.
Issue / Page 9
h.
3<
r
r. r
h
3<

2

EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
To do this@ he must a&&ocate &etters to re'resent some 1ariab&e or Ano$n 7uantit8.
He can then construct a formu&a or e7uation b8 using the &etters $ithin some
Oreasonab&eJ statement about the situation. He studies the situation and then
maAes the statement.
Ho$ do $e construct e7uations from the facts contained $ithin a scenarioK
*+am'&e 1
ThinA of a number@ doub&e it@ add ( and di1ide the resu&t b8 3. 4hat is the
ans$erK
#et the number 8ou thinA of be A. 0oub&ing this number gi1es 2A.
If ( is then added@ $e ha1e 2A F (@ $hich must then be di1ided b8 3@ maAing
the ans$er H . This formu&a can be used to ca&cu&ate the ans$er no matter $hat
number 8ou thinA of.
*+am'&e 2
If one side of a rectangu&ar fie&d is t$ice as &ong as the other@ and the short side is
1//m. Ca&cu&ate the area of the fie&d.
#et the short side of the fie&d be #. The &ong side is therefore 2 + # or 2#.
To ca&cu&ate the area $e mu&ti'&8 one side b8 the other@ soE
Area H 2# + # H 2#
2
$here # e7ua&s 1//m
Area H 21//!
2
H 2////m
2
*+am'&e 3
A certain t8'e of motor car cost se1en times as much as a certain maAe of motor
c8c&e. If t$o cars and three motor c8c&es cost S3"//@ find the cost of each
1ehic&e.
#et the cost of a car be C at 'resent C is an unAno$n!.
#et the cost of a motor c8c&e be % another unAno$n!.
4e Ano$ that 2C F 3% H S3"// this has t$o unAno$ns $ithin one e7uation!.
)ut $e a&so Ano$ that C H , + %@ therefore@ $e can substitute for C in the first
e7uation.
2 ,%! F 3% H S3"//
14% F 3% H 1,% H S3"//
% H H S"//
Issue / Page 1=
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
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MATHEMATICS
The cost of a motor c8c&e is therefore S"//@ and the cost of a car must be , ?
S"// H S3"//.
Here 2 e7uations $ere constructed from the facts@ and then combined to a&&o$ a
so&ution to be found.
In the ne+t e+am'&e@ $e form e7uations from the facts@ and then trans'ose to
'roduce a so&ution.
*+am'&e 4
Three e&ectric radiators and fi1e con1ector heaters together cost S,4/. A
con1ector cost S2/ more than a radiator. Find the cost of each.I
#et 5 re'resent the cost of a radiator@ and C re'resent the cost of a con1ector.
Then 35 F "C H S,4/
And C H 5 F 2/
35 F " 5 F 2/! H 35 F "5 F 1// H ,4/
35 H ,4/ - 1// H (4/
5 H H S3/ the cost of a radiator!
and C H 3/ F 2/ H S1// the cost of a con1ector!
2.4 SIMULTANEOUS EDUATIONS
Consider the e7uation 4+ - 38 H 1. There are 2 unAno$ns + and 8! in one
e7uation@ and so the e7uation cannot be so&1ed to gi1e a sing&e 1a&ue for + and 8.
There are an infinite number of 1a&ues of + for $hich there are corres'onding
1a&ues of 8. For e+am'&eE
if + H 4@ then 8 H " if + H ,@ then 8 H . if + H 1@ then 8 H 1
Issue / Page 11
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
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MATHEMATICS
Ho$e1er@ if a second e7uation e+ists@ for e+am'&e + F 38 H 1.@ then these t$o
e7uations can be e1a&uated simu&taneous&8 to gi1e sing&e 1a&ues for + and 8.
The 'rocess is sim'&e and in1o&1es modif8ing the e7uations@ $hi&st sti&& 'reser1ing
the e7ua&ities.
4+ G 38 H 1 1!
+ F 38 H 1. 2!
The method of so&ution of a&& simu&taneous e7uations is toE
first mani'u&ate one or both of the e7uations so that the coefficient of one of
the unAno$ns is the same in both e7uations.
then add or subtract one of the e7uations from the other to 'roduce a third
e7uation $ith on&8 one unAno$n. The other ha1ing become ;ero.
so&1e the ne$ e7uation to find the unAno$n.
'ut the so&ution into one of the origina& e7uations to find the other unAno$n.
'ut both so&utions into the e7uation not used in the stage abo1e to checA 8our
ans$ers.
>sing the t$o e7uations abo1e as an e+am'&eE
4e do not need to mani'u&ate either of the e7uations because the co-efficient of
8 is the same in both e7uations. Therefore@ $e can e&iminate the C8D 1a&ue sim'&8
b8 adding the t$o e7uations. The resu&t isE
"+ H 2/ -o 8 9 4
If $e then substitute + H 4 in the second e7uation $e getE
4 F 38 H 1. -o 38 H 1. - 4 H 1" -o > 9 5
6ur so&utions are + H 4 and 8 H "
*+am'&e 1
2+ F 38 H 3 1!
3+ F "8 H 11 2!
%u&ti'&8 e7uation 1! b8 the coefficient of + in e7uation 2!.
2+ F 38 H 3! + 3 H (+ F .8 H 24
%u&ti'&8 e7uation 2! b8 the coefficient of + in e7uation 1!.
2+ F "8 H 3! + 2 H (+ F 1/8 H 22
Issue / Page 12
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
-o (+ F .8 H 24 3!
(+ F 1/8 H 22 4!
-ubtract e7uation 4! from 3!
/+ - 18 H 2.
so -8 H 2 and 8 H -2
substitute 8 H - 2. in either e7uation 1! or 2! to so&1e for +. I ha1e se&ected 1!.
2+ F 3-2! H 3 therefore 2+ H 14 and + H ,
ChecA 8our ans$er b8 substituting both 1a&ues in e7uation 2!. 0o not use
e7uation 1! because it $i&& not high&ight an error. If 8ou had used e7uation 2! to
find +@ then the checA shou&d be carried using e7uation 1!.
3+ F "8 H 11
3,! F "-2! H 11 therefore 21 F-1/! H 11 - correct
The same resu&t $ou&d be found if 8 $as e&iminated as sho$n be&o$.
2+ F 38 H 3! + " 1/+ F 1"8 H 4/ 3!
3+ F "8 H 11! + 3 .+ F 1"8 H 33 4!
+ H , etc.
2.5 DUADRATIC EDUATIONS
An8 e7uation of the form 8 H a+
2
F b+ F c@ $here a@ b and c are numbers@ is
Ano$n as a 7uadratic e7uation. An e7uation of this t8'e $i&& 'roduce a cur1e
ca&&ed a 'arabo&a. The actua& 1a&ue for coefficients a@ b and c $i&& determine the
e+act sha'e and 'osition of the cur1e.
Issue / Page 13
2a
4ac - b b
2
t
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )

,
_

+ t

2
1
1 and
3
2
are - 2 P 'oints case@ this in
3
2 -
or
2
1
1
12
3 -
or
12
13
+
12
13 "

12
144 2" "
+
( 2
( ( 4 - " - " - -
+
2
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
It $i&& be noted that one of the cur1es cuts the +-a+is at 'oints P and -.
P and - are Ano$n as the ,..*- of the e7uation. A&ternati1e&8@ P and - are the
1a&ues of + $hich satisf8 the condition 8 H a+
2
F b+ F c H o.
It can be sho$n that the 5oots are found to be e7ua& toE
This e7uation gi1es t$o 1a&ues@ one for P the other for -.
E8'&1(# Find the roots of 8 H (+
2
- "+ - ( a H (@ b H -"@ c H -(!
Note - de'ending on a@ b and c@ it is 'ossib&e that b
2
- 4ac resu&ts in a
)#+'*%2# 2'(0#. It has been considered im'ossib&e to find the s7uare root of a
negati1e 1a&ue. The e7uation concerned is then said to ha1e ). ,#'( ,..*-.
4hen b
2
- 4ac is negati1e@ the e7uation is said to ha1e $.&1(#8 ,..*-@ $here
the roots com'rise both a rea& and imaginar8 com'onent. This conce't is not
considered in these notes.
Issue / Page 14
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
3 NUMBERS
3.1 INDICES AND PO:ERS
It is often to necessar8 to mu&ti'&8 a number b8 itse&f once@ t$ice or se1era& times.
To indicate this@ a method of notation has e1o&1ed@ $hich is both con1enient and
ca'ab&e of being e+tended to introduce other conce'ts.
3 + 3 is $ritten as 3
2
2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 is $ritten as 2
"
4 + 4 + 4 is $ritten as 4
3
etc@ etc.
In the abo1e e+am'&es@ the number being mu&ti'&ied b8 itse&f is Ano$n as the
4'-# and the number of times it is mu&ti'&ied b8 itse&f is Ano$n as the 1.;#, or
%)"#8. A&ternati1e&8@ the number 2 has been raised to 'o$er ".
Po$er 2 and 'o$er 3 are genera&&8 referred to as the s7uare and the cube.
3 + 3 H 3
2
H . . is the s7uare of 3 or 3 s7uared e7ua&s .
4 + 4 + 4 H 4
3
H (4 (4 is the IcubeI of 4. or 4 cubed e7ua&s (4
)ut 'ut another $a8@ 3 is said to be the -30',# ,..* of .@ 4 is the $04# ,..* of (4
and 2 is the /%/*@ ,..* of 32.
The method of notation used is thatE
It is 'ossib&e to re-$rite the abo1e@ so that 3 H .
/."
@ 2 H 32
/.2
and 4 H (4
/.333
.
4here the 'o$er is e+'ressed as a decima&@ instead of a fraction.
To a&&o$ the use of numbers in1o&1ing 'o$ers and indices@ some ru&es ha1e
e1o&1ed@ $hich are re'roduced@ using the s8mbo& N to re'resent an8 base
number.
5u&e 1. N
2
+ N
3
H N
"
N
'
8 N
4
9 N
5' 6 47
5u&e 2. N
"
N
2
H N
3
H H N
2
Issue / Page 1
3
3
1
"
"
1
2
1
(4 or (4 4
32 or 32 2
. or . 3

EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
N
'
N
4
9 N
5' - 47
5u&e 3 N
2
!
3
H N
2
+ N
2
+ N
2
using ru&e 1 this e7ua&s N
(
5N
'
7
4
9 N
5' 8 47
or N
'4
5u&e 4 N
2
N
2
H N
2 G 2!
H N
/
An8 number di1ided b8 itse&f e7ua&s 1
so N
/
H 1
Therefore H N
/
N
2
using ru&e 2 this e7ua&s N
-2
9 N
-'
a&so 9 N
'
because 1 N
2
is the same as N
/
- N
2
H N
/ G 2!
H N
-2
5u&e " If N1=3 + N1=3 + N1=3 H N1 H N
then N
1=3
must be the third root of N@ because the on&8 number that can
be mu&ti'&ied b8 itse&f 3 times to maAe N is the third root of N.
therefore N
1=3
H
simi&ar&8 if N
2=3
+ N
2=3
+ N
2=3
H N
2
then N
2=3
must be the third root of N
2
therefore N
2=3
H
so N
'E4
9
Issue / Page 2
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
3.1.1 STANDARD ORM
If the number 3.34, is mu&ti'&ied b8 1/@/// then the 'roduct is 334,/. This
ca&cu&ation can be $ritten as 3.34, + 1/
4
H 334,/.
4hen 334,/ is $ritten as 3.34, + 1/
4
@ it is Ano$n as -tandard Form.
A number in standard form has t$o 'arts. The first 'art is a number bet$een 1
and 1/ but does not e7ua& 1/!@ and the second 'art is 1/ raised to some $ho&e
number 'o$er. The first 'art is ca&&ed the M')*%--'@ the second 'art the
E81.)#)*.
To e+'ress a number in standard form@ mo1e the decima& 'oint &eft or right to
create a number bet$een 1 and 1/ the mantissa!@ and then create the e+'onent.
The 1a&ue of $hich e7ua&s the number of '&aces b8 $hich the decima& 'oint has
been mo1ed. If the 'oint $as mo1ed #eft@ the 'o$er is 'ositi1e@ if the 'oint $as
mo1ed 5ight@ it is negati1e.
*+am'&es "2( H ".2( + 1/
2
/.3,1( H 3.,1( + 1/
-1
/.//2 H 2./ + 1/
-3
3.2 NUMBERING SYSTEMS
The most $ide&8 used s8stem of numbers is the decima& s8stem@ based on the
hindu-arabic s8mbo&s /@ 1@ 2@ 3 etc but roman s8mbo&s such as <@ ?@ # and C are
a&so $e&& Ano$n and understood. To-da8@ the 'ractice of engineering re7uires a
measure of com'etence in hand&ing se1era& different s8stems of numera&s.
In genera& a s8stem of numeration consists of a set of s8mbo&s together $ith a
ru&e b8 $hich the s8mbo&s can be combined together.
N0&4#, is the 'ro'ert8 associated $ith a set or co&&ection of things. It is
inde'endent of the nature of the indi1idua& items in the set. The number fourteen
ma8 be $ritten as 1" or ?I<. In this case the number is the same but the s8stem
or numeration is different.
3.2.1 DECIMAL SYSTEM O NUMERATION
In the decima& s8stem@ the s8mbo&s are combined b8 arranging them in a
hori;onta& &ine@ the contribution that each digit maAes being go1erned b8 its
'osition. A decima& 'oint enab&es numbers &ess than one to be re'resented.
Issue / Page 3
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
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MATHEMATICS
E8'&1(# 1
0ecima& 3(3 is rea&&8E
3 1/
2
! F ( 1/
1
! F 3 1/
/
!
or in co&umn formE
1=
2
5@0)",#"-7
1=
1
5*#)-7
1=
=
50)%*-7
3 ( 3
E8'&1(# 2
0ecima& 4"2.(4 is rea&&8E
4 1/
2
! F " 1/
1
! F 2 1/
/
! F ( 1/
-1
! F 4 1/
-2
!
or in co&umn formE
1=
2
1=
1
1=
=
1=
-1
1=
-2
4 " 2 ( 4
Ten is Ano$n as the 4'-# or ,'"%8 of the decima& s8stem. The %)"#8 indicates
the 'o$er to $hich the base is raised.
The base@ and the 'articu&ar inde+ to $hich it is raised is ca&&ed the ;#%+@*.
e.g. &east significant $eight H 1/
/
H 1
ne+t most significant $eight H 1/
1
H 1/
The numbers b8 $hich $eight is mu&ti'&ied are ca&&ed "%+%*-. In 'ractice on&8 the
digits of the s8stem are $ritten@ the $eight being im'&ied e.g. 3(3@ "3.24.
N.*#F / is counted as a digit@ so that there are ten digits in the decima& s8stem@
/ to . inc&usi1e.
Issue / Page 4
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
3.2.2 BINARY SYSTEM O NUMERATION
6n&8 the s8mbo&s / and 1 are used and the base is t$o@ other$ise the s8stem of
numeration is the same as before. The t$o digits / and 1 are referred to as 4%*-@
an abbre1iation of binar8 digits.
E8'&1(# 1
1/11/1 is rea&&8E
1 2
"
! F / 2
4
! F 1 2
3
! F 1 2
2
! F / 2
1
! F 1 2
/
!
or in co&umn formE
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
=
1 / 1 1 / 1
H 4" in decima&!
E8'&1(# 2
11/.11 is rea&&8E
1 2
2
! F 1 2
1
! F / 2
/
! F 1 2
-1
! F 1 2
-2
!
or in co&umn formE
2
2
2
1
2
=
2
-1
2
-2
1 1 / 1 1
H (.," in decima&!
N.*#F A&& digits to the right of the 4%)',> 1.%)* refer to negati1e 'o$ers.
Issue / Page 5
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
The binar8 s8stem is 1er8 suitab&e for use $ith e&ectrica& s$itching circuits. A
s$itch is either off or on corres'onding@ for e+am'&e@ to / and 1 res'ecti1e&8.
There is no ambiguit8.
3.2.3 OCTAL SYSTEM O NUMERATION
In the octa& s8stem of numeration the s8mbo&s / to , are used and the base is 3.
Again the s8stem of numeration is the same as that used for decima& and binar8@
$ith each co&umn increasing b8 a 'o$er of one as 8ou mo1e from right to &eft.
E8'&1(# 1
3,(
3
is rea&&8E
3 3
2
! F , 3
1
! F ( 3
/
!
or in co&umn formE
8
3
8
2
8
1
8
=
/ 3 , (
H 2"4 in decima&!
E8'&1(# 2
3,N13 is rea&&8E
3 3
1
! F , 3
/
! F 1 3
-1
! F 3 3
-2
!
or in co&umn formE
8
2
8
1
8
=
8
-1
8
-2
/ 3 , 1 3
in decima& H 3 + 3! F , + 1! F 1 + /N12"! F 3 + /N/1"(2"!
Issue / Page 6
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
H 31N14/(2"
N.*#F A&& digits to the right of the .$*'( 1.%)* refer to negati1e 'o$ers.
3.2.4 CON<ERSION TO OTHER BASES
Con1ersion from "#$%&'( *. ')> .*@#, 4'-# can be achie1ed b8 di1iding the
decima& number re'eated&8 b8 the ne$ base and recording the remainder. The
remainder gi1es the number in the ne$ base and shou&d be read from bottom to
to'.
*+am'&e G con1ert 2.
1/
to binar8.
5esu&t 1 1 1 = 1
2
*+am'&e 2 G con1ert ",
1/
to octa&
5esu&t 7 1
8
*+am'&e 3 G con1ert (3
1/
to he+adecima&
5esu&t 3
16
Issue / Page 7
2 2.
2 14 5em 1
2 , 5em =
2 3 5em 1
2 1 5em 1
/ 5em 1
3 ",
3 , 5em 1
, 5em 7
1( (3
1( 3 5em 1557
/ 5em 3
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
To con1ert 4%)',> )0&4#,- *. "#$%&'(.
The easiest $a8 to con1ert from binar8 to decima& is to remember the $eightings@
or if necessar8 $rite the $eightings abo1e each binar8 digit@ and add them u'.
*+am'&e 1 G con1ert 1 / 1 1 / 1 to decima&.
2
5
5327
2
4
5167
2
3
587
2
2
547
2
1
527
2
=
517
1 / 1 1 / 1
1 + 2
"
! F / + 2
4
! F 1 + 2
3
! F 1 + 2
2
! F / + 2
1
! F 1 + 2
/
! H 4"
1/
An a&ternati1e method for &ong binar8 numbers is to taAe the &eft-hand digit@
doub&e it and add the resu&t to the ne+t digit to the right as sho$n be&o$ doub&e
and add to ne+t digit to the right!.
1 = 1 1 1 =
1 2 " 11 23 4(
To con1ert 4%)',> *. .$*'( ., 2%$# 2#,-'.
*ach octa& digit can be re'resented b8 3 binar8 digits. Therefore@ to con1ert from
binar8 to octa&E
i. s'&it the binar8 number into grou's of 3 digits starting from the right.
ii. $eight the numbers in each grou' 4 G 2 G 1
iii. find the tota& of each grou' of 3 digits@ the resu&t is the octa& 1a&ue.
*+am'&e 1 G con1ert 1 / 1 1 1 / / 1 to octa&
)inar8 No 1 / 1 1 1 / / 1
4eighting 4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1
6cta& No sum! 2 7 1
Ans$er 1 / 1 1 1 / / 1
2
is e7ua& to 2,1
3
The re1erse 'rocess shou&d be used to con1ert octa& to binar8. Con1ert each
digit into a 3 digit binar8 number Aee'ing the order of digits the same. 4orA from
the bottom to the to' of the tab&e sho$n abo1e to con1ert 2,1
3
to binar8.
Issue / Page 8
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To con1ert 4%)',> *. @#8'"#$%&'( ., 2%$# 2#,-'.
The 'rocess for con1erting a binar8 number to a he+adecima& one@ is the same as
that used to con1ert binar8 numbers to octa&. *ach he+adecima& digit can be
re'resented b8 4 binar8 digits@ therefore the binar8 number is s'&it into grou's of
4 digits starting from the right. The $eightings this time are 3 G 4 G 2 G 1.
Again@ the re1erse 'rocess is used to con1ert from he+adecima& to binar8.
Con1ert each he+adecima& digit into its binar8 e7ui1a&ent Aee'ing the order the
same.
*+am'&e 1 G con1ert A,
1(
to binar8.
He+adecima& No A 7
4eightings 3 4 2 1 3 4 2 1
)inar8 No 1 / 1 / / 1 1 1
Ans$er A,
1(
is e7ua& to 1 / 1 / / 1 1 1
2
3.3 LOGARITHMS
#ogarithms are a mathematica& conce't that $as de1e&o'ed to sim'&if8
mu&ti'&ication and di1ision of &arge numbers. #ogarithms enab&e mu&ti'&ication
and di1ision to be 'erformed using addition and subtraction. The use of
&ogarithms is no &onger so $ides'read as the e&ectronic ca&cu&ator has become so
readi&8 a1ai&ab&e.
5emembering that $hen@ for e+am'&e@ 2" is $ritten as "
2
@ " is Ano$n as the 4'-#
and 2 as the 1.;#,@ then the (.+',%*@& of 2" can be e+'ressed as 2@ to the base
".
The +#)#,'( "#/%)%*%.) is@ that if > 9 '
8
then 8 9 (.+
'
>
-o &ogarithms can be ca&cu&ated for an8 base a@ but genera&&8 on&8 &ogarithms to
the base of 1/ or e 2.,1! are used@ and are common&8 a1ai&ab&e in tabu&ar form.
Ho$e1er@ &ogarithms are more easi&8 obtained from the ca&cu&ator.
An e+am'&e of the function of &ogarithms is sho$n be&o$.
E8'&1(# Ca&cu&ate (.412 + 23.1(2
From the ca&cu&ator the &og
1/
of (.412 is /.3/(.. and the &og
1/
of 23.1(2 is
1.3(4,3.
-o (.412 + 23.1(2
H 1/
/.3/(..
+ 1/
1.3(4,3
Issue / Page 9
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and using the &a$s of indices
(.412 + 23.1(2 H 1/
/.3/((. F 1.3(4,3!
H 1/
2.1,1,,!
It is no$ necessar8 to find the base 1/ number $hose &ogarithm is 2.1,1,,. The
ca&cu&ator sho$s this to be 143."14,4 this is the ')*%-(.+ of 2.1,1,,!. If the
ca&cu&ator is used to so&1e (.412 + 23.1(2@ the 'roduct is 143."14,4.
It is im'ortant to rea&ise that this e+am'&e sho$s ho$ &ogarithms $') be used@ in
'ractice@ the ca&cu&ator is used as norma&. If a di1ision is to be 'erformed@ the
'o$ers of &ogs are -04*,'$*#".
It is the $.)$#1* of a &ogarithm that is im'ortant at this stage@ because it re-
a''ears &ater.
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4 GEOMETRY
