City prole

Bangalore
H.S. Sudhira
Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560 012, India
Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560 012, India
T.V. Ramachandra
*
Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560 012, India
Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
560 012, India
M.H. Bala Subrahmanya
Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560 012, India
Received 4 December 2006; received in revised form 3 April 2007;
accepted 5 April 2007
Available online 4 September 2007
Bangalore is one of the fastest growing cities in India and is branded as Silicon Valley of India for her-
alding and spearheading the growth of Information Technology (IT) based industries in the country.
With the advent and growth of IT industry, as well as numerous industries in other sectors and the onset
of economic liberalisation since the early 1990s, Bangalore has taken lead in service-based industries
fuelling substantial growth of the city both economically and spatially. Bangalore has become a cosmo-
politan city attracting people and business alike, within and across nations. This prole notes the urban
setting and provides an overview of the urban fabric, while discussing various prospects related to infra-
structure and governance. This paper also outlines the challenges in planning to ensure better delivery of
basic services across the city.
2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Bangalore, Silicon Valley, Garden City
Bangalore
Bangalore
1
is the principal administra-
tive, cultural, commercial, industrial,
and knowledge capital of the state of
Karnataka. Greater Bangalore,
2
an
area of 741 km
2
agglomerating the
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-80-2293-
3099/2506x213; fax: +91-80-2360-1428/0683;
e-mail: [email protected], cestvr@
ces.iisc.ernet.in, [email protected].
1
The name, Bangalore has been proposed
for renaming to Bengalooru by the State
government following suit of Bombay to
Mumbai, Madras to Chennai and Calcutta
to Kolkota. However, we use Bangalore all
through.
2
The Urban Development Department,
Government of Karnataka has issued
gazette notication vide No. UDD/92/
MNY/2006, dated 2.11.2006 for constitut-
ing the Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara
Palike (Greater Bangalore City Corpora-
tion) merging the existing area of Bangalore
City Corporation, 8 Urban Local Bodies
(ULBs) and 111 Villages of Bangalore
Urban District.
379
Cities, Vol. 24, No. 5, p. 379390, 2007
2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0264-2751/$ - see front matter
www.elsevier.com/locate/cities
doi:10.1016/j.cities.2007.04.003
city, neighbouring municipal councils
and outgrowths, was notied (estab-
lished) in December 2006 (Figure 1).
A tiny village in the 12th century, it
grew to become one of the fastest
growing cities in the world by the
21st century and to gure among the
million-plus cities in India.
3
Bangalore
has grown spatially more than 10
times since 1949 (Table 1). The city
enjoys a pleasant and salubrious cli-
mate throughout the year. Its tree-
lined streets, numerous parks and
abundant greenery have led to it being
called the Garden City of India. It
has also been identied as the coun-
trys Silicon Valley and it is one of
the technological innovation hubs
with a technological achievement in-
dex (TAI) of 13
4
according to the Hu-
man Development Report (United
Nations Development Programme,
2001). However, with all the hype
about growth in IT and IT based
industries, Bangalore also houses
numerous other leading commercial
and educational institutions, and
industries like textiles, aviation, space,
biotechnology, etc. As an immediate
consequence of this growth in the last
decade, apart from creating a ripple
effect in the local economy, there has
also been great pressure on infrastruc-
ture and resources like water supply,
energy, public transportation, land,
etc. The local body and other parasta-
tal agencies responsible for delivery of
basic services are facing stiff chal-
lenges in catering to this demand.
Quite recently there have been seri-
ous attempts by sociologists and urban
planners to characterise the city.
Heitzman (2004) has analysed the nat-
ure of growth that the city experi-
enced with the emergence of the
information society, while bringing
out the ingredients that led to the
transformation of planning methodol-
ogies and spatial planning tools for
the city. Nair (2005) has exemplied
Bangalore as the promise of the
metropolis while illustrating the ur-
ban fabric of Bangalore over the last
century. In this prole, an attempt is
made to bring out the status of current
infrastructure and various facets of
planning and governance.
The next section deals with the
origin and history of the city followed
by a description of climate, geography
and environment. The subsequent
section considers culture, demography
and economics. Lastly, the urban agen-
da addressing governance and infra-
structure discussing the stakeholders
involved, challenges in managing
Figure 1 Map depicts Development Characteristic over Bangalore with the erstwhile (pre-2600) City Corporation limits,
Greater Bangalore region and Bangalore Metropolitan area and noting some of the prominent industrial areas.
Table 1 Bangalore City corporation limits
over the years
Year Area (sq. km)
1949 69
19631964 112
1969 134
1979 161
1995 226
2007 741
3
Bangalore is the fth largest metropolis in
India currently with a population of about 7
million.
4
Almost on par with San Francisco, USA,
while Silicon Valley, USA is number 1 with
TAI of 16.
City prole: H S Sudhira et al.
380
urban infrastructure and issues in plan-
ning and development are elaborated.
