Prof.

Mark Lundstrom
[email protected]
Electrical and Computer Engineering
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana USA
Introduction to Photovoltaics
NCN Summer School: J uly 2011
2
copyright 2011
This material is copyrighted by Mark Lundstrom under
the following Creative Commons license:
Conditions for using these materials is described at
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/
Lundstrom 2011
3
acknowledgement
Dionisis Berdebes, J im Moore, and Xufeng Wang
played key roles in putting together this tutorial.
Their assistance is much appreciated.
Lundstrom 2011
4
modern solar cell
Chapin, Pearson, and Fuller, Bell Labs. 1954
http://www.bell-labs.com/org/physicalsciences/timeline/span10.html#
Lundstrom 2011
5
solar cell progress
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PVeff(rev100921).jpg
5
6
solar cell industry
SunPower / Applied Materials
Mark Pinto, Renewable Solar Energy: Has the Sun Finally Risen on Photovoltaics?
https://nanohub.org/resources/6332
7
solar cell
A solar cell is a junction (usually a PN junction) with sunlight shining on it.
To understand how a solar cell works, we need to understand:
1) how a PN junction works (w/o the light)
2) how light is absorbed in a semiconductor (without a PN junction)
3) what happens when we put the two together.
8
outline
1) Introduction
2) PN junction fundamentals (dark)
3) Model solar cell: dark IV
4) Optical absorption / light-generated current
5) Model solar cell: illuminated
6) Discussion
7) Summary
Lundstrom 2011
silicon energy bands
9
valence
band
core levels
conduction
band

E
V
filled states

E
C

empty states
T = 0 K

E
G
=1.1eV
Lundstrom 2011
intrinsic n-type p-type
10

E
V
filled states

E
C

E
V

E
F

E
V
filled states

E
C

E
V

E
F

E
V
filled states

E
C

E
V

E
F
hole
holes
n
0N
N
D
+
p
0P
N
A

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Fermi level
11

E
V
filled states

E
C

E
V

E
F

E
V
filled states

E
C

E
V

E
F
holes
n
0N
N
D
+
p
0P
N
A

f
0
E ( )=
1
1+ e
EE
F
( ) k
B
T
E = E
F
f
0
E ( )=
1
2
E << E
F
f
0
E ( )= 1
E >> E
F
f
0
E ( )= 0
Lundstrom 2011
intrinsic semiconductor
12

E
V
filled states

E
C

E
V

E
F
= E
I
hole
n
0
= n
i
p
0
= n
i
n
0
p
0
= n
i
2
n
i
300K ( ) 10
10
cm
-3
n
i
e
E
G
k
B
T
L
Lundstrom 2011
n-type semiconductor
13

E
V
filled states

E
C

E
V

E
F
n
0N
N
D
+
n
0
N
D
+
p
0
= n
i
2
N
D
+
n
0
p
0
= n
i
2
n
i
300K ( ) 10
10
cm
-3
n
0
= N
D
10
17
cm
-3
p
0
10
3
cm
-3
Lundstrom 2011
p-type semiconductor
14

E
V
filled states

E
C

E
V

E
F
holes
p
0
N
A

n
0
= n
i
2
N
A

n
0
p
0
= n
i
2
n
i
300K ( ) 10
10
cm
-3
p
0
= N
A
10
17
cm
-3
n
0
10
3
cm
-3
Lundstrom 2011
PN junction
15

E
V
filled states

E
C

E
V

E
F

E
V
filled states

E
C

E
V

E
F
holes
n
0N
N
D
+
p
0P
N
A

What happens if we
bring the p and n
regions together?
PN junction in equilibrium
E
F
I
D
= 0
V
A
= 0
16
Fermi level
is constant!
p
0P
N
A
n
0P
n
i
2
N
A
n
0N
N
D
p
0N
n
i
2
N
D
p-type
n-type
E
C
lower
E
C
= -qV
E
F
slope
proportional to
electric field
V = 0
qV
bi
V = V
bi
V
bi
~ E
G
qV
bi
=
k
B
T
q
ln
N
A
N
D
n
i
2
PN junction in equilibrium
E
F
qV
bi
p
0P
N
A
n
0P
n
i
2
N
A
n
0N
N
D
E
F
p
0N
n
i
2
N
D

