Gregg Kerr

and
Paul Ruth
IB
PHYSICS
THIRD EDITION
19 april 09 Phys Front pages.ind1 1 22/05/2009 11:45:35 AM

Copyright IBID Press, Victoria.
www.ibid.com.au
First published in 2007 by IBID Press, Victoria
Reprinted January 2008
Corrections, revised and reprinted May 2009
Library Catalogue:
Kerr G & Ruth P.
1. Physics, 3rd Edition
2. International Baccalaureate.
Series Title: International Baccalaureate in Detail
ISBN: 978-1-876659-28-8
All rights reserved except under the conditions described
in the Copyright Act 1968 of Australia and subsequent
amendments. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, without the prior permission
of the publishers.
While every care has been taken to trace and acknowledge
copyright, the publishers tender their apologies for any publishers tender their apologies for any
accidental infringement where copyright has proved
untraceable. Tey would be pleased to come to a suitable
arrangement with the rightful owner in each case.
Tis material has been developed independently by
the publisher and the content is in no way connected
with nor endorsed by the International Baccalaureate
Organization.
All copyright statements, IBO 2007 refer to the Physics
guide published by the International Baccalaureate
Organization in 2007.
IBID Press express their thanks to the International
Baccalaureate Organization for permission to reproduce
its intellectual property.
Cover design by Adcore.
Published by IBID Press, 36 Quail Crescent, Melton, 3337,
Australia.
Printed in Trojan Press. Australia by
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Tis third edition is based on the revised International Baccalaureate Physics syllabus ( IBO 2007) that will be examined
for the frst time in May 2009. Te authors, as in the frst and second editions, have attempted to develop the relevant theory
with the objectives of the syllabus assessment statements in mind.
Te major changes to the syllabus are the inclusion of several new topics, several new options and option structure and
the inclusion of assessment statements that specifcally address Aim 8 (awareness of moral, ethical, social, economic and
environmental implications of physics). In order that physics is not seen as just an academic subject, an efort is also made
to link various topics with the role that they play in technology.
It should be mentioned that the level of expected understanding of uncertainties and error analysis is now the same for both SL
and HL students. A completely new topic Digital Technology (Topic 14) has been included that refects the profound changes
that the development of digital technology has had on the capture and storage of data.
Please refer to the IBO Syllabus Guide ( IBO 2007) for details about changes to the course.
Te layout of the new book is diferent from the second edition in the respect that each chapter now corresponds to a
syllabus topic. So for example Chapter 14 is syllabus topic 14 Digital Technology. Each sub-topic within a chapter now has
the same number as the syllabus sub-topic to which it refers and each sub-division within the chapter sub-topic has the same
number as the assessment statement to which it refers. So for example, in chapter 14 there is the sub-heading 14.1 Analogue
and digital signals and within this, there is the heading 14.1.2 Describe diferent means of storage of information.
Although this book might not be regarded as a conventional textbook, many ideas are discussed in detail particularly those
ideas that, in the authors experience as teachers, students fnd difcult to comprehend on frst acquaintance. It is hoped
that both students and teachers will fnd these discussions useful, as they will the worked examples and exercises. However,
the exercises and examples supplied do not necessarily refect the views of the Senior Examining team appointed by the
International Baccalaureate. Nor does the book in any way suggest the way and the order in which the syllabus should be
taught. In line with I.B policy such decisions are lef to the individual teacher, as is the choice of resources that the teacher
might wish to use.
Te authors have obviously tried to be accurate in the presentation of the material and also in the answers to the exercises
and examples. However, they strongly welcome feedback on any errors that may be spotted by student or teacher. Such
errors will be corrected in future reprints of this book.
Te authors
EDITORS NOTES
Tis project has involved teachers, authors, proof readers, artists and many other people on several continents. It has been
done within an extremely tight timeframe and involved thousands of emails across the world and many diferent sofware
applications. We are pleased, and trust that you will also be pleased with the fnal product which went to Press with no
known errors. However we know from experience that some typographic and other errors have escaped our proofng
process and will emerge as students and teachers start using the books and CDs.
If you wish, you can help us and yourself in the following ways
Send us an email at [email protected] with details of any errors that you notice
Please visit www.ibid.com.au for errata sheets which will be produced promptly and be freely available as necessary
Check our website and other publicity regarding our Student Guides to Internal Assessment and Volumes of
Investigations for the Core, HL and Options in Biology, Chemistry and Physics. Tese materials are currently in
preparation and are due for publication later this year.
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION
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THE AUTHORS
GREGG KERR
Gregg has a Bachelor of Education degree from Charles Sturt University, Australia, and a Master of Science in Education
from the State University of New York, USA. He has taught in Germany, Hong Kong, Australia, Brunei, Tailand and he is
presently Student Welfare Coordinator and Head of Science at the Utahloy International School Guangzhou, China.
Gregg has taught IB Physics since 1988. He has been a member of the Physics Subject Committee, and is presently a Senior
Examiner and a Senior Moderator in Physics. He has been an IB Physics workshop leader at conferences in Tokyo, Mumbai,
Brisbane, Adelaide, Invercargill, Sydney, Singapore and Chiang Mai. I would like to thank my Bhutanese friend Kinga
Tshering for all the suggestions he made to make this edition better. I would especially like to thank Ofelia and Angelica for
giving me the support at home while I tore my hair out in writing my contribution to this third edition.
PAUL RUTH
Paul Ruth taught IB and A-level Nufeld physics for many years as Head of Physics at Sevenoaks School, Kent, England.
He became involved with the examining side of IB in 1985 when he was appointed as an Assistant Examiner. Since 1990 he
has been a member of the Senior Examining Team responsible for setting both the May and November examination papers.
He was a member of the Syllabus Review team for both the 1998-2003 syllabus and for the new syllabus. He is also a senior
moderator for Internal Assessment and Extended Essays. With thanks to my IB friends and colleagues for the many lively
discussions and also for keeping me on my toes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to acknowledge the advice and assistance of the following people in the development and production of these
materials to support the teaching of IB Physics.
AUTHORS
Gregg Kerr
Paul Ruth
PROOF READERS
Paul Hadfeld, Dr Paula Mills, Hiwa Jaldiani, Neville Lawrence
ARTWORK AND GRAPHICS
IBID Press
LAYOUT
Colin Flashman
PROJECT MANAGEMENT & EDITING
Science Teaching And Resources (S.T.A.R.)
Tis book is dedicated to Sadi
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v
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT
1.1 Te realm of physics 1
1.2 Measurement & uncertainties 4
1.3 Vectors and scalars 22
Chapter 2 MECHANICS
2.1 Kinematics 33
2.2 Forces and dynamics 43
2.3 Work, energy and power 56
2.4 Uniform circular motion 66
Chapter 3 THERMAL PHYSICS
3.1 Termal concepts 76
3.2 Termal properties of matter 83
Chapter 4 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES
4.1 Kinematics of simple harmonic motion (SHM) 100
4.2 Energy changes during simple harmonic motion (SHM) 107
4.3 Forced oscillations and resonance 109
4.4 Wave characteristics 112
4.5 Wave properties 118
Chapter 5 ELECTRIC CURRENTS
5.1 Electric potential diference, current and resistance 126
5.2 Electric circuits 137
Chapter 6 FIELDS AND FORCES
6.1 Gravitational force and feld 151
6.2 Electric force and feld 154
6.3 Magnetic force and feld 164
Chapter 7 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
7.1 Te atom 173
7.2 Radioactive decay 177
7.3 Nuclear reactions, fssion and fusion 182
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vi
Chapter 8 ENERGY, POWER AND CLIMATE CHANGE
8.1 Energy degradation and power generation 190
8.2 World energy sources 195
8.3 Fossil fuel power production 201
8.4 Non-fossil fuel power production 209
8.5 Greenhouse efect 228
8.6 Global warming 242
Chapter 9 MOTION IN FIELDS
9.1 Projectile motion 249
9.2 Gravitational feld, potential and energy 255
9.3 Electric feld, potential and energy 259
9.4 Orbital motion 267
Chapter 10 THERMAL PHYSICS
10.1 Termodynamics 273
10.2 Processes 276
10.3 Second law of thermo-dynamics and entropy 288
Chapter 11 WAVE PHENOMENA
11.1 (SL Option A2) Standing (Stationary) Waves 293
11.2 (SL Option A3) Doppler Efect 297
11.3 (SL Option A4) Difraction 301
11.4 (SL Option A5) Resolution 304
11.5 (SL Option A6) Polarization 308
Chapter 12 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
12.1 Induced electromotive force (emf) 314
12.2 Alternating current 321
12.3 Transmission of electric power 327
Chapter 13 QUANTUM PHYSICS AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
13.1 (SL Option B1) Quantum physics 333
13.2 (SL Option B2) Nuclear physics 341
Chapter 14 DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY
14.1 (SL Option C1) Analogue and digital signals 345
14.2 (SL Option C2) Data capture; digital imaging using CCDs 349
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vii
Chapter 15 Option A: SIGHT AND WAVE PHENOMENA
A1 (SL) Te eye and sight 353
Chapter 16 Option E: ASTROPHYSICS
E1 (SL and HL) Introduction to the universe 359
E2 (SL and HL) Stellar radiation and stellar types 361
E3 (SL and HL) Stellar distances 367
E4 (SL and HL) Cosmology 374
E5 (HL only) Stellar processes and stellar evolution 378
E6 (HL only) Galaxies and the expanding universe 385
Chapter 17 Option F: COMMUNICATIONS
F1 (SL and HL) Radio communication 392
F2 (SL and HL) Digital signals 397
F3 (SL and HL) Optic fbre transmission 401
F4 (SL and HL) Channels of communication 405
F5 (HL), C3 (SL) Electronics 408
F6 (HL), C4 (SL) Te mobile phone system 412
Chapter 18 Option G: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
G1 (SL and HL) Te nature of EM waves and light sources 418
G2 (SL and HL) Optical instruments 428
G3 (SL and HL) Two-source interference of waves 439
G4 (SL and HL) Difraction grating 442
G5 (HL only) X-rays 444
G6 (HL only) Tin-flm interference 448
Chapter 19 Option H: RELATIVITY
H1 (HL), D1 (SL) Introduction to relativity 453
H2 (HL), D2 (SL) Concepts and postulates of special relativity 455
H3 (HL), D3 (SL) Relativistic kinematics 457
H4 (HL) Some consequences of special relativity 462
H5 (HL) Evidence to support special relativity 466
H6 (HL) Relativistic momentum and energy 467
H7 (HL) General relativity 469
H8 (HL) Evidence to support general relativity 475
Chapter 20 Option I: MEDICAL PHYSICS
I1 (HL) Te ear and hearing 479
I2 (HL) Medical imaging 490
I3 (HL) Radiation in medicine 504
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viii
Chapter 21 Option J: PARTICLE PHYSICS
J1 (HL), D4 (SL) Particles and interactions 517
J2 (HL) Particle accelerators & detectors 530
J3 (HL), D5 (SL) Quarks 538
J4 (HL) Leptons and the standard model 543
J5 (HL) Experimental evidence for the quark and standard models 547
J6 (HL) Cosmology and strings 548
Glossary 551
Index 572
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PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT
1
PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL
MEASUREMENT
1.1 The realm of Physics
1.2 Measurements and uncertainties
1.3 Vectors and scalars
C
O
R
E
1
RANGE OF MAGNITUDES OF QUANTITIES
IN OUR UNIVERSE
1.1.1 State and compare quantities to the
nearest order of magnitude.
1.1.2 State the ranges of magnitude of
distances, masses and times that occur in
the universe, from smallest to greatest.
1.1.3 State ratios of quantities as dierences of
orders of magnitude.
1.1.4 Estimate approximate values of everyday
quantities to one or two signicant
gures and/or to the nearest order of
magnitude.
IBO 2007
1.1.1 ORDER OF MAGNITUDE
T
he order of magnitude of a number is the power of ten
closest to that number. Ofen, when dealing with very big
or very small numbers, scientists are more concerned with the
order of magnitude of a measurement rather than the precise
value. For example, the number of particles in the Universe and
the mass of an electron are of the orders of magnitude of 10
80

particles and 10
30
kg. It is not important to know the exact values
for all microscopic and macroscopic quantities because, when
you are using the order of magnitude of a quantity, you are giving
an indication of size and not necessarily a very accurate value.
Te order of magnitude of large or small numbers can be
difcult to comprehend at this introductory stage of the
course. For example, 10
23
grains of rice would cover Brazil
to a depth of about one kilometre.
1.1.2 RANGE OF MAGNITUDES OF THE
UNIVERSE
Te order of magnitude of some relevant lengths in metres
(m), masses in kilograms (kg) and times in seconds (s) are
given in Figure 101.
Mass of
Universe
10
50
kg Height of a person 10
0
m
Mass of Sun 10
30
kg 1 gram 10
3
kg
Extent of the
visible Universe
10
25
m
Wavelength of visible
light
10
6
m
Mass of the
Earth
10
25
kg Diameter of an atom 10
10
m
Age of the
Universe
10
18
s Period of visible light 10
15
s
One light year 10
16
m
Shortest lived
subatomic particle
10
23
s
Human light
span
10
9
s
Passage of light
across the nucleus
10
23
s
One year 10
7
s Mass of proton 10
27
kg
One day 10
5
s Mass of neutron 10
27
kg
Mass of car 10
3
kg Mass of electron 10
30
kg
Figure 101 Range of magnitudes
1.1 THE REALM OF PHYSICS
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CHAPTER 1
2
C
O
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E
Examples
1. Te number 8 is closer to 10
1
(10) than 10
0
(1). So
the order of magnitude is 10
1
. Similarly, 10 000 has
an order of magnitude of 10
4
.
2. However, 4.3 10
3
has an order of magnitude of
10
4
. Te reason for this is if you use the log button
on your calculator, the value of 4.3 10
3
= 10
3.633
.
Terefore the order of magnitude is 10
4
. So, the normal
mathematical rounding up or down above or below
5 does not apply with order of magnitude values. In fact,
10
0.5
= 3.16. Tis becomes our rounding value in
determining the order of magnitude of a quantity.
Order of magnitude, for all its uncertainty, is a good
indicator of size. Lets look at two ways of calculating the
order of magnitude of the number of heartbeats in a human
in a lifetime. Te average relaxed heart beats at 100 beats
per minute. Do you agree? Try the following activity:
Using a timing device such as a wristwatch or a stopwatch,
take your pulse for 60 seconds (1 minute). Repeat this 3
times. Find the average pulse rate. Now, using your pulse,
multiply your pulse per minute (say 100) 60 minutes in
an hour 24 hours in a day 365.25 days in a year 78
years in a lifetime. Your answer is 4.102 10
9
. Take the log
of this answer, and you get 10
9.613
. Te order of magnitude
is 10
10
. Now let us repeat this but this time we will use the
order of magnitude at each step:
10
2
beats min
-1
10
2
min h
-1
10
1
h day
-1
10
3
day yr
-1
10
2
yr
Te order of magnitude is 10
10
. Do the same calculations
using your own pulse rate. Note that the two uncertain
values here are pulse rate and lifespan. Terefore, you are
only giving an estimate or indication. You are not giving
an accurate value.
1.1.3 RATIOS OF ORDERS OF
MAGNITUDE
Ratios can also be expressed as diferences in order of
magnitude. For example, the diameter of the hydrogen
atom has an order of magnitude of 10
-10
m and the
diameter of a hydrogen nucleus is 10
-15
m. Terefore,
the ratio of the diameter of a hydrogen atom to the
diameter of a hydrogen nucleus is 10
-10
10
-15
= 10
5
or
fve orders of magnitude.
Te order of magnitude of quantities in the macroscopic
world are also important when expressing uncertainty in a
measurement. Tis is covered in section 1.2 of this chapter.
Exercise 1.1 (a)
1. Te order of magnitude of 4 200 000 is:
A. 10
4
B. 10
5
C. 10
6
D. 10
7
2. Give the order of magnitude of the following
quantities:
(a) 20 000
(b) 2.6 10
4
(c) 3.9 10
7
(d) 7.4 10
15
(e) 2.8 10
-24
(f) 4.2 10
-30
3. Give the order of magnitude of the following
measurements:
(a) Te mean radius of the Earth, 6 370 000 m.
(b) Te half-life of a radioactive isotope 0.0015 s.
(c) Te mass of Jupiter
1 870 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg.
(d) Te average distance of the moon from the
Earth is 380 000 000 m.
(e) Te wavelength of red light 0.000 000 7 m.
4 Te ratio of the diameter of the nucleus to the
diameter of the atom is approximately equal to:
A. 10
15
B. 10
8
C. 10
5
D. 10
2
5. What is the order of magnitude of:
(a) the time in seconds in a year.
(b) the time for the moon to revolve around the
earth in seconds.
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PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT
3
C
O
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E
6. A sample of a radioactive element contains 6.02
10
23
atoms. It is found that 3.5 10
10
atoms decay
in one day.
(a) Estimate the order of magnitude of the
atoms that disintegrate in one second.
(b) What is the ratio of the original atoms
to the atoms that remain afer one day in
orders of magnitude?
1.1.4 ESTIMATES OF EVERYDAY
QUANTITIES
Many problems in physics and engineering require very
precise numerical measurements or calculations. Te
number of signifcant digits in a quantity measured refect
how precisely we know that quantity. When English
and French engineers used their excavation machinery
to dig the tunnel under the North Sea, they hoped that
they would meet at a common point. Te laser guidance
systems used allowed for a good degree of precision in the
digging process. High precision is also required in cancer
radiotherapy so that the cancerous cells are killed and
the good body cells are not damaged in amounts greater
than necessary. Also to our amazement and sadness we
have witnessed too ofen on television the accuracy of
laser guided missiles seeking out targets with incredible
accuracy.
However, in other applications, estimation may be
acceptable in order to grasp the signifcance of a physical
phenomenon. For example, if we wanted to estimate the
water needed to fush the toilet in your dwelling in a year,
it would be reasonable to remove the lid of the toilet
cistern (reservoir for storing water) and seeing whether
there are graduations (or indicators) of the water capacity
given on the inside on the cistern. When I removed the lid
from my cistern, the water was at the 9 L (9 dm
3
) mark and
when I did a water saving fush, the water went to the 6
L mark. A long fush emptied the cistern. Now lets assume
there are three people in the house who are using one long
fush and fve short fushes a day. Tis makes a total of
(3 9 dm
3
) + (15 3 dm
3
) = 72 dm
3
per day or an estimate
of 10
2
dm
3
per day. Tere are 365.25 days in a year or an
estimate of 10
3
(using the order of magnitude) days. So
the water used by this family would be 2.6 10
4
dm
3
per
year or an estimate of 10
4
dm
3
. Neither answer is accurate
because both answers are only rough estimates.
With practice and experience, we will get a feel for
reasonable estimates of everyday quantities. Unfortunately,
students and teachers can be poor users of calculators. We
should be able to estimate approximate values of everyday
quantities to the nearest order of magnitude to one or two
signifcant digits. We need to develop a way to estimate an
answer to a reasonable value.
Suppose we wanted to estimate the answer to:
16 5280 12 12 12 5280
Tis can be estimated as:
= (2 10
1
) (5 10
3
) (1 10
1
) (1 10
1
) (1 10
1
) (5 10
3
)
= 5 10
11
Te calculator answer is 7.7 10
11
. So our estimate gives a
reasonable order of magnitude.
Exercise 1.1 (b)
1. A rough estimate of the volume of your body in
cm
3
would be closest to:
A. 2 10
3

B. 2 10
5

C. 5 10
3

D. 5 10
5
2. Estimate the:
(a) dimensions of this textbook in cm
(b) mass of an apple in g
(c) period of a heartbeat in s
(d) temperature of a typical room in C
3. Estimate the answer to:
(a) 16 5280 5280 5280 12 12 12
(b) 3728 (470165 10
-14
) 278146 (0.000713 10
-5
)
(c) 47816 (4293 10
-4
) 403000
4. Te universe is considered to have begun with the
Big Bang event. Te galaxies that have moved
the farthest are those with the greatest initial
speeds. It is believed that these speeds have been
constant in time. If a galaxy 3 10
21
km away is
receding from us at 1.5 10
11
km y
-1
, calculate the
age of the universe in years.
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CHAPTER 1
4
C
O
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E
Some quantities cannot be measured in a simpler form,
and others are chosen for convenience. Tey have been
selected as the basic quantities and are termed fundamental
quantities. Figure 102 lists the fundamental quantities of
the SI system together with their respective SI unit and SI
symbol.
Quantity SI unit SI symbol
length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic
temperature
Kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
Figure 102 Fundamental quantities
Scientists and engineers need to be able to make accurate
measurements so that they can exchange information. To
be useful, a standard of measurement must be:
1. Invariant in time. For example, a standard of
length that keeps changing would be useless.
2. Readily accessible so that it can be easily
compared.
3. Reproducible so that people all over the world can
check their instruments.
Te standard metre, in 1960, was defned as the length
equal to 1 650 763.73 wavelengths of a particular orange
red line of krypton86 undergoing electrical discharge.
Since 1983 the metre has been defned in terms of the
speed of light. Te current defnition states that the metre
is the length of path travelled by light in a vacuum during
a time interval of 1299 792 453 second.
Te standard kilogram is the mass of a particular piece
of platinum-iridium alloy that is kept in Svres, France.
Copies of this prototype are sent periodically to Svres
for adjustments. Te standard second is the time for
9 192 631 770 vibrations of the cesium-133 atom.
Standards are commonly based upon properties of atoms.
It is for this reason that the standard kilogram could be
replaced at some future date. When measuring lengths,
we choose an instrument that is appropriate to the order
of magnitude, the nature of the length, and the sensitivity
required. For example, the orders of magnitude (the
factor of 10) of the radius of a gold atom, a persons height
and the radius of the solar system are 10
-15
, 10
0
and 10
12

5. Give an estimate of the order of magnitude of the
following:
(a) Te length of your arm in mm.
(b) Te quantity of milk you drink in a year in
cm
3
.
(c) Te mass of your backpack that contains
your school materials in g.
(d) Te diameter of a human hair in mm.
(e) Te time you spend at school in a year in
minutes.
(f) Te number of people in the country
where you live.
1.2 MEASUREMENT &
UNCERTAINTIES
THE SI SYSTEM OF FUNDAMENTAL AND
DERIVED UNITS
1.2.1 State the fundamental units in the SI
system.
1.2.2 Distinguish between fundamental and
derived units and give examples of
derived units.
1.2.3 Convert between dierent units of
quantities.
1.2.4 State units in the accepted SI format.
1.2.5 State values in scientic notation and in
multiples of units with appropriate prexes.
IBO 2007
1.2.1 FUNDAMENTAL UNITS
SI units are those of Le Systme International dUnits
adopted in 1960 by the Confrence Gnrale des Poids
et Mesures. Tey are adopted in all countries for science
research and education. Tey are also used for general
measurement in most countries with the USA and the
UK being the major exceptions.
Physics is the most fundamental of the sciences in
that it involves the process of comparing the physical
properties of what is being measured against reference
or fundamental quantities, and expressing the answer in
numbers and units.
19 april 09 Physics Ch01.indd 4 22/05/2009 11:46:31 AM
PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT
5
C
O
R
E
respectively. Te nature of a persons height is diferent
from that of the radius of a gold atom in that the persons
height is macroscopic (visible to the naked eye) and can be
measured with, say, a metre stick, whereas the diameter of
the atom is microscopic and can be inferred from electron
difraction.
1.2.2 FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED
UNITS
When a quantity involves the measurement of two or more
fundamental quantities it is called a derived quantity, and
the units of these derived quantities are called derived
units. Some examples include acceleration (m s
-2
), angular
acceleration (rad s
-2
) and momentum (kg m s
-1
or N s). It
should be noted that the litre (L) and the millilitre (mL)
are ofen used for measuring the volume of liquid or the
capacity of a container. Te litre is a derived unit but not a
SI unit. Te equivalent SI unit is dm
3
.
Some derived units are relatively complex and contain a
number of fundamental units. Figure 103 lists the common
relevant derived units and associated information.
1.2.3 CONVERSION BETWEEN
DIFFERENT UNITS
Sometimes, it is possible to express the units in diferent
derived units. Tis concept will become clear as the various
topics are introduced throughout the course. For example,
the unit of momentum can be kg m s
-1
or N s.
Te unit of electrical energy could be J or W h or kJ or
kWh (kilowatt-hour). In atomic and nuclear physics the
unit of energy could be J or eV (electronvolt) where 1 eV
= 1.6 10
-19
J.
1.2.4 UNITS IN ACCEPTED SI FORMAT
Note the use of the accepted SI format. For example, the
unit for acceleration is written as m s
2
and not m/s/s. No
mathematical denominators are used but rather inverse
numerators are the preferred option.
1.2.5 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND
PREFIXES
Scientists tend to use scientifc notation when stating
a measurement rather than writing lots of fgures.
1.2 10
6
is easier to write and has more signifcance than
1 200 000. In order to minimise confusion and ambiguity,
all quantities are best written as a value between one and
ten multiplied by a power of ten.
For example, we have that,
0.06 kg = 6 10
-2
kg
140 kg = 1.4 10
2
kg or 1.40 10
2
kg depending on the
signifcance of the zero in 140.
132.97 kg = 1.3297 10
2
kg
Te terms standard notation and standard form are
synonymous with scientifc notation. Te use of prefxes
Physical
Quantity
Symbol
Name and Symbol
SI Unit
Fundamental
Units Involved
Derived Units
involved
frequency
force
work
energy
f or
F
W
Q, E
p
, E
k
, E
elas
hertz (Hz)
newton (N)
joule (J)
joule (J)
s
-1
kg m s
-2
kg m
2
s
-2
kg m
2
s
-2
s
-1
kg m s
-2
Nm
Nm
power
pressure
P
P
watt (W)
pascal (Pa)
kg m
2
s
-3
kg m
-1
s
-2
J s
-1
N m
-2
charge
potential
diference
resistance
Q
V
R
coulomb (C)
volt (V)
ohm ()
A s
kg m
2
s
-3
A
-1
kg m
2
s
-3
A
-2
A s
J C
-1
V A
-1
magnetic feld
intensity
magnetic fux
B