History and culture
The earliest reference to the name,
in the form Bengalooru, is seen in
a ninth century Ganga inscription
(hero-stone) from Begur, referring
to a battle that was fought in that
place. The present name of the city,
Bangalore is an anglicised form of
Bengalooru which according to the
popular belief is derived from Benga-
alu synonymous of Benda kaalu or
boiled beans and ooru meaning a
town. Tradition associates Hoysala
King Vira Ballala (12th century) with
the origin of this name. Vira Ballala,
during one of his hunting expeditions
in this region, lost his way and after
hours of wandering reached the hut
of an old woman. This woman is be-
lieved to have offered cooked beans
to the king. Pleased with her hospi-
tality, the king named the place as
benda kaala ooru (town of boiled
beans). But it is interesting to note
that there was already evidence for
name of the place much before
Hoysalas. Kamath (1990) notes that
Bangalore is said to have got its
name from benga, the local Kannada
language term for Pterocarpus mar-
supium, a species of dry and moist
deciduous tree, and ooru, meaning
town. However, the founding of
modern Bangalore is attributed to
Kempe Gowda, a scion of the Yelah-
anka line of chiefs, in 1537 (Kamath,
1990). Kempe Gowda is also credited
with construction of four towers
along four directions from Petta, the
central part of the city, to demarcate
the extent of city growth (Figure 2).
By the 1960s the city had sprawled
beyond these boundaries (Asian
Development Bank, 2001).
Later on, the city was administered
by the Wodeyars, rulers of Mysore, un-
til it was given as Jagir (with rights for
general administration and collection
of taxes) to Hyder Ali during late
18th century. Hyder Ali and later, his
son, Tippu Sultan, were responsible
for growth and development of Banga-
lore in a signicant way with the con-
struction of summer palace and
Lalbagh. Indeed, Bangalore was al-
ready the commercial capital during
Tippus time and the second important
city after Srirangapatna, Tippus capi-
tal. During the early 19th century, the
city was known to have almost all coins
in circulation from different places and
kingdoms, thus evidencing a ourish-
ing trade and commerce (Buchanan,
1870). The fall of Bangalore in the Sec-
ond Mysore War of 1792, may also
have led to the fall of Tippu Sultan in
Third Mysore War of 1799, after which
Bangalore became a base for the Brit-
ish troops and saw the establishment
of the Cantonment in 1802. British
control over Bangalore was initially
established indirectly through the
Maharaja of Mysore. By 1831, the
administration of the city was taken
over by the British, and in 1862 two
independent municipal boards were
established: Bangalore City Municipal-
ity (in the older areas), and Bangalore
Civil and Military Station Municipal-
ity. At Independence, Bangalore was
notied as the capital of Mysore (now
Karnataka) State. In 1949, the two
municipalities were merged and the
Bangalore City Corporation was
formed. Subsequently, to keep up with
the pace of growth and development,
there have been reorganizations with
respect to the zones and wards within
the corporation, rising from 50 divi-
sions in 1949 to 95 wards in 1980s, 100
wards in 1995 and now about 150
wards. With the 2006 notication, the
Bangalore City Corporation is now
reorganized as Greater Bangalore City
Corporation (Footnote 2).
Bangalore, in spite of the buzz
around IT-based and related commer-
cial activities, has retained much of its
unique cultural ties keeping its date
with its history, culture and tradition.
The city is known for historical tem-
ples such as the Someshwara temple
in Halasuru (neighbourhood of Ban-
galore) built during 1213th century
Figure 2 The Kempe Gowda Tower at Lalbagh one of the four towers Kempe
Gowda built to demarcate the extent of city growth in four directions [Photo:
H.S. Sudhira].
City prole: H S Sudhira et al.
381
by Cholas, Basavanagudi (Bull Tem-
ple) built by Kempe Gowda during
16th century, Kaadu Malleshwara
temple built during 17th century in
Dravidian architecture, and Gavi
Gangadhareshwara temple, all nestle
in the middle of the city. Apart from
the numerous temples that have
mushroomed around the city, Banga-
lore also has one of the six basilicas
in the country, built during the 17th
century, St. Marks Cathedral built
during 1808, the oldest mosque, Sang-
een Jamia Masjid built by the Mog-
huls during the 17th century, and the
popular Jamia Masjid near the City
Market built during the 1940s. The
Bengalooru Karaga is a major annual
fair associated with the Dharamaraya
temple, is considered to be the actual
fair of the erstwhile city, and is still
persistent in the older central parts
of the city. Karaga, a ve-day festival
of Tigalas, a community who migrated
from Tamil Nadu, has many unique
features such as intense religious
fervour, strict rituals, unchanged tradi-
tions over centuries, a xed route and
stops for the procession, welcome and
respect shown at all the temples on
route. The annual groundnut fair,
Kadalekai Parishe takes place in a
part of old city, Basavanagudi (Figure
3) during NovemberDecember.
