Introduction to Ecology

Study of the interactions between organisms and their environment

- Constituted by biotic and abiotic components, such as Parasites, Predators, Competitors, Ambient
Temperature
- Covers environmental relationships arranged in hierarchical level of organization
- To better understand human impacts on the environment and their consequences applied to
ecosystem and natural resource management, preservation and restoration

Population Ecology I
Population: a group of conspecifics (animals/plants belonging to the same species) inhabiting a specific
place at a specific time rely on the same resources, interact and interbreed, hence must consider spatial
and temporal aspects.
Define the population by
Parameters Details
Temporal Affected by nature of population
Eg. Population fluctuation

Spatial Physical boundary not clear-cut
- Ecology discontinuity: barrier that impedes movement
- Genetic discontinuity: no interbreeding, no mixing of genes
Often complicated by uneven distribution and movement of individuals

Defined broadly to include regional influences
Defined narrowly to take into account factors that influence these smaller units

Describe populations
Demography: quantitative description of a population
Size
Population density
- Most fundamental - No. of individuals/unit area
- Removes complications of area studied (if comparing 2 different study sites in different areas),
gives an idea of distribution
- How is this more useful?

Metods Description
Census - Direct measure
- Direct tally of no. of individuals in a defined area, eg. Plants or sessile animals

Mark and Recapture - Indirect measure
- Population = No. of Individuals marked initially*Total number captured at time 2/No.
of marked individuals at time 2
- Assumptions:
o Proportion of population marked = Proportion of sample marked
o Being captured does not affect possibility of recapture
o Population size did not change (1
st
capture vs. 2
nd
capture)

Indices of relative
abundance
- Indirect measure
- Used for species which direct counts of individuals are difficult
- Eg. Counting fecal pellets, bird nests, bird calls


Density
Spatial distribution of individuals in a population
Note the size of quadrat when determining dispersion patterns

Pattern Description
Random - Spacing between individuals is random
- More common in plants

Aggregation - Groups of individuals tend to occur together. Once an individual is located, there
is a high probability that another will be nearby
- Shown by most populations move together in groups
- Favourable patches (fungi etc.)

Hyper-dispersed - Indicates territoriality


Age Structure
Distribution of individuals in various age groups

Stuff Description
Significance Strongly influences population growth, eg. Population with high proportion of
reproductive & pre-reproductive individuals has a much greater potential for
population growth than one dominated by older individuals

Can indicate where most population mortality occurs/whether reproductive individuals
are being replaced

Application Implement pest control measures when there are more reproductive individuals
compared to older ones

Planning conservation strategies when there are more older individuals than young
reproducing ones endangered species

Determining age
structure

- Can be done by examining certain structures
- Eg. Annual growth rings (trees, fish scales, deer horn, carapace)
- Tooth wear (ungulates)
- Degree of skull ossification more and more air spaces (birds)

Youngest (top) to Oldest (bottom)

Life table

- Compiled for a group of individuals of the same age/cohort
- Tells us age structure, life span, and the ages at which most mortality occurs in a
population
- Age specific survival rates (lx) proportion surviving a certain age interval
- Number surviving at beginning of age interval (nx), number dying during age
interval (dx)

Survivorship curve

- To see the trends behind mortality of a population plot log lx or log nx against
age, standardized to start at 1000 with log scale
- Use of log scale better allows a focus on per capita effects detects changes in
survivorship at a period of time
- Type 1 mammals, Type 2 birds, Type 3 - invertebrates


Sex
Sex ratios Description
Primary sex ratio Sex ratio at fertilisation
Secondary sex ratio Sex ratio at birth or hatching
Tertiary sex ratio Sex ratio at sexual maturity
Quaternary sex ratio Sex ratio for adult population

Deviation can be caused by ecological/genetic factors
But generally males have higher mortality ratio skewed towards females

Factors Description
Genetic - due to decorative parts

Ecological - sex of hatchlings is temperature dependent
- cool temperatures develop as males, warm temperatures develop as females