tesla (T)
weber (Wb)
kgs
-3
A
-1
kg m
2
s
-2
A
-2
NA
-1
m
-1
T m
2
activity
absorbed dose
A
W/m
becquerel (Bq)
gray (Gy)
s
-1
m
2
s
-2
s
-1
J kg
-1
Figure 103 Derived Units
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for units is also preferred in the SI system multiple or
submultiple units for large or small quantities respectively.
Te prefx is combined with the unit name. Te main
prefxes are related to the SI units by powers of three.
However, some other multiples are used.
1 000 000 000 m = 1 Gm
1 000 000 dm
3
= 1 Mdm
3
0.000 000 001 s = 1 ns
0.000 001 m = 1 m
Te main prefxes and other prefxes are shown in Figure 104.
Multiple Prefx Symbol Multiple Prefx Symbol
10
24
yotta Y 10
-1
deci d
10
21
zetta Z 10
-2
centi c
10
18
exa E 10
-3
milli m
10
15
peta P 10
-6
micro
10
12
tera T 10
-9
nano n
10
9
giga G 10
-12
pico p
10
6
mega M 10
-15
femto f
10
3
kilo k 10
-18
atto a
10
2
hecto h 10
-21
zepto z
10
1
deca da 10
-24
yocto y
Figure 104 Preferred and some common prexes
Exercise 1.2 (a)
1. Which of the following isotopes is associated with
the standard measurement of time?
A. uranium235
B. krypton86
C. cesium133
D. carbon12
2. Which one of the following lists a fundamental
unit followed by a derived unit?
A. ampere mole
B. coulomb watt
C. ampere joule
D. second kilogram
3. Which one of the following is a fundamental unit?
A. Kelvin
B. Ohm
C. Volt
D. Newton
4. Which of the following is measured in
fundamental units?
A. velocity
B. electric charge
C. electric current
D. force
5. Te density in g cm
-3
of a sphere with a radius of
3 cm and a mass of 0.54 kg is:
A. 2 g cm
-3
B. 2.0 10 g cm
-3
C. 0.50 g cm
-3
D. 5.0 g cm
-3
6. Convert the following to fundamental S.I. units:
(a) 5.6 g (b) 3.5 A
(c) 3.2 dm (d) 6.3 nm
(e) 2.25 tonnes (f) 440 Hz
7. Convert the following to S.I. units:
(a) 2.24 MJ (b) 2.50 kPa
(c) 2.7 km h
-1
(d) 2.5 mm
2
(e) 2.4 L (f) 3.6 cm
3
(g) 230.1 M dm
3
(h) 3.62 mm
3
8. Estimate the order of magnitude for the following:
(a) your height in metres
(b) the mass of a 250 tonne aeroplane in
kilograms
(c) the diameter of a hair in metres
(d) human life span in seconds.
9. Calculate the distance in metres travelled by a
parachute moving at a constant speed of 6 km h
-1

in 4 min.
10. Te force of attraction F in newtons between the
earth with mass M and the moon with mass m
separated by a distance r in metres from their
centres of mass is given by the following equation:
F = G M m r
-2
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PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT
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where G is a constant called the Universal
Gravitation constant
Determine the correct SI units of G.
11. Determine the SI units for viscosity if the
equation for the force on a sphere moving through
a fuid is:
F = 6rv
where r is the radius of the sphere, v is the speed of
the sphere in the fuid.
UNCERTAINTY AND ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
1.2.6 Describe and give examples of random
and systematic errors.
1.2.7 Distinguish between precision and
accuracy.
1.2.8 Explain how the eects of random errors
may be reduced.
1.2.9 Calculate quantities and results of
calculations to the appropriate number of
signicant gures.
IBO 2007
1.2.6 RANDOM AND SYSTEMATIC
ERRORS
Errors can be divided into two main classes, random
errors and systematic errors.
Mistakes on the part of the individual such as:
misreading scales.
poor arithmetic and computational skills.
wrongly transferring raw data to the fnal report.
using the wrong theory and equations.
are defnite sources of error but they are not considered as
experimental errors.

A systematic error causes a random set of measurements

to be spread about a value rather than being spread about
the accepted value. It is a system or instrument error.
Systematic errors can result from:
badly made instruments.
poorly calibrated instruments.
an instrument having a zero error, a form of
calibration.
poorly timed actions.
instrument parallax error.
Many ammeters and voltmeters have a means of adjustment
to remove zero ofset error. When you click a stop-watch,
your reaction time for clicking at the start and the fnish of
the measurement interval is a systematic error. Te timing
instrument and you are part of the system.
Systematic errors can, on most occasions, be eliminated or
corrected before the investigation is carried out.
Random uncertainties are due to variations in the
performance of the instrument and the operator. Even when
systematic errors have been allowed for, there exists error.
Random uncertainties can be caused by such things as:
vibrations and air convection currents in mass
readings.
temperature variations.
misreadings.
variations in the thickness of a surface being
measured (thickness of a wire).
not collecting enough data.
using a less sensitive instrument when a more
sensitive instrument is available.
human parallax error (one has to view the scale of
the meter in direct line, and not to the sides of the
scale in order to minimise parallax error).
1.2.7 PRECISION AND ACCURACY
As well as obtaining a series of measurements with the
correct units for the measurements, an indication of
the experimental error or degree of uncertainty in the
measurements and the solution is required. Te higher
the accuracy and precision in carrying out investigations,
the lower the degree of uncertainty. Te meanings of
the words accuracy and precision are clearly defned in
scientifc felds.
Accuracy is an indication of how close a measurement is to
the accepted value indicated by the relative or percentage

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error in the measurement. An accurate experiment has a
low systematic error.
Precision is an indication of the agreement among a
number of measurements made in the same way indicated
by the absolute error. A precise experiment has a low
random error.
Suppose a technician was fne-tuning a computer monitor
by aiming an electron gun at a pixel in the screen as shown
in Figure 105.
1
2
3
4
pixel
low accuracy
low precision
low accuracy
high precision
high accuracy
high precision
high accuracy
low precision
screen
Figure 105 Precision and accuracy
In case 1 there is low accuracy and precision. Te technician
needs to adjust the collimator to reduce the scattering of
electrons, and to change the magnetic feld so the electrons
hit the pixel target. In case 2, the electron gun has been
adjusted to increase precision but the magnetic feld still
needs adjustment. In case 3, both adjustments have been
made. Can you give an explanation for case four?
1.2.8 REDUCING RANDOM ERROR
Ofen the random uncertainty is not revealed until a
large sample of measurements is taken. So taking a
required number of readings/samples not only reveals
random uncertainty but also helps to reduce it. Consistent
experimental procedures can minimise random
uncertainty.
Random errors can also be reduced by choosing an
instrument that has a higher degree of accuracy. When
measuring mass, it would be best to choose a digital
balance that can read to 2 decimal places rather than a top
pan balance or a digital balance that can read to 1 decimal
place. Further reduction of random error can be obtained
by reducing variations such as air currents, vibrations,
temperature variation, loss of heat to the surroundings.
However, you should be aware that repeating
measurements may reduce the random uncertainty but at
the same time the systematic error will not be reduced.
1.2.9 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Te concept of signifcant fgures may be used to indicate
the degree of accuracy or precision in a measurement.
Signifcant fgures (sf) are those digits that are known with
certainty followed by the frst digit which is uncertain.
Suppose you want to fnd the volume of a lead cube. You
could measure the length l of the side of a lead cube with
a vernier caliper (refer Figure 112). Suppose this length
was 1.76 cm and the volume l cm
3
from your calculator
reads 5.451776. Te measurement 1.76 cm was to three
signifcant fgures so the answer can only be to three
signifcant fgures. So that the volume = 5.45 cm
3
.
Te following rules are applied in this book.
1. All non-zero digits are signifcant. (22.2 has 3 sf)
2. All zeros between two non-zero digits are signifcant.
(1007 has 4 sf).
3. For numbers less than one, zeros directly afer the
decimal point are not signifcant. (0.0024 has 2 sf)
4. A zero to the right of a decimal and following a
non-zero digit is signifcant. (0.0500 has 3 sf)
5. All other zeros are not signifcant. (500 has 1 sf)
Scientifc notation allows you to give a zero
signifcance.
For example, 10 has 1 sf but 1.00 10
1
has 3sf.
6. When adding and subtracting a series of
measurements, the least accurate place value in the
answer can only be stated to the same number of
signifcant fgures as the measurement of the series
with the least number of decimal places.
For example, if you add 24.2 g and 0.51 g and
7.134 g, your answer is 31.844 g which has increased
in signifcant digits. Te least accurate place value
in the series of measurements is 24.2 g with only
one number to the right of the decimal point. So
the answer can only be expressed to 3sf. Terefore,
the answer is 31.8 g or 3.18 10
1
g.
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PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT
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7. When multiplying and dividing a series of
measurements, the number of signifcant fgures in
the answer should be equal to the least number of
signifcant fgures in any of the data of the series.
For example, if you multiply 3.22 cm by 12.34 cm by
1.8 cm to fnd the volume of a piece of wood your
initial answer is 71.52264 cm
3
. However, the least
signifcant measurement is 1.8 cm with 2 sf. Terefore,
the correct answer is 72 cm
3
or 7.2 10
1
cm
3
.
8. When rounding of a number, if the digit following
the required rounding of digit is 4 or less, you
maintain the last reportable digit and if it is six
or more you increase the last reportable digit by
one. If it is a fve followed by more digits except
an immediate zero, increase the last reportable
digit. If there is only a fve with no digits following,
increase reportable odd digits by one and maintain
reportable even digits.
For example if you are asked to round of the
following numbers to two signifcant numbers
6.42 becomes 6.4
6.46 becomes 6.5
6.451 becomes 6.5
6.498 becomes 6.5
6.55 becomes 6.6
6.45 becomes 6.4
As a general rule, round of in the fnal step of a series of
calculations.
Exercise 1.2 (b)
1. Consider the following measured quantities
(a) 3.00 0.05 m (b) 12.0 0.3 m
Which alternative is the best when the accuracy
and precision for a and b are compared?
a b
A. Low accuracy Low precision
B. Low accuracy High precision
C. High accuracy Low precision
D. High accuracy High precision
2. A voltmeter has a zero ofset error of 1.2 V. Tis
fault will afect:
A. neither the precision nor the accuracy of
the readings.
B. only the precision of the readings.
C. only the accuracy of the readings.
D. both the precision and the accuracy of the
readings.
3. A student measures the current in a resistor as 655
mA for a potential diference of 2.0 V. A calculator
shows the resistance of the resistor to be 1.310 .
Which one of the following gives the resistance
to an appropriate number of signifcant fgures?
A. 1.3
B. 1.31
C. 1.310
D. 1
4. How many signifcant fgures are indicated by each
of the following:
(a) 1247 (b) 1007
(c) 0.034 (d) 1.20 10
7
(e) 62.0 (f) 0.0025
(g) 0.00250 (h) sin 45.2
(i) tan
-1
0.24 (j) 3.2 10
-16
(k) 0.0300 (l) 1.0 10
1
5. Express the following in standard notation
(scientifc notation):
(a) 1250 (b) 30007
(c) 25.10 (d) an area of 4 km
2
in m
2

(e) an object of 12.0 nm
2
in m
2

6. Calculate the area of a square with a side of 3.2 m.
7. Add the following lengths of 2.35 cm, 7.62 m and
14.2 m.
8. Calculate the volume of a rectangular block 1.52 cm
by 103.4 cm by 3.1 cm.
9. A metal block has a mass of 2.0 g and a volume
of 0.01 cm
3
. Calculate the density of the metal
in g cm
-3
.
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10. Round of the following to three signifcant fgures:
(a) 7.1249 (b) 2561
(c) 2001 (d) 21256
(e) 6.5647
11. Determine the following to the correct number of
signifcant fgures:
(a) (3.74 1.3) 2.12 17.65
(b) (2.9 + 3.2 + 7.1) 0.134
12. Add 2.76 10
-6
cm and 3.4 10
-5
cm.
UNCERTAINTIES IN CALCULATED RESULTS
1.2.10 State uncertainties as absolute, fractional
and percentage uncertainties.
1.2.11 Determine the uncertainties in results.
IBO 2007
1.2.10 ABSOLUTE, FRACTIONAL AND
PERCENTAGE UNCERTAINTIES
Te limit of reading of a measurement is equal to the
smallest graduation of the scale of an instrument.
Te maximum degree of uncertainty of a measurement is
equal to half the limit of reading.
When a measuring device is used, more ofen than not
the measurement falls between two graduations on the
scale being used. In Figure 108, the length of the block is
between 0.4 cm and 0.5 cm.
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 cm
object
part
Figure 108 Linear measurement
Te limit of reading is 0.05 cm and the uncertainty of the
measurement is 0.025 cm.
Te length is stated as 0.47 0.02 cm. (Uncertainties are
given to 1 signifcant fgure).
Te smallest uncertainty possible with any measuring
device is half the limit of reading. However, most
investigations generate an uncertainty greater than
this. Figure 109 lists the uncertainty of some common
laboratory equipment.
Metre rule 0.05 cm
Vernier calipers 0.005 cm
Micrometer screw gauge 0.005 mm
50 cm
3
measuring cylinder 0.3 cm
3
10 cm
3
measuring cylinder 0.1 cm
3
Electric balance 0.005 g
Watch second hand 0.5 s
Digital timer 0.0005 s
Spring balance (020N) 0.1 N
Resistor 2%
Figure 109 Equipment uncertainties
Absolute uncertainty is the size of an error and its units.
In most cases it is not the same as the maximum degree of
uncertainty (as in the previous example) because it can be
larger than half the limit of reading. Te experimenter can
determine the absolute error to be diferent to half the limit
of reading provided some justifcation can be given. For
example, mercury and alcohol thermometers are quite ofen
not as accurate as the maximum absolute uncertainty.
Fractional (relative) uncertainty equals the absolute
uncertainty divided by the measurement as follows. It has
no units.
Relative uncertainty =
absolute uncertainty

_________________

measurement

Percentage uncertainty is the relative uncertainty
multiplied by 100 to produce a percentage as follows
Percentage uncertainty = relative uncertainty 100%
For example, if a measurement is written as 9.8 0.2 m,
then there is a
limit of reading = 0.1 m
uncertainty = 0.05 m
absolute uncertainty = 0.2 m
relative uncertainty = 0.2 9.8 = 0.02
and percentage uncertainty = 0.02 100% = 2%
Percentage uncertainty should not be confused with
percentage discrepancy or percentage diference which
is an indication of how much your experimental answer
varies from the known accepted value of a quantity.

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PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT
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Percentage discrepancy is ofen used in the conclusion of
laboratory reports.
=
accepted value experimental value

_____________________________

accepted value
100
Note that errors are stated to only one signifcant fgure
1.2.11 UNCERTAINTIES IN RESULTS
DETERMINATION
1. THE ARITHMETIC MEAN AVERAGING
When a series of readings are taken for a measurement,
then the arithmetic mean of the readings is taken as
the most probable answer, and the greatest deviation or
residual from the mean is taken as the absolute error.
Study the following data in Table 110 for the thickness of a
copper wire as measured with a micrometer screw gauge:
Reading/mm 5.821 5.825 5.820 5.832 5.826 5.826 5.828 5.824
Residual/mm 0.004 0 0.005 +0.007 +0.001 +0.001 +0.003 0.001
Figure 110 Sample measurements
Te sum of the readings = 46.602 and so the mean of the
readings is 5.825.
Ten, the value for the thickness is 5.825 0.007 mm
Tis method can be used to suggest an approprite uncertainty
range for trigonometric functions. Alternatively, the mean,
maximum and minimum values can be calculated to suggest
an approprite uncertainty range. For example, if an angle is
measured as 30 2, then the mean value of sin 30 = 0.5, the
maximum value is sin 32 = 0.53 and the minimum value is
sin 28 = 0.47. Te answer with correct uncertainty range is
0.5 0.03.
2. ADDITION, SUBTRACTION AND
MULTIPLICATION INVOLVING ERRORS
When adding measurements, the error in the sum is the
sum of of the absolute error in each measurement taken.
For example, the sum of 2.6 0.5 cm and 2.8 0.5 cm is
5.4 1 cm.
When subtracting measurements, add the absolute errors.
If you place two metre rulers on top of each other to
measure your height, remember that the total error is
the sum of the uncertainty of each metre rule. (0.05 cm +
0.05 cm). If there is a zero ofset error on an instrument,
say a newton balance, you will have to subtract the given
reading from the zero error value.
So 25 2.5 N 2 2.5 equals 23 5N.
3. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION
INVOLVING ERRORS
When multiplying and dividing, add the relative or
percentage errors of the measurements being multiplied/
divided. Te absolute error is then the fraction or
percentage of the most probable answer.
Example
What is the product of 2.6 0.5 cm and 2.8 0.5 cm?
Solution
First, we determine the product
2.6 cm 2.8 cm = 7.28 cm
2

Relative error 1 = 0.5 2.6 = 0.192
Relative error 2 = 0.5 2.8 = 0.179
Sum of the
relative errors = 0.371 or 37.1%
Absolute error = 0.371 7.28 cm
2
or 37.1% 7.28 cm
2

= 2.70 cm
2
Errors are expressed to one signifcant fgure = 3 cm
2

Te product is equal to 7.3 3 cm
2

4. UNCERTAINTIES AND POWERS
When raising to the n
th
power, multiply the percentage
uncertainty by n, and when extracting the n
th
root , divide
the percentage uncertainty by n.
For example, if the length x of a cube is 2.5 0.1 cm, then
the volume will be given by x
3
= 15.625 cm
3
. Te percentage
uncertainty in the volume = 3(0.12.5 100) = 12%.
Terefore, 12% of 15.625 = 1.875.
Volume of the cube = 16 2 cm
3
.
If x = 9.0 0.3 m, then x = x
12
= 3.0 0.15 m
= 3.0 0.02 m.
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Exercise 1.2 (c)
1. A student measures the mass m of a ball. Te
percentage uncertainty in the measurement of
the mass is 5%. Te student drops the ball from
a height h of 100 m. Te percentage uncertainty
in the measurement of the height is 7%. Te
calculated value of the gravitational potential
energy of the ball will have an uncertainty of:
(use E
p
= mgh)
A. 2%
B. 5%
C. 7%
D. 12%
2. Te electrical power dissipation P in a resistor of
resistance R when a current I is fowing through it
is given by the expression:
P = I
2
R.
In an investigation, I was determined from
measurements of P and R. Te uncertainties in P
and in R are as shown below.
P 4 %
R 10 %
Te uncertainty in I would have been most likely:
A. 14 %.
B. 7 %.
C. 6 %.
D. 5 %.
3. Te mass of the Earth is stated as 5.98 10
24
kg.
Te absolute uncertainty is:
A. 0.005
B. 0.005 kg
C. 0.005 10
24
kg
D. 0.005 10
24
4. If a = 20 0.5 m and b = 5 1 m, then 2a - b
should be stated as:
A. 35 1.5 m
B. 35 2 m
C. 35 0.0 m
D. 5 2 m
5. MEASURING LENGTH WITH VERNIER
CALIPERS OR A MICROMETER SCREW
GAUGE
Two length measuring devices with lower uncertainty than
the metre rule are vernier calipers and the micrometer
screw gauge. Te uncertainty of these instruments was
given in Figure 109.
0 1 2 3
0
45
40
anvil
spindle
sphere main scale reading vernier scale
D
Figure 111 A micrometer screw gauge
In Figure 111, the reading on the micrometer screw gauge
is 3.45 mm. You can see that the thimble (on the right of
the gauge) is to the right of the 3 mm mark but you cannot
see the 3.5 mm mark on the main scale. Te vernier
thimble scale is close to the 45 mark.
cm
0 1 2 3 4
0
10
Figure 112 Vernier calipers
In Figure 112, the reading on the vernier calipers is
1.95 cm. Te vertical line showing zero on the vernier scale
lies between 1.9 cm and 2.0 cm. Te vertical graduation on
the vernier scale that matches the main scale best is the
ffh graduation.
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PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT
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5. How should a calculation result be stated if it is
found to be 0.931940 m with an absolute error of
0.0005 m.
6. Tis question concerns the micrometer screw
gauge in the Figure shown below.
0 1
30
35
40
mm
wire
(a) What is the reading and error on the
micrometer?
(b) Te thickness of the wire being measured
varies over its length. What sort of error
would this be?
7. A student records the following currents in
amperes A when the potential diference V across
a resistor is 12V:
0.9 A 0.9 A 0.85 A 0.8 A 1.2 A 0.75 A
0.8 A 0.7 A 0.8 A 0.95 A
(a) Would you disregard any of the readings?
Justify your answer.
(b) Calculate the current and its uncertainty.
8. A spring balance reads 0.5 N when it is not being
used. If the needle reads 9.5 N when masses are
attached to it, then what would be the correct
reading to record (with uncertainty)?
9. Five measurements of the length of a piece of
string were recorded in metres as:
1.48 1.46 1.47 1.50 1.45
Record a feasible length of the string with its
uncertainty.
10. A metal cube has a side length of 3.00 0.01 cm.
Calculate the volume of the cube.
11. An iron cube has sides 10.3 0.2 cm, and a mass
of 1.3 0.2 g.
What is the density of the cube in g cm
-3
?
12. Te energy E of an particle is 4.20 0.03 MeV.
How should the value and uncertainty of E
-12
be
stated?
13. Suggest an appropriate answer with uncertainty
range for sin if = 60 5.
UNCERTAINTIES IN GRAPHS
1.2.12 Identify uncertainties as error bars in
graphs.
1.2.13 State random uncertainty as an
uncertainty range () and represent it
graphically as an error bar.
1.2.14 Determine the uncertainties in the slope
and intercepts of a straight-line graph.
IBO 2007
1.2.12 UNCERTAINTIES AS ERROR BARS
When an answer is expressed as a value with uncertainty
such as 2.3 0.1 m, then the uncertainty range is evident.
Te value lies between 2.4 (2.3 + 0.1) and 2.2 (2.3 0.1) m.
In Physics, we ofen determine the relationship that exists
between variables. To view the relationship, we can perform
an investigation and plot a graph of the dependant variable
(yaxis) against the independent variable (xaxis). Tis
aspect will be discussed fully in this section.
Consider a spring that has various weights attached to
it. As a heavier weight is attached to a spring, the spring
extends further from its equilibrium position. Figure 115
shows some possible values for this weight/extension
investigation.
Force 5 N 100 150 200 250 300
Extension 0.2 cm 3.0 4.4 6.2 7.5 9.1
Figure 115 Extension of a spring
When a graph of force versus extension is plotted, the line
of best ft does not pass through every point. An error bar
can be used to give an indication of the uncertainty range
for each point as shown in Figure 116.
In the vertical direction, we draw a line up and down
for each point to show the uncertainty range of the force
value. Ten we place a small horizontal marker line on the
extreme uncertainty boundary for the point.
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In the horizontal direction, we draw a line lef and right for
each point to show the uncertainty range of the extension
value. Ten we place a small vertical marker line on the
extreme uncertainty boundary for the point.
+5 N
5 N
+0.2 cm 0.2 cm
Figure 116 Error Bars
When all the points in Figure 115 are plotted on a graph,
then the line of best ft with the appropriate error bars is
shown in Figure 117. You can see that the line of best ft
lies within the error bar uncertainty range. Te line of best
ft is interpolated between the plotted points. Te line of
best ft is extrapolated outside the plotted points.
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
200
150
100
50
250
300
F
o
r
c
e
/
N
Extension /cm
Interpolation
Extrapolation
Figure 117 Example Of Error Bars
Error bars will not be expected for trigonometric or
logarithmic functions in this course.
1.2.13,14
RANDOM UNCERTAINTY
AND UNCERTAINTIES IN THE
SLOPE AND INTERCEPTS OF A
STRAIGHTLINE GRAPH
Graphs are very useful for analysing the data that is collected
during investigations and is one of the most valuable tools
used by physicists and physics students because:
(a) they give a visual display of the relationship that
exists between two or more variables.
(b) they show which data points obey the relationship
and which do not.
(c) they give an indication of the point at which a
particular relationship ceases to be true.
(d) they can be used to determine the constants in an
equation relating two variable quantities.
Some of these features are shown in the graphs in
Figure 118. Notice how two variables can be drawn on the
same axis as in Figure 118 (b).
velocity/ms
1
time /s
power/ W
time /s
temperature/C
(a) (b)
Figure 118 (a) and (b) Examples of graphs
1. Choice of axes
A variable is a quantity that varies when another quantity
is changed. A variable can be an independent variable, a
dependent variable or a controlled variable. During an
experiment, an independent variable is altered while the
dependent variable is measured. Controlled variables
are the other variables that may be present but are kept
constant. For example, when measuring the extension of
a spring when diferent masses are added to it, the weight
force is altered and the extension from the springs original
length is measured. Te force would be the independent
variable plotted on the x-axis and the extension would be
the dependant variable plotted on the y-axis. (Te extension
depends on the mass added). Possible controlled variables
19 april 09 Physics Ch01.indd 14 22/05/2009 11:46:38 AM
PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT
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would be using the same spring, the same measuring
device and the same temperature control.
Te values of the independent variable are plotted on
the x-axis (the abscissa), and the values of the dependent
variable are plotted on the y-axis (the ordinate), as shown
in Figure 119.
yaxis
xaxis
(dependent variable)
1st quadrant
4th quadrant
2nd quadrant
3rd quadrant
(independent
variable)
Figure 119 Use of axes
It is not always clear which variable is the dependent and
which is the independent. When time is involved it is
the independent variable. In many electrodynamic and
electromagnetic experiments the potential diference
(voltage) or the current can be varied to see what happens
to the other variable either could be the independent
variable. Most experimental results will be plotted in the
frst quadrant. However, they can extend over the four
quadrants as is the case with aspects of simple harmonic
motion and waves, alternating current and the cathode ray
oscilloscope to name a few.
When you are asked to plot a graph of displacement
against time or to plot a graph of force versus time, the
variable frst mentioned is plotted on the y-axis. Terefore
displacement and force would be plotted on the y-axis in
the two given examples.
Tese days, graphs are quickly generated with graphic
calculators and computer sofware. Tis is fne for quickly
viewing the relationship being investigated. However,
the graph is usually small and does not contain all the
information that is required, such as error bars. Generally,
a graph should be plotted on a piece of 1 or 2 mm graph
paper and the scale chosen should use the majority of the
graph paper. In the beginning of the course, it is good
practice to plot some graphs manually. As the course
progresses, sofware packages that allow for good graphing
should be explored.
2. Scales
In order to convey the desired information, the size of the
graph should be large, and this usually means making the
graph fll as much of the graph paper as possible. Choose
a convenient scale that is easily subdivided.
3. Labels
Each axis is labelled with the name and/or symbols of the
quantity plotted and the relevant unit used. For example,
you could write current/A or current (A). Te graph can
also be given a descriptive title such as graph showing the
relationship between the pressure of a gas and its volume
at constant temperature.
4. Plotting the points
Points are plotted with a fne pencil cross or as a circled
dot. In many cases, error bars are required. Of course,
you are strongly recommended to use a graphing sofware
package. Tese are short lines drawn from the plotted
points parallel to the axes indicating the absolute error of
the measurement. A typical graph is shown in Figure 120.
current/ A
5
10
1.0 2.0 3.0
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