More recently, an annual cultural fest
called Bengalooru Habba (habba in
Kannada means festival) is held dur-
ing the rst week of December hosting
various cultural programmes like mu-
sic, dance and drama. The involve-
ment of all sections of people and
the unique communal harmony dis-
played by the special prayer at Tawak-
kal Mastan Darga (mosque) are also
remarkable (Chandramouli, 2002).
Geography and environment
Bangalore is located at 1259
0
north
latitude and 7757
0
east longitude,
almost equidistant from both eastern
and western coast of the South Indian
peninsula, and is situated at an alti-
tude of 920 m above mean sea level.
The mean annual total rainfall is
about 880 mm with about 60 rainy
days a year over the last 10 years.
The summer temperature ranges from
18 C to 38 C, while the winter tem-
perature ranges from 12 C to 25 C.
Thus, Bangalore enjoys a salubrious
climate all round the year.
Bangalore is located over ridges
delineating four watersheds, viz. Heb-
bal, Koramangala, Challaghatta and
Vrishabhavathi watersheds. The
undulating terrain in the region has
facilitated creation of a large number
of tanks providing for the traditional
uses of irrigation, drinking, shing
and washing. Their creation is mainly
attributed to the vision of Kempe
Gowda and of the Wodeyar dynasty.
This led to Bangalore having hun-
dreds of such water bodies through
the centuries. Even in early second
half of 20th century, in 1961, the num-
ber of lakes and tanks in the city stood
at 262. These, and open spaces gener-
ally, were seriously affected however
with the enhanced demand for real es-
tate and infrastructure consequent to
urbanisation. Ofcial gures for the
current number of lakes and tanks
vary from 117 to 81,
5
but recent satel-
lite imagery (dated 2003) gives a dif-
ferent picture altogether, showing
only 33 lakes visible,
6
out of which
only about 18 are clearly delineated
Figure 3 Groundnut Fair an annual event, colloquially called Kadelekai Parishe, has helped Bangalore retain its
cultural avour [Photo: N. Akash].
5
IDIP Report, prepared by STEM for
KUIDFC, pp. 2, Chapter 8.
6
Sudhira, 2006. Bangalore Lakes, Wayfar-
ing Map. Available Online: http://www.
wayfaring.com/maps/show/19613 Last
Accessed: 14th Nov. 2006, 13:00 GMT.
City prole: H S Sudhira et al.
382
while another 15 show only faint signs
of their former existence. With the
citys unprecedented growth, the large
number of public open spaces dimin-
ished over the years. Much of the loss
in green cover is due to the rapid
change in land use. As the city grew
over space and time, inner areas got
more crowded and congested. Initia-
tives to ease congestion on road net-
works have led to axing numerous
road-side trees. Many lakes have been
converted into residential layouts, bus
stands, play grounds and stadiums, etc.
(Figure 4). The built-up area in the
metropolitan area was 16% of total
in 2000 and is currently estimated to
be around 2324%. The rest of the
area is occupied by either agriculture
lands, quarries or other vacant land.
In the aspect of nurturing ora and
fauna, the situation in Bangalore is
quite complex. With prominent green
spaces like Lalbagh and Cubbon Park
almost at the city centre and a few
water bodies, such as Ulsoor, Sankey,
Lalbagh, Yediyur and Madiwala, scat-
tered across citys landscape, the
remaining green spaces in the periph-
ery harbour a great number of species.
In a compilation of fauna present in
and around Bangalore within a radius
of 40 km from city centre (Karthike-
yan, 1999), about 40 species of mam-
mals, more than 340 species of birds,
38 species of reptiles, 16 species of
amphibians, 41 species of shes and
160 species of butteries have been
recorded. A new ant species, Dilo-
bocondyla bangalorica, was discovered
in Bangalore recently (Varghese,
2006). In another study, Sudha and
Ravidranath (2000) have investigated
the oral assemblage in different
land-use categories and the changes
in vegetation over Bangalore City.
164 species were identied in different
residential areas, of which 149 were re-
corded within compounds and 87 were
avenue trees. The rich diversity speaks
for the volume of life still persisting in
spite of rapid urban growth.
In recent times, the increase in
vehicular trafc (see Section Urban
Agenda addressing Infrastructure)
has increased suspended particulate
matter and other oxides of carbon,
nitrogen and sulphur in the environ-
ment. Air pollution and the reduction
in tree cover have induced the urban
heat island effect resulting in varia-
tions in local temperature and sudden
unanticipated showers during late
afternoon.
Demography and economy
The state of Karnataka was carved out
in 1956 based on linguistic boundaries,
with regions dominated by Kannada
speaking people. Bangalore was re-
tained as the capital of the state, with
Kannada as the ofcial language while
accommodating other languages like
Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, English
and Hindi, true to its cosmopolitan
status. The census of population in
Bangalore has been recorded every
decade since 1871, during the colonial
times, the most recent census being
carried out in 2001. Figure 5 shows
the growth of population in Bangalore
from 1871 to 2001 (5.7 million), along
with an estimate for 2007 (7 million).