4.1 ANGULAR MEASUREMENT
If t$o straight &ines are dra$n@ $e can see that the8
maAe an Iang&eI.
)ut ho$ are Qang&esQ e+'ressed or measured. Consider a sing&e &ine@ and rotate it
through a com'&ete re1o&ution.
Then the ang&e that this &ine has turned through is
3(/V.
A degree is of a re1o&ution.
Note that ha&f a re1o&ution is therefore 13/V and a
right ang&e W of a re1o&ution! is ./V.
Note that 1 degree can be sub-di1ided into (/ minutes and 1 minute can be sub-
di1ided into (/ seconds 1er8 sma&&!.
A fe$ definitions are inc&uded hereE
An Acute ang&e - &ess than ./V
An 6btuse ang&e - bet$een ./V and 13/V
A 5ef&e+ ang&e - greater than 13/V
Com'&ementar8 ang&es - their sum is ./V
-u''&ementar8 ang&es - their sum is 13/V
Issue / Page 1
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4.1.1 ANGLES ASSOCIATED :ITH PARALLEL LINES
No$ consider 2 'ara&&e& &ines@ cut b8 a trans1ersa&.
A H C@ ) H 0 the8 are o''osite and e7ua&!@ simi&ar&8 # H P@ and % H :.
A&so A H #@ 0 H :@ etc. etc. the8 are $.,,#-1.)"%)+ ang&es!
0 H %@ C H # the8 are '(*#,)'*# ang&es!
0 F # H 13/ H C F %! these are %)*#,%., ang&es@
and are su''&ementar8!
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4.2 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
There are man8 different sha'es associated $ith geometr8. The more common
ones are described in the fo&&o$ing te+t.
4.2.1 TRIANGLE
A triang&e ob1ious&8 has 3 sides and 3
interna&! ang&es. The sides are often
re'resented b8 the 3 sma&&! &etters a@ b and
cL the ang&es b8 the &arge! &etters A@ ) and
C.
The 3 ang&es add u' to 13/V.
The construction of a dotted &ine 'ara&&e& to A) and an e+tension of )C 'ro1es
this.
The area of a triang&e H X base + 1ertica& height
4.2.1.1 T,%')+(# T>1#-
There are man8 different t8'es of triang&e. The main t8'es and features are
summarised as fo&&o$sE
A$0*#-')+(#" triang&e has a&& of itJs ang&es &ess than ./V.
O4*0$#-')+(#" triang&e has one ang&e greater than ./V.
S$'(#)# triang&e has three sides of different &engths.
R%+@*-')+(#" triang&e has one of itJs ang&es e7ua& to ./V. The &ongest side is
o''osite the ./V ang&e right-ang&e! and is ca&&ed the h8'otenuse.
I-.-$#(#- triang&e has t$o sides and t$o ang&es e7ua&. The e7ua& ang&es &ie
o''osite to the e7ua& sides.
E30%('*#,'( triang&e has a&& itJs sides and ang&es e7ua&.
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4.2.2 SIMILAR A CONGRUENT TRIANGLES
Pou ma8 stud8 t$o triangu&ar sha'es and estimate $hether the8 are the same or
not. 4e need to be more 'recise.
If the8 ha1e the same sha'e@ $e are rea&&8 sa8ing that their ')+(#- are the same@
the8 are then described as -%&%(', *,%')+(#-. -imi&ar triang&es do not ha1e to be
the same si;e. 6ne triang&e ma8 ha1e sides t$ice or ten times as &arge as
another triang&e and sti&& be c&assified as simi&ar.
If the8 are e+act&8 the same sha'e and -%G#@ their -%"#- are the same &ength@
then the8 are described as C.)+,0#)* *,%')+(#-.
It is sometimes necessar8 to determine $hether triang&es are Congruent. A
sim'&e criteria e+ists to assist us. T$o triang&es are congruent ifE
Their corres'onding sides are of e7ua& &ength. side@ side@ side!
The8 ha1e t$o ang&es and the common side e7ua&. ang&e@ side@ ang&e!
The8 ha1e t$o sides and the inc&uded ang&e is e7ua&. side@ ang&e@ side!
The h8'otenuse and one side of a right-ang&ed triang&e are e7ua& to the
h8'otenuse and the corres'onding side of another right-ang&ed triang&e.
4.2.3 POLYGON
A 'o&8gon is a geometric c&osed figure bounded b8 straight &ines. The term 'o&8
means mu&ti. A triang&e has the &east number of sides. 6ther mu&ti-sided figures
ha1e names indicating the number of sides. HenceE
Pentagon G " sided@ He+agon G ( sided@ 6ctagon G 3 sided
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4.2.4 DUADRILATERALS
A 7uadri&atera& is an8 four-sided sha'e. There are 1arious t8'es@ some are
common and 8ou are 'robab&8 fami&iar $ith their names. -ome are not so
common.
-ince a 7uadri&atera& has four sides@ it can be di1ided into t$o triang&es. The sum
of itJs ang&es must therefore be 3(/V.
4.2.5 PARALLELOGRAM
A 'ara&&e&ogram has both 'airs of o''osite sides 'ara&&e&. The fo&&o$ing
'ro'erties a''&8 to 'ara&&e&ogramsE
*ach 'air of o''osite sides is e7ua& in &ength.
*ach 'air of o''osite ang&es are e7ua&
The diagona&s bisect each other
The diagona&s bisect the 'ara&&e&ogram and form t$o congruent triang&es
4.2.6 RECTANGLE
A rectang&e is a 'ara&&e&ogram $ith itJs ang&e e7ua& to ./V. It has the same
'ro'erties as a 'ara&&e&ogram $ith the addition that the diagona&s are e7ua& in
&ength.
Issue / Page 5
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4.2.7 RHOMBUS
A rhombus is a 'ara&&e&ogram $ith a&& of itJs sides e7ua& in &ength. It a&so has a&& of
the 'ro'erties of a 'ara&&e&ogram and the fo&&o$ing additiona& 'ro'ertiesE
The diagona&s bisect at right ang&es
4.2.8 SDUARE
A s7uare is a rectang&e $ith a&& the sides e7ua& in &ength. It has a&& the 'ro'erties
of a 'ara&&e&ogram@ rectang&e and rhombus.
4.2.9 TRAPEHIUM
A tra'e;ium is a 7uadri&atera& $ith one 'air of sides 'ara&&e&.
Issue / Page 6
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4.2.1= CIRCLES
Circ&es are not Tust 'articu&ar mathematica& sha'es but
are in1o&1ed in our e1er8da8 &ife@ for e+am'&e@
$hee&s are circ&es@ gears are basica&&8 circu&ar and
shafts re1o&1e in a circu&ar fashion. Hence@ $e
must be a$are of some im'ortant definitions
and 'ro'erties.
If the &ine 6P is fi+ed at 6 and rotated around 6@
the 'oint P traces a 'ath $hich is circu&ar - it forms
a circ&e.
The &ength 6P is the R'"%0- of the circ&e. Note that 6P H 6A H 6) and that
the &ength of the &ine A) is c&ear&8 e7ua& to t$ice the radius. A) H 26P. A) is
the D%'&#*#, of the circ&e 0 H 25!.
4e a&read8 Ano$ that if 6P is rotated through 1 com'&ete re1o&ution@ it $i&& ha1e
rotated through 3(/ degrees@ but $hat is the distance tra1e&&ed b8 P in tracing this
circu&ar 'athK Put another $a8@ ho$ far $i&& a $hee& $hose radius is 5@ ro&& a&ong
a surface@ during one re1o&utionK
The distance@ Ano$n as the Circumference is ob1ious&8 de'endent on the &ength
of the &ength of the diameter@ but can be ca&cu&ated 'recise&8 from the e7uation
C H 0 H 25!. The 1a&ue is actua&&8 the ratio bet$een the circumference of
a circ&e and itJs diameter.
9reeA &etter@ 'ronounced I'iI! can be a''ro+imated to 3.142. It $i&& certain&8
be found on a scientific ca&cu&ator@ but the fraction is a 1er8 good a''ro+imation.
Issue / Page 7
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The &ine AP dra$n so that it touches the circ&e at 'oint P is Ano$n as the T')+#)*
to the circ&e. It shou&d be noted that AP is a&$a8s at right-ang&es to the radius 6P.
*+am'&eE A $hee&@ diameter ,1" mm@ maAes 3/ re1o&utions. Ho$ far does it
mo1e from its start 'ointK
The distance mo1ed in 1 re1. H the &ength of the circumference.
distance in 1 re1. H + diameter
H ! ,1"! mm
distance in 3/ re1s. H 3/! ! ,1"!
H (,41/ mm
H (,.4 metres
4.2.1=.1 R'"%') M#'-0,#
4e a&read8 Ano$ that an ang&e of 3(/V re'resents 1 com'&ete re1o&ution. )ut
there is another im'ortant unit of angu&ar measurement@ Ano$n as the R'"%').
Consider a circ&e of radius 5 and consider an arc A)@ $here &ength is a&so e7ua&
to 5. The ang&e at the centre of the circ&e@ A6) is then e7ua& to I 5adian.
Issue / Page 8
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It can be deduced that I re1o&ution is e7ui1a&ent to 2 5adians@
i.e. I re1 H (.2332 rads.
Therefore 3(/V H 2 rads@ and $e can deri1e con1ersion factors@ as thatL
1V H radians@ or
H 1 radian a''ro+. ",.3V!
6ne fina& and usefu& 'oint concerning radian measure.
If an arc of a circ&e@ radius r@ subtends an ang&e@ e7ua& to 5adians@ the &ength of
the arc is r..
Note a&so that if a 'oint P is mo1ing $ith s'eed N@ then the rotationa& s'eed is
e7ua& to N H r.!.
is e+'ressed in 5adians 'er second.
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4.3 AREA AND <OLUME
4.3.1 AREA
4e are a&read8 fami&iar $ith the conce't of &ength@ e.g. the distance bet$een 2
'oints@ $e e+'ress &ength in some chosen unit@ e.g. in meters. If $e $ant to fit a
'icture-rai& a&ong a $a&&@ a&& $e need to Ano$n is the &ength of the $a&&@ so that $e
can order sufficient rai&. )ut if $e $ish to fit a car'et to the room f&oor@ the &ength
of the room is insufficient. 6b1ious&8 $e a&so need to Ano$ the $idth. This t$o-
dimensiona& conce't of si;e is termed A,#'.
4.3.1.1 R#$*')+0(', A,#'
Consider a room 4m b8 3m as sho$n abo1e. C&ear&8 it can be di1ided u' into 12
e7ua& s7uares@ each measuring 1m b8 1m. *ach s7uare has an area of 1 s7uare
meter. Hence@ the tota& area is 12 s7uare meters usua&&8 $ritten as 12m
2
for
con1enience!. -o@ to ca&cu&ate the area of a rectang&e@ mu&ti'&8 &ength of one side
b8 the &ength of the other side.
4m + 3m H 12m
2
0onQt forget the m
2
!.
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4.3.1.2 A,#' ./ T,%')+(#-
This conce't can be e+tended to inc&ude non-rectangu&ar sha'es.
Consider the triang&es A)C and A0C $hich together form a rectang&e A)C0.
Ins'ection re1ea&s the 2 triang&es are congruent. Hence their areas are e7ua&
and the area of A)C H area of A)C0.
If $e consider this diagram@ the area of the triang&e can be seen to e7ua&
+ base + 'er'endicu&ar height.
This is true for an8 triang&e@ but remember its the 'er'endicu&ar height. Note
again that base in meters! + height in meters! gi1es m
2
.
A theorem e+ists stating that triang&es $ith the same base and dra$n bet$een
the same 'ara&&e&s $i&& ha1e the same area.
Issue / Page 11
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4.3.1.3 A,#' ./ C%,$0(', S@'1#-
The area of a circ&e is gi1en b8 the formu&aE
A H r
2
$here r H radius! or
4
d
2
d
A
2
2