d
i
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
/

V
Figure 120 An example of plotting points
5. Lines of best t
Te line or curve of best ft is called the line of best ft.
When choosing the line or curve of best ft it is practical to
use a transparent ruler. Position the ruler until it lies along
the ideal line. Shapes and curves can be purchased to help
you draw curves. Te line or curve does not have to pass
through every point. Do not assume that the line should
pass through the origin as lines with an x-intercept or
y-intercept are common.
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current/ A
run
b
5
10
7.5
1.1 2.3
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

d
i
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
/

V
r
i
s
e
m =
rise
run
Figure 121 A graph showing the error range
Normally, the line of best ft should lie within the error
range of the plotted points as shown in Figure 118. Te
uncertainty in the slope and intercepts can be obtained
by drawing the maximum and minimum lines passing
through the error bars. Te line of best ft should lie
in between these two lines. Te uncertainty in the
y-intercept can be determined as being the diference
in potential diference between the best ft line and the
maximum/minimum lines. Te uncertainty in the slope
can be obtained using the same procedure. However, do
not forget that you are dividing. You will therefore have to
add the percentage errors to fnd the fnal uncertainty.
In the graph, the top plotted point appears to be a data
point that could be discarded as a mistake or a random
uncertainty.
AREA UNDER A STRAIGHT
LINE GRAPH
Te area under a straight line graph is a useful tool in
Physics. Consider the two graphs of Figure 122.
f
o
r
c
e
/
N
displacement / m
2
10
8
10
s
p
e
e
d
/
m

s
-
1
time / s
(a) (b)
Figure 122 The area under a graph
Two equations that you will become familiar with in
Chapter 2 are:
work (J) = force (N) displacement (m)
distance (m) = speed (m s
-1
) time (s)
In these examples, the area under the straight line
(Figure 1.22(a)) will give the values for the work done
(5 N 2 m = 10 J).
In Figure 1.22(b), the area enclosed by the triangle will
give the distance travelled in the frst eight seconds
(i.e., 8 s 10 m s
-1
= 40 m).
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
AND DETERMINATION OF
RELATIONSHIPS
STRAIGHTLINE EQUATION
Te straight line graph is easy to recognise and analyse.
Ofen the relationships being investigated will frst
produce a parabola, a hyperbola or an exponential growth
or decay curve. Tese can be transformed to a straight line
relationship (as we will see later).
rise
run
b
y
x
Figure 123 A straight line graph
Te general equation for a straight line is
y = mx + c
where y is the dependent variable, x is the independent
variable, m is the slope or gradient given by
vertical run
horizontal run
---------------------------------
y
x
------ =
and b is the point where the line intersects the y-axis.
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In short, an uphill slope is positive and a downhill slope
is negative. Te value of m has units.
Consider Figure 124 below. Te slope of the graph shown
can be determined. Note that only a small portion of the
line of best ft is used.
current/ A
rise
run
b
5
10
m
rise
run
--------- =
7.5
1.1 2.3
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

d
i
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
/

V
Figure 124 Determining the slope of the graph
m = rise/run =
y

___

x
=
5.0 7.5

_______

2.3 1.1
= 2.08 V A
-1
Te equation for the graph shown is generally given as
V = Ir or V = -Ir +
Because V and I are variables, then m = -r and b = .
If T = 2 (l/g) where T and l are the variables, and 2
and g are constants, then T plotted against l will not give a
straight-line relationship. But if a plot of T against l or T
2

against l is plotted, it will yield a straight line.
Tese graphs are shown in below.
(i) T vs l (ii) T vs l (iii) T
2
vs l
T
T
l l
l
T
2
Figure 125 Some dierent relationships
STANDARD GRAPHS
1. Linear
Te linear graph shows that y is directly proportional to x
y
x
k
rise
run
-------- =
i.e., y x or y = k x where k is the constant of
proportionality.
2. Parabola
Te parabola shows that y is directly proportional to
x
2
. Tat is, y x
2
or y = k x
2
where k is the constant of
proportionality.
y
x
2
y
x
In the equation s = u t + a t
2
, where,
s = displacement in m
u = initial velocity in m s
1

a = acceleration in m s
2

t = time in s
then, s t
2
, k = a m s
-2
and u = yintercept
3. Hyperbola
Te hyperbola shows that y is inversely proportional to x
or y is directly proportional to the reciprocal of x.
i.e., y
1

__

x
or xy = k
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y
1
x
---
y
x
An example of an inverse proportionality is found in
relating pressure, P, and volume, V, of a fxed mass of gas
at constant temperature
P
1

__

V
P =
k

__

V

or PV = k (= constant)
F
F
d
1
d
2
-----
An inverse square law graph is also a hyperbola. Te force
F between electric charges at diferent distances d is given
by:
F =
kq
1
q
2

_____

d
2

A graph of F versus d has a hyperbolic shape, and a graph
of F versus
1

__

d
2
is a straight line.
4. Sinusoidal
A sinusoidal graph is a graph that has the shape of a sine
curve and its mathematics is unique. It can be expressed
using degrees or radians.
Te wavelength is the length of each complete wave in
metres and the amplitude A is the maximum displacement
from the x-axis. In the top sinusoidal graph the wavelength
is equal to 4 m and the amplitude is equal to 2m.
Te frequency f of each wave is the number of waves
occurring in a second measured in hertz (Hz) or s
1
.
Te period T is the time for one complete wave. In the
bottom sinusoidal wave, the frequency is 5 Hz, and the
period is 0.2 s.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 length / m

= wavelength
Sinusoidal Graph
0. 1 0. 2 0. 3 0. 4 0. 5 time / s
A
A = amplitude
2
2
a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
/

m
a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
/

m
Te equations for these graphs will be explored in Chapter
4 when you will study oscillations and simple harmonic
motion.
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS (AHL)
Exponential and logarithmic graphs
If the rate of change of a quantity over time depends on the
original amount of matter, the rate of change may well be
exponential. Certain elements undergo exponential decay
when they decay radioactively. When bacteria reproduce, the
change of bacteria over time is given by an exponential growth.
Consider a sample of a material with an original number
of atoms N
0
that undergo radioactive decay as shown in
Figure 131. It can be shown that the number of atoms N
lef to decay afer a period of time t is given by
N = N
0
e
-kt
From the logarithmic equations given in Appendix 1, it
can be shown that
lnN = - kt + lnN
0
Terefore when lnN is plotted against time the slope of the
straight line produced is equal to k.
N
0
N
time / s
ln N
ln N
0
time / s
slope = k
Figure 131 Logarithmic Graphs
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PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT
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Now let us examine a logarithmic function. In
thermodynamics, the pressure p versus volume V curve
for an adiabatic change at constant temperature is given
by the equation
pV

= k (where and k are constants)

If we take the log of both sides then the equation will be
log p + log V = log k
Now if the equation is rearranged into the straight line for
y = mx + b, we get
log p = - log V + log k
If a graph of log p versus log V is plotted, a straight line
is obtained with the gradient being equal to - and the
y- intercept being equal to log k.
Exercise 1.2 (d)
1. It can be shown that the pressure of a fxed
mass of gas at constant temperature is inversely
proportional to the volume of the gas. If a graph of
pressure versus volume was plotted, the shape of
the graph would be:
A. a straight line.
B. a parabola.
C. an exponential graph.
D. a hyperbola.
2. Newton showed that a force of attraction F of two
masses m and M separated by a distance d was
given by F
Mm

___

d
2
. If m and M are constant, a graph
of F versus d
2
would have which shape?
A. a parabola
B. a straight line
C. a hyperbola
D. an exponential shape
3. Te resistance of a coil of wire R

increases as the
temperature is increased. Te resistance R

at a
temperature can be expressed as R

= R
0
(1 + )
where is the temperature coefcient of
resistance. Given the following data , plot a graph
that will allow you to determine R
0
and .
R

/
23.8 25.3 26.5 28.1 29.7 31.7
/ C 15 30 45 60 80 100
4. Given that s = gt
2
where s is the distance
travelled by a falling object in time t, and g is a
constant. Te following data is provided:
s (m) 5.0 20 45 80
T
2
(s
2
) 1.0 4.0 9.0 16
Plot a relevant graph in order to determine the
value of the constant g.
(AHL)
5. It can be shown that V =
RE

______

( R + r )
where E and r are
constants.
In order to obtain a straight line graph, one would
plot a graph of
A.
1

__

V
against R
B. V against R
C.
1

__

V
against
1

__

R

D. V against
1

__

R

6. Te magnetic force F between 2 magnets and their
distance of separation d are related by the equation
F = kd
n
where n and k are constants.
(a) What graph would you plot to determine
the values of the two constants?
(b) From the graph how could you determine n
and k?
7. Te intensity I of a laser beam passing through a
cancer growth decreases exponentially with the
thickness x of the cancer tissue according to the
equation I = I
0
e
x
, where I
0
is the intensity before
absorption and is a constant for cancer tissue.
What graph would you draw to determine the
values of I
0
and ?
UNCERTAINTIES IN GRAPHS
(EXTENSION)
Students must be able to determine the uncertainties in
the slope and intercepts of a straight line graph. In order
to cover this skill, it is best to use an example.
19 april 09 Physics Ch01.indd 19 22/05/2009 11:46:43 AM
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Example
Te schematic diagram in Figure 134 demonstrates
an experiment to determine Plancks Constant. Te
wavelength () of light from the light source incident
on a metal photoemissive plate of a photoelectric cell is
varied, and the stopping voltage Vs applied across the
photoelectric cell is measured.
+
A
V
Switches to allow
reversal of current
Vacuum tube
Light source
variable source
of voltage
Figure 134 Determining Plancks Constant
Te following values were obtained for diferent light
radiation colours
Light Radiation
Colour
Stopping Voltage V
s
0.05 V

0.3 10
-7
Red 1.20 6.1
Orange 1.40 5.5
Yellow 1.55 5.2
Green 1.88 4.6
Blue 2.15 4.2
Violet 2.50 3.8
Figure 135 Data For Plancks Constant
It can be shown that for this experiment:

hc

__

= h f = + eV
s
where h is Plancks Constant
c is the speed of light constant 3 10
8
m s
-1

is the wavelength in m and f is the frequency in Hz
is the work function.
e is the charge on an electron (1.6 10
-19
C)
(a) Copy Figure 135, add 2 more columns and
complete the frequency and the uncertainties
columns for each colour of light radiation in the
table.
Because the wavelength is given to two signifcant fgures,
the frequency can only be given to two signifcant fgures.
For division, to fnd the frequency from hc , the relative
uncertainty in the frequency has to be calculated for each
wavelength. For example, for dark red:
the relative uncertainty = 0.3 10
-7
6.1 10
-7
= 0.0492
the absolute uncertainty = 0.0492 1.6 10
14

= 0.07 10
14
Hz
In this case, the absolute uncertainty is not half the limit
of reading as the absolute uncertainty of the wavelength
was given as 0.3 10
-7
m. Remember that the minimum
possible absolute uncertainty is half the limit of reading
which would be 0.05 10
-7
m.
Light
Radiation
Colour
Stopping
Voltage Vs
0.05 V

0.3 10
-7
m
Frequency
10
14
Hz
Uncertainty
10
14
Hz
Red 1.20 6.1 1.6 0.07
Orange 1.40 5.5 1.8 0.09
Yellow 1.55 5.2 1.9 0.1
Green 1.88 4.6 2.2 0.1
Blue 2.15 4.2 2.4 0.2
Violet 2.50 3.8 2.6 0.2
Figure 136 Data showing uncertainties
(b) Plot a fully labelled graph with stopping voltage
on the vertical axis against the frequency on the
horizontal axis. Allow for a possible negative
yintercept.
Now can you put in the error bars for each point and label
the axis. Tere will be a negative yintercept.
Mark in the gradient and the yintercept.
Te required graph is shown in Figure 137. Note the
maximum and minimum lines and the line of best ft , the
gradient of the straight line of best ft and the value of the
negative yintercept.
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-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Frequency exp 14 Hz
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g
v
o
lt
a
g
e
(
e
le
c
t
r
o
n
v
o
lt
s
)
2.07
4.62
Figure 137 Data for Plancks Constant
(c) Calculate Plancks Constant by graphical means
and compare your value with the theoretical value
of 6.63 10
-34
J s.
Te equation given at the start of this example was:

hc

__

= h f = + eV
S
If we rearrange this equation in the form y = mx + c, the
equation becomes:
V
S
=
h f

___

e

__

e

Terefore, the gradient =
h

__

e
=
2.07 V

_________

4.62 10
14
s
-1

= 4.5 10
15
Vs
h =
gradient

_______

e
= 4.5 10
15
Vs 1.6 10
19
C
= 7.2 10
34
Js
Te accepted value of Plancks constant is 6.63 10
-34
Js.
Te percentage discrepancy =
7.2 6.63

________

6.63
100%
= 8.6 %
(d) Determine the minimum frequency of the
photoelectric cell by graphical means.
Te threshold frequency is the x-intercept
= 2.2 0.6 10
14
Hz
(e) From the graph, calculate the work function of the
photoemissive surface in the photoelectric cell in
joules and electron-volts.
Te yintercept is equal to e
Work function, = e (y-intercept) = 1.6 10
-19
C -1 V
= 1.6 10
-19
J
Exercise 1.2 (e)
1. An investigation was undertaken to determine the
relationship between the length of a pendulum l
and the time taken for the pendulum to oscillate
twenty times. Te time it takes to complete one
swing back and forth is called the period T. It can
be shown that
T = 2

__

l

_

g

where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Te data in the table below was obtained.
(a) Copy the table and complete the period
column for the measurements. Be sure to
give the uncertainty and the units of T.
(b) Calculate the various values for T
2

including its units.
(c) Determine the absolute error of T
2
for each
value.
(d) Draw a graph of T
2
against l. Make sure that
you choose an appropriate scale to use as
much of a piece of graph paper as possible.
Label the axes, put a heading on the graph,
and use error bars. Draw the curve of best ft.
(e) What is the relationship that exists between
T
2
and l?
(f) Are there any outliers?
(g) From the graph determine a value for g.
Length of pendulum 0.05 m Time for 20 oscillations 0.2 s Period T T
2
Absolute error of T
2

0.21 18.1
0.40 25.5
0.62 31.5
0.80 36.8
1.00 40.4
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When vectors are graphed, the system of coordinates is
called a rectangular coordinate system or a Cartesian
coordinate system, or simply, a coordinate plane. Vectors
in the same plane are said to be co-planar.
1.3.2 THE SUM OR DIFFERENCE OF
TWO VECTORS
Addition of vectors
From simple arithmetic it is known that 4 cm + 5 cm = 9 cm
However, in vector context, a diferent answer is possible
when 4 and 5 are added.
For example, 4 cm north (N) + 5 cm south (S) = 1 cm south
Suppose you move the mouse of your computer 4 cm up
your screen (N), and then 5 cm down the screen (S), you
move the mouse a total distance of 9 cm. Tis does not
give the fnal position of the arrow moved by the mouse.
In fact, the arrow is 1cm due south of its starting point, and
this is its displacement from its original position. Te frst
statement adds scalar quantities and the second statement
adds two vector quantities to give the resultant vector R.
Te addition of vectors which have the same or opposite
directions can be done quite easily:
1 N east + 3 N east = 4 N east (newton force)
200 m north + 500 m south = 300 m south
(micrometre)
300 m s
-1
north-east + 400 m s
-1
south-west =
100 m s
-1
south west (velocity)
Te addition of co-planar vectors that do not have the
same or opposite directions can be solved by using scale
drawings or by calculation using Pythagoras theorem and
trigonometry.
Vectors can be denoted by boldtype, with an arrow above
the letter, or a tilde, i.e., a, a

or a
~
respectively. Tey are
represented by a straight line segment with an arrow at
the end. Tey are added by placing the tail of one to the
tip of the frst (placing the arrow head of one to the tail
of the other). Te resultant vector is then the third side
of the triangle and the arrowhead points in the direction
from the free tail to the free tip. Tis method of adding is
called the triangle of vectors (see Figure 140).
1.3.1 Distinguish between vector and scalar
quantities, and give examples of each.
1.3.2 Determine the sum or dierence of two
vectors by a graphical method.
1.3.3 Resolve vectors into perpendicular
components along chosen axes.
IBO 2007
1.3.1 VECTORS AND SCALARS -
EXAMPLES
Scalars are quantities that can be completely described
by a magnitude (size). Scalar quantities can be added
algebraically. Tey are expressed as a positive or negative
number and a unit. Some scalar quantities, such as mass,
are always positive, whereas others, such as electric charge,
can be positive or negative. Figure 139 lists some examples
of scalar and vector quantities.
Scalars Vectors
distance (s) displacement (s)
speed velocity (v)
mass (m) area (A)
time (t) acceleration (a)
volume (V) momentum (p)
temperature (T) force (F)
charge (Q) torque ()
density () angular momentum (L)
pressure (P) fux density()
energy (E) electric feld intensity (E)
power (P) magnetic feld intensity (B)
Figure 139 Examples of scalar and vector quantities
Vectors are quantities that need both magnitude and
direction to describe them. Te magnitude of the vector is
always positive. In this textbook, vectors will be represented
in heavy print. However, they can also be represented by
underlined symbols or symbols with an arrow above or
below the symbol. Because vectors have both magnitude
and direction, they must be added, subtracted and
multiplied in a special way.
Te basic mathematics of vector analysis will be outlined
hereunder, and no mention will be made of i, j and k unit
vectors.
1.3 VECTORS AND SCALARS
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a b
R =a +b
a
b
Tail
Head
+ =
Figure 140 Addition Of Vectors
Te parallelogram of vectors rule for adding vectors can
also be used. Tat is, place the two vectors tail to tail
and then complete a parallelogram, so that the diagonal
starting where the two tails meet, becomes the resultant
vector. Tis is shown in Figure 118.
a
b
R = a + b
Figure 141 Addition of vectors using parallelogram rule
If more than two co-planar vectors are to be added, place
them all head to tail to form a polygon. Consider the three
vectors, a, b and c shown in Figure 142. Adding the three
vectors produces the result shown in Figure (b).
a b
c
a
b
c
R = a + b + c
(a) (b)
Figure 142 Addition of more than two vectors
Notice then that a + b + c = a + c + b = b + a + c = . . . Tat
is, vectors can be added in any order, the resultant vector
remaining the same.
Example
On an orienteering expedition, you walk 40 m due south
and then 30 m due west. Determine how far and in what
direction are you from your starting point.
Solution
Method 1 By scale drawing
N
40 m
30 m
A
B C
37
Figure 143 Orienteering
Draw a sketch of the two stages of your journey.
From the sketch make a scale drawing using 1 cm equal to
10 m (1 cm : 10m).
If you then draw the resultant AC, it should be 5 cm in
length. Measure CAB with a protractor.
Te angle should be about 37.
Terefore, you are 50 m in a direction south 37 west from
your starting point (i.e., S 37 W).
Method 2 By calculation
Using Pythagoras theorem, we have
AC
2
= 40
2
+ 30
2
AC =
________
40
2
+ 30
2
= 50
(taking the positive square root).
From the tan ratio,
tan =
opposite

_______

adjacent
we have tan =
BC

___

AB
=
30

___

40
= 0.75
tan
1
( 0.75 ) = 36.9
You are 50 m in a direction south 37 west from your
starting point (i.e. S 37 W).
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Subtraction of vectors
In Chapter 2, you will describe motion kinematics. You
will learn that change in velocity, v ,is equal to the fnal
velocity minus the initial velocity, v u. Velocity is a vector
quantity so v , v and u are vectors. To subtract v u, you
reverse the direction of u to obtain u, and then you add
vector v and vector u to obtain the resultant v.
Tat is, v = v + (u). Vectors v and u are shown.
For v u, we reverse the direction of u and then add head
to tail
v
u
(u)
v
R = v + (u)
= v u
Figure 144 Subtraction of vectors
Example
A snooker ball is cued and strikes the cushion of the
snooker table with a velocity of 5.0 m s
-1
at an angle of
45 to the cushion. It then rebounds of the cushion with
a velocity of 5.0 m s
-1
at an angle of 45 to the cushion.
Determine change in velocity? (Assume the collision is
perfectly elastic with no loss in energy).
Solution
You can solve this problem by scale drawing or calculation.
Draw a sketch before solving the problem, then draw the
correct vector diagram.
v
i
v
f
45
45
5 m/s 5 m/s
Notice that the lengths of the initial velocity vector,
, and the fnal velocity vector, , are equal. v
i
v
f
Vector diagram:
Using the vector diagram above we can now draw a vector
diagram to show the change in velocity.
v
f
v
i
( )
v v
f
v
i
=
(5.0 ms
1
)
(5.0 ms
1
)
(7.1 ms
1
)
Using the same scale as that used for the 5.0 m s
-1
velocity
vector, the change in velocity is 7.1 m s
-1
at right angles to
the cushion.
We could also use Pythagoras theorem to determine the
length (or magnitude) of the change in velocity vector, v:
|v|
2
= |v
f
|
2
+ |v
i
|
2
,
so that |v|
2
= 5
2
+ 5
2
= 50 |v|
2
=
__
50 7.1 m s
-1
Multiplying vectors and scalars
Scalars are multiplied and divided in the normal algebraic
manner, for example:
5m 2 s = 2.5 m s
-1
2 kW 3 h = 6 kW h (kilowatt-hours)
A vector multiplied by a scalar gives a vector with the
same direction as the vector and magnitude equal to the
product of the scalar and the vector.
For example: 3 15 N east = 45 N east;
2kg 15 m s
-1
south = 30 kg m s
-1
south
Te vector analysis of a vector multiplied by a vector
is not required for the syllabus. However, you will
encounter these situations when you study work, energy
and electromagnetism. Two points will be made in an
oversimplifed manner:
1. Vectors can be multiplied to give a scalar answer.
For example, force can be multiplied by a
displacement to give work which is a scalar.
Finding the product in this manner is called the
dot product, i.e., U V = |U| |V| cos where is
the angle between the directions of V and U.
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U
V

Figure 147 Multiplying vectors

2. Te product of two vectors can also give a vector
answer. For example, the force exerted on a proton
moving with a velocity in a magnetic feld is
given by the equation F = qv B where q is the
charge in coulombs, v is the velocity in metres per
second, and B is the magnetic feld strength in
teslas. q is a scalar and v and B are vectors.
Te answer F is a vector. Finding the product in
this manner is called the cross product, V U.
Te magnitude of the cross product, V U is
given by |V U| = |U| |V| sin
Te direction of of the answer, V U is at right angles
to both V and U and can be found by curling the fngers
of your right hand in the direction of V so that they curl
towards U when you bend them. Your thumb is then
pointing in the required direction.
U
V
V U

Figure 148 Right Hand Rule

In the Figure 148, the direction of V U is up the page.
Exercise 1.3 (a)
1. Which of the following lines best represents the
vector 175 km east (1 cm : 25 km)?
A.

B.
C.
D.
2. Which one of the following is a vector quantity?
A. Work
B. Speed
C. Acceleration
D. Pressure
3. Which one of the following is a scalar quantity?
A. Force
B. Velocity
C. Momentum
D. Energy
4. Te diagram below shows a boat crossing a river
with a velocity of 4 m s
-1
north. Te current fows
at 3 m s
1
west.