It is notable that since the rst census,
Bangalore was already the most popu-
lous city in Karnataka. This urban pri-
macy has been retained consistently
for more than a century now. After
Independence, Bangalore, now a State
capital, saw an inux of population
migrating to the city, although it
should be noted that the steep popula-
tion rise in the decade 19411951,
while due in part to this migration,
also reects the amalgamation of Ban-
galore Civil and Military Station
Figure 4 Bangalore, once boasted of 81 lakes in the city limits, while now about 33 show some signs of existence. High-rise
buildings sprouting across Bellandur lake [Photo: H.S. Sudhira].
City prole: H S Sudhira et al.
383
Municipality with the then Bangalore
City Corporation. Population growth
during the 1970s could be ascribed to
numerous public sector industries
and other defence establishments that
came up during the period and fuelled
signicant immigration. By this time,
incidentally, Bangalore had lost its
tag of Pensioners Paradise, gained
before Independence. Although the
advent of IT is attributed to the late
1980s, major growth and expansion
of this industry happened only during
the late 1990s. Still, population growth
in Bangalore in the last census decade,
19912001 (38%), was substantially
less than in 19711981 (76%). Never-
theless, the physical growth of the city
has been phenomenal over the last
few years, and the glaring evidence
of this is increased travel-times and
the escalating real-estate prices.
According to the latest census
(Census of India, 2001a), the urban
agglomeration had an overall popula-
tion in 2001 of 5.7 million, including a
workforce of 2.2 million, within an
area of 560 km
2
, and a literacy rate
of 75.1%. The hype over the IT
industry is underlain by Bangalore
having about 30% of all IT workforce
in the country and a personal dispos-
able income greater than the Indian
city average. This has also resulted
in a trickle down effect within the ur-
ban economy. Further, investments in
industries (not only IT), infrastruc-
ture and other services, have signi-
cantly increased purchasing power
among the people and have nurtured
real estate with consequent land
market dynamics, apart from creating
numerous secondary employment in
services. Interestingly enough, of the
5.7 million population in the urban
agglomeration in 2001, about 2 mil-
lion were migrants (Census of India,
2001b). About 1.2 million of these
were from Karnataka state, mainly
from the rural parts, while the
remaining 0.8 million were from out-
side the state, the majority of these
from urban areas. It is further noted
that people have migrated chiey
for employment or moved with
household or for education. The large
number of migrant population from
other parts of India explains the mul-
titude of languages spoken and
understood in Bangalore.
Bangalore is home to numerous
high-tech knowledge hubs evident
from the establishment of premier
centres like Indian Institute of
Science (IISc), National Institute of
Advanced Studies (NIAS), Tata
Institute for Fundamental Research
(TIFR), Jawaharlal Nehru Centre
for Advanced Scientic Research
(JNCASR), Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO), National Aero-
space Laboratories (NAL), Defence
Research and Development Organi-
sation (DRDO), Indian Institute of
Management (IIM), Institute for So-
cial and Economic Change (ISEC),
Indian Institute of Information Tech-
nology (IIIT) and several profes-
sional engineering and medical
colleges at undergraduate and gradu-
ate levels. In tune with recent trends,
Bangalore now has numerous malls
and multiplexes that are swarmed
during weekends. With an active
night life and Bangaloreans penchant
for fast-food, a large number of res-
taurants, pubs and eat-outs throng
the city.
The economic fabric of the city,
although at times masked by the
IT-based industries is varied, being
also characterised by textile, automo-
bile, machine tool, aviation, space,
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5686844
7000000
1,000,000
2,000,000
3,000,000
4,000,000
5,000,000
6,000,000
7,000,000
8,000,000
1871 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2007*
Year
P
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
Figure 5 Population Growth of Bangalore City 1871 2007
*
(
*
The population for 2007 is an estimate). Source: Census of
India (2001b).
City prole: H S Sudhira et al.
384
defence, and biotechnology based
industries. In addition, numerous ser-
vices, trade and banking activities
mark the citys economic landscape.
An important feature of the eco-
nomic activities of Bangalore is the
huge concentration of Small and
Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in
diversied sectors across the city.
Bangalore has more than 20 indus-
trial estates/areas comprising large,
medium and small enterprises. Of
these, Peenya Industrial Estate lo-
cated in the northern part of the city
comprises about 4000 SMEs and is
considered the largest industrial es-
tate in South and South East Asia
(PIA, 2003). A majority of the SMEs
function as ancillaries/subcontractors
to large enterprises in the eld of
engineering and electronics indus-
tries, among others. The industrial
estates sprung up mostly in the
periphery of the erstwhile city and
gradually as the city grew became
part of its sprawl. Notable among
these are the Peenya Industrial Es-
tate just mentioned, Electronic City
and Whiteeld (Figure 1). The prolif-
eration of SMEs in residential and
commercial areas, in addition to the
industrial areas, has added to the
chaos and congestion in the city.