P
0
= ?
17

P
0
= e
E k
B
T
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PN junction under forward bias
F
N
p
0P
N
A
n
0N
N
D
F
P
p
0N
n
i
2
N
D
q V
bi
V
A
( )
A positive voltage on p-side
pulls the bands down.
Energy barrier is lowered.
n
P
> n
i
2
N
A

P =P
0
e
qV
A
k
B
T
excess carriers

P = e
q V
bi
V
A
( ) k
B
T
18
Lundstrom 2011
PN junction under forward bias
F
N
q V
bi
V
A
( )
p
0P
N
A
n
P
x ( )
n
0N
N
D
F
P
Excess electron
concentration on the p-side.
Q
n
= q n
P
x ( )
0
W
P

dx
I
D
=
Q
n
t
n
+
Q
p
t
p
The time, is the average time for an electron on the p-side to
recombine or to diffuse to the contact and recombine. Lets see
why recombination leads to current.
t
n
19
20
recombination leads to current
minority carriers injected across junction
F
n
F
P
qV
A
V
A
+
I
D
Every time a minority electron recombines on the p-side, one
electron flows in the external current.
21
recombination at a contact
minority carriers injected across junction
F
n
F
P
qV
A
V
A
+
I
D
Every time a minority electron recombines on the p-side, one
electron flows in the external current.
forward bias summary
F
N
q V
bi
V
A
( )
p
0P
N
A
n
P
x ( )
n
0N
N
D
F
P
p
0N
n
i
2
N
D
0< I
D
V
A
> 0
1) Injected current produces a
population of excess
electrons in the P-type
region...
I
n1
e
qV
A
k
B
T
2) Excess electrons in the P-
type region recombine
3) Every time an electron and
hole recombine, an
electron flows in the
external circuit.
22
Lundstrom 2011
ideal diode equation
Q
n

n
i
2
N
A
e
qV
A
k
B
T
1
( )
I
D
= I
0
e
qV
A
k
B
T
1
( )
ideal diode equation
n= 1
I
D
= I
0
e
qV
A
nk
B
T
1
( )
0< I
D
V
A
+
I
D
=
Q
n
t
n
+
Q
p
t
p
23
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24
outline
1) Introduction
2) PN junction fundamentals (dark)
3) Model solar cell: dark IV
4) Optical absorption / light-generated current
5) Model solar cell: illuminated
6) Discussion
7) Summary
Lundstrom 2011
25
generic crystalline Si solar cell
n
+
emitter (0.3 m)
p-type base
(198.9 m)
p
+
Back Surface Field (BSF)
(0.8 m)
key device
parameters
base doping: N
A
= 10
16
/cm
3
emitter doping N
D
= 6x10
19
/cm
3
minority carrier lifetime
n
= 34 s
(base)
base thickness W= 198.9 m
front junction depth x
jf
= 0.3 m
back junction depth x
jb
= 0.8 m
R
s
= 1 Ohm-cm
2
S
F
= 1000 cm/s
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equilibrium e-band diagram
E
F
E
F
200 199.2
Lundstrom 2011
27
dark I-V
n= 1
n 2
n>1
J
D
= J
0
e
qV
A
nk
B
T
1
( )
Lundstrom 2011
28
recombination: V = 0.7 V
entire device
~20%
~10%
~70%
front surface region
~20%
R x ( )
R x ( )
0
x

d x
R x ( )
0
L

d x
Lundstrom 2011
29
series resistance
0< I
D
V
A
+
I
D
= I
0
e
qV
A
k
B
T
1
( )
V
A
+ R
S
I
D
= I
0
e
q V
D
I
D
R
S
( ) k
B
T
1
( )
V
D
= V
A
+ I
D
R
S
Lundstrom 2011
30
dark I-V and series resistance
I
D
R
S
Lundstrom 2011
31
outline
1) Introduction
2) PN junction fundamentals (dark)
3) Model solar cell: dark IV
4) Optical absorption / light-generated current
5) Model solar cell: illuminated
6) Discussion
7) Summary
Lundstrom 2011
32
absorption of light
E
C
E
V
E = hf > E
G
f = c f =
c