4 m s
- 1
current 3m s
- 1
boat
Te resultant magnitude of the velocity of the boat
will be:
A. 3 m s
-1
B. 4 m s
-1
C. 5 m s
-1
D. 7 m s
-1
5. Two vectors with displacements of 10 m north
west and 10 m northeast are added. Te direction
of the resultant vector is:
A. south B. north-east
C. north D. north-west
6. Add the following vectors by the graphical method
(a) 4 m south and 8 m north
(b) 5 m north and 12 m west
(c) 6.0 N west and 6.0 N north
(d) 9.0 m s
-1
north + 4.0 m s
-1
east + 6.0 m s
-1
south.
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7. Subtract the following vectors by either the
graphical method or by calculation:
(a) 2 m east from 5 m east
(i.e. 5 m east 2m east)
(b) 9 m s
-2
north from 4 m s
-2
south
(c) 4.0 N north from 3.0 N east
(d) 3.2 T east from 5.1 T south
8. Calculate the following products:
(a) 20 m s
-1
north by 3
(b) 12 by 5 N s north 12 east
9. If a cyclist travelling east at 40 m s
1
slows down to
20 m s
1
, what is the change in velocity?
10. Find the resultant of a vector of 5 m north 40
west added to a vector of 8 m east 35 north.
1.3.3 RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
Te process of fnding the components of vectors is called
resolving vectors. Just as two vectors can be added to give
a resultant vector, a single vector can be split into two
components or parts. teh
From above, the vector 5m south has a vertical component
of 5 m south and a zero horizontal component just as the
vector 10 N east has a zero vertical component and a
horizontal component of 10 N east.
Suppose you have a vector that is at an angle to the
horizontal direction. Ten that vector consists of
measurable horizontal and vertical components. In Figure
151, the vector F is broken into its components. Note that
the addition of the components gives the resultant F.
F
component
Horizontal component
F
y
x
Vertical

Figure 151 Resolution of vectors

From trigonometry
=
=
sin
opposite
hypotenuse
--------------------------
=
y
F
------
cos
adjacent
hypotenuse
-------------------------- =
x
F
------
and cos = adjacent hypotenuse = x F
Tis means that the magnitude of the vertical component
= y = F sin
and the magnitude of the horizontal component
= x = F cos
Example
A sky rocket is launched from the ground at an angle of
61.0
0
with an initial velocity of 120 m s
-1
. Determine the
components of this initial velocity?
Solution
61
Vector diagram:
120
61
y
x
From the vector diagram we have that
= 104.954...
=
and
61 sin
y
120
-------- - y 120 61 sin = =
1.05 10
2

61 cos
x
120
-------- - x 120 61 cos = =
= 58.177...
= 58.2
That is, the magnitude of the vertical component is
1.0 10
2
m s
-1
and the magnitude of the horizontal
component is 58 m s
-1
.
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Exercise 1.3 (b)
1. Te vertical component of a vector of a 4.0 N force
acting at 30 to the horizontal is
A. 4.3 N
B. 2 N
C. 4 N
D. 8.6 N
2. Calculate the horizontal component of a force of
8.4 N acting at 60.0 to the horizontal.
3. Calculate the vertical and horizontal components
of the velocity of a projectile that is launched
with an initial velocity of 25.0 m s
-1
at an angle of
elevation of 65 to the ground.
4. Calculate the easterly component of a force of 15
N south-east.
5. Calculate the vector whose components are 5.0 N
vertically and 12 N horizontally.
6. Calculate F in the diagram below if the sum of all
the forces in the is zero.
C
A
B
D
F
AC = 2 N BC = 2 N and
ACD 135 = BCD 135 =
7. Calculate the acceleration of a small object down
a frictionless plane that is inclined at 30.0

to the
horizontal. Take the acceleration due to gravity g
equal to 9.81 ms
-2
.
8. Calculate the resultant force of all the forces acting
on a point object in the diagram below.
25
0 45
0
12 N
8.0 N
8.0 N
15 N
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APPENDIX
MATHEMATICAL
REQUIREMENTS
During this course you should experience a range
of mathematical techniques. You will be required to
develop mathematical skills in the areas of arithmetic
and computation, algebra, geometry and trigonometry,
and graphical and vector analysis for both external and
internal assessment.
MATHEMATICAL SENTENCES
= is equal to
divided by or in units of
< is less than
> is greater than
is proportional to
is approximately equal to
x a small diference between two values of x
|x| the absolute value of x
GEOMETRY
INDICES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
LOGARITHMS
1.
2.
3.
4.
b
h
Area of any triangle =
1
2
---bh
Area of a circle = r
2
b
c
Surface area of a cuboid = 2(ab + bc + ac)
r
Volume of a sphere = r
3
Surface area of a sphere = 4r
2
Area of a hollow cylinder = 2rh
Surface area of a cylinder = 2r (h + r)
r
h
Volume of a cylinder = r
2
h
a
r
Circumference = 2r
4
3
,
a
x
a
y
a
x y +
=
a
x
a
y

a
x
a
y
---- - a
x y
= =
a
x
( )
y
a
x y
=
a
x
b
x
a b ( )
x
=
a
0
1 1
x
, 1 0
x
, 0 x 0 ( ) = = = a
x
a
1 x
=
a
x
y x y
a
log = =
, x > 0, y > 0.
, x > 0, y > 0.
, y > 0.
a
x y log + log x y ( ) log =
x y log log
x
y
-- log =
x y log y
x
log =
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TRIGONOMETRY

a
b
c
A
B C
a
b
c
C
A
B
sin =
opposite

__________

hypotenuse
=
a

__

b

cos =
adjacent

__________

hypotenuse
=
c

__

b

tan =
opposite

_______

adjacent
=
a

__

c

tan =
sin

_____

cos
, cos 0
For very small angles, sin tan , cos 1
Sine rule:
a

____

sinA
=
b

____

sinB
=
c

____

sinC

Cosine rule: a
2
= b
2
+ c
2
- 2bc cos A
Area of triangle: A =
1

__

2
ab sinC
Identities:
A
2
A
2
cos + sin 1 =
A B ( ) A B + ( ) sin + 2 n i s A B sin sin =
A B sin + sin 2 A B + ( ) 2 [ ] A B ( ) 2 [ ] cos sin =
ANGULAR MEASURE
Angles are measured in radians. One radian is the angle
subtended by an arc with length equal to the radius. If
s = r, then = s r.
Note then, that 2 rad = 360, and 1 rad = 57.3
Exercise 1.3 (c)
1. Convert
13

___

17
to a decimal and to a percentage.
2. Use a calculator to fnd 3.6
3
and log 120.
3. Make y the subject of the equation if x = 2y 6.
4. Make v the subject of the equation given that:
F =
mv
2

____

r

5. Make g the subject of the equation given that:
T = 2

___

(

l

_

g

)

6. Solve for x and y in the following simultaneous
equations:
2x + 4y = 18
x y = 1
7. Calculate the following:
(a) 16
2
+ 16
3
(b) 25
1..5

(c) ( 2)
4

(d) (3)
-2

8. Evaluate the following
(a) log
4
64
(b) log
10
0.01
9. Find the circumference and area of a circle of
radius 0.8 cm.
10. Calculate the volume and surface area of a sphere
of radius 0.023 m.
11. How many radians are there in:
A. 270
B. 45
12. If sin 2 = 1 then what is equal to?
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GREEK SYMBOLS
Te Greek alphabet is commonly used in Physics for various
quantities and constants. Te capital and small letters and
their names are given here for your convenience:
Letters Name
A alpha
B beta
gamma
delta
E epsilon
Z zeta
H eta
theta
I iota
K kappa
M mu
N nu
xi
omicron
pi
P rho
sigma
T tau
phi
X chi
psi
omega
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TOK Background
T
he late Richard Feynman described the process of Physics as akin to observing a vast chess game in which the
boundaries of the chessboard cannot be seen. Furthermore, we have no idea why the game is being played or by
whom. Nor do we know when the game started, nor will we ever see the end of the game. We dont know the rules of the
game and our problem is to fgure them out. By careful observation over a period of time we might, for example, discover
the rule that governs the move of the bishops and if we are really clever we might even fnd the rule which governs the
movement of the knights. Occasionally something really odd might happen like two white queens appearing on the
board at the same time. All our subsequent observations had led us to the conclusion that this could not be the case.
Te chessboard in this analogy is the Universe and the chess pieces are the matter in the Universe. Te rules that we
discover are the laws of Physics and the observation we make of the pieces are the experiments that we carry out to
establish the laws of Physics. Te rules give the how and not the why. In other words they do not tell us why the
pieces move but they help us understand the manner in which they move. And so it is with Physics. We will never know
for example, why when we push something it moves. However, we can give a very good description of how it will move
under diferent circumstances. Physics is the science that describes how the Universe works.
Physics falls into two main categories. Tere is the Physics before 1926 Classical Physics and there is the Physics afer
1926- Quantum Physics. Most of the Physics that is studied in an IB course is Classical Physics. However, it is important
to realise that ultimately our description of how the Universe works must be understood in terms of Quantum Physics
because we know this to be (so far) the correct Physics So you might ask why do we spend so much time in teaching
you the wrong Physics? Well, its not quite as bad as it sounds. For example, if we apply the laws of Classical Physics to
the behaviour of electrons in solids we get the wrong answer. Te laws of Quantum Physics give the right answer. On the
other hand if we apply the laws of Classical Physics and the laws of Quantum Physics to the behaviour of billiard balls, at
slow enough speeds, both give the right answer. However, using Quantum Physics in this situation is rather like taking
the proverbial sledgehammer to crack a walnut. In many of the situations that we encounter, Classical Physics will give
us the right answer and so for this reason, and the fact that Quantum Physics is not easy to grasp on frst acquaintance,
we spend a lot of time teaching students Classical Physics.
If we plot the speed of things against size, then we can see the sort of areas pertinent to each of the main areas of
Physics. Refer to Figure 201.
MECHANICS
2
2.1 Kinematics
2.2 Forces and Dynamics
2.3 Work, Energy and Power
2.4 Uniform Circular motion
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Relativistic Physics
Classical
Physics
Quantum
Physics
Size (m)
10
15
10
10
10
5
10
4
10
0
10
5
10
10
10
2
10
6
10
8
S
p
e
e
d

(
m
s

1
)
Figure 201 The dierent areas of Physics
You will note that there is a region that overlaps both
Quantum and Classical Physics. Tis is Relativistic Physics
and is the Physics we have to use when we are dealing
with speeds close to that of the speed of light. So there
is Relativistic Quantum Physics and Relativistic Classical
Physics. Te latter is discussed in more detail in Topic D.1
and D.2 and Option H.
Te two great pillars upon which Classical Physics rests
are Newtonian Mechanics and Electromagnetism. Mass
and electric charge are the two basic properties that we
associate with all matter and Newtonian mechanics
essentially deals with mass and electromagnetism
essentially deals with charge. Te two corresponding
pillars upon which Quantum Mechanics rest are Quantum
Mechanics and Quantum Electrodynamics. Bridging both
Quantum and Classical Physics is Relativistic Physics and
Termodynamics. Tis latter subject essentially deals
with the relationship between heat and work and also
such interesting questions as how can order arise from
disorder?
Te Figure 202 summarises the (essential) branches of
Physics and also gives the appropriate syllabus reference
in the IB Physics Syllabus.
At the present time we understand the two great pillars of
Physics to be General Relativity (which describes space and
time) and Quantum Physics (which describes everything
else) and somewhere along the line Termodynamics has
to ft in as well. One of the great aims of physicists is to try
and unify General relativity and Quantum Mechanics
into a single theory.
Relativity and Termodynamics
D.13, H 3, 8,10
Physics
Classical Physics Quantum Physics
- -
Newtonian Mechanics
(mass)
1, 2, 4. 6.1, 8, 9.1-2-4
Electromagnetism
(charge)
Quantum mechanics
7, 13, F, D.4-5, E, J
QED
J.1
Electrostatics
(charge at rest)
5.1, 6.2, 9.3
Magnetostatics
(charge in uniform
motion) 6.3
Electromagnetism
(charge in accelerated
motion) 12 A 4-6, G
Figure 202 The structure of this course
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In this part of the course we start our journey through
Newtonian Mechanics, one of the great pillars of Classical
Physics. Te essential problem in Mechanics is this: if at
any given instant in time we know the positions and velocities
of all the particles that make up a particular system, can we
predict the future position and velocities of all the particles?
Tis is the mechanics problem in its most general form.
Specifc examples are problems such as predicting solar
eclipses, putting satellites into orbit, fnding out how the
positions of an oscillating object varies with time and
fnding out where a snooker ball ends up when it is struck
by another snooker ball.
In 1687, Isaac Newton (1642-1727) published his Principia
Mathematica in which he set out a method for solving
these type of problems; hence the name Newtonian
Mechanics.
2.1 KINEMATICS
Introduction
Before we can solve such problems as outlined above we
need some method of describing quantitatively the motion
of particles.
Note. Te terms quantitative and qualitative are used a lot
in Physics and it is important to be clear as to their meaning.
Suppose that the motion of something was described as
follows - it got faster and faster and then suddenly came
to an abrupt stop a long way from where it started. Tis
would be a qualitative description of the motion. On the
other hand if the motion is described as follows - It started
from rest and headed due north with a positive acceleration,
of 15 m s
-2
for 20 s, reaching a velocity of 300 m s
-1
. Afer
20 s it acquired a negative acceleration of 50 m s
-2
again in a
Northerly direction and came to rest having a displacement
3.9 km due North from where it started. Tis is then a
quantitative description of the motion.
Te key words in the above quantitative description are
displacement, velocity and acceleration so let us look at
these so-called kinematic concepts in more detail.
2. 1. 1 Dene displacement, velocity, speed and
acceleration.

2. 1. 2 Explain the dierence between
instantaneous and average values of
speed, of velocity and of acceleration.
2. 1. 3 Outline the conditions under which the
equations for uniformly accelerated
motion may be applied.

2. 1. 4 Identify the acceleration of a body falling
in a vacuum near the Earths surface with
the acceleration g of free fall.
2. 1. 5 Solve problems involving the equations of
uniformly accelerated motion
2. 1. 6 Describe the eects of air resistance on
falling objects.
2. 1. 7 Draw and analyse distancetime graphs,
displacementtime graphs, velocitytime
graphs and accelerationtime graphs.
2. 1. 8 Calculate and interpret the slopes of
displacementtime graphs and velocity
time graphs, and the areas under velocity
time graphs and accelerationtime graphs.

2. 1. 9 Determine relative velocity in one and in
two dimensions.
IBO 2007
2.1.1 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY,
SPEED AND ACCELERATION
Displacement is a measured distance in a given direction.
It tells us not only the distance of an object from a
particular reference point but also the direction from the
reference point. So displacement is a vector quantity. In
many situations we will ofen measure the displacement
from the origin of a Cartesian co-ordinate system and
the displacement of a particle can be simply given as the
co-ordinates of a point (x, y, z). (Strictly speaking the
displacement should be written as a matrix [x, y, z] but that
need not concern us here since in most instances in this
chapter we will usually restrict ourselves to displacement
in the x-direction only).
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
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(4,0)
y
x
y
x
P
P
(8,0)
Figure 203 One method of calculating displacement
(3,5)
(6,2)
B
A
B-A
Figure 204 Another method of calculating displacement
Figures 203 and 204 are two examples of calculating
displacements. In Figure 203 the particle P is at the point
(4,0) at some instant and at a certain time later it is at a point
(8,0). Its displacement in this time interval is, therefore, 4
units in the positive x direction.
In Figure 204, the particle is at the point (6, 2) at some instant
and its displacement from the origin is represented by the
vector A. At some interval later the particle has moved to
the point (3, 5) and its displacement is represented by vector
B. Its displacement in this time interval is therefore B - A .
Exercise 2.1 (a)
A racing car travels round a circular track of radius 100 m
as shown in the diagram below.
100 m
100 m
O
P
Te car starts at O. When it has travelled to P its
displacement as measured from O is:
A 100 m due East
B 100 m due West
C 100
__
2 m South East
D 100
__
2 m South West
Speed
Tis is a concept with which you will all be familiar. Speed
tells us the rate at which a moving object covers distance
with respect to time. Hence we have
speed =
distance

_______

time

Velocity
Velocity is speed in a given direction. It is therefore a vector
quantity. To plot a course an airline pilot needs to know
not just the speed of the wind but from which direction it
is blowing i.e. the wind velocity must be known.
Example
In still water a motor boat has a maximum speed of
5 m s
-1
. Te boat sets of to cross from one bank of a river
to the other. Te river fows with a speed of 2 m s
-1
and
the motor boat engine is set to maximum. Calculate the
velocity of the motor boat.
Te solution to this problem involves simple vector addition.
Resultant velocity of
the boat
5
2
A

With reference to the above diagram the magnitude of

the resultant velocity of the boat is
ms
1
. 5
2
2
2
+ 5.4 =
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Te direction can be measured relative to the original
direction of the boat and is given by
the angle ( = 22).
2
5
-- -
1
tan 21.8 = =
( (
Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity in a given
direction. (Change in velocity time taken). In the SI
system the unit is metres per second per second. i.e. the
change in velocity measured in m s-1 every second. We
write this as m s-2. Since we defne acceleration in terms
of velocity it is therefore a vector quantity. It is important
to understand that the word deceleration has no place in
physics. If the acceleration of an object is positive then we
understand its rate of change of velocity to be positive and
it could mean that the speed of the body is increasing. A
body that is slowing down will have a negative acceleration.
However, do not think of acceleration as a slowing up or
getting faster. If a car for example goes round a bend in
the road at constant speed it is accelerating. Why? Because
the direction of the car is changing and therefore its
velocity is changing. If its velocity is changing then it must
have acceleration. Tis is sometimes difcult for people
to grasp when they frst meet the physics defnition of
acceleration because in everyday usage acceleration refers
to something getting faster. Similarly words like work and
power which can have very fexible meanings in everyday
usage are very precisely defned in physics. So beware.
As we shall see later on in this chapter it is very important
to keep in mind the vector nature of both velocity and
acceleration.
2.1.2 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE
VALUES
If you travel by car between two towns a distance of
200 km apart and your journey time is 4 hours your
average speed would be 50 km hr
-1
. Clearly this does not
mean that every time that you look at the speedometer
it would be reading 50 km h
-1
. Indeed for some of the
journey you could well have been having a cup of cofee
at a service station. Tis raises the question of what does
the reading on the speedometer actually mean. On a very
simplistic level it tells us that if we maintain this speed
then in one hour we will cover a distance of 50 km. At
another level it tells us that at that particular instant the
car has an instantaneous speed of 50 km h
-1
.
But speed is
distance

______

time
so what do we mean by an
instantaneous speed?
An experiment with free fall can help us understand this.
Figure 207 shows a ball being dropped between two light
gates which are connected to an electronic counter.
s
A
B
counter
Figure 207 An experiment in free fall
Te ball is dropped from a fxed point somewhere above
the light gate A. Te two light gates A and B connected to
the counter will record the time t that it takes the ball to
fall the distance s. Te average speed of the ball as it falls
between A and B is just
s
t
--
. Te ball is of course accelerating
as it falls so its speed is changing. Now imagine the light gate
B closer to A and repeat the experiment. We would obtain
a diferent value for the average velocity. As we repeat the
experiment several times, each time moving B closer to A,
we will fnd that the values of the average speed obtained
each time will be approaching some limiting value. Tis
limiting value is actually the instantaneous speed of the
ball as it passes A. When the distance between A and B
becomes very small (as does the corresponding time of
fall) then this distance divided by the time will very nearly
be equal to the instantaneous speed at A.
If we let the small distance equal s and the time of fall
equal t then the average speed v
av
over this distance is
v
av
=
s

___

t

and the instantaneous speed v is given by
v = lim
t 0

s

___

t

or v =
s

___

t
as t 0
(For those of you who do calculus you will recognise this as
the derivative
ds

__

dt
).
v
s
t
----- - as t 0 =
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If we are dealing with velocities then we must write the
above equation in vector form.
Te magnitude of instantaneous velocity is the instantaneous
speed of the object at the instant measured and the direction
of the velocity is the direction in which the object is moving
at that instant. Te concept of instantaneous acceleration
follows accordingly as
a
v
t
----- - as t 0 =
Where v is the change in velocity in time t.
2.1.3 THE EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY
ACCELERATED MOTION
Troughout most of the course we will deal with constant
accelerations and you will not be expected to solve problems
which involve non-uniform accelerations. Vector notation
will be used only when deemed necessary.
For objects moving with constant acceleration (in a
straight line) there is a set of three very useful equations
which relate displacement, velocity, acceleration and time
and we will now derive these.
Te equations only relate magnitudes and therefore we
will write the symbols in the equations in scalar form.
Let
t = the time for which the body accelerates
a = acceleration
u = the speed at time t = 0, the initial speed
v = the speed afer time t, the fnal speed
s = the distance travelled in time t
Te frst equation is just the defnition of acceleration. If
a body starts from rest then its speed afer a time t will be
given by v = at. If its initial speed is u then clearly,
v u at + =
Te sketch-graph in Figure 208 shows the variation with
time t of the speed v of a body moving with constant
acceleration a.
0
v
t
t=T
v=V
Figure 208 Variation Of Time With Speed
Since distance = speed time, the distance travelled is the
area under the speed-time graph. If the body starts from
rest, then the distance s travelled in a time t = T is s = 1 -2 vT
where v is the speed at time T.
From the defnition of acceleration, we have a = v/t, hence
s = 1 -2 aT
2
. In general, the distance s travelled in any arbitary
time t is therefore s = 1 -2 at
2
. If the body starts with speed u,
then clearly we have to add the extra area ut such that
s ut
1
2
-- -at
2
+ =
We can eliminate the time from this equation by substituting
in t
v u
a
----------- = from the frst equation such that
s u
v u
a
-----------
1
2
-- -a
v u
a
-----------
2
+ =
If we expand the brackets and collect up terms then we
see that
v
2
u
2
2as + =
Tis is the third equation for the set.
2.1.4 ACCELERATION OF FREE FALL
We have already alluded to the acceleration of free fall
(or acceleration due to gravity) above. Tis, as we have
seen, can be measured by placing two light gates a vertical
distance apart. Te velocity of a falling object as it passes
each of the gates is then calculated using the equation
s = 1 -2 at
2
.
Another way is to take a strobe photograph of a falling
object against the background of a measuring stick.
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Te following exercise demonstrates an alternative way
of analysing data obtained using strobe photographic
techniques. Tis method is based on the equations of
uniform motion.
Figure 209 shows the results of an experiment in which
the strobe photograph of a falling ball has been analysed.
Te strobe takes 20 pictures a second. Te time between
each picture is therefore 0.05 s. Te distance column is the
measured distance of each successive photograph of the
ball from the origin. Te error in the distance has been
estimated from parallax error in reading from the scale
against which the photographs have been taken and also
in locating the centre of the ball in each photograph.
You are to plot a graph of s against t
2
and from the graph
fnd a value of g. You should include error bars on the
graph and use these to calculate the error in the value of g
that you have determined.
time t/s 0.01/s distance s/cm 0.4 cm
0 0
0.05 1.2
0.10 4.8
0.15 10.9
0.20 19.4
0.25 30.3
0.30 43.7
0.35 59.4
0.40 77.6
0.45 98.2
0.50 121.2
0.55 146.7
0.60 174.6
Figure 209 Data For Free Fall
Some comments on g
In Chapter 6 we will see that the value of g varies with
position and with height above the Earths surface and also
in the absence of air resistance, the acceleration of free
falling objects is independent of their mass. Tis was frst
noted by Galileo who is reputed to have timed the duration
of fall for diferent objects dropped from the top of the
Leaning Tower of Pisa. Te fact that the acceleration of
free fall is independent of an objects mass has far reaching
signifcance in Physics and is discussed in more detail in
Topic H. (General relativity)
If you carry out an experiment to measure g and obtain
a value say of 9.4 m s
2
then make sure that you calculate
your error using the correct method. For example do not
assume that the value of g is 9.8 m s
2
and hence compute
your error in measurement as 4%. You do not know
what the value of g is at your location and that is why you
are measuring it. One correct way to calculate the error is
along the lines indicated in the preceeding exercise, i.e.,
using error bars.
2.1.5 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
THE EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY
ACCELERATED MOTION
Exercise 2.1 (b)
1. A stone is dropped down a well and a splash is
heard 2.4 s later. Determine the distance from the
top of the well to the surface of the water?
2. A girl stands on the edge of a vertical clif and
she throws a stone vertically upwards. Te stone
eventually lands in the sea below her. Te stone
leaves her hand with a speed of 15 m s
-1
and the
height of the clif is 25 m.
Calculate
i. the maximum height reached by the stone.
ii. the time to reach the maximum height.
iii. the speed with which the stone hits the sea.
iv. the time from leaving the girls hand that it
takes the stone to hit the sea.
3. A sprinter starts of down a track at a speed of
10 m s
-1
. At the same time a cyclist also starts
of down the track. Te cyclist accelerates to
a top speed of 20 m s
-1
in 4.0 s. Ignoring the
acceleration of the sprinter, determine the distance
from the start that the cyclist will pass the sprinter.
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2.1.6 THE EFFECT OF AIR RESISTANCE
So far in this discussion of motion we have ignored the
efects of air resistance. When an object moves though
the air, it is subjected to a retarding force and this force
can be very complicated particularly if the object moves at
high speed. Te force will also depend on the shape of the
object and its mass. Tink of the way in which a feather
foats to Earth compared to the way in which a stone falls.
However, for spherical objects moving at relatively low
speeds, experiment shows that the retarding force due to
air resistance, sometimes referred to as the drag force, is
directly proportional to the speed of the object (provided
that the density of the air stays constant). Efectively this
means that as the object moves faster and faster, the drag
force gets greater and greater until in fact it reaches a value
equal to the value of the force accelerating the object.
When this occurs the object will no longer accelerate and
will move with constant velocity. (We will discuss the
efect of forces on the motion of objects in much more
detail in the next section). Te constant velocity that the
object attains is called the terminal velocity. If a stone
is dropped from a balloon that is at a height of 5000 m,
then, if we ignore air resistance, the velocity with which it
strikes the ground is about 320 m s
-1
(about the speed of
sound). Because of air resistance the actual speed is much
less than this. For example if you fell out of the balloon,
your terminal velocity would be about 60 m s
-1
. Still not a
very comfortable speed with which to strike the ground.
Exercise 2 on page 39 will help you become familiar with
the idea of terminal velocity.
2.1.7 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
OF MOTION
A very useful way to describe the motion of an object
is to sketch a graph of its kinematics properties. Tis is
best illustrated by means of an example. Consider the
motion of a hard rubber ball that is dropped onto a hard
surface. Te ball accelerates uniformly under gravity. On
each impact with the surface it will lose some energy such
that afer several bounces it will come to rest. Afer each
successive bounce it will leave the ground with reduced
speed and reach a reduced maximum height. On the way
down to the surface it speeds up and on leaving the surface
it slows down.
Te graph in Figure 210 shows how we can best represent
how the velocity changes with time i.e., the velocitytime
graph.
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
time
O
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Figure 210 Changes of velocity with time
Te ball leaves the hand at point O and accelerates
uniformly until it hits the ground at A. At A it undergoes
a large acceleration during which its velocity changes
from positive to negative (being zero at B). Te change in
velocity between B and C is less than the change in velocity
between A and B since the rebound velocity is lower than
the impact velocity. Te ball accelerates from C to D at
which point it is at its maximum height and its velocity
is zero. Notice that even though its velocity is zero its
acceleration is not. Te ball now falls back to the surface
and hits the surface at point E. Neglecting air resistance
the speed of the ball at points C, and E will be the same.
Te process now repeats.
Te lines OA, CE and FG are parallel and the gradient of
these lines is the acceleration of free fall.g.
Te lines AC, EF and GH are also parallel and the gradient
of these lines is equal to the acceleration of the ball whilst
it is in contact with the surface. Te lines should not be
vertical as this would mean that the acceleration would
be infnite.
Te acceleration of the ball at points such as A, C and E is
not equal to g.
Sketching an accelerationtime graph taking into account
the acceleration of the ball whilst it is in contact with the
surface is a little tricky however, you might like to try it
as an exercise. For all other parts of the balls motion it
has a constant acceleration, g. Te speed-time graph is
interesting and this is lef as a question at the end of the
chapter.
Te displacementtime graph is also interesting and this
is also lef as a question at the end of the chapter.
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Exercise 2.1 (c)
1. A glider bounces backwards and forwards
between the bufers of a linear air-track.
Neglecting friction, which one of the graphs below
best represents how the
(a) velocity,
(b) acceleration,
(c) displacement and
(d) speed
of the glider varies with time?
time time
time time
A. B.
C. D.
2. For the example of the stone dropped from a
balloon and striking the ground and taking into
account air resistance sketch
i. a distancetime graph.
ii. a velocitytime graph.
iii. an accelerationtime graph.
2.1.8 ANALYSIS OF MOTION GRAPHS
A distance-time graph will help us to understand the
concept of instantaneous speed (or velocity).
Consider the distance-time graph of an object moving
with constant speed as shown in Figure 212
In this situation equal distances are covered in equal times
and clearly the speed is equal to the gradient of the graph
in this case, 10 m s
-1
. Te average speed is equal to the
instantaneous speed at all points.
Figure 212 Distance-time graph
If the velocity is not constant we can still fnd average
speeds and instantaneous speeds from displacementtime
graphs. To demonstrate this, let us look at the distance
time graph for a falling ball this is shown in Figure 213.
/