Thus, the thriving economy of the
city has resulted with a net district
7
income of Rs. 262,592 million (ap-
prox. US $ 5.8 billion) and a per
capita income of Rs. 39,420, a little
more than twice the States average
per capita income of Rs. 18,360
(Government of Karnataka, 2005).
Despite higher per capita income
within the urban district than in the rest
of the State, and with signicant mi-
grant population, the number of urban
poor has been on the rise and the slum
settlements in the city have not been
contained. The escalating costs of land
prices coupled with rise in cost of living
has pushed the urban poor to reside in
squatter settlements with inadequate
amenities and services (Figure 6).
Some of these settlements have speck-
led the citys landscape garnering
immediate action from civic authori-
ties. According to Bangalore Mahan-
agara Palike (2006), the number of
households in the urban agglomeration
dened as poor was 0.22 million, hous-
ing approximately 1.1 million people
out of 5.7 million population (Table
2). Noting the importance of the
Figure 6 The plight of urban poor in Jayanagar 9th Block [Photo: BMP].
7
In the Indian federal system, each state is
divided into districts (which are further
divided into taluks) for administrative pur-
poses, including decentralised implementa-
tion of developmental programmes. The
State of Karnataka has 27 districts, of
which Bangalore Urban is one, comprising
Bangalore East, Bangalore South and Ane-
kal Taluks. Taluk boundaries dissect the
city and extend beyond the Bangalore
Metropolitan Area. Thus the net district
income refers to the entire district and not
to the city alone.
City prole: H S Sudhira et al.
385
matter, the State Government has set
up a special agency, Karnataka Slum
Clearance Board (KSCB)
8
specically
to address the redevelopment of slums
in partnership with various stakehold-
ers like the Housing Board, Local
Bodies, Water Supply Boards, etc.
The initiatives taken up by the local
body addressing redevelopment of
slums are are noted below in the sub-
section on Issues in Planning and
Development.
Urban agenda: governance and
infrastructure
An important aspect of a city is how
well it is planned, managed and
administered, activities which form
the core part of an urban agenda
governance. However, appropriate
state mechanisms through organisa-
tional structures, procedures and poli-
cies are needed to enable these. Also,
apart from the formal administrative
structures, the presence and involve-
ment of civil society signicantly drive
the urban agenda.
Organisations and stakeholders
Greater Bangalore City Corporation
(Bruhat Bengalooru Mahanagara Pa-
like) is now the key urban local body
(ULB), that is, the local governmental
structure representing and responsible
to the citizens for the city and outlying
areas. Notied in December 2006, the
new Corporation replaced the erst-
while local bodies, Bangalore City
Corporation (Bangalore Mahanagara
Palike), 8 neighbouring councils (7
City Municipal Councils and one
Town Municipal Council) and 111
outlying villages. Independently of
the Corporation,
9
which is governed
by locally elected representatives, par-
astatal bodies controlled by the State
government are responsible for many
essential services (see Table 3).
Planning in the form of land use
zoning and regulation are vested with
Bangalore Development Authority
(BDA), a parastatal agency, in spite
of the 74th Constitutional Amend-
ment Act, passed by the national par-
liament in 1993. This Act requires that
the planning function be vested with
the (elected) urban local body and
not with any parastatal agency. But,
in the case of Bangalore, the Corpora-
tion have not been granted adequate
powers by the State to plan, decide
and administer their city! Further-
more, the State has created numerous
other organisations of its own to man-
age various services such as water
supply, law and order, energy, etc.
The result is the existence of many
parastatal organisations, each acting
in its own geographic area, leading to
complication and confusion in coordi-
nating different activities. Apart from
the issue of a common geographical
unit and the lack of coordinated ef-
fort, even basic information related
to different sectors is extremely dif-
cult to collect, collate and to correlate.
For effective planning it is imperative
that all the basic information be gath-
ered across a common geographical
unit with the effect of creating a ro-
bust city information system.
In addition to the ofcial bodies, ci-
vil society of Bangalore is known for
its vibrant community participation.