E = hf =
hc

E
G
<
hc
E
G
Lundstrom 2011
33
solar spectrum (outer space)
AM0
Integrated power = 136.6 mW/cm
2
AM0 = air mass 0
Earth
space
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34
solar spectrum (terrestrial)
Integrated power = 100 mW/cm
2
)
AMX =
1
cos
x

X
G =global
Earth
atmosphere
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_mass_(solar_energy)
AM1.5:
x
= 48.2deg
35
how many photons can be absorbed?
Example: Silicon E
g
= 1.1eV. Only photons with a wavelength
smaller than 1.1m will be absorbed.
solar
spectrum
(AM1.5G)
Lundstrom 2011
36
wasted energy for E > E
G
Energy is lost for photons with energy greater than the bandgap.
hf > E
G
Electron is excited above
the conduction band.
However, extra energy is lost due to
thermalization as electron relaxes
back to the band edge.
Lundstrom 2011
37
how many photons are absorbed in a finite
thickness?
Incident flux:
0
Flux at position, x :
x ( )=
0
e
( )x
optical absorption coefficient:
( )> 0 for E > E
G
< hc E
G
( )
Generation rate at position, x :
G x ( )=
d x ( )
dx
=
0
( )e
( )x
G
tot
= G x, ( )
0
L

dx

d
38
what determines alpha?
p
E
conduction
band
valence
band
E
G
Direct gap: strong absorption
(high alpha)
p
E
conduction
band
valence
band
E
G
need
phonon
Indirect gap: weaker absorption
lower alpha)
E =
p
2
2m
39
light absorption vs. semiconductor thickness
Si (indirect) CIGS (direct)
The direct bandgap of CIGS allows it to absorb light much faster than Silicon.
A layer of silicon must be 10
4
microns thick to absorb ~100% of the light,
while CIGS need only be about 2 microns thick.
Lundstrom 2011
40
maximizing light absorption / generation
solar cell
anti-reflection (AR) coating
1) Maximize the number of phonons
that get into the solar cell (AR
coating, texturizing).
2) Maximize the effective thickness of
the absorber.
Lundstrom 2011
light-trapping in high-efficiency Si solar cells
24.5% at 1 sun
Martin Green Group UNSW Zhao, et al, 1998
41
370 400m
Lundstrom 2011
42
collection of e-h pairs
1) Light generates electron-hole pairs
E
C
E
V
E = hf > E
G
2) PN junction collects e-h pairs
E
F
n-region collects the minority carrier
electrons
p-region collects the minority carrier
holes
Lundstrom 2011
43
collection efficiency
Photo-generated carriers should diffuse
to the junction and be collected.
E
F
But some may
recombine in the
base.
And some may diffuse
to the contact and
recombine.
base
emitter
(absorbing layer)
collection efficiency
CE
J
L
J
Lmax
Lundstrom 2011
44
voltage-dependence of collection
E
F
As long as V
A
< V
bi
, the applied bias should affect the collection of carriers.
base
emitter
(absorbing layer)
V
bi
V
A
Lundstrom 2011
45
current collection
Therefore we cannot make the absorbing layer arbitrarily thick.
The generated carriers are only useful to us if they are able to
be collected.
Electron diffusion length: Distance e will travel before recombining
t < L
n
= D
n