m
e
c
n
a
t
s
i
d
time / s 0 0.2 0.4 0. 6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1.8
0.4
Figure 213 Distance- time for a falling ball
From the graph we see that the time it takes the ball to
fall 1.0 m is 0.4 s. Te average speed over this distance is
therefore 2.5 m s
-1
. (Remember that speed is the magnitude
of velocity.)
To fnd say the instantaneous speed at 1.0 m we fnd the
gradient of the curve at this point.
To do this we draw the tangent to the point as shown.
From the tangent that is drawn, we see that the slope of
the line is 1.8 (= s) divided by 0.4 (= t) = 4.5 m s
-1

d
/
e
c
n
a
t
s
i
m
time / s 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
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Tis is actually what we mean when we write an
instantaneous speed as
s a v
P
s
t
----- - = t 0
v
P
is the instantaneous speed at the point P and
as
s
t
----- - t 0 is the gradient of the displacementtime
graph at the point P.
(Tose students who are familiar with calculus will recognise
this process as diferentiation. Te equation for the above graph

is s kt
2
= such that the derivative
ds
dt
----- 2kt = is the
gradient at any time t and hence the instantaneous speed).
When sketching or plotting a displacement-time graph we
have to bear in mind that displacement is a vector quantity.
Consider for example, the situation of an object that leaves
point A, travels with uniform speed in a straight line to
point B, returns to point A at the same constant speed
and passes through point A to a point C. If we ignore the
accelerations at A and B and regard the point A as the zero
reference point, then a sketch of the displacement-time
graph will look like that shown in Figure 214.
time d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
A
B
C
t
1
2t
1
Figure 214 Displacement-time Graph
VELOCITY (SPEED) - TIME GRAPHS
Te graph in Figure 215 shows how the velocity of the
falling ball varies with time.
Figure 215 Velocity-time graph for a falling ball
Te acceleration is the
change of velocity

____________

time
and in this and in this
case this is equal to the gradient of the straight line
and is equal to 10 m s
-2
. Tis is a situation of constant
acceleration but even when the acceleration is not constant
the acceleration at any instant is equal to the gradient of
the velocitytime graph at that instant.
In section 2.1.2 we saw that we defned instantaneous
acceleration as
a =
v

___

t
as t 0
Students familiar with calculus will recognise that
acceleration is the derivative
a =
dv

___

dt

which can also be written as:
a =
d

__

dt

(

ds

__

dt

)
=
d
2
s

___

dt
2

We can also determine distances from speedtime graphs.
Tis is easily demonstrated with the graph of Figure 216
which shows the speed time graph for constant speed.
time / s
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0
10
20
30
40
s
p
e
e
d

/

m

s

1
Figure 216 Speed-time graph to determine distance
time / / s 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0. 8 1.0 1.2 1.4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

/
m
s

1
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Te distance travelled is just velocity time. So at a
constant speed of 20 m s
-1
afer 10 s the object will have
travelled 200 m. Tis is of course equal to the area under
the line between t = 0 and t = 10 s.
If the velocity is not constant then the area under a
velocitytime graph will also be equal to the displacement.
So, for the falling ball, we see from the velocity time graph,
Figure 215, that the distance travelled afer 1.0 s is equal
to the area of the triangle of base 1.0 s and height 10 m s
-1

equals = 1.0 s 10 m s
-1
= 5.0 m
Example
A train accelerates uniformly from rest to reach a speed of
45 m s
-1
in a time of 3.0 min. It then travels at this speed for a
further 4.0 min at which time the brakes are applied. It comes
to rest with constant acceleration in a further 2.0 min.
Draw the speed-time graph for the journey and from the
graph calculate
(a) the magnitude of the acceleration between
0 and 3.0 min
(b) the magnitude of the acceleration afer the
brakes are applied
(c) the total distance travelled by the train
Solution
Te graph is shown plotted below
(a) the acceleration of the train in the frst 3
minutes is the gradient of the line AB.
Terefore, we have, a =
45
180
= + 0.25 m s
-2
(b) the acceleration of the train afer the brakes
are applied is the gradient of the line

CD = -
45
120
= - 0.38 m s
-2
(c) the distance travelled by the train is the
total area under the graph.
Total area
= area of triangle ABE + area BCFE + area of triangle CDF
= 17550 = 18000 m
= 18 km.
ACCELERATION-TIME GRAPHS
If the acceleration of an object varies it is quite tricky
to calculate the velocity of the object afer a given time.
However, we can use an acceleration-time graph to solve
the problem. Just as the area under a velocity-time graph is
the distance travelled then the area under an acceleration-
time graph is the chane in speed achieved. For the falling
ball the acceleration is constant with a value of 10 m s
2
.
A plot of acceleration against time will yield a straight line
parallel to the time axis, Figure 218. If we wish for example
to fnd the speed 3.0 s afer the ball is dropped, then this is
just the area under the graph:
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 1 2 3 4 5
time / s
a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

/

m

s

2
Figure 218 Acceleration - time graph
We could of course have found the speed directly from the
defnition of uniform acceleration i.e.
speed = acceleration time
Example
s
p
e
e
d
/
m

s

1
time / s 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0
10
20
30
40
50
speed time graph
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Example
Te acceleration of an object increases uniformly at a rate
of 3.0 m s
-2
every second. If the object starts from rest,
calculate its speed afer 10 s.
Solution
A plot of the acceleration-time graph for this situation is
shown in the graph below.
30
2 4 6 8 10 12
acceleration / m s
2
time /s
10
20
Te speed attained by the object afer 10 s is the area under
the line.
Terefore, speed = area enclosed by accelerationtime
graph
= 1 - 2 10 30 = 150 m s
-1
To summarise :
the gradient of a displacement-time graph is equal
to the velocity
the gradient of a velocity-time graph is equal to
the acceleration
the area under a velocity -time graph is equal to
the distance.
the area under an acceleration-time graph is the
change in velocity.
2.1.9 RELATIVE MOTION
Suppose that you are standing on a railway station platform
and a train passes you travelling at 30 m s
-1
. A passenger
on the train is walking along the corridor in the direction
of travel of the train at a speed of 1 m s
-1
. From your point
of view the speed of the person is 31 m s
-1
. In another
situation a car A is travelling at a speed of 25 m s
-1
and
overtakes a car B that is travelling in the same direction
at a speed of 20 m s
-1
. Te speed of car A relative to car B
is 5 m s
-1
. Clearly the determination of speed (and therefore
velocity and acceleration) depends on what it is measured
relative to.
Generally speaking, if the velocity of a particle A relative
to an assigned point or reference frame O is V
A
and the
velocity of a particle B relative to the same point is V
B
, then
the velocity of A relative to B is the vector diference V
A
V
B

(See Topic 1.3)
Te example that follows illustrates how relative velocity
is very important in situations such as plotting a correct
course for an aircraf or for a boat or ship.
Example
Te Figure below shows the two banks of a river. A
ferryboat operates between the two points P and Q that
are directly opposite each other.
P
Q
1.2 m s
1
90 m
Te speed of fow of the river relative to the riverbanks
is 1.2 m s
-1
in the direction shown. Te speed of the ferry
boat in still water is 1.8 m s
-1
in a direction perpendicular
to the river banks. Te distance between P and Q is 90 m.
Clearly, if the ferryboat sets of from P directly towards Q,
it will not land at Q.
It is lef as an exercise for you to show that the speed of the
ferryboat relative to the speed of the water is 2.2 m s
-1
and
that it will land at a point 60 m downstream of Q. You should
also show that, in order to land at Q, the ferry boat should
leave P heading upstream at an angle of 56 to the riverbank
and that the time taken to cross to Q is about 60 s.
For an aircraf, the rate of water fow becomes the wind
speed and for a ship at sea it becomes a combination of
wind, tide and current speeds.
Te idea of relative measurement has far reaching
consequences as will become clear to those of you who choose
to study Special Relativity (Option D or in Option H.)
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2. 2. 1 Calculate the weight of a body using the
expression W=mg.
2.2.2 Identify the forces acting on an object and
draw free-body diagrams representing the
forces acting.
2.2.3 Determine the resultant force in dierent
situations
IBO 2007
2.2.1 MASS AND WEIGHT
Before developing the ideas of Newtonian Mechanics, it is
important to discuss the concepts of mass and weight. In
everyday usage, mass and weight are ofen interchangeable; in
physics there is a fundamental diference between the concepts.
So what is mass? Some textbooks will tell you that it is
the quantity of matter in a body. However, this is pretty
meaningless for two reasons. It begs the question as to
what is meant by matter and also it gives no means of
quantifying mass. In respect of the latter, if a physicist
cannot measure something in the laboratory then that
something does not belong to physics.
Mass is one of the fundamental properties of all matter
and essentially measures a bodys inertia, that is, a bodys
reluctance to change its state of motion. Moving bodies
tend to keep on moving in the same direction and
stationary bodies dont start moving by themselves. Te
more massive a body, the more reluctant it is to change its
state of motion. As we shall see in Section 2.2.8, it is quite
possible to give a logical defnition to mass that enables a
physicist to quantify the concept. However, this defnition
does not tell you what mass is and why particles that make
up bodies should have mass is one of the great unsolved
mysteries of physics. Te situation is further complicated
by the fact that there are two types of mass. Tere is the
mass we have just described, inertial mass and then there
is the mass a body has that gives rise to the gravitational
attraction between bodies. Tis is the gravitational mass
of a body. We saw in Section 2.1.4 that experiment shows
that the acceleration of free fall is independent of the mass
of an object. Tis suggests that gravitational mass and
inertial mass are in fact equivalent. (See section 2.2.8)
Te equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass is one of
the cornerstones of Einsteins theory of general relativity
and is discussed in more detail in Option H. Te SI unit
of mass is the kilogram and the standard is the mass of a
platinum alloy cylinder kept at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures at Sevres near Paris.
We shall see in section 2.2.8 that when we talk about the
weight of a body what we actually mean is the gravitational
force that the Earth exerts on the body. So weight is a force
and since the force of gravity varies from place to place
and also with height above the Earths surface, the weight
of a body will also vary but its inertial and gravitational
mass remains constant.
Exercise 2.2 (a)
1. Tis exercise is designed to help you distinguish
between the concepts of mass and weight. Here are
six diferent hypothetical activities
(a) You weigh yourself using bathroom scales.
(b) You determine the mass of an object by
using a chemical beam balance.
(c) You determine the density of lead.
(d) You drop a brick on your foot.
(e) You trap your fngers in a car door.
(f) You design a suspension bridge.
Suppose that you were able to carry out these
activities on the moon. Discuss how would the
result of each activity compare with the result
when carried out on Earth.
2.2.2 IDENTIFYING FORCES AND FREE-
BODY DIAGRAMS
Force
Te word force crops up very ofen in everyday usage but
what actually does a physicist mean by force? One thing
is for certain, a physicist will not be able to tell you what
a force is and in many respects the question has little
meaning in physics. To a physicist a force is recognised by
the efect or efects that it produces. A force is something
that can cause an object to
deform i.e. change its shape
speed up
slow down
change direction.
2.2 FORCES AND DYNAMICS
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Te last three of these can be summarised by stating that
a force produces an acceleration.
So if you were to see an object that is moving along in
a straight line with constant speed, suddenly change
direction you would know immediately that a force had
acted on it even if you did not see anything tangible
pushing on the object. Tis is not as daf as it sounds,
just think of an object falling to the ground. Te fact that
free falling objects accelerate means that a force is acting
on them. As we have seen in Section 2.2.1, this force is the
force of gravity that the Earth exerts on the object and is
the weight of the body. We shall discuss the gravitational
force in more detail in Topic 6.1.
Since a force can produce an acceleration, it is clearly
a vector quantity. Hence, if two or more forces act on a
particle, to fnd the resultant acceleration we have to fnd
the resultant force. We use the word particle here because
if forces act on a body they can produce a deformation as
well as an acceleration. If they act on a particle that ideally
has no physical dimensions then it can only produce an
acceleration.
Spring forces
An interesting and very important type of force arises in
connection with springs. A typical spring can be made
by taking a length of wire and winding it round a pencil
such that each successive turn (coil) is in contact with the
previous turn. However, all school laboratories usually
posses a variety of commercially available springs. If you
hold one end of a spring in one hand and pull the other
end then clearly to extend the spring you have to exert a
force on the spring. If you dont hold one end of the spring,
then when you pull, it will accelerate in the direction that
you are pulling it. Holding one end and pulling the other
produces a tension force in the spring. Tis is illustrated in
Figure 221.
x
Fixed pole
P
u
ll
Figure 221 Forces on a spring
In Figure 222 the blue arrows show the tension forces set
up in the spring. Tere is a force that opposes the pulling
force and a force equal in magnitude to this force is also
exerted by the spring on the fxed support.
T
e
n
sio
n
fo
rc
e
x
P
u
llin
g
fo
r
c
e
Fixed pole
Figure 222 Tension forces in a spring
One thing that you will note as you pull the spring, is
that the further you extend the spring, then the greater
the force that you have to exert in order to extend it even
further. You can investigate how the force required to
extend the spring varies with the extension e of the spring
by simply hanging weights of diferent values on the end
of a vertically suspended spring. (Te force of gravity
measured in newtons that acts on a mass M can be found
to a very good approximation by multiplying M by 10).
Te results for a typical spring in which the force F is
plotted against the extension e is shown in Figure 223.
X
e /m
F/N
Figure 223 Graph of force against extension of a spring
Up to the point X the force F is directly proportional to e.
beyond this point the proportionality is lost. If the point X
is passed, the spring can become permanently deformed
in such a way that when the weights are removed the
spring will not go back to its original length. In the region
of proportionality we can write
F = ke
where k is a constant whose value will depend on the
particular spring. For this reason k is called the spring
constant. Tis spring behaviour is a specifc example of a
more general rule known as Hookes law of elasticity afer
the 17th century physicist Robert Hooke. For this reason
the region of proportionality is ofen referred to as the
Hookey region or elastic region and point X is called the
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elastic limit. We can see that a spring can be calibrated
to measure force and no doubt your physics laboratory
has several so-called newton metres. However, you
will discover that these newton metres do not provide a
particularly reliable method of measuring force.
Exercise 2.2 (b)
1. Te graph below shows how the length of a spring
varies with applied force.
5
10
15
10 20 30
F / N
length /cm
i. State the value of the unstretched length of
the spring.
ii. Use data from the graph to plot another
graph of force against extension and from
this graph determine the spring constant.
Fundamental forces
A discussion on forces would not be complete without
some reference to the so-called fundamental forces or
interactions as physicists prefer to call them.
Although at frst sight there seems to be a bewildering
number of diferent types of force, pushes, pulls, friction,
electrical, magnetic etc. physicists now recognise that
all the diferent forces arise from just four fundamental
forces.
Gravitational force
Te weakest of the four is the gravitational force. As we
have seen, this is the force that gives rise to the weight of
an object. However, as mentioned, we also understand
this force to act between all particles in the Universe.
Weak-interaction
A force which is about 10
26
times stronger than gravity
is the so-called weak-interaction. Tis is the interaction,
which is responsible for certain aspects of the radioactive
decay of nuclei.
Electromagnetic interaction
Te electromagnetic interaction is some 10
37
times stronger
than gravity and this is the force that exists between
particles as a consequence of the electrical charge that
they carry.
Strong nuclear interaction
Te strongest of all the forces is the strong nuclear
interaction (or just strong-interaction). Tis is some 10
39

times stronger than gravity and it is the force that holds
the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus.
All four of these interactions are discussed in more detail
throughout this book. However, a simple way of looking
at them is to think of the gravitational force as being
the force that accounts for planetary motion and the
way that galaxies are put together. Te electromagnetic
interaction is the force that accounts for the way in which
the electrons are arranged in atoms and as such is the force
that accounts for all chemical and biological processes.
Te strong interaction accounts for the nuclear structure
of the atom and the weak interaction accounts for how
the nucleus comes apart. Physicists would like to unify all
these forces into just one force. Tat is they would like to
fnd that all the interactions were just special cases of one
fundamental interaction. Tere has been some success in
unifying the weak and the electromagnetic interaction but
that is the current situation. (See also Topic J.1)
Free-Body Diagrams
We have seen that we can represent the forces acting
on a particle by lines with arrows, the lengths of which
represented the relative magnitude of the forces. Such
diagrams are a useful way to represent the forces acting on
a body or particle and are called free-body diagrams.
Figure 225 shows an object of mass M that is suspended
vertically by a thread of negligible mass. It is then pulled to
one side by a force of magnitude F and held in the position
shown.
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Mass = M
F
Figure 225 Forces acting on an object
Te free-body diagram for the forces acting on the object
in Figure 225 is shown in Figure 226
F
Weight = Mg
T
A
B
Figure 226 The Free-body Force Diagram for Fig. 225
Te weight of the object is Mg and the magnitude of the
tension in the thread is T.
Te object is in equilibrium (see 2.2.6) and so the net
force acting on it is zero. Tis means that the vertical
components of the forces must be zero as must the
horizontal components. Terefore, in the diagram the line
A is equal in length to the arrow representing the force F
and the line B is equal in length to the arrow representing
the weight. Te tension T, the resultant of A and B, is
found by the using the dotted line constructions.
When producing a free-body diagram, there is no
need to show these constructions. However, as well as
being in the appropriate directions, the lengths of the
arrows representing the forces should be approximately
proportional to the magnitudes of the forces. Te following
example is lef as an exercise for you.
Exercise 2.2 (c)
Draw a free-body force diagram of the forces acting on
an aircraf which is fying horizontally with constant
velocity.
2.2.3 DETERMINE THE RESULTANT
FORCE IN DIFFERENT
SITUATIONS
Example
Two forces act on particle P as shown in the Figure below
(N stands for newton and is the SI unit of force as we shall
see in the next section.)
Determine the magnitude of the net force acting in the
horizontal direction and the magnitude of the net force
acting in the vertical direction and hence determine the
resultant force acting on P.
4.0 N
6.0 N
30
P
Te component of the 4.0 N in the horizontal direction is
4.0 cos 30 = 3.5 N.
Hence the magnitude of the force in the horizontal
direction is 2.5 N.
2.0 N
2.5 N
R

Te component of the 4.0 N force in the vertical direction

is 4.0 sin 30 = 2.0 N and this is the magnitude of the force
in the vertical direction.
Te Figure above shows the vector addition of the
horizontal and vertical components.
Te resultant R has a magnitude = 3.2 N
and the angle = tan
-1
(2.0/2.5) = 39.
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2.2.4 State Newtons rst law of motion.
2.2.5 Describe examples of Newtons rst law.

2.2.6 State the condition for translational
equilibrium.
2.2.7 Solve problems involving translational
equilibrium.
IBO 2007
2.2.4 STATE NEWTONS FIRST LAW OF
MOTION
At the beginning of this chapter we stated that the general
mechanics problem is, that given certain initial conditions
of a system, to predict the future behaviour of the system.
Te method that Newton devised to solve this problem is
encompassed in his celebrated three laws of motion which
he published in his Principia Mathematica circa 1660.
Essentially Newton tells us to fnd out the forces acting on
the system. If we know these then we should in principle
able to predict the future behaviour of the system.
Newtons First Law is essentially qualitative and is based
on the work done by Galileo. Prior to Galileos work on
mechanics, the Aristotelian understanding of motion
was the accepted view, that a constant force is needed to
produce constant motion. Tis seems to ft in with every
day experience; if you stop pushing something then it will
stop moving, to keep it moving you have to keep pushing
it. Galileos brilliance was to recognise that the opposite
is actually the case and his idea is summarised in the
statement of Newtons First Law: every object continues
in a state of rest of uniform motion in a straight line
unless acted upon by an external force.
Te Aristotelian view does not take into account that when
you push something another force is usually acting on the
body that you are pushing, namely the force of friction.
In some situations, as we have seen, the frictional force,
acting on a moving object is a function of the objects
velocity and in fact increases with velocity. Hence a greater
engine power is required to move a car at high speed than
at low speed. We shall return to this idea later.
2.2.5 DESCRIBE EXAMPLES OF
NEWTONS FIRST LAW
If you eliminate friction and give an object a momentary
push, it will continue moving in the direction of the push
with constant velocity until it is acted upon by another
force. Tis can be demonstrated to a certain degree using
the linear air-track. It is to a limited degree since it is
impossible to eliminate friction completely and the air
track is not infnite in length. It is in this sense impossible
to prove the frst law with absolute certainty since sooner
rather than later all objects will encounter a force of some
kind or another.
In fact Arthur Eddington (1882- 1944), is reputed to have
quoted Newtons frst law thus:
Every object continues in a state of rest or uniform motion
in a straight line in so far as it doesnt.
By this he meant that nothing in the Universe is ever at
rest and there is no such thing as straight line motion.
However, we are inclined to believe that if a body is not
acted upon by a force, then Galileos description of its
motion is correct.
It is sometimes difcult to discard the Aristotelian view of
motion particularly in respect of objects which are subject
to a momentary force. Consider the example shown in
Figure 229:
gravity
forward thrust
ball
gravity
ball
1. 2.
Figure 229 Aristotelian and Galilean forces on a ball
A girl throws a ball towards another girl standing some
metres away from her, it is tempting to think that, as
Aristotle did, there must be a forward thrust to keep the
ball moving through the air as shown in 1. However, if air
resistance is neglected, the only force acting on the ball is
gravity as shown in 2.
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2.2.6, 2.2.7
STATE THE CONDITION FOR
TRANSLATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM
Tere are essentially two types of equilibrium, static
and dynamic. If an object is at rest, then it is in static
equilibrium and, if it is moving with constant velocity,
then it is in dynamic equilibrium. It follows from Newtons
frst law that the condition for both equilibriums is that
the net force acting on the object is zero. We can express
that mathematically as F = 0. Tat is the vector sum of
the forces acting on the object is zero.
Static equilibrium
Consider the simple case of a book resting on a table. Clearly
gravity acts on the book and without the intervention of
the table, the book would fall to the ground. Te table
therefore exerts an equal and opposite force on the book.
Tis force we call the normal reaction. Te force acting on
the book are shown in Figure 231
N normal reaction
surface of table
W weight of the book (due to gravity)
W= N
Figure 231 Static forces on a book
Dynamic equilibrium
Now consider the case where the book, or any other object,
is pulled along the surface of the table with constant
velocity. Gravity and the normal reaction are still acting
but there is now a frictional force acting which is equal
in magnitude but opposite in direction to the pulling
force. Te force diagram for this situation is shown in
Figure 232.
Figure 232 Dynamic forces on a book
Suppose that we were to pull the object with a force as
applied to it as shown in Figure 233.
Figure 233 Forces on the book
In this situation, it is quite likely that the book will not
move along the table but actually rotate in the direction
shown by the arrow in Figure 233.
Tis again demonstrates that in fact we should apply the
Newton laws of motion to particles. Unless the pulling
force acts through what we call the centre of mass of the
object then the pulling force and the frictional force can
produce rotation. Tis is quite a subtle point. However, in
many situations in this chapter we will refer to objects and
bodies when strictly speaking we mean particles. Tere
is in fact a branch of mechanics known as Rigid Body
Mechanics which specifcally deals with the mechanics of
extended bodies rather than particles. Tis is not covered
in the IB course. However, we can still get quite a long way
with mechanics by considering bodies to act as particles.
2.2.8 State Newtons second law of motion.
2.2.9 Solve problems involving Newtons second
law.
IBO 2007
2.2.8 NEWTONS SECOND LAW OF
MOTION
Te vector form of the equations relating to Newtons
Second Law given in this section, show that the vectors
act in the same straight line (for example, the force and
acceleration in F = ma). In the IB Physics data booklet, all
vector equations are given in scalar form i.e. they relate just
the magnitudes of the quantities.
Newtons First Law as we have seen is qualitative in nature.
With his second law we move into quantitative territory, for
it is essentially the second law that enables us to tackle the
general mechanics problem (at least in principle). A force
produces an acceleration when it acts on a particle and
Newton argued that for a given particle the acceleration is
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directly proportional to the force acting and is in the same
direction as the applied force. Furthermore the constant of
proportionality that relates the two is the inertial mass of
the particle. We can therefore write that
F = ma
Tis is Newtons second law in its simplest form. Tere are
however, many situations where the mass of the system
does not remain constant e.g. a frework rocket, sand
falling on to a conveyor belt etc. It is therefore helpful to
express the law in a more general form.
We can express the acceleration a in terms of the rate of
change of velocity i.e.
F m
v
t
------ =