,
_

if the diameter is gi1en r H !


5emember that an8 area is so man8 s7uare units. -o the area of a circ&e must
inc&ude a Qs7uaredQ termL
*+am'&eE 4hat is the area of a semi-circ&e $here the diameter is 3/cmK
4.3.1.4 A,#' ./ O*@#, S@'1#-
The tab&e be&o$ indicates the areas of man8 common sha'es.
-HAP* A5*A
Circ&e
4
d
or r
2
2

Triang&e X base + height


5ectang&e )ase + height
-7uare -ide
2
Para&&e&ogram )ase + 1ertica& height
Tra'e;ium Xsum of &ength of 'ara&&e& sides! + 1ertica& height
Issue / Page 12
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2
2
cm 3"3.43 1"
2
1

2
3/

2
1
circ&e semi
2
3/
circ&e of Area

,
_

,
_


,
_

,
_


EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
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4.3.1.5 C'($0('*%.) ./ A,#'- ./ S@'1#-
-ometimes an area ca&cu&ation must be made $here the obTect or sha'e is not
one of the common sha'es &isted. -ometimes it is made u' from a combination
of sha'es.
*+am'&eE An office 3."m b8 (.3m is to be fitted $ith a car'et@ so as to &ea1e a
surround (//mm $ide around the car'et. 4hat is the area of the
surroundK
4ith a 'rob&em &iAe this@ it is often he&'fu& to sAetch a diagram.
The area of the surround H office area - car'et area.
H 3." + (.3! - 3." - 2 + /.(! (.3 - 2 + /.(!
H "3."" - ,.3! ".1!
H "3."" - 3,.23 H 1(.32m
2
Note that (//mm had to be con1erted to /.(m. 0onQt forget to inc&ude units in the
ans$er e.g. m
2
.
4e ma8 need to find the area of an obTect that is a combination of sha'esE
In this case the sha'e com'rises a rectang&e and a semi-circ&e.
The rectang&e has dimensions 1"/mm + 1//mm
The semi-circ&e has a diameter of 1//mm
Tota& area is the sum of the t$o indi1idua& areas.
Issue / Page 13
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Area H 1// + 1"/! F
2
2
r
H 1"/// F
2
2
13.2, 3.2, 1"///
2
"/
mm +

4.3.2 <OLUMES
S.(%"- are obTects that ha1e three dimensionsE &ength@ $idth and height. Ha1ing
the abi&it8 to ca&cu&ate 1o&ume enab&es 8ou to determine the ca'acit8 of a fue&
tanA or reser1oir@ ca&cu&ate the ca'acit8 of a cargo area or $orA out the 1o&ume of
a c8&inder. <o&umes are ca&cu&ated in cubic units such as cubic centimetres@ cubic
metres@ cubic inches etc. Ho$e1er@ 1o&umes are easi&8 con1erted to other terms@
such as &itres. For e+am'&e@ a cubic metre contains 1/// &itres of &i7uid.
Instead of s7uares@ $e no$ consider cubes. This is a 3-dimensiona& conce't and
the t8'ica& units of 1o&ume are $04%$ &#*,#- m
3
!.
If $e ha1e a bo+@ &ength 4m@ $idth 3m and height 2m@ $e see that the tota&
1o&ume H 24 cubic metres 24m
3
!.
*ach &a8er contains
4 + 3 H 12 cubes.
There are 2 &a8ers.
Hence the 1o&ume is
12 + 2 H 24m
3
.
)asica&&8@ therefore@ $hen
ca&cu&ating 1o&ume@ it is necessar8
to &ooA for three dimensions@ at ./V
to each other@ and then mu&ti'&8 them together. For a bo+ - t8'e sha'e@
mu&ti'&8ing &ength + $idth + height H 1o&ume.
For irregu&ar or 'articu&ar sha'es@ different techni7ues or a''ro+imations can be
used@ or sometimes a s'ecific formu&a ma8 e+ist.
For e+am'&eE
<o&ume of c8&inder H 5
2
h 5 H radius@ # H height!
<o&ume of cone H 5
2
h
<o&ume of s'here H 5
3
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Note that a&& these formu&ae contain 3 dimensions so that $hen mu&ti'&ied@ a
1o&ume $i&& resu&t.
e.g. 5
2
h H 5 + 5 + h or 5
3
H 5 + 5 + 5
I/ >.0 @'2# ).* +.* 3 "%&#)-%.)-? >.0 @'2# ).* +.* ' 2.(0&#I
*+am'&eE 4hat is the cubic ca'acit8 of a 2 c8&inder engine@ $ith a 4.,# of ,,mm
and a stroAe of 3.mmK
bore H diameter H ,,mm
stroAe H height H 3.mm
<o&ume of c8&inder H area of circ&e + height.
<o&ume of 1 c8&inder H
<o&ume of 1 c8&inder H 41444/ mm
3
<o&ume of 2 c8&inders H 32333/ mm
3
Note that in this e+am'&e@ the dimensions ha1e been gi1en in mm. The 1o&ume
$ou&d norma&&8 be gi1en in cm
3
.
Note@ to con1ert mm
3
to cm
3
@ di1ide b8 1/!
3
.
32333/ mm
3
becomes 323.33 cm
3
.
4hen ca&cu&ating areas or 1o&umes@ remember the basic formu&as@ but be read8
to s'ot $hen an area or so&id bod8 is a combination of basic sha'es that can be
added or subtracted.
Issue / Page 15
( ) 3. +
2
,,