Population Ecology II
Population growth
- To gain knowledge about changes in population size
- To understand what causes these changes and how the population can be controlled
Patterns of growth
Pattern Details
Discrete

N
t
= R
o
t
N
o

- Have seasonal reproductive cycles all individuals breed at the same time
- Net reproductive rate (R
o
): the factor which the population increases after each
reproductive cycle Geometric growth
- Population at a time = Net reproductive rate
no. of generations
x Initial population size

Continuous Exponential growth (J curve)

dN
dt
= rN


- r = bo do: intrinsic rate of increase (average number of births and deaths per
unit time)
- Occurs in population which began in low densities
- In times of abundant resources and favourable conditions
- Important
o During process of establishment in new environments
o During exploitation of transient, favorable conditions
o During process of recovery from exploitation

R-selected species
- Has high biotic ratio (capacity of a species to increase in number)
- Reproduce and disperse rapidly when conditions are favourable, or when a
disturbance opens up a new habitat opportunists (in early stages of
succession)
- Algae, bacteria, rodents

Logistical growth (S curve)


dN
dt
= rN
K N
K
|
\

|
.
|


- As resource are depleted population growth rate slows and stops. Adds (K-
N/K) to adjust for the rate of increase)
- Sigmoid growth curve K is the carrying capacity, the maximum population
size the habitat can support
- Exponential growth when N is small, then a decline when N is greater than K

K- selected species
- Lower biotic potential, depends on K
- Exists near carrying capacity and competes for resources to be used more
efficiently
- Large mammals, birds of prey


Parameters R-selected species K-selected species
Biotic potential High Low
Quality of care Low High
Type of survivorship curve III I
Lifespan Shorter Longer
Sexual maturity Faster Slower

Patterns of fluctuation
Patterns Description
Regular Density dependent
Cycles fluctuate high or low, but changes in density are regular

Irregular Density independent
Small scale: Random changes in density (one order of magnitude or less)
Large scale: (Several orders of magnitude) typical of crop pests like locust

Irruption Density independent
- Population exists most of the time at low density with little fluctuation, then
occasionally explodes
- Caused by convergence of favourable conditions such as good weather,
abundant food resources and lack of predators

Patterns of regulations
Returns population to equilibrium value - related to carrying capacity

Regulation Description
Density dependent
(biotic)
Population birth and death rates change with population density

Extrinsic
Food supply
- Find correlation between food supply and density
- Introduce food supplements
o Depends on whether they match subjects natural diet, and whether they
are distributed naturally
Predation
- As density increases, predators are more likely to encounter a prey individual
support density dependent factor
- Difficult to establish as a density regulatory factor, must also consider preys
food supply
Disease
- Cannot establish by showing correlation between rate of infection and density
- Rate of infection does not reflect parasitic load, and different individuals
respond to heavy infections differently
- Infections may be an effect rather than cause, eg. As a result of food shortage
population unable to fight off infections
- Important when populations congregate in high densities

Intrinsic
Mechanisms within the population that allow it to self-regulate, operates within the
population

Dispersion
- Movement of individual from their natal area/current home range
- Important regulatory mechanism
- Rate of dispersal should increase with increasing density, esp when population
is at or near carrying capacity

Density independent
(abiotic)
Population birth and death rates does not change with population density
- Usually environment, eg. A frost will kill same proportion of individuals no
matter the size.


Metapopulations
- Subpopulations are interconnected by dispersal
- Normal population definition assumes that the boundaries of population are distinct with little or
no interaction between neighbouring groups
- Metapopulation likely for a population inhabiting a landscape consisting of habitats of varying
quality and existing in discreet patches

Optimal patches
- Population may exceed K, some individuals move to other patches
Suboptimal patches
- Populations are smaller, may go extinct, and are inhabited by immigrants from higher quality
patches.

Interactions
- Subpopulations not in state of equilibrium
- Probability of dispersal depends on nature of corridors connecting patches and the distance
between them
- The interaction between patches prevent the population from collapsing