We now defne a quantity called the linear momentum p
of the object as
p = mv
such that we can now write Newtons second law if the
form
F
p
t
------ - =
We shall discuss the concept of momentum in more detail
in Section 2.2.10
Although it is possible to verify Newtons Second Law
directly by experiment its real validity is understood
in terms of the experimentally verifable results that
it predicts. In a sense this law is the whole of Classical
Mechanics and tells us that if we pay attention to the
forces then we can fnd the acceleration and if we know
the acceleration then we know the future behaviour of the
particle.
Newton in essence says fnd the force law governing
a system and you will be able to predict its behaviour.
Unfortunately, it is not always possible to know the
force law. Newton himself gave one, his famous law of
gravitation, which we will look at in Topic 6.1. However,
in such situations such as the collision of two billiard balls
we do not know the force acting nor do we know the force
acting between the millions of molecules of a gas, solid
or liquid. In situations such as these we have to fnd some
other means of solving the problem and these we look at
some of these methods in Sections 2.2.13 and 2.3.6.
We can use Newtons Second Law to understand the
equivalence between inertial and gravitational mass. A
simple argument shows this to be so. If we assume that the
gravitational force F
G
that the Earth exerts on an object is
proportional to the gravitational mass m
G
of the object.
We can write this as
F
G
= Km
G
where K is a constant.
Te acceleration g of the object is given by Newtons second
law.
F
G
= Km
G
= m
I
g
where m
I
is the inertial mass of the object.
But experiment shows that g is a constant and has the
same value for all objects. Hence, it follows from the above
equation that m
G
= m
I
with g = K.
If we have an independent defnition of inertial mass, then
we can use the second law to defne a unit of force. Te SI
unit of force is the newton (N) and it is that force which
produces an acceleration of 1 m s
-2
in a mass of 1 kg. Tis
is an absolute defnition in that it does not depend on the
properties of any material or any outside infuence such as
pressure and temperature.
Te second law also enables us to quantify the relationship
between mass and weight. As has been previously stated
the acceleration of free fall is the same for all objects. If its
value is g and an object has a mass m then from the second
law we see that the gravitational force exerted on it by the
Earth has a value mg. Hence mg is the weight of the object.
If we take g to have a value of 10 m s
-2
then a mass of 1 kg
will have a weight of 10 N close to the surface of the Earth.
On the Moon where the acceleration of gravity is about
1.7 m s
-2
a mass of 1 kg will have a weight of about 1.7 N.
In the rest of this section we will look at some examples of
the application of the second law and give some exercises.
Hopefully, this will help you gain familiarity with its use.
Remember that it is a very, very important law.
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2.2.9 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
NEWTONS SECOND LAW
Example
Te diagram below shows a block of wood of mass 1.0 kg
attached via a pulley to a hanging weight of mass 0.5 kg.
Assuming that there is no friction between the block
and the bench and taking g to be 10 m s
2
, calculate the
acceleration of the system.
Solution
Te force acting on the system is the weight of the hanging
mass which is 0.50 kg = 5 N
Using Newtons second law F = m a
we have 5.0 = (1.5) a
Hence a = 3.3
Tat is, the acceleration is 3.3 m s
-2
.
Example
A person of mass 70 kg is strapped into the front seat
of a car, which is travelling at a speed of 30 m s
1
. Te
car brakes and comes to rest afer travelling a distance of
180 m. Estimate the average force exerted on the person
during the braking process.
Solution
We can use the equation v
2
u
2
2as + = to calculate the
magnitude of the average acceleration of the car.
In this instance we have that u = 30, v = 0 and s = 180, so that
0
2
30
2
2 180a a +
900
360
--------- = =

= 2.5 m s
-2
Te negative sign indicates that the car is slowing down.
Using Newtons second law (F = ma) we have that
F = 70 -2.5 = 175.
Hence the average force on the person, is 175 N (in the
opposite direction to the direction of motion).
Exercise 2.2 (d)
1. A person stands on bathroom scales placed on the
foor of a lif. When the lif is stationary the scales
record a weight of 600 N. Te person now presses
the button for the 6th foor. During the journey to
the 6th foor the scales read 680 N, then 600 N,
then 500 N and fnally 600 N. Explain these
observations and calculate any accelerations that
the lif might have during the journey.
2. Tree forces act as shown on a particle of mass
0.500 kg as shown in this Figure. Calculate the
acceleration of the particle.
4.00 N
3.00 N
5.00 N
143
pulley
0. 50 kg
1. 0 kg
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Also, in terms of the momentum change we have seen that
we can express the second law as
t

p
F
Here p is the change in momentum produced by the
force F in time t.
From the second law in the form
t

p
F

we see that
F t = p
Te term F t is called the impulse of the force and it is a
very useful concept in solving certain types of problem,
particularly in situations where the force acts for a short
time such as kicking a football. We also see by expressing
the second law in this way that an equivalent unit for
momentum is N s.
2.2.11 DETERMINE THE IMPULSE DUE
TO A TIME VARYING FORCE
Suppose that the force exerted on football when it is kicked
varies with time as shown in Figure 236.
F
o
r
c
e
/
N
time / s 0 0. 05 0.1 0. 15 0.20 0. 25 0. 30
0
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 236 Force Time Graph
Since the area under the graph is equal to the impulse we
can calculate the speed with which the football leaves the
foot.
Te area equals

1

_

2
( 50 0.14 ) + ( 50 0.14 ) +
1

_

2
( 50 0.08 ) = 13.5 N s
Suppose that the mass of the football is 0.40 kg then from
F t p m v = = , we have that v =
13.5

____

0.40
= 34
2.2.10 Dene l i near momentum and i mpul se.
2.2.11 Determine the impulse due to a time varying
force by interpreting a force-time graph
2.2.12 State the law of conservation of linear
momentum.
2.2.13 Solve problems involving momentum and
impulse.
(Students should be familiar with elastic and
inelastic collisions and explosions. Knowledge of
the coecient of restitution is not required).
IBO 2007
2.2.10 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND
IMPULSE
In his Principia Mathematica Newton introduces the idea
of quantity of motion in which he brings together the inertia
of a body and the speed with which it is moving. Te two
quantities mass and speed do seemed to be linked in the
sense that taken together they have an efect on inertia.
An ocean liner of mass several thousand tonnes moving
at even a very low speed takes a lot of stopping. If it does
not stop before coming into dock it will do an enormous
amount of damage when it hits the dock. Similarly a bullet
with a mass of several grams moving with very high speed
also takes a lot of stopping and can do great damage in
the process of coming to rest. Rather than combining
mass and speed, following Newton we combine mass and
velocity and, as we saw in the section on Newtons Second
Law, we defne the linear momentum p (the quantity that
Newton called quantity of motion) of a body as
p = mv
Note that momentum is a vector quantity and that the unit
is kg m s
-1
.
In his Principia Newton states his Second Law of Motion
as follows: Te rate of change of linear momentum of a
particle is directly proportional to the impressed force
acting upon it and takes place in the direction of the
impressed force.
Tis is in fact the form in which you should remember the
second law of motion since the law in the form F = ma is
actually, as we have seen, a special case.
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Tat is, the change in velocity is 34 m s
-1
.
In actuality one is much more likely to use the
measurement of the speed of the football to estimate the
average force that is exerted by the foot on the football.
Te time that the foot is in contact with the ball can be
measured electronically and the speed of the football can
be computed by measuring its time of fight.
Here is another example in which we use the ideas of
impulse and the rate of change of momentum.
Example
Water is poured from a height of 0.50 m on to a top pan
balance at the rate of 30 litres per minute. Estimate the
reading on the scale of the balance.
Solution
We shall assume here that the water bounces of the top of
the balance horizontally. Again we can calculate the speed
with which the water hits the balance.
From the equation v
2
= 2as
we have v
2
= 2 10 0.50 = 10. So, v = 3.2 m s
-1
.
Te mass of water arriving at the balance per second is
0.50 kg s
-1
.
Te rate of change of momentum is therefore 0.50 32.
= 1.6 N.
If the balance is calibrated in grams the reading will therefore
be about 160 g.
Can you think of an example of where the theory of impulse
has been used to good efect?
One example is the reason why crash barriers between the
opposite lanes on a highway are made of crumpling material.
Te crumpling means that on collision, a car will come to
rest in a greater time. Te change in momentum of the car
would be the same as if the barrier were made of concrete
but the F in Ft is now smaller since t is larger.
2.2.12 STATE THE LAW OF
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR
MOMENTUM
One of the most important aspects of Newtons laws is
that the second and third law (See section 2.2.14) lead
to the idea that in any interaction in a closed (isolated)
system, linear momentum is always conserved, that is it
stays constant. By a closed system, we mean one in which
no external forces act. We can get an idea of this from the
fact that the second law tells us that the external impressed
force is equal to the rate of change of momentum. If there
is no external force then there is no rate of change of
momentum of the system as a whole and therefore the
momentum does not change, that is, it remains constant.
Consider for example, a system that comprises interacting
particles. When two particles A and B collide when they
are in contact, it follows from Newtons third law that the
force that A exerts on B is equal and opposite to the force
that B exerts on A. Tis means that the net force that is
exerted on the system comprising A and B is zero. If the
net force is zero then it follows that there is no change in
momentum of the system. In collision processes we can
therefore express the law of conservation of momentum as
momentum before collision = momentum afer collision.
However, the more general statement of the law is:
If the total external force acting on a system is zero
then the momentum of the system remains constant (is
conserved).
Or simply that: Te momentum of a closed system is
constant (conserved).
For those of you who do calculus the conservation of linear
momentum is easily derived from Newtons second law.
2.2.13 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
(Elastic and inelastic collisions are discussed in section 2.3.8)
We now look at a problem that cannot be solved by using
the Second Law in the form F = ma.
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2.0m/s
Figure 237 The conveyor belt problem
Suppose that sand is poured vertically at a constant rate of
400 kg s
-1
on to a horizontal conveyor belt that is moving
with constant speed of 2.0 m s
-1
. (See Figure 237)
We wish to fnd the minimum power required to keep
the conveyor belt moving with constant speed. In every
second the horizontal momentum of the sand changes by
400 2.0 kg m s
-1
. Tis means that the rate of change of
momentum of the sand is 800 kg m s
-2
.
Te force exerted on the conveyor belt by the sand is
therefore 800 kg m s
-2
. Tis force is the frictional force
between the sand and the conveyor belt and it is this force
which accelerates the sand to the speed of the conveyor
belt. Te power therefore to keep the conveyor belt moving
at this speed is this force multiplied by the speed of the
belt. i.e. the power (P) equals (Fv) = 1600 W. (see below)
We can also work out the rate of change of kinetic energy
of the sand since the change in KE every second is
800 J s
-1
(see below). Tis is quite interesting since we see
that whatever the nature of the sand or the belt we always
lose half the power in dissipation by the frictional force.
Example
Estimate the force exerted on a man who jumps of a wall
of height 2.0 m and lands in sof earth.
Explain why he would be likely to hurt himself if he landed
on concrete.
Solution
We estimate the mass of the man as 70 kg and the time that
he comes to rest on landing on the earth to be 2.0 s.
We can fnd the speed with which he hits the ground from
v
2
= 2g h. i.e.
v = 6.3 m s
-1
His change in momentum on coming to rest is therefore
70 6.3 N s.
Tis is equal to the impulse Ft. hence we see that
F = 70
6.3

___

2.0
= 220 N.
Terefore total force = 220 + 700 = 920 m.
Admittedly this problem could have been solved by
computing the acceleration of the man on landing and
coming to rest from the equation v = at. However, this
involves another step and is not as elegant a solution since
it doesnt really get to the physics.
If he were to land on concrete then he would come to rest
much more quickly. However his change in momentum
would be the same hence the F in the impulse Ft would
be much greater.
Along with the law of conservation of energy (see 2.3.6)
(strictly speaking mass-energy, see topic 7.3.4), the law
of conservation of momentum is of great importance in
Physics. Although Newtons laws are found not to work
when applied to atoms and molecules and are also modifed
by Relativity theory, the law of conservation of momentum
still stands. (If you were to invent a new theory, no matter
how elegant the theory, if it violates conservation of energy
and momentum then you can forget it.)
Te beauty of a law such as the conservation of momentum
is that we are able to predict an outcome without knowing
the intricacies of what actually is going on. When two
billiard balls collide, the forces that act during collision
are very complicated and we have no idea of their spatial
and time dependence. However, because we know that the
forces are equal and opposite we are able to predict the
outcome of the collision.
Figures 238-241 on the next page show some examples of
collisions and their possible outcomes.
(Remember, momentum is a vector quantity).
Te outcome of a collision will depend on the mass of
each particle, their initial velocities and also how much
energy is lost in the collision. However, whatever the
outcome, momentum will always be conserved. Any
predicted outcome which violates the conservation of
linear momentum will not be accepted.
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Exercise 2.2 (e)
1. A bullet of mass 9.0 g leaves the barrel of a rife
with a speed of 8.0 10
2
m s
-1
. Te mass of the rife
is 1.8 kg. If the rife is free to move, calculate the
speed with which it recoils.
2. Sarah is standing on the horizontal surface of a
frozen pond. She throws a ball of mass 250 g. Te
ball leaves her hand with a horizontal speed of
8.0 m s
-1
. As a result, Sarah moves with an initial
speed of 5.0 cm s
-1
. Estimate Sarahs mass.
3. In a particular thunderstorm, the hailstones
and raindrops have the same mass and terminal
velocity. Explain, with reference to Newtons
Second Law why the hailstones hurt more that
raindrops when they hit you.
4. A football of mass 0.46 kg attains a speed of
7.7 m s
-1
when kicked. Te toe of the football boot
with which it is kicked is in contact with the ball
for 0.26 s.
Calculate
(a) the impulse given to the ball
(b) the average force exerted on the ball.
Case 1:
Figure 238 Case 1
Case 2:
Figure 239 Case 2
Case 3:
Figure 240 Case 3
Case 4:
Figure 241 Case 4
=
u
1
u
2
m
1
m
2
m
1
m
2
v
1
0 =
v
2
m
1
u
1
m
2
u
2
m
2
v
2
=
u
1
u
2
m
1
m
2
m
1
m
2
v
1
v
2
m
1
u
1
m
2
u
2
m
1
v
1
m
2
v
2
+
=
u
1
u
2
m
1
m
2
m
1
m
2
v
1
v
2
m
1
u
1
m
2
u
2
+ m
1
v
1
m
2
v
2
+
=
u
1
u
2
m
1
m
2
m
1
m
2
v
coupled
m
1
u
1
m
2
u
2
+ m
1
m
2
+ ( )v
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2.2.14 STATE NEWTONS THIRD LAW
OF MOTION
Students should understand that when two bodies A
and B interact, the force that A exerts on B is equal and
opposite to the force that B exerts on A. As was suggested
in the introduction, Newtons Second Law does not always
work. It does not give the right answers when we apply it
to atoms and molecules nor does it give the right answer
when particle are moving with speed close to that of the
speed of light. However his third law of motion as far as
we know is valid across the whole of physics. It is really
quite a remarkable piece of insight and has, as we shall see,
far reaching consequences. In fact, Ernst Mach, a famous
turn of the century physicist ,regarded the third law has
Newtons greatest contribution to Mechanics.
Newton formulated this law based on an idea frst put
forward by Descartes. Te law basically says that forces
always appear in equal and opposite pairs. To state the law
more formally:
When a force acts on a body, an equal and opposite force
acts on another body somewhere in the universe.
We saw in our discussion on momentum conservation,
that for momentum to be conserved when two bodies A
and B collide, then whilst in contact, the force that A exerts
on B is equal and opposite to the force that B exerts on A.
Which is of course an example of Newtons third law.
2.2.15 DISCUSS EXAMPLES OF
NEWTONS THIRD LAW
In some texts the law is stated as to every action there is
an equal and opposite reaction. However, this can lead to
some confusion. To see why, let us look at the situation of
the book on the table. Te book is in equilibrium so we
conclude that the force that the book exerts on the table
is balanced by a reaction force, the force that the table
exerts on the book. We can ask the question what if the
book is so heavy that it breaks the table?. Does this mean
that Newtons third law no longer works? No, because this
is not an example of Newtons third law. Let us look at the
situation more carefully to see just how the third law is
working. In Figure 242 we illustrate all the forces acting.
Te weight of the book is the force X and this is the force
that the earth exerts on the book. Te force Y is the force
that the book exerts on the Earth.
X
Y
B
A
Earth
table
book
Figure 242 The forces acting
when a book rests on a table
Te table is actually incidental to the action of these forces.
Te two forces are the equal and opposite pair referred to
in the third law such that
X + Y = 0
If the table is not there, the book falls towards the Earth
and the Earth falls towards the book. Both the book and
the Earth will accelerate in accordance with Newtons
second law. However, considering that the earth is some
10
26
times more massive than the book, we do not observe
the acceleration of the Earth.
Te force A is the force that the table exerts on the book.
Te force B is the force that the book exerts on the table.
Tese two forces are again an equal and opposite pair of
forces referred to in the third law such that
A + B = 0
So what is the origin of these two forces? Tey actually
arise from the interaction forces between the molecules of
the book and the molecules of the table. Te interaction
force is complex but essentially between any two molecules
there is either a force of repulsion or a force of attraction.
Which force operates depends on the separation of the
molecules and, in equilibrium, the two molecules will take
up a separation at which the repulsion force balances the
attraction force. If we push the molecules closer together
the repulsion force becomes greater than the attraction
force and if the push is released the molecules will move
back to the equilibrium position. It is this repulsion force
which stops you falling through the foor.
If we pull the molecules further apart then the attraction
force becomes greater than the repulsion force and if we
release the pull, the molecules will move back to the
equilibrium position. Te attraction force is why you need
to apply a force to stretch a spring and the repulsion force
is why you need to apply a force to compress a spring.
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Te three situations are illustrated in Figure 243.
Figure 243 Forces between molecules
Te magnitude of both the attraction and repulsion forces
depends on the separation of the molecules. Te repulsion
force increases very rapidly as the molecules get closer
together and this is why it requires a much greater force to
compress certain solids than it does to extend them. So we
see that the table can still break without violating the third
law. When the table breaks we just have a re-arrangement
of its molecular structure.
When students frst encounter the third law they sometime
say things like if, when a force is exerted on an object
there is an equal and opposite reaction, how can anything
ever move? Equal and opposite forces must mean the net
force on everything is always zero. Tink of the Earth and
the book. When the table is not present, there is a net force
on the book and it accelerates in accordance with Newtons
second law. It is the net force on the system of the Earth
and the book that is zero. Similarly if we think of a horse
pulling a cart, the acceleration of the cart depends not on
the forces that it might exert on something else, but on the
forces that are exerted on it.
We have gone into the third law in some detail because
it is an area of physics which is ofen misunderstood
by students. Basically, remember to be careful when
identifying the system in which the equal and opposite
forces appear. Also remember that when computing the
acceleration of a body, it is the forces that act on the body
that are considered, not the forces that it exerts on other
bodies.
It is the third law which enables physicists to give a logical
defnition of mass. Tis is something that you will not be
expected to know for the examination and it is included for
the inquisitive who are puzzled as to how two quantities,
force and mass, can be defned from one equation, F = m a.
Te answer is that they are not.
If a system consists of two isolated particles that exert equal
and opposite forces on each other, then the ratio of their
acceleration will be in the inverse ratio of their masses.
One of the particles can be considered to be a standard
mass and the acceleration of other particles interacting
with this standard can be measured in order to determine
their mass
Exercise 2.2 (f )
In 1920, the Smithsonian published an original
paper by Robert Goddard titled, A Method for
Reaching Extreme Altitudes, in which Goddard
included a small section stressing that rockets
could be used to send payloads to the Moon.
Te next day, the New York Times wrote a scathing editorial
denouncing his theories as folly. Goddard was ridiculed
and made to look like a fool. Te editorial stated that travel
in space by rocket was impossible because a rocket would
have no air to push against. Discuss, with reference to
Newtons law why the editor of the New York Times was
actually the fool.
2.3 WORK, ENERGY
AND POWER
2.3.1 Outline what is meant by work.
2.3.2 Determine the work done by a non-
constant force by interpreting a force
displacement graph. A typical example
would be calculating the work done in
extending a spring. See 2.3.7
2.3.3 Solve problems involving the work done
by a force.
IBO 2007
2.3.1 OUTLINE WHAT IS MEANT BY WORK
Te terms work and energy are used frequently in everyday
speech. However, although it is possible to give an exact
physical defnition of work it is not so easy to defne
precisely what is meant by energy. We ofen use the term
in the context of having enough energy to get something
done. So for the time being, let us be happy with this
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idea and also note that getting something done usually
involves a transfer of energy from one form to another.
For example a car engine uses fuel in order to get the car
moving and to keep it moving, you eat food in order to
live, oil is burned in a power station to provide electrical
energy and you can think of other examples.
h
Engine
mg
2 mg
2h
2
mg
mg
Figure 244 Fuel used to lift a weight
In Figure 244 we imagine a situation in which we are using
fuel in an engine whose function is to lif a weight mg to a
certain height.
In the frst diagram the engine lifs the weight to a height
h and in the second diagram the engine lifs a weight 2mg
to a height 2h. In the frst situation let us suppose that the
engine requires 1 dm
3
of fuel to complete the task. Ten in
the second situation we would guess that the engine would
require 4 dm
3
of fuel. Te amount of fuel used is a measure
of the energy that is transferred and to complete the tasks
we say that the engine has done work. Te amount of work
that is done will be a measure of the energy that has been
transferred in the performance of the tasks. Clearly the
engine has done work against a force, in this situation, the
force of gravity. If we double the force i.e. the weight, then
the work done is doubled and if we double the distance
through which the weight is moved then the work done
is also doubled. If we double both together, then the work
done is quadrupled. It seems that we can defne work as:
Work = force distance moved
However, we have to be careful in using this defnition.
Consider the situation below in which the engine lifs the
weight up a slope to height h.
s
mg
Engine
h

Figure 245 Using a slope

We shall assume that the surface of the slope is frictionless.
Te work W done by the engine using the above defnition
is:
W = force s
where s is the distance up the slope.
Te force this time is the component of the weight down
the slope.
Hence, W = mg sin s
But sin =
h

__

s
s =
h

____

sin

meaning that W = mg sin s = mg sin
h

____

sin

= mgh
Tat is,
W = mgh
Tis is just the amount of work that the engine would
have performed if it had lifed the weight directly. Our
defnition of work therefore becomes
Work = magnitude of the force displacement in the
direction of the force
Which is the same as
work = magnitude of the component of the force in the
direction moved the distance moved
Te SI unit of work is the newton metre and is called
the joule named afer the 19th Century physicist James
Prescott Joule.
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2.3.2 THE WORK DONE BY A NON-
CONSTANT FORCE
Clearly, when a spring is stretched or compressed, work is
done. Tat a stretched spring or a compressed spring has
the potential to do work is apparent from many everyday
examples and it is lef as an exercise for you to describe
some of the examples.
Figure 246 (a) below shows a plot of a constant force
against displacement and Figure 246 (b) shows a plot of
the spring force against displacement.
Graph 1 Graph 2
x
Forc e
F
Force
x
d
s
F
Figure 246 (a) and (b) Force vs displacement graphs
Te area under each of the graphs is clearly equal to the
work done. In Figure 256 (a) when the force F undergoes a
displacement d the work done is Fd. In Figure 246 (b) when
the force F produces an extension s then the work done is
1
2
-- -Fs. But in this case F = ks, hence the work done is
1
2
-- - ks ( ) s
1
2
-- -ks
2
=
Te work that has been done is stored in the spring as
elastic potential energy E
elas
. Te adjective potential in this
context essentially means hidden. Clearly
E
elas
=
1