The spectrum of their activities ranges
from literacy and green brigades to ur-
ban governance, ensuring continuous
interactions with the local administra-
tion. Notable spheres of activity of
these non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) include: improving urban
governance by Citizens Voluntary Ini-
tiative for the City (CIVIC) and Jan-
aagraha; improving living conditions
in slums by AWAS, APSA, Paraspara,
etc.; addressing child literacy by Prer-
ana and the India Literacy Project;
taking on environmental issues by
the Environment Support Group, Ha-
siru Usiru, etc. Apart from the NGOs,
there are numerous resident welfare
associations, trade and commercial
organisations, and professional organ-
isations that have played a major role
in some of the important activities of
local bodies and inuencing their deci-
sion-making. Civil society has contrib-
uted considerably in shaping the
policies and governance structures
and has always intervened whenever
there has been any apathy on the part
of the administration towards activi-
ties of interest to society at large. An
experiment to promote public private
partnership and bring together citi-
zens, NGOs, industry representatives
and the erstwhile local bodies resulted
in Bangalore Agenda Task Force
(BATF). This experiment was about
to be benchmarked as one of the best
practices in urban local governance,
when it faced strong criticisms from
several civil society groups for setting
aside priorities favouring the urban
poor and was accused of making a
back door entry towards policy mak-
ing (Ghosh, 2005). In the event, the
activities of BATF came to a standstill
with the change of guard at the State
government two years ago and it is
currently dormant. Another instance
of strong action by civil society
groups, was seen when the local gov-
ernment started tree felling and prun-
ing for road widening. Members of the
green brigade, Hasiru Usiru, staged
protests, held an all night vigil,
stormed the Commissioners ofce
and also moved to High Court and -
nally got the actions stayed. The High
Court also ruled later that Hasiru
Usiru members should inspect the
trees along with the designated Tree
Ofcer from the Forest Department
Table 2 Distribution of slums across Greater Bangalore (BMP, 2006)
Agency/authority No. of slums No. of households Remarks
Karnataka Slum
Clearance Board
(KSCB)
218 106,266 Declared
Greater Bangalore
City Corporation
324 110,991 310 undeclared
and 14 declared
Grand total 542 217,257
Note. Estimates are based on 2001 Census.
8
Karnataka Slum Clearance Board is
responsible for slum improvement, clear-
ance and rehabilitation of the slum dwellers.
9
Corporation refers to the recently noti-
ed Greater Bangalore City Corporation
unless otherwise stated.
City prole: H S Sudhira et al.
386
before any tree felling and pruning of
branches was begun.
Challenges in managing urban
infrastructure
Urban activities require the support of
infrastructure. Broadly, urban infra-
structure can be divided into social
and economic infrastructure. Social
infrastructure encompasses facilities
like health care, education, housing,
commercial (shops, markets and ho-
tels), sports, recreation and entertain-
ment. With mixed land use being
practiced in most parts of Bangalore,
shops and markets are the most com-
monly found amenities (approxi-
mately 1 shop per 100 persons) in
the urban agglomeration
10
(Karnataka
Urban Infrastructure Development
and Finance Corporation, 2006). The
provision and maintenance of primary
health care, elementary education,
sports, recreation, and entertainment
are administered mostly by the Corpo-
ration, while BDA also facilitates
some of the social infrastructure like
shopping complexes, with provisions
for private participation. Economic
infrastructure encompasses water sup-
ply, wastewater treatment, storm
water drainage system, solid waste
management, telecommunication net-
work, and transportation network.
Bangalore Water Supply and Sew-
erage Board (BWSSB) is the parasta-
tal agency responsible for drinking
water supply, and wastewater collec-
tion and treatment in the city. Banga-
lore is on a ridge and does not have its
own year-round sources of water.
Drinking water is pumped from the
river Cauvery, a distance of about
100 km over an elevation of 500 m
with an energy expenditure of
75 MW for approximately 900 million
litres per day (MLD). Apart from
the river Cauvery supply, ground
water and water from the river
Arkavathy are also tapped. However,
while water supply distribution is
100% in the former Bangalore City
Corporation limits, only about 20%
of the Municipal Council households
are serviced. In view of the rapid
growth of the city, and recent notica-
tion of Greater Bangalore, it remains
a challenge to service the remaining
areas.
Regarding collection and treatment
of wastewater, the sewerage system is
based on the citys four natural river
valleys already noted and BWSSB is
the nodal agency. There are three ma-
jor treatment plants with a total capac-
ity of about 450 MLD (the outlets of
Koramangala and Challaghatta val-
leys are combined to form the K&C
Valley Treatment Plant at Bellandur).
Wastewater stress on natural water
bodies is evident from the fact that
the present wastewater treatment
capacity in the city is around 450
MLD as against an estimated genera-
tion of domestic wastewater of 700
MLD. Although more secondary
wastewater treatment plants are in
progress, they are yet to be completed.
Another problem is the frequent clog-
ging of storm water drains, resulting in
pollution of natural water bodies.
Hence it is now proposed to rehabili-
tate and remodel all the major trunk
sewers to prevent any discharge into
the storm water drains.
Addressing mobility in Bangalore
city, an overview of transportation
and trafc reveals the following facts.