n
0
t
Generated e
-
n
+
p
For Si:
n
~1200 cm
2
/V-s; (
n
~34s
L
n
~320 m
Lundstrom 2011
real thickness vs. optical thickness
24.5% at 1 sun
Martin Green Group UNSW Zhao, et al, 1998
46
Lundstrom 2011
47
outline
1) Introduction
2) PN junction fundamentals (dark)
3) Model solar cell: dark IV
4) Optical absorption / light-generated current
5) Model solar cell: illuminated
6) Discussion
7) Summary
Lundstrom 2011
diode current under illumination
1) Light generates e-h pairs
E
F
48
Lundstrom 2011
diode current under illumination
2) PN junction collects e-h pairs
E
F
I
L
< 0
3) Current flows through load
I
L
< 0
R
L
V
L
+
forward bias across PN junction
develops
I
D
> 0
49
Lundstrom 2011
net current
4) Forward bias reduces current
F
p
F
n
qV
D
5) IV characteristic is a superposition
V
D
I
D
I
D
= I
0
e
qV
D
nk
B
T
1
( )
I
L
I
0
e
qV
D
nk
B
T
1
( )
dark current -
I
L
< 0
light-generated
current
50
Lundstrom 2011
P
D
= I
D
V
D
< 0
IV characteristic
51
6) Maximum power point
V
D
I
L
< 0
I
D
I
D
= I
0
e
qV
D
nk
B
T
1
( )
I
L
I
SC
P
out
= I
SC
V
D
= 0
V
OC
P
out
= I
D
V
OC
= 0
P
out
= I
mp
V
mp
= I
SC
V
OC
FF
=
P
out
P
in
=
I
SC
V
OC
FF
P
in
52
superposition
I
L
< 0
R
L
+

I
L
> 0
V
L
> 0
dark current
I
D
= I
0
e
qV
D
nk
B
T
1
( )
light-generated current
(bias independent)
53
effect of series and shunt resistors
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Solar_cell_equivalent_circuit.svg/60
1px-Solar_cell_equivalent_circuit.svg.png
series and shunt resistors
54
Effect of series resistance
Effect of shunt resistance
Modified Diode Equation:

I = I
L
I
0
e
q V + IR
S
( )
/k
B
T
1
|
\
|
.

V + IR
S
R
SH

FF
0.84
0.79
0.74

FF
0.84
0.71
0.58
Lundstrom 2011
model solar cell simulation
55
Results:

V
OC
= 616 mV
J
SC
= 39.4 mA/cm
2
FF = 0.83
= 20.1%
ADEPT 2.0 nanoHUB.org
(See slide 26 for parameters)
Lundstrom 2011
56
outline
1) Introduction
2) PN junction fundamentals (dark)
3) Model solar cell: dark IV
4) Optical absorption / light-generated current
5) Model solar cell: illuminated
6) Discussion
i) superposition
ii) efficiency limits
iii) costs
7) Summary
Lundstrom 2011
57
i) principle of superposition
I
L
< 0
R
L
+

I
D
V
D
( )> 0
V
D
V = V
D
> 0
I
TOT
I
DARK
= I
0
e
qV
D
nk
B
T
1
( )
determined by recombination
processes in the dark
Photo-generated current collected by
the junction. Generally assumed to
be independent of the junction
voltage.
Superposition says that we can
add the two solutions to get the
total response of the solar cells.
superposition
We can superimpose two solutions when the differential
equations describing the problem are linear.
58
Lundstrom 2011
59
solar cell physics
( )
( )
( )
( )
n
p
D
J q G R
J q G R
=
=
=

Conservation Laws:
( )
0 0
( , )
optical generation rate
etc.
D A
n n n
p p p
D E V
q p n N N
J nq E qD n
J pq E qD p
R f n p
G