__

2
ks
2
We can extend this idea to fnd the work done by any
non-constant force. If we know how the force depends
on displacement then to fnd the work done by the force
we just compute the area under the force-displacement
graph.
2.3.3 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
THE WORK DONE BY A FORCE
Example
A force of 100 N pulls a box of weight 200 N along a
smooth horizontal surface as shown in the Figure below.
45
100 N
Calculate the work done by the force
(a) in moving the box a distance of 25 m along
the horizontal
(b) against gravity.
Solution
(a) Te component of the force along the
direction of motion, i.e., the horizontal
component, F
h
, can be determined by using
the fact that
cos 45 =
F
h


___

100

F
h
= 100 cos45
= 71 N
Tat is, the component of the force along
the direction of motion is 71N. Terefore
the work done (F s) = 71 25 = 1780
Tat is, the work done is 1780 J.
(b) Tere is no displacement by the force in the
direction of gravity. Hence the work done
by the force against gravity is zero.
Suppose that a constant frictional force of 50 N acts on
the box. How much work is done against friction? Again,
using the fact that W = force distance, we have that the
work done is simply 50 25 = 1250 N.
Notice that in the above example we use the expressions
work done by and work done against. Tis occurs
over and over again in physics. For example the engine
lifing the weight does work against gravity. However, if
45
100 N
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the weight is allowed to fall, the work is done by gravity.
Strictly speaking we have a sign convention for work. Te
convention is that
Work done on a system is negative.
Work done by a system is positive.
In the example above, the box can be identifed as the system.
Although this convention is not always important in many
mechanics situations, it is of great importance when we
come to consider the relationship between heat and work
(Chapter 10) and in the relation between feld strength
and potential (Chapter 9)
Exercise 2.2 (g)
A man drags a sack of four of mass 50 kg at constant
speed up an inclined plane to a height of 5.0 m. Te plane
makes an angle of 30 with the horizontal and a constant
frictional force of 200 N acts on the sack down the plane.
Calculate the work that the man does against:
(a) friction.
(b) gravity.
2.3.4 Outline what is meant by kinetic energy.
2.3.5 Outline what is meant by change in
gravitational potential energy.
2.3.6 State the principle of conservation of
energy.
2.3.7 List dierent forms of energy and describe
examples of the transformation of energy
from one form to another.
2.3.8 Distinguish between elastic and inelastic
collisions.
IBO 2007
2.3.4 KINETIC ENERGY
A moving object possesses the capacity to do work. A
hammer, for example, by virtue of its motion can be used
to do work in driving a nail into a piece of wood.
So how do we fnd out just how much work a moving
object is capable of doing?
In the diagram below, a force F moves an object of mass m
a distance d along a horizontal surface. Tere is no friction
between the object and the surface.
d
F
m
Figure 249 An example of kinetic energy
We will assume that the object starts from rest. Te force
F will accelerate the object in accordance with Newtons
Second Law and the magnitude of the acceleration will be
given by using the formula
F = ma, from which we obtain a =
F

__

m
.
We can use the equation v
2
= u
2
+ 2as to fnd an expression
for the speed of the object afer it has moved a distance
d (= s).
Tat is, v
2
= 0
2
+ 2
(

F

__

m

)
d v
2
=2
Fd

___

m

From which Fd =
1

__

2
mv
2

Te work done (Fd) by the force F in moving the object a
distance d in the direction of F is now, therefore, expressed
in terms of the properties of the body and its motion.
Te quantity
1

__

2
mv
2
is called the kinetic energy (KE) of the
body.
Tis is the energy that a body possesses by virtue of its
motion. Te kinetic energy of a body essentially tells us
how much work the body is capable of doing.
We denote the kinetic energy by E
K
, so that E
K
=
1

__

2
mv
2
A very useful relationship exists between kinetic energy
and momentum.
We have that p = mv such that p
2
= m
2
v
2
Hence substituting for v
2,
we have
E
K
=
p
2

___

2m
and
p
2

__

m
= mv
2
= 2 E
K
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2.3.5 POTENTIAL ENERGY
When an object is resting on top of a wall it has the potential
to do work. If it falls of the wall onto a nail sticking out
of a piece of wood then it could drive the nail further into
the wood. Work is needed to lif the object on to the top of
the wall and we can think of this work as being stored as
potential energy in the object.
In general if an object of mass m is lifed to a height h above
the surface of the earth then the work done is mgh and the
object has a potential energy also equal to mgh (force = mg,
displacement = h). However, we have to be careful when
using this equation since if h is too large then we can no
longer regard g as being constant. Also, we must note that
there is no zero of potential energy in this situation. (In
chapter 9 we will see how we defne the zero of potential
energy). If the object rests upon the ground and we dig a
hole, then the object has potential to do work when it falls
down the hole. Te object in fact has gravitational potential
energy by virtue of its position in the Earths gravitational
feld. No matter where an object is placed in the Universe
it will be attracted by the gravitational force of the Earth.
We say that the Earth has an associated gravitational feld.
(Indeed all objects will have an associated gravitational
feld as we will discuss in the chapters 6 and 9). At this
stage you should appreciate that when an object is moved
a distance h in the Earths gravitational feld and in the
direction of the feld, its change in potential energy E
P

is:
E
P
= mgh
(provided that g is constant over the distance moved.)
Another example of potential energy is, as we saw in
the Section 2.3.2, elastic potential energy. To summarise
therefore we have:
E
P
= mgh
and
E
elas
=
1

__

2
ks
2
2.3.6 THE PRINCIPLE OF ENERGY
CONSERVATION
(In Topic 7.3 we shall see that this should actually be the
principle of mass-energy conservation)
To demonstrate the so-called principle of energy
conservation we will solve a dynamics problem in
two diferent ways, one using the principle of energy
conservation and the other using Newtons laws and the
kinematics equations.
Example
Example
An object of mass 4.0 kg slides from rest without friction
down an inclined plane. Te plane makes an angle of 30
with the horizontal and the object starts from a vertical
height of 0.50 m. Determine the speed of the object when
it reaches the bottom of the plane.
Solution
Te set-up is shown in this diagram:
We set zerolevel at point B, the base of the incline, so
that h = 0 and so that at point A, h = 0.50. At A, the object
has no kinetic energy (v = 0) and at point B, the object has
gained kinetic energy (v = V).
Method 1: Kinematic solution
Te force down the plane is given by mgsin = 20 N.
Using Newtons 2nd law (F = ma) gives the acceleration

a =
20

___

4.0
= 5.0 m s
2

(Note that we could have determined the acceleration by
writing down the component of g down the plane)
Using V
2
= u
2
+ 2as with u = 0, and s (the distance down
the plane)
s =
0.50

____

sin
=
0.50

______

sin 30
= 1.0
We have, V
2
= 0
2
+ 2 5 1 V =
___
10 = 3.2 m s
-1
30
mg
Reaction force
0.50 m
h = 0.50
h = 0
v = 0
v = V
A
B
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Method 2: Energy Principle
As the object slides down the plane its potential energy
becomes transformed into kinetic energy. If we assume
that no energy is lost we can write
change in PE = mgh = gain in KE =
1

_

2
mv
2

So that
1

_

2
mv
2
= mgh V
2
= 2gh
V =

____
2gh
Using the values of g and h, we have that V = 3.2 m s
-1
.
Tat is, the object reaches a speed of 3.2 m s
-1
.
Note that the mass of the object does not come into the
question, nor does the distance travelled down the plane.
When using the energy principle we are only concerned with
the initial and fnal conditions and not with what happens
in between. If you go on to study physics in more depth you
will fnd that this fact is of enormous importance.
Te second solution involves making the assumption
that potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy
and that no energy is lost. Tis is the socalled energy
principle, this means the energy is conserved.
Clearly in this example it is much quicker to use the energy
principle. Tis is ofen the case with many problems and in
fact with some problems the solution can only be achieved
using energy considerations.
What happens if friction acts in the above example?
Suppose a constant force of 16 N acts on the object as
it slides down the plane. Now, even using the energy
principle, we need the distance down the plane so we can
calculate the work done against friction
Tis is 16 1.0 = 16 J. Te work done by gravity i.e. the
change in PE = 20 J
Te total work done on the object is therefore
20 16 = 4.0 J.
Hence the speed is now given by
1

_

2
mv
2
= 4.0.
To give v = 1.4 m s
-1
.
So in this problem, not all the work done has gone into
accelerating the object. We say that the frictional force has
dissipated energy. If we are to retain to the idea of energy
conservation then we must account for this lost energy.
It was the great triumph of some late eighteenth and early
nineteenth physicists and engineers to recognise that this
lost energy is transformed into thermal energy. If you rub
your fnger along the top of a table you will defnitely feel
it getting warm. Tis is where the lost energy has gone.
It has in fact been used to make the molecules of the table
and the molecules of your fnger vibrate more vigorously.
Another thing to notice is that this energy is lost in the
sense that we cant get it back to do useful work. If there
were no friction between the object and the surface of the
plane then, when it reached the bottom of the plane, work
could be done to take it up to the top of the plane and this
cycle could go on indefnitely. (We could actually set up
the arrangement such that the objects KE at the bottom of
the plane could be used to get it back to the same height
again). It is what we call a reversible process. Te presence
of friction stops this. If the object is dragged back up the
plane you wont get the energy back that has been lost
due to friction, you will just lose more energy. Tis is an
irreversible process. We can now start to glimpse why, even
though it is impossible to destroy energy, it is possible to
run out of useful energy. Energy becomes as we say,
degraded.
Te general principle of energy conservation fnds its
formulation in the First Law of Termodynamics and
the consequences of this law and the idea of energy
degradation and its implication on World energy sources
is discussed in much more detail in Chapter 8.
2.3.7 TYPES OF ENERGY AND ENERGY
TRANSFORMATIONS
(Tis links with Topic 8)
Tere are many diferent forms of energy and their
transformations of which some examples are given here.
Thermal energy
Tis is essentially the kinetic energy of atoms and
molecules. It is sometimes incorrectly referred to as
heat. Te term heat actually refers to a transfer of energy
between systems.
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Chemical energy
Tis is energy that is associated with the electronic
structure of atoms and is therefore associated with the
electromagnetic force.
An example of this is combustion in which carbon
combines with oxygen to release thermal energy, light
energy and sound energy.
Nuclear energy
Tis is the energy that is associated with the nuclear
structure of atoms and is therefore associated with the
strong nuclear force.
An example of this is the splitting of nuclei of uranium by
neutrons to produce energy.
Electrical energy
Tis is energy that is usually associated with an electric
current and is sometimes referred to incorrectly as
electricity. For example the thermal energy from a chemical
reaction (chemical energy) can be used to boil water and
produce steam. Te kinetic energy of the molecules of steam
(thermal energy) can be used to rotate magnets and this
rotation generates an electric current. Te electric current
transfers the energy to consumers where it is transformed
into for example thermal and light energy (flament lamps)
and kinetic energy (electric motors).We shall learn later
that these diferent forms of energy all fall into the category
of either potential or kinetic energy and are all associated
with one or other of the fundamental forces.
Energy can be transformed from one form into another
and as far as we know energy can never be created nor
can it be destroyed. Tis is perhaps one of the most
fundamental laws of nature and any new theories which
might be proposed must always satisfy the principle of
energy conservation. A simple example of the principle
is, as we have seen, to be found in the transformation of
gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy.
2.3.8 ELASTIC AND INELASTIC
COLLISIONS
Collisions in which mechanical energy is not lost
are called elastic collisions whereas collision in which
mechanical energy is lost are called inelastic collisions.
In the real (macroscopic) world mechanical energy is
always lost during a collision. However, some collisions
do approximate quite well to being elastic. Te collision
of two snooker (pool) balls is very nearly elastic, as is the
collision between two steel ball bearings. An interesting
situation arises when the balls are of the same mass and
one is at rest before the collision and the collision takes
place along a line joining their centres as shown Figure
251.
u
1
u = u
2
0 =
v
1
v = v
2
V =
Before Afer
m
m
m m
Figure 251 Rolling balls
Suppose that the speed of the moving ball is u and that
the respective speeds of the balls afer collision are v and
V. If we now apply the laws of momentum and energy
conservation we have conservation of momentum:
mu = mv + mV
conservation of energy

1

_

2
mu
2
=
1

_

2
mv
2
+
1

_

2
mV
2

From which we see that u = v + V and u
2
= v
2
+ V
2
Te only solution to these equations is that u = V and v = 0.
Tis means that the moving ball comes to rest afer
collision and the ball that was at rest moves of with
the speed that the moving ball had before collision.
Tis situation is demonstrated in that well known toy,
Newtons Cradle.
2.3.9 Dene power.
2.3.10 Dene and apply the concept of eciency.
2.3.11 Solve problems involving momentum,
work, energy and power.
IBO 2007
2.3.9 POWER
Suppose that we have two machines A and B that are used
in lifing objects. Machine A lifs an object of weight 100
N to a height of 5.0 m in a time of 10 s. When machine B
is used to perform the same task it takes 0.1 s. Our instinct
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tells us that machine B is more powerful than machine A.
To quantify the concept of power we defne power as
Power = the rate of working
i.e., power = power =
work

_____

time

Te unit that is used to measure power is the joule per
second which is called the watt, (W) afer the 19th Century
Scottish engineer James Watt.
In the example above, of our two machines, A will have a
power output of 50 W and machine B a power output of
5000 W.
In the following example some sort of engine is used to
pull an object at a constant speed along the horizontal.
Engine
object
v
Friction
F
Figure 252 Force against friction
Te pulling force F (which is the tension in the rope)
produced by the engine will be equal to the frictional force
between the object and the foor.
Suppose that the engine moves the object a distance s in
time t . Te work done against the frictional force (i.e.,
the work done by the engine) is:
W F s =
Te power P developed by the engine is therefore
P
W
t
-------- F
s
t
----- - = =
But, v
s
t
----- - = hence, we have that
P = Fv
Example
A diesel locomotive is pulling a train at its maximum
speed of 60 m s
-1
. At this speed the power output of the
engine is 3.0 MW. Calculate the tractive force exerted by
the wheels on the track.
Solution
Using the formula P = Fv, we have that . F
P
v
--- =
Hence, . F
3000000
60
--------------------- 50 kN = =
Our answer is at best an approximation since the situation
is in fact much more complicated than at frst glance.
Te train reaches a maximum speed because as its
speed increases the frictional force due to air resistance
also increases. Hence, at its maximum speed all the
energy produced by the motors is used to overcome air
resistance, energy lost by friction between wheels and
track and friction between moving parts of the motors
and connected parts.
Again, we shall see that the concept of power and its
application is discussed in much more detail in Chapter 8
and elsewhere in the syllabus.
2.3.10 EFFICIENCY
(Machines and efciencies are discussed in more detail in
Chapters 8 and 10).
Te efciency of an engine is defned as follows
Ef =
W
OUT

_____

W
IN
=
P
OUT

____

P
IN

Where W
OUT
is how much useful work the engine produces
and W
IN
is how much work (energy) is delivered to the
engine. Te ratio of these two quantities is clearly the same
as the ratio power output of the engine to its power output.
To understand the idea of efciency, we will look at the
following example.
Example
An engine with a power output of 1.2 kW drags an object
of weight 1000 N at a constant speed up an inclined plane
that makes an angle of 30 with the horizontal. A constant
frictional force of 300 N acts between the object and the
plane and the object is dragged a distance of 8.0 m.
Determine the speed of the object and the efciency of
the engine.
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Solution
We frst need to draw a diagram to visualise the situation.
1000 N
1000 sin30 = 500 N
300 N
h = 8.0 sin30 = 4.0 m 8.0 m
P
R Engine
Te component of the objects weight down the plane is
1000 sin30 = 500 N.
Te total force against which the machine does work is
therefore 500 + 300 = 800 N.
Using P = Fv, we have 1200 = 800 v
so that v = 1.5 m s
-1
.
Te machine lifs the object to a height h,
where h = 8.0 sin30 = 4.0 m.
Te useful work that is done by the machine is therefore
1000 4.0 = 4000 J.
Te actual work that is done by the machine is 800 8.0 =
6400 J.
Te efciency of the machine is the useful work done divided
by the actual work done which is
.
4000
6400
----------- - 100% 63% =
We can also calculate the energy output per second of the
fuel used by the machine. Te machine has a useful power
output of 1.2 kW and if it is 63% efcient then the fuel must
produce energy at the rate of

1.2

____

0.63
= 1.9 k J s
1

2.3.11 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING,
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
Examples
1. Calculate the momentum of a particle of mass
0.06 kg that has a kinetic energy of 3.2 J.
2. Estimate the minimum take-of power of a
grasshopper (cicada).
3. An elastic band of length 2d is attached to a
horizontal board as shown in the diagram below.
A margarine tub has some weights attached to
the bottom of the inside of the tub such that the
total mass of the weights and the tub is M. Te tub
is placed at the centre of the band and is pulled
back until the tub makes an angle with the
band as shown. Te tub is then released such that
it is projected down the runway for a distance s
before coming to rest. Te problem is to deduce an
expression for the speed with which the tub leaves
the band. Te force constant of the elastic band is k.
4. A railway truck, B, of mass 2000 kg is at rest on
a horizontal track. Another truck, A, of the same
mass moving with a speed of 5.0 m s
1
collides
with the stationary truck and they link up and
move of together.
Determine the speed with which the two trucks
move of and also the loss of kinetic energy on
collision.

M
2d
direction of
travel of tub
original position of elastic band
l

M
2d
direction of
travel of tub
original position of elastic band
l
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Solutions
1. Use E
K
=
p
2

___

2m
we have that
p =

_____
2mE
K
=
____________
2 0.06 3.2


= 0.62 N s
2. Estimates
mass of grasshopper = 2.0 10
-3
kg
height to which it jumps 0.50 m
time it takes to develop take-of power = 200 ms
Calculation
energy needed to reach 0.50 m = mgh
= 2.0 10
-3
10 0.50 = 10
-2
J
= 0.05 W
3. In the following example we tie together the ideas
of energy transformations and the work done by a
non-constant force
We frst deduce an expression for the extension of the elastic
band.
Te stretched length from the geometry of the situation is
equal to l =
d

____

sin

Te extension, e, is therefore
e = 2l 2d =
2d

____

sin
2d = 2d
(

1

____

sin
1
)

Te stored elastic energy is therefore
E
elas
=
1

_

2
ke
2
=
1

_

2
k
(
2d
(

1

____

sin
1
)

)

2

= 2k d
2

(

1

____

sin
1
)

2

If we assume that all the energy is transferred to the tub
when the tub is released we have that the kinetic energy of
the tub, E
k
, is such that E
k
= E
elas
so that

1

_

2
mv
2
= 2k d
2

(

1

____

sin
1
)

2
v
2
=
4k

___

m
d
2

(

1

____

sin
1
)

2

So that the speed is given by v = 2

__

k

__

m
d
(

1

____

sin
1
)

Te above example can form the basis for a useful experiment
in which you can investigate the factors that efect the
distance that the margarine tub will travel.
4 It helps to start by drawing a diagram:
Before colli si on Afer colli si on
u
1
5.0 = u
2
0 =
V
A B A B
As the trucks couple afer the collision, the conservation of
momentum law states that:
m
1
u
1
m
2
u
2
+ m
1
m
2
+ ( )V =
, , e r e h w m
1
m
2
2000 = =
so that
2000 5 0 + 2000 2000 + ( )V =
= 2.5 ms
1
. V
10000
4000
-------------- - =
Te total KE before collision equals
J
1
2
-- - 2000 5
2
0 + 25000 =
Te total KE afer collision equals
1
2
-- - 4000 2.5 ( )
2
12500 =
So that the kinetic energy lost on collision is
(25000 12500) = 12500 J.
By lost energy we mean that the energy has been dissipated
to the surroundings. Some of it will be converted into sound
and most will heat up the coupling between the trucks.
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Exercise 2.3
1. Suppose that in Example 4, (page 64) afer the
collision, truck A and truck B do not link but
instead truck A moves with a speed of 1 m s
1
and
in the same direction as prior to the collision.
Determine
(i) the speed of truck B afer collision
(ii) the kinetic energy lost on collision
2. A man drags a sack of four of mass 100 kg at
constant speed up an inclined plane to a height of
6.0 m. Te plane makes an angle of 30

with the
horizontal and a constant frictional force of 250 N
acts on the sack down the plane.
Determine the efciency of the inclined plane?
3. A car of mass 1000 kg is parked on a level road
with its handbrake on. Another car of mass
1500 kg travelling at 10 m s
1
collides into the back
of the stationary car. Te two cars move together
afer collision in the same straight line. Tey travel
25m before fnally coming to rest.
Determine the average frictional force exerted on
the cars as they come to rest.
2.4 UNIFORM
CIRCULAR
MOTION
(Tis topic links with Topics 6.3 and 9.4)
2.4.1 Draw a vector diagram to illustrate that
the acceleration of a particle moving
with constant speed in a circle is directed
toward the centre of the circle
2.4.2 Apply the expression for centripetal
acceleration.
2.4.3 Identify the force producing circular
motion in various situations.
Examples include gravitational force
acting on the Moon and friction acting
sideways on the tyres of a car turning a
corner.
2.4.4 Solve problems involving circular motion.
IBO 2007
Problems on banked motion (aircraf and vehicles going
round banked tracks) will not be included.
2.4.1 CIRCULAR MOTION AND VECTOR
DIAGRAMS
We have mentioned earlier in this chapter that when a
car goes round a circular bend in the road moving with
constant speed it must be accelerating. Acceleration is
a vector and is defned as the rate of change of velocity.
Velocity is also a vector and so it follows that if the direction
of motion of an object is changing then even though its
speed might be constant, its velocity is changing and
hence it is accelerating. A force is needed to accelerate an
object and we might ask what is the origin of the force that
causes the car to go round the bend in the road. Do not
fall into the trap of thinking that this force comes from the
engine. Tis would imply that if you are on a bicycle then
you can only go round a corner if you keep pedalling. To
understand the origin of the force just think what happens
if the road is icy. Yes, it is this friction between the tyres
and the road that produces the force. If there is no friction
then you cannot negotiate a bend in the road.
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Let us think of the example where you whirl an object tied
to a string about your head with constant speed. Clearly
the force that produces the circular motion in this case in
a horizontal plane is the tension in the string. If the string
were to snap then the object would fy of at a tangent to
the circle. Tis is the direction of the velocity vector of
the object. Te tension in the string acts at right angles
to this vector and this is the prerequisite for an object to
move in a circle with constant speed. If a force acts at right
angles to the direction of motion of an object then there
is no component of force in the direction of motion and
therefore no acceleration in the direction of motion. If the
force is constant then the direction of the path that the
object follows will change by equal amounts in equal time
intervals hence the overall path of motion must be a circle.
Figure 256 shows the relation between the direction of the
velocity vector and the force acting on a particle P moving
with constant speed in a circular path.
F
P
v
O
P
v
O
Q
r

Figure 256 Centripetal Force
Te force causing the circular motion is called the centripetal
force and this force causes the particle to accelerate
towards the centre of the circle and this acceleration is
called the centripetal acceleration. However, be careful to
realise that the centripetal acceleration is always at right
angles to the velocity of the particle. If the speed of the
particle is reduced then it will spiral towards the centre
of the circle, accelerating rapidly as it does so. Tis is in
efect what happens as an orbiting satellite encounters the
Earths atmosphere.
People sometimes talk of a centrifugal force in connection
with circular motion. Tey say something along the
lines that when a car goes round a bend in the road you
feel a force throwing you outwards and this force is the
centrifugal force. But there is no such force. All that is
happening is that you are moving in accordance with
Newtons laws. Before the car entered the bend you were
moving in a straight line and you still want to keep moving
in a straight line. Fortunately the force exerted on you by a
side of the car as you push up against it stops you moving
in a straight line. Take the side away and you will continue
moving in a straight line as the car turns the bend.
Centripetal (angular) acceleration
In this section we shall derive an expression of the
centripetal acceleration of a particle moving with uniform
speed v in a circle of radius. You will not be expected to
derive this relation in an IB examination; it is given here
for completeness.
P
Q
d
h
r
r
v
v
P
Q
X
Figure 257 Centripetal Acceleration
In Figure 238 suppose that the particle moves from P to
Q in time t
In the absence of a centripetal force the particle would
reach the point X in this time. Te force therefore efectively
causes the particle to fall a distance h. For intersecting
chords of a circle we have in this situation
d
2
r h ( )
2
+ r
2
d
2
2rh h
2
= =
Now suppose that we consider a very small time interval
then h
2
will be very small compared to 2rh. Hence we can
write
2rh d
2
=
However d is the horizontal distance travelled in time t
such that d = vt. Hence
h
d
2
2r
-----
v t ( )
2
2r
--------------- = =
However h is the distance fallen in time t
So using s
1
2
-- -at
2
= h
1
2
-- -a t ( )
2
=
From which we have
v t ( )
2
2r
---------------
1
2
-- -a t ( )
2
v
2
t ( )
2
2r
------------------
1
2
-- -a t ( )
2
So that,
a
v
2
r
----- =
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Example
A geo-stationary satellite is one that orbits Earth in
24 hours. Te orbital radius of the satellite is 4.2 10
7
m.
Calculate the acceleration of the satellite and state the
direction of the acceleration. (24 hours = 8.64 10
4
s)
Solution
Let r = the orbital radius and T the period. Te speed v of
the satellite is then given by
the acceleration a is therefore given by
2 d r
v
t T

= =
2 2 7
2 2 8
4 40 4.2 10
0.23
(8.64) 10
v r
a
r T

= = = =

m s
-2
Te acceleration will be directed towards the centre of
Earth.
2.4.3 CENTRIPETAL FORCE
We can fnd the expression for the centripetal force F
simply by using Newtons 2nd law. i.e. F = ma, so that,

with a
v
2
r
----- = we have:
F =
m v
2


____

r

where m is the mass of the particle.
It is important to realise that the above equation is
efectively Newtons Second Law as applied to particles
moving in a circle. In order for the particle to move in a
circle a force must act at right angles to the velocity vector
of the particle and the speed of the particle must remain
constant. Tis means that the force must also remain
constant
Te efect of the centripetal force is to produce an
acceleration towards the centre of the circle. Te
magnitude of the particles linear velocity and the
magnitude of the force acting on it will determine the
circular path that a particular particle describes.
Below are some examples of forces which provide
centripetal forces:
1. Gravitational force. Tis is discussed in detail in
the Topic 6.1
2. Frictional forces between the wheels of a vehicle
and the ground.
3. Magnetic forces. Tis force is discussed in Topic 6.3
Ten of course we have the example of objects constrained
to move in circles by strings or wires attached to the
object.
2.4.4 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
CIRCULAR MOTION
Example
A model airplane of mass 0.25 kg has a control wire of
length 10.0 m attached to it. Whilst held in the hand of
the controller it fies in a horizontal circle with a speed of
20 m s
1
. Calculate the tension in the wire.
Solution
Te tension in the wire provides the centripetal force and

is equal to
m v
2


____

r
which in this situation is equal to

0.25 400

_________

10
= 10 N.
An interesting situation arises when we have circular
motion in a vertical plane. Consider a situation in which
you attach a length of string to an object of mass m and
then whirl it in a vertical circle of radius r. If the speed of
the object is v at its lowest point then the tension in the

string at this point will be mg +
m v
2


____

r
and at the highest

point the tension will be mg
m v
2


____

r

We now see why this is the case.
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Lowest point:
mg
T
Figure 258 Lowest Point
Te resultant force on mass, m / kg, throughout its motion in
a circle (as long as the speed is constant) is always
mv
2

___

r
.
Taking the positive direction to be towards the centre of the
circle, at its lowest point, the resultant force is provided by
the expression T mg, so that
mv
2
r
--------- - T mg =
Tat is, T
mv
2
r
--------- - mg + =
Highest point:
mg
T
Figure 259 Highest Point
Again, we have that the resultant force on mass, m / kg,
throughout its motion in a circle (as long as the speed is

constant) is always
.
mv
2
r
--------- -
Taking the positive direction to be towards the centre of the
circle, at its highest point, the resultant force is provided by
the expression T + mg, so that
, i.e.,
mv
2
r
--------- - T mg + = T
mv
2
r
--------- - mg =
Example
A wall of death motorcyclist rides his motorcycle in a
vertical circle of radius 20 m. Calculate the minimum
speed that he must have at the top of the circle in order to
complete the loop.
Solution
mg
R
Let R be the reaction force on the bike, then we need to

use the expression
mv
2
r
--------- - R mg + = (when the bike is at

its highest point).
However, the bike must always make contact with the track,
that is, we must have that R 0.
Now, re-arranging the expression we have that
R
mv
2
r
--------- - mg = , however, as R 0, we have that
mv
2
r
--------- - mg 0
mv
2
r
--------- - mg . So, the minimum speed will

be given by g
v
2
r
----- = since at any lower speed mg will be

greater than
mv
2
r
--------- - and the motor bike will leave the track.