2

,
_

EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
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PAGE INTENTIONALLY LET BLAN!
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5 GRAPHS
9ra'hs are a 'ictoria& method of dis'&a8ing numerica& data that enab&es 8ou to
7uicA&8 1isua&ise certain re&ationshi's@ com'&ete com'&e+ ca&cu&ations and 'redict
trends. The data can be 'resented in man8 different $a8s as sho$n be&o$@ and
most data can be 'resented in an8 format. Ho$e1er@ care shou&d be taAen $hen
se&ecting a format to use@ some formats are better suited to 'articu&ar t8'es of
data or data sets. For e+am'&e@ if ha1e a $ho&e amount di1ided into Ano$n
'ro'ortions@ then this is better 'resented as a 'ie chartL if $e ha1e a &ist of scores
in a test@ then a bar gra'h is better. If $e are '&otting tem'erature $ith res'ect to
time then a continuous &ine gra'h is better@
5.1 CONSTRUCTION
In order to construct gra'hs effecti1e&8@ some sim'&e ru&es shou&d be fo&&o$ed.
First of a&&@ 'resent the data in a c&ear@ tabu&ar form. The data $i&& data $i&&
genera&&8 com'rise 2 1ariab&es@ one that is being 1aried@ the %)"#1#)"#)*
1ariab&e@ and the one that changes as a resu&t of the 1ariation@ the "#1#)"#)*
1ariab&e its 1a&ue de'ends on the 1a&ue of the other!.
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For e+am'&e@ an e+'eriment $as conducted@ $here a 1o&ume of gas $as heated.
As the tem'erature of the gas increased@ it $as noted that the gas e+'andedE its
1o&ume increased. The first 7uantit8@ the tem'erature@ is the %)"#1#)"#)*
1ariab&e and the second 7uantit8@ the 1o&ume@ is the "#1#)"#)* 1ariab&e.
The ne+t stage is to '&an the use of the gra'h-'a'er so as to 'resent the gra'h in
the c&earest manner 'ossib&e.
The gra'h constructed b8 '&otting a series of 'oints@ each one re'resenting a
'articu&ar 1a&ue of the inde'endent and corres'onding de'endent 1ariab&e. -o
the gra'h must be dra$n so that each 1a&ue a''ears or fits! on the 'a'er.
)efore C'&ottingD the 'oints@ the t$o a+es must be dra$n@ and the sca&es chosen.
The hori;onta& +-a+is! $i&& re'resent the inde'endent 1ariab&e and the 1ertica& 8-
a+is! the de'endent 1ariab&e. The sca&es cross at the origin 6.
There is no merit in dra$ing sma&& gra'hs. Choose sca&es so that com'&eted
gra'h fits the sheet of gra'h 'a'er.
#ooA at the &argest right-hand@ and the sma&&est &eft-hand 1a&ues that $i&& be
'&otted a&ong the +-a+is. -ubtract the #H 1a&ue from the 5H 1a&ue to gi1e a range
of 1a&ues H some number of units!. -tud8 the gra'h 'a'er to find ho$ man8
&arge s7uares there are from &eft to right.
No$ di1ide the 1a&ue found b8 the subtraction@ b8 the number of &arge s7uares.
This shou&d gi1e an idea of a suitab&e sca&e. That is@ so man8 units shou&d be
re'resented b8 1 &arge s7uare a&ong the +-a+is. The most usefu& sca&es are 1@ 2@
"@ 1/@ 2/@ "/ units etc. etc to 1 &arge s7uare.
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The same 'rocedure is used for the 8-a+is. -ubtract the sma&&est &o$er! 1a&ue
from the &argest u''er 1a&ue! to gi1e the range@ di1ide b8 the number of &arge
s7uares bet$een to' and bottom of the 'a'er.
Ha1ing done this@ dra$ the 2 a+es@ and marA off the units@ using 8our chosen
sca&es.
The gra'h 'a'er has no$ been 're'ared for the obTect of the e+ercise@ i.e. to
transfer the data from the tab&e to the gra'h.
The transfer is 1er8 sim'&e@ taAe one 1a&ue of the inde'endent 1ariab&e and dra$s
a faint! &ine to coincide $ith its 1a&ue a&ong the +-a+is so as to intersect $ith a
simi&ar &ine dra$n from the 8-a+is for its corres'onding de'endent 1a&ue.
The intersection re'resents one '&otted 'oint of the gra'h.
The 'rocedure is re'eated for each 'air of 1a&ues in turn. 4hen a&& the 'oints
ha1e been '&otted@ a continuous &ine is dra$n through the 'oints.
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The $a8 in $hich the &ine is dra$n de'ends on the nature of the data. It is
'robab&8 true to sa8 that most mathematica& or scientific data change gradua&&8 or
'rogressi1e&8 - the8 ma8 form a definite re&ationshi'. In this case@ ". ).* Toin
the 'oints $ith a series of straight &ines.
)ut tr8 to dra$ a continuous -&..*@ &ine.
This 'robab&8 means that the &ine on&8 goes through some not a&&! of the 'oints -
donJt $orr8L e+'erimenta& or '&otting errors can occur. There shou&d be rough&8
the same number of 'oints on both sides of the smooth cur1e. -ometimes@ it is
fair&8 ob1ious that a straight &ine is the most! reasonab&e OfitJ to the 'oint@ and this
is often the case for sim'&e scientific e+'eriments.
5.1.1 GRAPHS AND MATHEMATICAL ORMULAE
This course is designed for engineers@ not mathematicians and so maths is
1ie$ed as a ser1ant@ not a master.
#ater@ it $i&& be seen that one 'h8sica& 7uantit8 $i&& 1ar8 as another 7uantit8
1aries@ $ith the t$o &inAed b8 some mathematica& &a$ or e7uation. An e+am'&e is
that the drag force 0! 1aries according to the s7uare of the airs'eed <!.
*+'ressed as a formu&a 0 H A <
2
This re&ationshi' can be '&otted in gra'hica& form@ and it is reasonab&e to 'resume
that it $ou&d be of the same form as the maths re&ationshi' of 8 H +
2
$here 8 is
considered as a function of + 8 H f+!
There are man8 mathematica& functions@ e+am'&es might beE
8 H m+@ 8 H +
2
@ 8 H +
3
@ 8 H sin +
8 H e
+
@ 8 H cos + etc. etc.
This to'ic &ooAs at the sha'e and characteristics of these functions $hen
e+'ressed gra'hica&&8@ so that a sim'&e &inA can be made $ith 'h8sica&
'henomena@ $hich demonstrates simi&ar characteristics.
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4hen a mathematica& function is '&otted@ certain sha'es e1o&1e characteristic of
that function. If@ fo&&o$ing an e+'eriment during $hich data is gathered@ that data
creates simi&ar sha'es@ then a 'resum'tion &inAing formu&a and e+'eriment ma8
made.
5.1.2 UNCTION AND SHAPE
The 1ariab&e 8 is often described as a function of +. Here se1era& different
functions are considered gra'hica&&8.
Function > 9 &8 $here m is some constant coefficient.
8 H m+ gi1es a straight &ine@ 'assing through the origin 6.
m is the s&o'e of the gra'h and H tan 6! the greater the 1a&ue of m@ the stee'er
the s&o'e. 6b1ious&8 for a straight &ine@ the s&o'e is constant for a constant 1a&ue
of m.
If m is -1e@ the &ine s&o'es as sho$n. if m H 6@ the O&ineJ P H 6 coincides $ith the
+-a+is!.
Function > 9 &8 6 $
This is a 1ariation of 8 H m+.
C is a constant@ and is c&ear&8 the 1a&ue of 8 $hen + H 6. 8 H m.6 F c H C!. This
1a&ue of C measured a&ong the 8 a+is is Ano$n as the interce't.
Function > 9 C8
2
$here A is some constant.
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This gi1es a cur1e@ Ano$n as a 'arabo&a. As A increases the 1a&ue of A+
2
a&so
increases. Note that the s&o'e is no &onger constant. This is a function $hich is
common&8 found in 'h8sica& situations.
Function > 9 C8
3
etc.
This is the characteristic sha'e. Note that the gra'h has Turning 'oints@ $here
the -(.1# $@')+#- from F1e to G1e and 1ice 1ersa.
Functions $ithin this fami&8 are &ess &iAe&8 to be encountered during this course.
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Function > 9 -%) 8 and > 9 $.- 8.
)oth of these functions are re'etiti1e but the $ord used to describe such
beha1iour is 'eriodic in this case@ the 'eriod is 3(/V or 2 radians!.
Note that the cosine gra'h O&eadsJ the sine gra'h b8 ./V $hen such beha1iour
occurs@ it is often referred to a O'hase differenceJ.
These gra'hs are often found@ 'articu&ar&8 in e&ectrica& $orA.
Function > 9 #
8
@ > 9 #
-8
@ > 9 1 J #
-8
8 H e
+
is Ano$n as the *+'onentia& function. It is a&so often found in *ngineering
a''&ications. -ome 1ariations on the basic function are a&so sho$n.
5eference has a&read8 been made to the s&o'e of a gra'h. -traight &ines ha1e a
constant s&o'e. Cur1es ha1e 1ariab&e s&o'es@ and often inc&ude turning 'oints
often termed ma+ima and minima!. %athematicians determine s&o'es b8 using a
branch of mathematics ca&&ed Oca&cu&usJ G a &ater to'ic. *ngineers are often
interested in s&o'e@ because de'ending on the 1ariab&es@ the s&o'e itse&f
re'resents a 'h8sica& 7uantit8 G more about this in the Ph8sics modu&e.
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The area under a gra'h is a&so often usefu& and ma8 re'resents a 'h8sica&
7uantit8.
The area can be ca&cu&ated b8E
Considering sim'&e sha'es and a''ro+imating
Counting s7uares.
>sing ca&cu&us
5.2 NOMOGRAPHS
The need to sho$ ho$ t$o or more 1ariab&es affect a 1a&ue is common in the
maintenance of aircraft. N.&.+,'1@- are a s'ecia& t8'e of gra'h that enab&e
8ou to so&1e com'&e+ 'rob&ems in1o&1ing more than one 1ariab&e.
%ost nomogra'hs contain a great dea& of information and re7uire the use of
sca&es on three sides of the chart@ as $e&& as diagona& &ines.
In fact@ some charts contain so much information@ that it can be 1er8 im'ortant for
8ou to carefu&&8 read the instructions before using the chart and to sho$ care
$hen reading information from the chart itse&f.
I&&ustrated is a fair&8 t8'ica& gra'h of three 1ariab&es@ distance@ s'eed and time. If
an8 t$o of the three 1ariab&es is Ano$n@ the a''ro+imate 1a&ue of the third can be
7uicA&8 determined. In this e+am'&e@ the dotted &ine indicates a Ano$n s'eed and
time. The resu&ting distance tra1e&&ed can be e+tracted from the gra'h at the 'oint
$here these t$o dashed &ines meet.
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4hi&st this nomogra'h is much too sma&& for accurate com'utation@ it can be seen
that $hen tra1e&&ing at around 2"/ Anots for three and a ha&f hours@ 8ou $ou&d
tra1e& a &itt&e &ess than 1/// nautica& mi&es.
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B(')C P'+#
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6 TRIGONOMETRY
)asic trigonometr8 in1o&1es e+'ressing the ang&es of a right-ang&ed triang&e in
re&ation to &engths of the sides of the triang&e.
The ratio of the o''osite side &ength to the h8'otenuse &ength in the diagram is
termed the IsineI of the ang&e .
h
o
H8'otenuse
6''osite
-in
h
a
H8'otenuse
AdTacent
Cos
a
o
AdTacent
6''osite
Tan
T@#-# ,'*%.K- &0-* 4# ,#&#&4#,#"I
-ome students find the mnemonic IS.@$'@*.'I to be he&'fu& in this res'ect!.
These ratios are used 1er8 e+tensi1e&8 in %aths and -cience and 1er8 man8
modifications to the basic ratio ha1e been e1o&1ed.
Ho$ can these ratios be used in 'racticeK
Consider a triang&e $ith side &engths 3@ 4@ " 65 (@3@1/ as sho$n.
From our definition of sine@ H /.( H sine
H /.3 H cosine
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No$ $hi&e it is ob1ious that is 1,.1.,*%.)'( to the side &engths@ $hat is its
actua& 1a&ue in degreesK
e.g. if /.( is in'ut into a ca&cu&ator and the sin
-1
button is o'erated@ the screen
dis'&a8 $i&& be 3(.3(.3.,("V.
The actua& ca&cu&ation of sine@ cosine and tangent is be8ond the sco'e of this
course@ but the 1a&ues of each ratio and the corres'onding ang&e ha1e been
com'i&ed in tabu&ar form@ but can be found using a scientific ca&cu&ator.
if /N3 is in'ut and the cos
-1
button o'erated@ or if H /N,"@ and the tan
-1
button o'erated the same 3(N3(.3.,(" $i&& be dis'&a8ed.
Con1erse&8@ if 3(N3(.3.,(" is in'ut@ and the sin button is o'erated@ /N( $i&& be
dis'&a8ed
6.1.1 TRIGONOMETRICAL CALCULATIONS A ORMULA
*ar&ier $e considered the basic trigonometr8 functions. The8 can no$ be a''&ied
to 'ractica& situations.
E8'&1(# A church s'ine is Ano$n to be (/ metres high. 4hen the to' is 1ie$ed
through a theodo&ite@ the ang&e bet$een the &ine-of-sight and the
hori;onta& is 1"V. Ho$ far is the theodo&ite from the base of the
s'ineK
The distance 0 is the unAno$n 7uantit8. Ang&e 1"V and side height! (/m are
Ano$n.
Therefore@ an e7uation can be formed@

,
_

1" tan
A
6
0
(/
Trans'osing

1" Tan
(/
0
>sing the ca&cu&ator@ (/ tan 1" H 223.. metres.
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This i&&ustrates the basic 'rinci'&e $hen so&1ing trigonometr8 'rob&ems. -Aetch a
diagram if necessar8@ identif8 the Ano$n and unAno$n 1a&ues@ and then e+'ress
them in terms of the sides of the triang&e and the corres'onding ang&e.
The basic trigonometr8 ratios $ere e+'&ained $ith reference to a right-ang&ed
triang&e. )ut their use can be e+tended for use $ith an8 triang&e.
E8'&1(#
A)C is an8 triang&e. -u''ose a &ine A0 is dra$n so that ang&e )0A H ang&e
C0A H ./V. A0 is no$ the height of the triang&e.
The area of the triang&e H a + A + 0
but H sin C
therefore A0 H bsinC
-ubstituting in
The area of the triang&e H X a.bsinC
>sing a simi&ar method it can be sho$n that the area of the triang&e is a&soL
X b.csinA H X a.c.sin)
>sing these &ast t$o e7uations $e can deri1e the sine formu&a.
X .b.c.sinA H X.a.c.sin)
b.c.sinA H a.c.sin)
b.sinA H a.sin) di1iding through b8 c!
H
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Another usefu& formu&a is the Cosine formu&a. Again it a''&ies to an8 triang&e A)C
and has three forms.
These formu&a can easi&8 be 'ro1ed b8 dra$ing A0 'er'endicu&ar to )C@ and
using P8thagoras!.
6.1.2 CONSTRUCTION O TRIGONOMETRICAL CUR<ES
If radius 6P is rotated antic&ocA$ise@ the ang&e P6A! increases and the 1a&ue
of sine a&so increases because AP increases in re&ation to 6P!.
If the radius 6P has a &ength of 1 unit@ sine H H AP the &ength AP!.
Issue / Page 4
ab 2
c - b a
C Cos
ac 2
b - c a
) Cos
bc 2
a - c b
A Cos
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
+

EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
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If a gra'h of sine &ength AP! is '&otted against ang&e @ the t8'ica& cur1e resu&ts.
Note the re'etition e1er8 re1o&ution 3(/V! and that the 1a&ues of sine range
bet$een F1 and -1.
The gra'h for cosine is -%&%(', but dis'&aced b8 ./V.
The gra'h for tangent is deduced from the other t$o cur1es.
At ./V and 2,/V@ the 1a&ue of tan becomes %)/%)%*>.
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6.2 <ALUES IN 4 DUADRANTS
Ins'ection of the sine and cosine cur1es sho$ that the 1a&ues change from F1e to
-1e to F1e etc.@ as ang&e increases. It is im'ortant to ha1e an idea ho$ these
changes are &inAed to the a''ro+imate 1a&ue of .
This diagram sho$s ho$ the 1a&ues of sine@ cosine and tangent taAe F1e or -1e
1a&ues@ de'ending the 1a&ue of @ $ithin one of the four 7uadrants.
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7 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
9eometr8 has 're1ious&8 considered certain $e&&-Ano$n regu&ar sha'es@ e.g.
circ&es@ rectang&es and triang&es@ and studied their 'ro'erties. These studies
ha1e considered the sha'e in iso&ation@ i.e. $ithout reference to an8 'articu&ar
datum.
Co-ordinate geometr8 e+tends these studies b8 introducing datums@ and then
e+'ressing the 'osition of the significant features of sha'es $ith reference to their
datum. The datums $e chose are usua&&8 the +@ 8@ ; a+es $e use in gra'hs.
E8'&1(#. -u''ose $e had a right-ang&ed triang&e@ sides and &engths 3@ 4 and "
units.
4e Ano$ that the ang&es are a''ro+imate&8 3,V@ "3V and ./V.
4e might chose to '&ace the triang&e in our +@ 8 '&ane@ $here 'oint A is 2 units
a&ong the + a+is@ and 1 unit a&ong the 8 a+is. The co-ordinates of 'oint A then
become 2.1!.
As &ong as AC is dra$n 'ara&&e& to the +-a+is@ 'oint C becomes (.1! and 'oint )
becomes (.4!. If $e introduce 'oint 0 as the mid-'oint a&ong A)@ it is c&ear that
the co-ordinates of 0 are 4@ 2."!. If $e $ere to fi+ 'oint A@ but rotate the triang&e@
the co-ordinates of ) and C $ou&d change@ e1en through the &ength of the side
remains unchanged.
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Point C mo1es from (.1! to become ".4(@ 3! and 'oint ) mo1es from (.4! to
become 3..(@ "."(!.
Note G the student $i&& not be re7uired to ca&cu&ate the change in co-ordinates but
to a''reciate ho$ a change of 'osition is accom'anied b8 a change in co-
ordinates@ e1en though the basic sha'e is unchanged.
In this e+am'&e@ the 'oint A@ ) and C ha1e co-ordinates $hich are 'ositi1e integer
1a&ues@ but the8 cou&d ha1e been gi1en s8mbo&s@ such as +
a
@ 8
a
! +
b
@ 8
b
! and +
c
@
8
c
!.
In further %aths studies@ this $ou&d be more usua&.
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8 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Pre1ious&8 it $as sho$n that certain 7uadratic e7uations cou&d be so&1ed a''&8ing
the 7uadratic formu&a
a
ac b b
2
4
2
t
to find rea& so&utions to the 7uadratic e7uation /
2
+ + c bx ax / a
then / 4
2
ac b
If $e taAe the 7uadratic +Y - 1/+ F 4/ H /@ then the rea& so&utions are found $here
the gra'h cuts the +-a+is. For this 'articu&ar e7uation there are no rea& so&utions
as the gra'h does not cut the +-a+is at a&&.
For e7uation +Y - 1/+ F 4/ H / the 7uadratic formu&a gi1es the fo&&o$ing so&utions
1" " t
6b1ious&8 it is not 'ossib&e to e1a&uate 1" in rea& terms. To get around this
'rob&em the s8mbo& L mathematicians use %! $as introduced to re'resent the
term 1 and is defined as
L 9 1
This no$ meant that a so&ution cou&d be found for an8 e7uation of the form
8M 6 , 9 = $here is , is an8 'ositi1e rea& number!.
A&& numbers of the form 4L@ $here b is an8 non-;ero number@ constitute the set of
%&'+%)',> )0&4#,-.
The fo&&o$ing are e+am'&es of imaginar8 numbersE L? 3L? -N2L? OL? LE5.
#ooAing bacA at the e+am'&e abo1e the number 1" " + a''ears@ and using the
s8mbo& L 9 1 this becomes
j 1" " +
This &eads to e7uations of the form ' 6 4L@ $here ' and 4 are rea& numbers@
4e ca&& the form ' 6 4L a $.&1(#8 )0&4#,.
The fo&&o$ing are e+am'&es of com'&e+ numbersE 1 F 2T@ 3T G "@ -,T@ , F /T@
j
2
1
2
1
+
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8.1 THE ARGAND DIAGRAM
Com'&e+ numbers ma8 be re'resented 'ictoria&&8 on rectangu&ar or Cartesian
a+es. The hori;onta& or +! a+is is used to re'resent the ,#'( '8%-@ and the 1ertica&
or 8! a+is is used to re'resent the %&'+%)',> '8%-.
-uch a diagram is ca&&ed an A,+')" "%'+,'&.
The diagram sho$s the Argand 'oints A@ ) and C re'resenting the com'&e+
numbers 2 F 3T!@ - 3 F T! and 1 G 3T! res'ecti1e&8.
N.*# *@# 1.%)* 52 6 3L7 %- *@# #30%2'(#)* ./ -'>%)+ 52?37 ')" ).* 2 1(0- 3L.
9eometric trans&ation@ rotation and di&ation of Argand 'oints can be carried out
through the addition@ subtraction@ mu&ti'&ication and di1ision of the com'&e+
numbers in1o&1ed.
Issue / Page 2
3B
2B
B
- B
- 2B
- 3B
- 3 - 2 - 1 1 2 3
A
)
C
Imaginar8 a+is
5ea& a+is
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8.1.1 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION O COMPLEX NUMBERS
T$o com'&e+ numbers are added=subtracted b8 adding=subtracting se'arate&8 the
t$o rea& and t$o imaginar8 'arts.
E8'&1(#-
A""%*%.)
2 F 3T! F 3 G 4T! H 2 F 3T F 3 G 4T
H 5 J L
S04*,'$*%.)
2 F 3! G 3 - 4T! H 2 F 3T - 3 F 4T
H - 1 6 7L
8.1.2 MULTIPLICATION AND DI<ISION O COMPLEX NUMBERS
M0(*%1(%$'*%.)
%u&ti'&ication of com'&e+ numbers is achie1ed b8 assuming a&& 7uantities in1o&1ed
are rea& numbers and then using the additiona& ru&e LM 9 -1.
E8'&1(#
3 F 2T!4 G "T!
H 12 G 1"T F3T G 1/TY remember TY H -1!
H 12 G -1/!! F T-1" F3!
H 22 J 7L
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D%2%-%.)
0i1ision of com'&e+ numbers is achie1ed b8 mu&ti'&8ing both numerator and
denominator b8 the com'&e+ conTugate of the denominator.
A com'&e+ conTugate of a com'&e+ number is obtained b8 changing the sign of
the imaginar8 'art. Hence the com'&e+ conTugate of a F bT is ' J 4L. The 'roduct
of a com'&e+ number and its com'&e+ conTugate is a&$a8s a ,#'( number.
E8'&1(#
*+'ress
j
j
4 3
" 2
+

in the form a F bT
H
7 5
7 5
j
j
x
j
j
j
j
4 3
4 3
4 3
" 2
4 3
" 2


2
2
1( 12 12 .
2/ 1" 3 (
j j j
j j j
+
+

remember TY H -1!
2"
23 14 j


j
2"
23
2"
14


or -=.56 J =.92L
Issue / Page 4
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
8.1.3 POLARERECTANGULAR COORDINATES
In 're1ious cha'ters it $as sho$n that +@ 8! coordinates $ere used to re'resent
'oints of a '&ane.
)8 choosing a 'air of 'er'endicu&ar a+es + 2 8!@ then each 'air of rea& numbers
a 2 b! determines a uni7ue 'oint of a '&ane. The intersection of the t$o
reference numbers com'&etes a rectang&eL such coordinates are sometimes
Ano$n as ,#$*')+0(', $..,"%)'*#- the8 are a&so referred to as Cartesian
coordinates!.
An a&ternati1e $a8 of s'ecif8ing the 'osition of a 'oint on a '&ane $ou&d be to
gi1e first its distance from the origin and second the ang&e the &ine Toining it to the
origin maAes $ith the +-a+is. This is the basis of 1.(', $..,"%)'*#-.
The 'oint is at distance , from the origin@ such that the &ine Toining it from the
origin maAes an ang&e P $ith the 'ositi1e x a+is@ has 'o&ar coordinates 5,? P7.
Issue / Page 5
8
+ /
a@ b!
b
a
8
8
+
r
Z
r@ Z!
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
, is ca&&ed the polar or radial distance@ and Z is ca&&ed a polar angle.
A&though the student $i&& not be re7uired to 'erform e+tensi1e ca&cu&ations using
either s8stem in this modu&e@ a basic a''reciation is necessar8. This shou&d
inc&ude the abi&it8 to re&ate one s8stem to the other.
To con1ert 'o&ar coordinates to rectangu&ar is re&ati1e&8 eas8.
E8'&1(#
If $e are gi1en a 'oint $ith 'o&ar coordinates r@ Z!
From trigonometr8 $e can determine x and y
r
x
$.-
and
r
y
-%)

therefore
$.- r x and
-%) r y
The rectangu&ar coordinates corres'onding to the 'o&ar coordinates r@ Z! are
r cosZ@ r sinZ!
Issue / Page 6
r@ Z!
+
8
Z
r
+
8
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
The 'rob&em of con1erting from rectangu&ar to 'o&ar coordinates is on&8 s&ight&8
more difficu&t.
)8 P8thagoras Theorem@
the &ength
2
y x r +
and the ang&e Z is such that
2 2
y x
x
r
x
+
$.-
and
2 2
y x
y
r
y
+
-%)
An easier method of finding Z is to use trigonometr8 again
x
y
*')
rearranging gi1es
,
_