+
= =
= +
= +
=
=
=



Relations:
(steady-state)
semiconductor equations
Lundstrom 2011
60
when does superposition apply?
F. A. Lindholm, J .G. Fossum, and E.L. Burgess, Application of the Superposition
Principle to Solar-Cell Analysis, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, 26, 165-171, 1979
1) the junction space-charge region may contribute importantly to
either the photocurrent or the dark current, but not to both;
2) the carrier concentrations in the quasi-neutral regions must stay
within low-injection levels;
3) the series resistance (and shunt resistance) must contribute
negligilbly to the cell current-voltage characteristics;
4) the material parameters, such as the minority-carrier lifetime, must
be essentially independent of the illumination level;
5) the volume of the regions that contribute appreciably to the
photocurrent must stay essentially constant as the cell is loaded.
Lundstrom 2011
ii) solar cell efficiency limits
=
P
out
P
in
=
I
SC
V
oc
FF
P
in
1) Fill factor:
Determined by diode characteristic
and series resistances.
2) Short-circuit current:
Increases as the bandgapdecreases.
For a given bandgap, determined by
reflection, absorption, recombination.
3) Open-circuit voltage:
Increases as the bandgapincreases.
For a given bandgap, determined by
recombination.
61
62
Shockley-Queisser Limit
1) Smaller bandgaps give higher
short circuit current
2) Larger bandgaps give higher
open-circuit voltage
3) For the given solar spectrum, an
optimum bandgap exists.
W. Shockley, and H. J . Queisser, Detailed Balance Limit of Efficiency of p-n
J unction Solar Cells, J. Appl. Phys., 32, 510, 1961.
Lundstrom 2011
63
iii) costs: three approaches
1) High-efficiency , but high-cost solar cells
(high-quality crystalline materials)
2) Acceptable efficiency, but very low costs
(thin-film, amorphous/polycrystalline materials)
3) Concentration
(high efficiency cells with optical concentration)
Lundstrom 2011
64
grid parity
For a photovoltaic power generation system to be economically
competitive the total costs of an installed PV system must be ~ $1/W,
which translates to 5-6 cents per kilowatt-hour.
A system includes:
1) Module costs
2) Power conditioning electronics
3) Installation and balance of systems.
Current costs are $3.40/W (2011).
Projected to decrease to $2.20/W by 2016
Lundstrom 2011
65
the dollar per Watt goal
The U.S. Department of Energy is calling for research to meet the $1/W
goal. This requires modules at $0.50/W, with ~20% modules with 20-30
system lifetimes.
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/
Lundstrom 2011
66
outline
1) Introduction
2) PN junction fundamentals (dark)
3) Model solar cell: dark IV
4) Optical absorption / light-generated current
5) Model solar cell: illuminated
6) Discussion
7) Summary
Lundstrom 2011
67
solar cell summary
1) Light is absorbed and produces e-h pairs
2) PN junctions separate e-h pairs and collect the carriers.
3) Current flow in external circuit produces a FB voltage and
the FB diode current reduces the total current.
4) Power out is I
SC
V
OC
FF.
5) Unlike integrated circuit chips, where the value added
comes from the design/system, manufacturing costs are
critical in PV.
Lundstrom 2011
68
references
Textbooks:
Martin Green, Solar Cells: Operating Principles, Technology, and System
Applications, Prentice-Hall, 1981.
J enny Nelson, Physics of Solar Cells, Imperial Collage Press, 2003
Antonio Lugue and Steven Hegedus, Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and
Engineering, J ohn Wiley and Sons, 2003.
Compilation of current cell efficiencies:
Martin Green, et al., Solar cell efficiency tables (version 37), 19, Prog. in
Photovoltaics, 2011
Survey of 3rd generation PV concepts:
Martin Green, Third generation photovoltaics: advanced solar energy
conversion, Springer, 2006.
Lundstrom 2011
69
questions
1) Introduction
2) PN junction fundamentals (dark)
3) Model solar cell: dark IV
4) Optical absorption / light-generated current
5) Model solar cell: illuminated
6) Discussion
7) Summary
Lundstrom 2011