Bangalore city is estimated to have
vehicle population of about 2.6 million
while the current city population is
about 7 million. The vehicle to person
ratio is far higher than any other city
in India. This has led to increased con-
Table 3 Organisations concerned with Bangalore
Organisations Functional areas (scope of work)
Greater Bangalore City Corporation [Bruhat Bangalore
Mahanagara Palike (BBMP)]
Urban local body responsible for overall delivery of services
roads and road maintenance including asphalting, pavements and
street lighting; solid waste management, education and health in all
wards, storm water drains, construction of few Ring roads, yovers
and grade separators
Bangalore Development Authority (BDA) Land use zoning, planning and regulation within Bangalore
Metropolitan Area; Construction of few Ring roads, yovers and
grade separators
Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development
Authority (BMRDA)
Planning, co-ordinating and supervising the proper and orderly
development of the areas within the Bangalore Metropolitan
Region, which comprises Bangalore urban district and parts of
Bangalore rural district. BDAs boundary is a subset of BMRDAs
boundary
Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB) Drinking water pumping and distribution, sewerage collection,
water and waste water treatment and disposal
Bangalore City Police Enforcement of overall law and order; Trafc Police: Manning of
trafc islands; Enforcement of trafc laws; Regulation on Right of
Ways (One-ways)
Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC) Public transport system bus-based
Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. (BMRC) Public transport system rail-based (Proposed)
Regional Transport Ofce (RTO) Motor vehicle tax; Issue of licenses to vehicles
Bangalore Electricity Supply Company (BESCOM) Responsible for power distribution
Lake Development Authority (LDA) Regeneration and conservation of lakes in Bangalore urban district
10
The urban agglomeration refers to the
area formally administered by Bangalore
City Corporation and the 8 councils.
City prole: H S Sudhira et al.
387
gestion in road networks across the
city and frequent trafc jams. Man-
ning signalling at trafc islands have
also become unmanageable with the
amount of trafc plying across junc-
tions. Again, in this sector different
components related to mobility are
vested with different parastatal
bodies.
Public transportation forms one of
the key functionalities for mobility in
any urban area. In Bangalore where
the working population is around 2
million, the Bangalore Metropolitan
Transport Corporation (BMTC) oper-
ates on any given day with 4144 sched-
ules, 4262 buses, 60,475 trips, and
carries 3.5 million passengers. It earns
Rs. 20.5 million per day and pay Rs.
0.955 million to the government as
taxes (Bangalore Metropolitan Trans-
port Corporation, 2006). Further,
according to recent estimates, there
are about 1.6 million two-wheelers,
0.32 million motor-cars, 80,000 auto-
rickshaws, and 0.17 million other vehi-
cles totalling to around 2.2 million
vehicles on road (Regional Transport
Ofce, 2006).
The onus of maintaining and
improving road networks lies with
the Corporation. Although a study
for the City by consultants iDeCK
and Rites (2005) identied 52 high
and medium trafc intensity corridors
requiring various interventions by dif-
ferent organisations, the former City
Corporation proposed only to widen
some of these roads. A key aspect ig-
nored while addressing mobility is
the role of land use in generating traf-
c demand. Failure by the city to
acknowledge this, and in particular
the implications of changes in land
use from residential to commercial or
industrial, has led to stereotypical ap-
proaches in addressing mobility such
as road widening, creation of new y-
overs and underpasses, or conversion
into one-ways. In general Bangalore
has over a period promoted mixed
land use which at some level has led
to inefcient usage of land. With the
Citys compartmentalised approaches
to widening of roads or construction
of yovers and grade separators, the
problem of mobility is far from being
solved.
Issues in planning and
development
To understand the development char-
acteristics of the Bangalore metropol-
itan area, it may help to distinguish
three concentric zones zones which
correspond closely with previous cur-
rent local authority areas. The rst
zone would comprise the erstwhile
city corporation area of 226 km
2
. The
second zone would include the areas
of the former 8 neighbouring munici-
pal councils and 111 villages, which to-
gether form the peri-urban areas and
are now incorporated into the Greater
Bangalore City Corporation. The
third zone would include other vil-
lages extending up to the Bangalore
Metropolitan Area limits as proposed
by Bangalore Development Author-
ity. The development characteristics
and agencies across these zones are
summarised in Table 4 and depicted
in Figure 1.
Traditionally, planning has been re-
stricted to land use planning, being
vested with BDA for the region under
Bangalore urban agglomeration, and
with Bangalore Metropolitan Region
Development Authority (BMRDA)
for the larger peripheral area compris-
ing the rest of Bangalore Urban
District
7
. BDA obtains the land,
develops it as residential layouts
which eventually are handed over to
the city corporation, often involving
the extension of city limits. Land use
plans are formalised through the
Comprehensive Development Plans
(CDP) prepared every 10 years.
Accordingly, the last CDP, prepared
in 1995 for the period up to 2011,
was revised in 20052006 for the peri-
Table 4 Development characteristics across Bangalore
Characteristics Development zones
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
Authority Greater Bangalore City
Corporation (formerly
Bangalore City
Corporation)
Greater Bangalore City
Corporation (formerly 8
municipal councils and
111 villages)
Development
Authorities and other
Town and Village
Municipal Councils
Urban status Core city Outgrowth Potential areas for future
outgrowth
Infrastructure services Present, but nearly
choked, needs
augmenting of existing
infrastructure
Not fully present, with
new growth, requires
planning and
augmentation of
infrastructure
Farmlands and scattered
settlements with minimal
no infrastructure
Impact of growth No scope for new growth
but calls for urban
renewal to ease
congestion, etc
High potential for
growth since already
peri-urban area and
emergence of new
residential layouts and
other developments
Mostly rural, with
minimal growth
currently, but potential
for future growth
Planning, Development
and Regulation Controls
Corporation operates
building controls.