x
y
1
*')
%ost scientific ca&cu&ators ha1e function Ae8s to 'erform these ca&cu&ationsE
&ooA for the P R and R P functions.
Issue / Page 7
r
+
8
+
8
+@ 8!
Z
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LET BLAN!
Issue / Page 8
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
9 CALCULUS
9.1 UNCTIONS AND LIMITS
9.1.1 UNCTIONS
Pre1ious&8 it $as sho$n that the re&ationshi' bet$een t$o 1ariab&es@ x and y can
be e+'ressed as y 9 mx 6 c.
The 'rinci'&e is not confined to &inear re&ationshi's@ but ma8 a&so be e+tended to
such e7uations asE
y 9 sin x? y 9 e
x
#*$
-ince 1a&ues are attributed to x it is Ano$n as the %)"#1#)"#)* 2',%'4(#.
Corres'onding 1a&ues of y ma8 then be determined@ and is Ano$n as the
"#1#)"#)* 2',%'4(#.
The de'endence of y u'on x is usua&&8 $ritten as y H f(x)@ in $hich f(x) is a
shorthand $a8 of indicating some e+'ression in terms of x.
E8'&1(#
8 H +Y - 4+ F 3@

f+! is +Y - 4+ F 3
-imi&ar&8 in
8 H sin 2+

f+! is sin 2+
In each of the abo1e e+am'&es an e+'&icit statement has been made@ i.e. y is
e7ua& to some function of x. -uch functions are Ano$n as #81(%$%* /0)$*%.)-.
It is ho$e1er 'ossib&e to $rite a function such as 98 6 68> 6 4>M 9 1 in $hich
a&though there is no direct statement of y in terms of x@ it is e1ident that
corres'onding 1a&ues of y cou&d be determined b8 gi1ing 1a&ues to x.
-uch a function is Ano$n as an %&1(%$%* /0)$*%.).
Issue / Page 1
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
9.1.2 GRADIENTS
If a bod8 is mo1ing in a straight &ine@ such that its dis'&acement s metres@ from its
starting 'oint@ after t seconds is go1erned b8 the e7uationE
2
1/ 12 t t s + i.e. s H f(t)
)8 gi1ing a series of 1a&ues to t and ca&cu&ating the corres'onding 1a&ues of s
then a gra'h of
2
1/ 12 t t s + can be '&otted sho$ing ho$ s changes as t
changes see tab&e ..1 and gra'h ..1 be&o$!.
t = 1 2 3 4 5
s 12 21 28 33 36 37
T'4(# 9.1 /., /0)$*%.)
2
1/ 12 t t s +
%+ 9.1 G,'1@ ./ /0)$*%.)
2
1/ 12 t t s +
Issue / Page 2
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
Information about the s'eed of the bod8 can be obtained from the gra'h b8
constructing chords.
E8'&1(#
61er a 'eriod of " seconds the increase in s is indicated b8 P 9 25 &#*,#-. The
obTects a1erage s'eed o1er this 'eriod is
1 1
"
"
2"

ms ms
.
The a1erage s'eed during the " second 'eriod is gi1en b8 the -(.1# or +,'"%#)*
of the chord A.
-imi&ar&8 the bod8Js a1erage s'eed o1er the first 4 seconds is gi1en b8 the s&o'e
or gradient of the chord A* H
1
(
4
24

ms
.
For &onger 'eriods of time its 'ossib&e to determine the gradient of the gra'h
direct&8 from the gra'h. Tr8ing to determine sma&&er 'eriods of time such as R#
using the abo1e method becomes increasing&8 difficu&t and inaccurate.
It is 'ossib&e to determine accurate resu&ts b8 using the actua& function
2
1/ 12 t t s + .
E8'&1(#
After 3 seconds s H 12 F 1/3! G 3!Y H 33m
After 3.1 seconds s H 12 F 1/3.1! G 3.1!Y H 33.3.m
After 3.11 seconds s H 12 F 1/3./1! G 3./1!Y H 33./3.m
0uring the time 'eriod t H 3 s and t H 3.1 s the bod8 co1ered /.3.m at an a1erage
s'eed of 3.. ms
-1
. )8 shortening the time 'eriod to /./1 seconds i.e. t H 3 s to t H
3./1 s the a1erage s'eed becomes 3... ms
-1
.
If the same e+ercise is carried out for time 'eriods Tust 'rior to 3 seconds it can
be inferred that at the 'recise time of 3 seconds the '$*0'( or %)-*')*')#.0-
s'eed is 4 &-
-1
.
Issue / Page 3
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
9.1.3 ININTESIMALS AND LIMITS
A shorter method of arri1ing to the conc&usions sho$n 're1ious&8 $ithout using
s'ecified inter1a&s $as de1ised b8 Ne$ton and #eibni;.
It $as suggested that a sma&& increase in an8 7uantit8 simi&ar to s might be
indicated b8 using the s8mbo& s de&ta s!@ $hich re'resents a minute&8 sma&&
change in s. A simi&ar change in t $ou&d be denoted b8 t.@ and in x b8 x.
E8'&1(#
%+0,# 9.2 -@.;- ' -#$*%.) ./ *@# $0,2#
2
1/ 12 t t s +
P% re'resents the dis'&acement s at time 6% t!
:N re'resents the distance s F s! co1ered in time 6N t F t!.
In both cases s and t are 1er8 sma&&.
The gradient of the chord P: re'resents the a1erage s'eed bet$een time t and
t F t! and can be measured as
t
s
PR
QR

.
Issue / Page 4
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
S%)$# D %- .) *@# $0,2#
2
1/ 12 7 5 7 5 t t t t s s + + + +

2 2
2 1/ 1/ 12 7 5 t t t t t t + + 1!
., P

2
1/ 12 t t s + 2!
S04*,'$*%)+ 527 /,.& 517

2
2 1/ 7 5 t t t t s
D%2%"%)+ 4> t

t t
t
s

2 1/
The e+am'&e abo1e sho$s that a formu&a can be deri1ed for ca&cu&ating the
a1erage s'eed for an8 'eriod of time ho$e1er sma&&.
If the 1a&ue of t in the e+'ression
t t
t
s

2 1/
is a&&o$ed to get sma&&er and
sma&&er i.e. a''roach ;ero!@ then
t
s

a''roaches the 1a&ue 1/ G 2t. This is


$ritten asE

t
t
s
Lim 2 1/
/

This is read asE


QT@# (%&%* ./ "#(*' s 4> "#(*' t '- "#(*' t *#)"- *. G#,. #30'(- 1= - 2tK.
If the 1a&ue of 3 seconds is no$ substituted into the abo1e e+'ression then
1= J 2t 9 4.
This $as the 1a&ue for the gradient $hich $as mentioned ear&ier@ i.e. the actua&
s'eed at the instant t 9 3 -#$.)"-.
To indicate that this is the actua& gradient at an instant thenE
t
s
Lim

/
is re'&aced b8
dt
ds
Issue / Page 5
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
9.2 DIERENTIATION
9.2.1 GRADIENT O A STRAIGHT LINE
The 're1ious section 'ro1ed that it is 'ossib&e determine the rate of change of
distance $ith time either o1er a s'ecified inter1a& or at a 'articu&ar instant from
the gradient of the a''ro'riate chord or tangent.
The techni7ue is not restricted to distance=time 'rob&ems@ but can be a''&ied
$hene1er one 'arameter is changing in res'onse to another.
Fig ..3 9radient of a straight &ine
If a bod8 is mo1ing a&ong a straight A) Fig ..3!@ starting at P+@ 8!@ an increase
N% H P5! in x 'roduces an increase 5: in y.
The ratio of the increase in y to the increase in x
,
_

PR
RQ
e i . .
is ca&&ed the gradient
of the s&o'e of &ine A). C&ear&8 this gradient is e7ua& to tan .
Issue / Page 6
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
9.2.2 GRADIENT O A CUR<E
The gradient of a cur1e at an8 'oint is defined as the gradient of the tangent to
the cur1e at that 'oint.
Figure ..4 9radient of a cur1e
6n figure ..4 &et P+@ 8! be an8 'oint on the cur1e.
#et N% H +@ then the corres'onding increase in y is 5: so 8 H 5:.
Then
x
y

H the gradient of chord P: and re'resents the a1erage gradient of the


cur1e bet$een the 'oints P and :.
As
/ x
+ tends to$ards /!@ the 1a&ue of
x
y

changes and at the same time


the chord P: a''roaches its &imiting 'osition@ name&8 the tangent to the cur1e P.
The gradient of the cur1e at P is described asE
x
y
P

/
(%&
denoted asE
dx
dy
Issue / Page 7
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
E8'&1(#
y H x[
Figure .." y H fx! H x[
>sing the methodo&og8 from section ..1.3E
#et P+@ 8! be an8 'oint on the cur1e.
N% re'resents a sma&& change + in +@ and 5: re'resents the change 8 in 8.
Thus : is the 'oint + F +@ 8 F 8!. As both P and : &ie on the &ine thenE
for P 8 H +[ 1!
and for : 8 F 8 H + F +![
H +[ F 3+Y+ F 3++!Y F +[ 2!
-ubtracting 2! G 1!
8 F 3+Y+ F 3++!Y F +[
Issue / Page 8
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
0i1iding b8 +

2 2
3 3 x x x x
x
y

+ +
Then b8 definition the gradient of the tangent to the cur1e

x
y
dx
dy
x

/
(%&

i.e.
2
3x
dx
dy

>sing the method a''&ied to the cur1e y = x then the gradient of y 9 8M at +@ 8!@
i.e.
dx
dy
is 28
9.2.3 THE DIERENTIAL COEICIENT 5DERI<ATI<E7
dx
dy
is ca&&ed the differentia& coefficient of 8 $ith res'ect to +@ or the deri1ati1e of 8
$ith res'ect to +.
The 'rocess of obtaining
dx
dy
is ca&&ed differentiating 8 $ith res'ect to +.
It is sometimes $ritten as
dx
d
8!.
E8'&1(#-
dx
d
+Y F "+! or
dx
x x d 7 5 "
2
+
the8 both mean the same thing.
A&though
x
y

is a 7uotient i.e. it stands for 8 M +!@


dx
dy
is ).*.
Issue / Page 9
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
9.2.4 THE GENERAL RULE
*+amination of the successi1e differentiation in the 're1ious sections re1ea&s a
'attern from $hich a +#)#,'( ,0(# can be deri1ed.
In 'ractice there are a number of ru&es $hich a&&o$ deri1ati1es of certain functions
to be determinedL this modu&e is on&8 concerned $ith the genera& ru&e.
The genera& ru&e states thatE

1

n n
nax ax
dx
d
$here ' and ) are constants $hich ma8 be 'ositi1e or negati1e@ fractions or
integers.
For ease of mani'u&ation the genera& ru&e can be broAen do$n into a number of
ru&esE
The 'o$er ru&e
The constant mu&ti'&e ru&e
The constant ru&e
The sum ru&e
E8'&1(#
T@# 1.;#, ,0(#
4here 8 H +
"
taAe the 'o$er "@ and bring it in front of +E
8 H "+
"
then reduce the 'o$er b8 1@ so the deri1ati1e
becomesE
8 H "+
4
Issue / Page 1=
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
T@# $.)-*')* &0(*%1(# ,0(#
4here 8 H (+Y taAe the 'o$er 2 and 'ut it front of the coefficientE
8 H 2 \ (+Y mu&ti'&8 the coefficient b8 so thatE
8 H 12+Y reduce the 'o$er b8 1@ so the deri1ati1e becomesE
dx
dy
9 12+
T@# $.)-*')* ,0(# 517
8 H "+ this is a &ine of the form 8 H m+ F c
the s&o'e is "@ thus the deri1ati1e is "@ thereforeE
dx
dy
H "
T@# $.)-*')* ,0(# 527
8 H " this is a hori;onta& &ine $ith a s&o'e of ;ero
thus its deri1ati1e is a&so ;ero@ soE
dx
dy
H /
N.*#F
., ')> )0&4#,E$.)-*')* $? %/ > 9 $ *@#) >K 9 =
O 5 3.147 ')" # 5 2.727 ',# )0&4#,- ).* 2',%'4(#-? -.F
> 9 O8 >K 9 O
> 9 OR >K 9 =
Issue / Page 11
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
T@# -0& ,0(#
8 H 2+
(
F +[ F +Y F + F 1/ use the constant mu&ti'&e ru&e for the first term
the 'o$er ru&e for the ne+t three terms
the constant ru&e for the &ast term
thereforeE
dx
dy
H 12+
"
F 3+Y F 2+ F 1
9.3 MAXIMA AND MINIMA
Consider the cur1e f +! in figure ..(. It sho$s a number of turning points@ Ano$n
as local maxima and local minima.
Figure ..( 9ra'h of f (+!
At these turning 'oints@ the tangents are 'ara&&e& to the +-a+is@ that is@ their s&o'es
are ;ero. -o at a ma+imum or minimum 'oint@ the gradient of the cur1e@ and
hence
dx
dy
@ is ;ero.
Issue / Page 12
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
To the &eft of e1er8 &oca& ma+ima@ the s&o'e is 'ositi1e.
To the right of e1er8 ma+ima@ the s&o'e is negati1e.
To the &eft of e1er8 minima@ the s&o'e is negati1e.
To the right of e1er8 minima@ the s&o'e is 'ositi1e.
T@%- %- ') %&1.,*')* ,#-0(* *@'* (#'"- *. *@# -.(0*%.) ./ &')> 1,'$*%$'(
1,.4(#&-.
E8'&1(#
Find the ma+ima and minima of the fo&&o$ing functionE
8 H 3+
"
G 2/+[
1! Find the first deri1ati1e of 8
,
_

x
y

using the 'o$er ru&e


x

3+
"
G 2/+[
H 1"+
4
G (/+Y
2! -et the deri1ati1e e7ua& to ;ero and so&1e
1"+
4
G (/+Y H /
1"+Y +Y - 4! H /
1"+Y + F 2! + G 2! H /
1"+Y H / ., + H 2 ., + H -2
+ H /@ -2 2 2
3! Put the 1a&ues of + /@ -2@ 2! into the origina& function 8 H 3+
"
G 2/+[
$hich gi1es 8 H /@ -(4 2 (4
4e no$ ha1e the 1a&ues for the &oca& ma+ima and minimaE
/@ /! -2@ (4! 2@ -(4!
Issue / Page 13
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
4! 0etermine $hether the coordinates re'resent ma+ima or minima b8
ca&cu&ating the second deri1ati1e
2
2
x

1"+
4
G (/+Y
H (/+[ - 12/+
"! In'ut 1a&ues of + into the second deri1ati1e to determine the turning 'oints
For + H /@ the 1a&ue is / a 'oint of inf&ection
+ H -2@ the 1a&ue is H -24/@ $hich is negati1e
+ H 2@ the 1a&ue is H 24/@ $hich is 'ositi1e
>sing the ru&es gi1en abo1eE
the coordinate -2@ (4! is a &'8%&'
the coordinate 2@ -(4! is a &%)%&'
9.4 INTEGRATION
The 're1ious sections ha1e sho$n that using differentiation it is 'ossib&e to find
so&utions to the 'rob&emE
gi1en 8 H f+!@ find
dx
dy
It is a&so 'ossib&e to find so&utions to the re1erse 'rob&emE
gi1en
dx
dy
H f +!@ find 8
This 'rocess is ca&&ed %)*#+,'*%.).
Issue / Page 14
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
9.4.1 AREA UNDER A GRAPH
-u''ose that 8ou ha1e to so&1e the 'rob&em of ca&cu&ating the area A bounded b8
the cur1e 8 H +!@ the +-a+is@ and &ines + H a@ + H b as in figure ..,
Figure .., cur1e of 8 H +!
-uch an area cannot be found direct&8 as sum of rectangu&ar or triangu&ar areas@
but $e cou&d find an a''ro+imation to its 1a&ue.
Figure ..3 cur1e of 8 H +!
Issue / Page 15
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
As can be seen from figure ..3 the first attem't using rectangu&ar a''ro+imation
$i&& not get a resu&t 1er8 c&ose to the true 1a&ue.
Figure ... cur1e of 8 H +!
)8 using sma&&er and sma&&er rectang&es it can be seen that the accurac8 of
a''ro+imation is great&8 increased.
Integration then ma8 be considered as the 'rocess of summing u' an Q%)/%)%*#
)0&4#, ./ ,#$*')+(#-K to gi1e an e+act resu&t.
An a&gebraic &imiting 'rocess can be used to e1a&uate the area A using
rectang&es but is be8ond the sco'e of this course!.
Issue / Page 16
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
9.4.2 INTEGRALS
It $ou&d be a 1er8 tiresome business if 8ou had to e1a&uate the &imit of a sum in
order to find an area.
It $ou&d be ad1antageous to de1e&o' a techni7ue for finding the areas bounded
b8 the gra'hs of a $ide 1ariet8 of functions.
If $e a''&8 a method of u''er and &o$er sums to find the area of the region under
the gra'h 8 H +@ from + H a to + H b figure ..1/!.
Figure ..1/ gra'h of 8 H +
Rno$ing that the area of a triang&e is X base \ height and b8 a''&8ing the &imiting
'rocess mentioned ear&ier it is found that the re7uired area isE

2 2
2
1
2
1
a b
Issue / Page 17
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
The same 'rocess can be used to find the area A bounded b8 the cur1e 8 H +Y@
the +-a+is@ and the &ines +H a and + H b figure ..11!.
Figure ..11 9ra'h of 8 H +Y
The resu&ts sho$ that from the +@ 8 intersect $e $i&& ca&& /!@ the area from / to a is
3
3
1
a
and@ simi&ar&8@ the area from / to b is@
3
3
1
b
thus the re7uired area is Tust the
difference bet$een the t$oE

3
3
1
b
-
3
3
1
a
A&though it is not 1er8 $ise to guess a genera& resu&t from on&8 t$o s'ecia& cases@
it is tem'ting in this case to do so as the resu&ts ha1e striAing simi&arities.
a! )oth ans$ers are the difference of t$o terms of the same form.
b! The first term in1o&1es b and the second term in1o&1es a.
c! In this form@ the e+'onent is one more than the e+'onent in the origina&
function.
d! The e+'onent is the same as the number in the denominator.
Issue / Page 18
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
From 're1ious discussions if $e ha1e a function

n
x
1!
the standard deri1ati1e of the function $i&& be
1

n n
nx x
x

a''&8ing the &ogic of the 're1ious 'age to the integra& a first guess of integrating
cou&d be

1 + n
x
2!
if 2! is differentiated $ith res'ect to + the resu&t isE
n n
x n x
dx
d
7 5 7 5 1
1
+
+
3!
com'aring 1! and 3!@ the8 $i&& be the same if $e cou&d get rid of the n F 1! termE
1
1
+
+
n
x
n
4!
if 4! is differentiated $ith res'ect to + the resu&t isE
n
n
x
n
x
x

,
_

+
+
1
1

This gi1es us a genera& ru&e of integrationE

+
1
1
n
x
dx x
n
n
4hen integration is to be carried out the notation

dx x
n
is used.
The s8mbo& is the mathematica& notation for integration.
+
n
re'resents the 1ariab&e about to be integrated.
d+ is $hat is to be integrated $ith res'ect to +.
Issue / Page 19
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
9.4.3 INDEINITE INTEGRALS
If $e consider the functionsE
8 H +[@ 8 H +[ F ( and 8 H +[ F 1/
a&& ha1e the deri1ati1eE
2
3x
dx
y

#ooAing at the gra'h of 8 H +[ figure ..12! it can be seen that are an infinite
number of 'ossib&e '&aces that +[ ma8 be '&aced on the gra'h.
Figure ..12 9ra'h of +[ F c
Thus the Ano$&edge of the gradient is insufficient to describe uni7ue&8 the
so&ution for +[. -o $hen a function is integrated an arbitrar8 constant must be
inc&uded to taAe account of the infinite number of O'ara&&e&J functions.
Issue / Page 2=
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
>sing the ear&ier e+am'&esE
8 H

2
3x
H
3
3
1
x
adding the arbitrar8 constant gi1es
H
c x +
3
3
1
4here c cou&d re'resent /@ ( or 1/ or in fact an8 constant!.
Thus for indefinite integra&s the genera& ru&e isE

+
+

+
c
n
x
dx x
n
n
1
1
E8'&1(#
Integrate 8 H "+ F ( $ith res'ect to +

+ dx x ( "
H c
x x
+
+
+
+
+ +
1 /
(
1 1
"
1 / 1 1
H c
x x
+ +
1
(
2
"
2
H
c x x + + (
2
1
2
Issue / Page 21
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
9.4.4 DEINITE INTEGRALS
4hen carr8ing out integration $ith definite 1a&ues the method is as fo&&o$sE
a! Integrate the function@ omitting the constant of integration.
b! -ubstitute the 1a&ue of the u''er &imit for +E re'eat the 'rocess for the 1a&ue
of the &o$er &imit.
c! -ubtract the &o$er &imit from the u''er &imit.
E8'&1(#
Consider the gra'h of 8 H +Y@ + H 2 and + H " figure ..13!
Figure ..13 9ra'h of 8 H +Y
Integrate 8 H +Y $ith res'ect to +@ for + H " and + H 2
This is $ritten asE

"
2
2
dx x
Issue / Page 22
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
i! Integrate the function

"
2
2
dx x
H
"
2
3
3
1
1
]
1

x
ii! -ubstitute the 1a&ue of the u''er &imit for +E re'eat the 'rocess for the 1a&ue
of the &o$er &imit and subtract the &o$er &imit from the u''er &imit
( ) ( )
1
]
1

1
]
1

3 3
2
3
1
"
3
1
H
3
2
2
3
2
41
H 3.
For definite integra&s the basic ru&e isE

1
]
1

+
+

+ b
a
b
a
n
n
c
n
x
dx x
1
1
H
1
]
1

+
+

1
]
1

+
+
+ +
c
n
a
c
n
b
n n
1 1
1 1
Issue / Page 23
EASA 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LET BLAN!
Issue / Page 24

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