Planning vested with
BDA.
Corporation operates
minimal building
controls. Planning vested
with BDA.
Planning vested with
parastatal agencies:
BDA and BMRDA and
not other local bodies.
No regulation on
building/construction
City prole: H S Sudhira et al.
388
od up to 2015 and is currently awaiting
approval. A key aspect of these CDPs
are that they indicate the amount and
location of land use allocated for var-
ious uses (like residential, commercial,
industrial, etc.) as well as restricting
development in specic areas demar-
cated as Green Belt and Valley Zones.
However, another organisation similar
to BDA, the Karnataka Industrial
Area Development Board (KIADB),
is responsible for development of
industrial areas. These industrial es-
tates are situated for the most part in
the outskirts of the city and KIADB
has powers under the law to take over
agricultural lands for the purpose.
Generally, however, the regulation
and enforcement of land use zoning
regulations are dismal, leading to a
large number of illegal developments
and encroachments on public land
problems which have led Karnataka
State to constitute a legislative com-
mittee to look into irregularities in
and around the city. In the particular
case of growth occurring around outer
industrial areas, the urban local bodies
are generally unable to provide basic
infrastructure and services, thus fur-
ther aggravating inefcient utilisation
of land and other natural resources.
With such instances prevailing espe-
cially in the areas of the former Muni-
cipal Councils, the new Corporation
faces a great challenge to deliver basic
infrastructure and services.
On 3rd December 2005, the Ministry
of Urban Development, Government
of India, launched the Jawaharlal Neh-
ru National Urban Renewal Mission
(JNNURM). This countrywide pro-
gramme addresses renewal of urban
areas for 63 cities encompassing nearly
70% of total urban population, its pri-
mary aim being to link the revitalisa-
tion of urban infrastructure with a
specic agenda of institutional re-
forms. Bangalore is one of the bene-
ciaries under this programme with an
estimated outlay of US $ 1.7 billion
over the next six years. The key mis-
sion of this programme is to support re-
forms-driven, fast track, planned
development with focus on improving
efciency in urban infrastructure and
service delivery mechanisms, through
community participation and ensuring
accountability of urban local bodies
and parastatals towards citizens.
JNNURM is made operational with
two sub-missions:
Urban Infrastructure and Gover-
nance (UIG).
Basic Services to Urban Poor
(BSUP).
The sub-mission on UIG focuses on
major infrastructure projects for water
supply, sanitation, sewerage, solid
waste management, road network, ur-
ban transport and redevelopment of
inner (old) city areas with a view to
upgrading infrastructure therein, shift-
ing industrial and commercial estab-
lishments to conforming areas, etc.
The sub-mission on BSUP focuses on
integrated redevelopment of slums
combining housing, water supply,
drainage, storm water drains, solid
waste management, street lighting,
and community halls.
In accordance with the JNNURM
guidelines, the erstwhile Bangalore
City Corporation prepared the City
Development Strategy Plan (CDSP)
for both UIG and BSUP (Bangalore
Mahanagara Palike, 2006). The
CDSP outlines only an investment
plan and nancial strategy for taking
up various initiatives envisaged in the
mission. Under BSUP, 218 declared
slums in the former City Corporation
limits would be taken up by KSCB
for redevelopment. Further, there
are 169 slums under the erstwhile
City Corporation jurisdiction that re-
main undeclared, which would be
redeveloped by the new Corporation.
There are, in addition, 155 slums in
the neighbouring former municipal
council areas that would be redevel-
oped by the new Corporation and
KSCB. However a draft community
participation law has not been en-
acted and in Karnataka State most
of the infrastructure projects and
redevelopment plans have been
administered by ULBs and parastatal
agencies and not through community
participation as envisioned by the
mission. The result is a continuation
of top-down rather than bottom-up
modes of planning and delivering
infrastructure and services. This calls
for introspection on the implementa-
tion and achievement of the mission
objectives. However, with various ini-
tiatives under JNNURM underway,
it does offer hope, and perhaps
promise, and in improving the essen-
tial urban infrastructure and services
in city.
Conclusion
Bangalore, with all due respect to its
status as Silicon Valley and Garden
City, faces real challenges in terms
of addressing and delivery of basic
infrastructure and services to all its
stakeholders. In spite of numerous ini-
tiatives and activities envisaged by the
urban local bodies, past and present,
and by parastatal bodies, the rational-
isation of geographical units for these
activities could mark the beginning
of a coordinated effort in addressing
the needs of the city. In the wake of
recent notication of Greater Banga-
lore City Corporation and initiatives
under JNNURM, Bangalore is cur-
rently experiencing a strange transfor-
mation. Bangalore also stands out as a
beacon of globalising world and to
sustain this, it needs to systematically
address the key challenges facing the
city in terms of governance and
infrastructure.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Indian Institute of
Science for nancial and infra-
structure support. We are grateful
to the editor for useful sugges-
tions, which have enhanced both
presentation and quality of the
content.
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