So in this case the speed will be 14 m s
-1
.
It is also worthwhile noting that in circular motion with
constant speed, there is no change in kinetic energy. Tis is
because the speed, v, is constant and so the expression for
the kinetic energy, 1 -2 mv
2
, is also always constant (anywhere
along its motion). Another way to look at this is that since
the force acts at right angles to the particle then no work is
done on the particle by the force.
19 april 09 Phys chapter 2.indd 69 22/05/2009 11:48:21 AM
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Exercise 2.4
1. An object is travelling at a constant speed of
40 ms
-1
in a circular path of radius 80 m.
Calculate the acceleration of the object?
2. A body of mass 5.0 kg, lying on a horizontal
smooth table attached to an inextensible string of
length 0.35 m, while the other end of the string is
fxed to the table. Te mass is whirled at a constant
speed of 2.0 m s
-1
. Calculate
(a) the centripetal acceleration.
(b) the tension in the string.
(c) the period of motion.
3. Te radius of the path of an object in uniform
circular motion is doubled. Te centripetal force
needed if its speed remains the same is
A. half as great as before.
B. the same as before.
C. twice as great as before.
D. four times as great as before.
4. A car rounds a curve of radius 70 m at a speed of
12 m s
-1
on a level road. Calculate its centripetal
acceleration?
5. A 500 g sphere is hung from an inextensible string
1.25 m long and swung around to form a conical
pendulum. Te sphere moves in a circular
horizontal path of radius 0.75 m. Determine the
tension in the string.
1.25 m
0.75 m
6. Determine the maximum (constant) speed at
which a car can safely round a circular curve of
radius 50 m on a horizontal road if the coefcient
of static friction () between the tyres and the road
is 0.7. (Use g = 10 m s
2
). (HINT: if the normal
reaction is N, the relationship is F = N)
7. A sphere of mass m, attached to an inextensible
string as shown in the diagram is released from
rest at an angle with the vertical. When the
sphere passes through its lowest point, show that
the tension in the string is given by mg (3 - 2cos)
m kg
l

8. A 3 kg mass attached to a string 6 m long is to

be swung in a circle at a constant speed making
one complete revolution in 1.25 s. Determine the
value that the breaking strain that the string must
not exceed if the string is not to break when the
circular motion is in
(a) a horizontal plane?
(b) a vertical plane?
9. A mass, m kg, is released from point A, down a
smooth inclined plane and once it reaches point B,
it completes the circular motion, via the smooth
circular track B to C to D and then back through
B, which is connected to the end of the incline and
has a radius a / m.
4a
A
B
C
D
a
Determine the normal reaction of the track on the mass
at (a) D. (b) C. (c) B.
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Topic 2.1
1. Sketch the distance-time, speed-time, velocity-
time and acceleration-time for a free fall
parachutist from the time that she leaves the
aeroplane to the time that she lands on the
ground. (Remember that she does not open a
parachute until some time afer jumping from the
aeroplane).
2. Te graph below shows the idealised velocity-time
graph for a car pulling away from one set of trafc
lights until it is stopped by the next set.
s
p
e
e
d
/
m
s

1
time / 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0
5
10
15
20
25
Calculate the
i. acceleration of the car between 0 and 20 s
and between 120 and 130 s.
ii. total distance travelled by the car during
braking.
iii. total distance between the trafc lights.
3. A person drops a stone down a water well and
hears a splash 2.0 s afer it leaves his hand.
Determine the depth of the well (g = 10 m s
-2
)
4. A girl throws a stone vertically upwards. Te
stone leaves her hand with a speed of 15.0 m s
1
.
Determine (i) the maximum height reached by
the stone and (ii) how long the time it takes to
return to the ground afer leaving her hand
(g = 10 m s
-2
)
Topic 2.2
1. An object is thrown through the air. Ignoring air
resistance, draw a free body diagram of the forces
acting on the ball whilst it is in fight.
2. An object of weight 50 N is suspended vertically
by two strings as shown
60
Te strings are of the same length and the angle between
them is 60. Draw a free body diagram of the forces acting
on the object. Calculate the tension in the strings.
3. When a person stands on bathroom scales the
scale reads 60 kg. Suppose the person stands
on the same scales when in an elevator (lif).
Te elevator accelerates upwards at 2.0 m s
-2
.
Determine the new reading on the scale.
4. Te diagram shows two blocks connected by a
string that passes over a pulley.
B
A
Block A has a mass of 2.0 kg and block B a mass of 4.0 kg
and rests on a smooth table.
Determine the acceleration of the two blocks?
5. Here are four statements about a book resting on a
table.
A. Te book exerts a force on the table.
B. Te table exerts a force on the book.
C. the book exerts a force on the Earth.
D. the Earth exerts a force on the book.
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS ON TOPIC 2
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Which forces form a pair of forces as described by
Newtons Tird Law?
6. When a golfer strikes a golf-ball it is in contact
with the club head for about 1 ms and the ball
leaves the club head with a speed of about
70 m s
-1
. If the mass of the ball is 50 g estimate the
maximum accelerating force exerted on the golf
ball, stating any assumptions that you make.
7 A ball of mass 0.1 kg is dropped from a height of
2.0 m onto a hard surface. It rebounds to a height
of 1.5 m and it is in contact with the surface for
0.05 s. Calculate the
i. speed with which it strikes the surface.
ii. speed with which it leaves the surface.
iii. change in momentum of the ball.
iv. impulse given to the ball on contact with
the surface.
v. average force that the surface exerts on the
ball.
8 A bullet of mass 0.02 kg is fred into a block of
wood of mass 1.5 kg resting on a horizontal table.
Te block moves of with an initial speed of
8.0 m s
-1
. Estimate the speed with which the bullet
strikes the block.
9 Te bullet in question 8 is fred from a rife of mass
2.5 kg. Assuming that the bullet leaves the barrel
of the rife with the speed calculated above, fnd
the recoil speed of the rife if it is free to move. In
reality the rife is held and for a certain person the
rife recoils a distance of 0.12 m. Determine the
average force that the person exerts on the rife?
Topic 2.3
1. Te diagram shows a pile driver that is used to
drive a metal bar (the pile) into the ground.
pile driver
pile
ground
A
particular pile driver has a mass of 500 kg and
it falls through a height of 2.5 m before striking
the top of the pile. It stays in contact with the pile
and drives it a distance of 0.40 m into the ground.
Calculate the average force exerted by the ground
on the pile by using
i. energy considerations
ii. the equations of uniform motion and
Newtons Second Law. (assume that the
mass of the pile driver is much greater than
the mass of the pile.)
2. A man slides a box of mass 50 kg at constant speed
up an inclined slope to a height of 2.0 m. Te slope
makes an angle of 30 with the horizontal and
it takes him 4 s to reach the height of 2.0 m and
a constant frictional force of 250 N acts on the
block.
Calculate
i. the work the man does against friction
ii. the work the man does against gravity
iii. the efciency of the man-slope machine
iv. the power the man develops to push the
block up the slope
3. Tis question is about calculating the power output
of a car engine. Here is some data about a car that
travels along a level road at a speed of 25 m s
-1
.
Fuel consumption = 0.20 litre km
-1

Calorifc value of the fuel = 5.0 10
6
J litre
-1

Engine efciency 50%
Determine:
i. the rate at which the engine consumes fuel
ii. the rate at which the fuel supplies energy
iii. the power output of the engine
iv. the power used to overcome the frictional
forces acting on the car
v. the average frictional force acting on the
car.
Explain why:
(i) the power supplied by the engine is not all
used to overcome friction
(ii) the fuel consumption increases as the speed
of the car increases
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3
TOK Thermal concepts
In looking at the ways of knowing described in the Teory
of knowledge guide, scientists could legitimately claim
that science encompasses all these. Driven by emotion,
using sense perception, enhanced by technology and
combined with reason, it communicates through language,
principally the universal language of mathematics. (
IBO 2007). Science cannot suppose to be the truth as so
many paradigm shifs have occurred over the centuries. It
is hoped that the following historical perspective will help
in showing how science has changed the way of reasoning
in thermal physics.
PHLOGISTON/CALORIC THEORY
T
he concept of heat has been studied for many centuries.
Aristotle (384 322 B.C.) considered fre one of the
fve basic elements of the Universe. Over 2000 years ago,
Greek philosophers believed that matter was made of
atomos, elemental atoms in rapid motion, and that the
result of this rapid motion was heat. It was understood
that heat fowed from hot bodies to colder ones, somewhat
analogous to water or another fuid fowing from a higher
to lower elevation. It is not surprising that the early theory
of heat fow regarded heat as a type of fuid.
Around the time of Galileo Galilei (1564 1642), this
heat fuid was known as phlogiston the soul of matter.
Phlogiston was believed to have a negative mass, and,
upon heating or cooling, the phlogiston was driven out or
absorbed by an object.
Further refnements of the phlogiston theory were carried
out by Antoine Lavoisier (17431794), and it became
known as the caloric theory. Sir Isaac Newton (16421727)
and other famous scientists supported the caloric theory.
Calorists believed that a hot object had more caloric than
a cold object. Tey explained expansion by saying that the
caloric flled up the spaces between atoms pushing them
apart. Te total amount of caloric was unchanged when a
hot and cold body came into contact.
However, the caloric theory did not adequately explain
some phenomena involving heat. It was difcult to
understand how the conservation of caloric fuid applied
to friction and the expansion of liquids and gases. Some
calorists answer to the friction concept was that the latent
heat was released which implies that a change of state was
involved. Others argued that during friction the material
is damaged and that it bleeds heat. No satisfactory
answers were forthcoming.
COUNT RUMFORD
Much of the credit for dismantling the idea that heat was
motion rather than substance or caloric goes to Benjamin
Tompson (1753 1814), also known as Count Rumford of
Bavaria.
During the American Revolution, he was a Tory or loyalist
in the disputes between Britain and its American colonies
serving as a major in a company of militia. It is believed
that he invented a cork fotation system for cannons while
being transported by horses across rivers. He also designed
a gun carriage that could be carried by three horses and
could be assembled ready for fring in 75 seconds. He
3.1 Thermal concepts
3.2 Thermal properties of matter
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was knighted by King George III of England, and made a
Count in 1791 by Teodor in his brief reign as elector of
the Holy Roman Empire.
In 1793, Tompson lef England ultimately to take up a post
with the before mentioned Teodor, elector of Bavaria. He
was appointed a major general in the Bavarian army. He
designed fortifcations and worked as an administrator
in munitions. It was here that he observed that a large
amount of heat was generated in the boring of cannons.
He read the following extracts before the Royal Society of
London in 1798.
Being engaged, lately, in superintending the boring
of cannon, in the workshops of the military arsenal at
Munich, I was struck with the very considerable degree of
Heat which a brass gun acquires, in a short time, in being
bored; and with the still more intense Heat (much greater
than that of boiling water as I found by experiment) of the
metallic chips separated from it by the borer.
From whence comes the Heat actually produced in the
mechanical operation above mentioned? Is it furnished by
the metallic chips which are separated by the borer from
the solid mass of metal? If this were the case, then,
according to the modern doctrines of latent heat, and of
caloric, the capacity for Heat of the parts of the metal, so
reduced to chips, ought not only to be changed, but the
change undergone by them should be sufciently great to
account for all the Heat produced.
Count Rumford was saying that the metal chips should
have undergone some alteration in their properties afer
the production of so much thermal energy. He noted that
some cannon shavings were hot enough to glow, but he
continued:
But no such change had taken place; for I found, upon
taking equal quantities, by weight, of these chips, and of
thin slips of the same block of metal separated by means
of a fne saw, and putting them, at the same temperature
(that of boiling water), into equal quantities of cold water,
the portion of water into which the chips were put was
not, to all appearance, heated either less or more than the
other portion, into which the slips of metal were put. From
whence it is evident that the Heat produced [by boring the
cannon] could not possibly be furnished at the expense of
the latent Heat of the metallic chips.
Rumford further went on to explain that he had immersed
cannons in water while they were being bored and noted
the rate at which the temperature rose. His results showed
that the cannon would have melted had it not been cooled.
Rumford concluded that heat was not a caloric fuid in
which caloric is conserved but rather a concept of motion.
He argued that heat is generated when work is done, and
that the heat will continue to be generated as long as work
is done. He estimated a heat to work ratio within the order
of magnitude accepted today.
However, many scientists of the time were not convinced
because Rumford could not give a clear explanation of
exactly what heat was in terms of the accepted model for
matter at that time. It would take another half century
before Joule supplied the accepted answers.
JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE
James Prescott Joule (1818-1889) conducted a series of
brilliant experiments between 1842 and 1870 that proved
beyond doubt that heat was a type of energy internal
energy of the particles of matter. Te caloric theory lost
popularity very quickly.
Joule was the son of a wealthy brewer in Manchester, UK.
Because of his wealth, he never worked for a living. His
experiments were performed in a laboratory that he built
at his own expense while he was in his twenties. He became
interested in ways to develop more efcient engines that
were driving various components of the brewing process.
Encouraged by the work of Count Rumford and others,
he began to investigate whether mechanical work could
produce heat.
Joule performed a variety of experiments and he refned
and elaborated his apparatus and his techniques. In one
of his frst experiments, he used a falling weight to drive
a small electric generator. Te current produced heated a
wire that was immersed in a defnite mass of water, and
the change in temperature was noted. He reasoned that
the work done as the weight decreases its gravitational
potential energy should be equivalent to the heat energy
gained by the water. In another experiment he mounted a
large container flled with air into a tub of water. When the
air was compressed, the temperature of the gas increased.
He measured the amount of work needed to compress the
gas and the amount of heat energy given to the water as a
result of compression.
Perhaps Joules most famous experiment consisted of a
paddlewheel mounted inside a cylinder of water that was
driven by falling weights as shown in Figure 301. He wanted
to see if one could raise the temperature of the water simply
by turning the paddles. He repeated this experiment many
times continually improving the apparatus and refning
his analysis of the data. For example, he took great care
to insulate the container so that no heat was lost to the
surroundings, and he developed his own thermometer so
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that he could measure the temperature with a precision of
a fraction of a degree.
moving vanes
xed vanes
calorimeter
ywheel
handles
to pulley with
weights attached
to pulley with
weights
(containing water)
spindle
attached
Figure 301 Schematic diagram of
Joules paddlewheel experiment.
Joule arranged the vanes of the paddlewheel so that they
would not interfere with the particles of water set in
motion. He didnt want to bruise or damage the water
particles so that they might bleed heat.
In 1849 he published his results in which he reported
the quantity of heat produced by friction of bodies,
whether solid or liquid, is always proportional to the
quantity of [energy] expended.
the quantity of heat capable of increasing the
temperature of a pound of water by 1 Fahrenheit requires
for its evolution the expenditure of a mechanical energy
represented by the fall of 772 pound through the distance
of one foot.
Joule found that about 4.2 joules of work would yield one
calorie of heat or that the quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1 C is one
calorie.
A modern day value for the mechanical equivalent of heat
is 4.18605 joules = 1 calorie.
Te experiments proved beyond doubt that mechanical
work can produce heat and as such no caloric fuid can
be created or destroyed. Furthermore, Joule reasoned that
the temperature increase must be related to the energy of
the microscopic motions of the particles.
Finally, a paradigm shif in our way of reasoning had again
proved that science is not the ultimate truth.
Example
Calculate the mechanical equivalent of heat for Joules
paddlewheel experiment if a mass of 2.0 kg falls through a
height of 100 m, and increases the temperature of 10 g of
water by 46.8 C.
Solution
Work done by the falling mass is given by
W = Ep = mgh
= 2.0 kg 9.8 m s
-2
100 m
= 1.96 10
3
J
Heat energy produced is given by
Q = m c T
= 10 g 1 cal 46.8 C
= 4.68 10
2
calories
Mechanical equivalent of heat is given by
W
Q
---- -
1.96 10
3
J
4.68 10
2
cal
--------------------------------- - =
= 4.19 J cal
-1
Te mechanical equivalent of heat for water is 4.2 J cal
-1
.
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3.1.1 State that temperature determines the
direction of thermal energy transfer
between two objects.

3.1.2 State the relation between the Kelvin and
Celsius scales of temperature.
3.1.3 State that the internal energy of a
substance is the total potential energy and
random kinetic energy of the molecules of
the substance.
3.1.4 Explain and distinguish between the
macroscopic concepts of temperature,
internal energy and thermal energy (heat).
3.1.5 Dene the mole and molar mass.
3.1.6 Dene the Avogadro constant.
IBO 2007
3.1.1 TEMPERATURE AND THERMAL
ENERGY TRANSFER
Everyone seems to have a feel for the concept of heat
because there is so much talk in everyday conversation
of how hot or how cold it is. We endure the seasons of
the year wanting either to cool our bodies or heat up our
surroundings. We are aware of how difcult it was for
our ancestors to keep warm, and our present dwellings
are designed and insulated to suit the climate. Our
consumption of electrical and chemical energy for heating
and other purposes is a continual concern. We have
become aware that increased global warming could spell
the end of the world, as we know it.
But what is the diference between heat and temperature
in physics? Tey are defnitely not the same physical
quantity. If you fll a cup and a dish with hot water at the
same temperature, and then place ice cubes into each, the
dish full of hot water can melt more ice cubes than the
cup of hot water even though the water in each was at the
same temperature. Te dish containing the larger amount
of hot water has a greater mass of water as well as a greater
amount of heat or thermal energy. A greater mass infers
a greater number of water molecules and more thermal
energy infers that these molecules would have a greater
overall amount of energy. We cannot see the interaction
of the water molecules at the microscopic level because
we cannot see atoms. However, we can observe and
monitor the temperature change by using a macroscopic
temperature-measuring device.
Termal energy is a measure of the kinetic and potential
energy of the component particles of an object and is
measured in joules. Heat is the thermal energy that is
absorbed, given up or transferred from one object to
another.
Temperature is a scalar quantity that gives an indication of
the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. Alternatively,
temperature is a macroscopic property that measures
the average kinetic energy of particles on a defned scale
such as the Celsius or Kelvin scales. Te chosen scale
determines the direction of thermal energy transfer
between two bodies in contact from the body at higher
temperature to that of lower temperature. Eventually,
the two bodies will be in thermal equilibrium when they
acquire the same temperature in an isolated system. It will
be deduced later in this text that thermal energy cannot
be transferred from a body at lower temperature to that of
higher temperature.
3.1.2 TEMPERATURE SCALES
Tere is no instrument that directly measures the amount of
thermal energy a body gives of or absorbs. A property that
varies with temperature is called a thermometric property.
Tis property can be used to establish a temperature scale
and construct a thermometer. Termometers are made
using the thermometric properties of a substance such as the
expansion of a liquid, the electrical resistance of a wire.
A typical laboratory thermometer as shown in Figure 302
contains a liquid such as mercury or coloured alcohol. Te
expansion of alcohol is six times greater than mercury.
Alcohol thermometers are safer and can be used at lower
temperatures than mercury which turns to a solid below
-38.9 C. Its disadvantage is that it boils above 78.5 C. To
make the thermometer sensitive, it has a narrow bore tube
and a large bulb. Te bulb is made of thin glass so that
heat can be transferred quickly between the bulb liquid
and the material being observed. Tere is a vacuum above
the thermometer liquid and it can move easily along the
glass bore.
3.1 THERMAL CONCEPTS
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100C
0 C
mercury or alcohol
thin glass
bulb
glass
stem
capillary tube
vacuum
Figure 302 Typical laboratory thermometer
A clinical thermometer as shown in Figure 303 does not
need the temperature range of a laboratory thermometer.
It is designed so that the maximum temperature remains
constant afer the patients temperature is taken. It has a
small constriction to stop the mercury fowing back into
the bulb. Te mercury is then shaken back into the bulb
afer the temperature has been taken.
35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
Figure 303 A Clinical Thermometer
In order to calibrate these thermometers, two fxed points
are used to defne the standard temperature interval. Te
ice point (the lower fxed point) marked at 0 C is the
temperature of pure ice at standard atmospheric pressure
and is in thermal equilibrium with the liquid in the bulb.
Te steam point (the upper fxed point) marked at 100 C
is the temperature of steam at standard atmospheric
pressure and is in thermal equilibrium with the liquid in
the bulb. Te scale between these values is marked with
even spaces. Te Celsius temperature scale named afer
the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701-1774) is
constructed in such a manner.
Although thermometers constructed using thermometric
properties are useful for everyday use, they are not
accurate enough for scientifc work. Unfortunately, two
thermometers constructed using diferent thermometric
properties do not necessarily agree with each other as they
do not vary linearly over large temperature ranges. (Tey
are of course in agreement at the lower and upper fxed
points). For example, diferent thermometers will give
diferent values for the boiling point of zinc (907 C).
Te standard fundamental temperature scale in the SI
system is denoted by the symbol T. and is measured in
Kelvin, K. It is the thermodynamic temperature scale used
in scientifc measurement.
Te lower fxed point is absolute zero and is assigned a
value of 0 K. Tis is the point where molecular vibrations
become a minimum the molecules have minimum
kinetic energy but molecular motion does not cease. Te
upper fxed point is the triple point of water. Tis is the
temperature at which saturated water vapour, pure water
and melting ice are all in equilibrium. For historical
reasons, it is assigned a value of 273.16 K.
T in K = T in C + 273.16
Exercise 3.1 (a)
1. At room temperature, an iron rod feels cooler
when held in the hand than wood held in the same wood held in the same
hand. Tis is because:
A. thermal energy tends to fow from the
metal to the wood
B. wood has a higher specifc heat capacity
than the iron rod
C. wood has a lower specifc heat capacity than
the iron rod
D. the iron rod conducts thermal energy better
than the wood
2. Explain the diference between heat and
temperature.
3. If you were travelling to Antarctica, deduce
what would be the better thermometer to take
mercury or alcohol?
4. State one advantage and one disadvantage of a
i. mercury in glass thermometer
ii. constant volume thermometer.
5. Te triple point of water is 273.16 K. Express this
as a Celsius temperature.
6. Determine the ice point and the steam point of
pure water on the Kelvin scale?
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7. Defne absolute zero.
8. If normal body temperature is 37.0 C, what is it
on the thermodynamic temperature scale?
3.1.3 HEAT AND INTERNAL ENERGY
Termal energy of a system is referred to as internal energy
- the sum total of the potential energy and the random
kinetic energy of the molecules of the substance making
up the system.
Te potential energy is due to
the energy stored in bonds called bond energy
intermolecular forces of attraction between particles.
Te bond energy is a form of chemical potential energy. It
becomes signifcant in chemistry when a chemical reaction
occurs, and bonds are broken and formed.
Te intermolecular forces of attraction between particles
is due to the electromagnetic fundamental force since the
gravitational force is too small to be of any signifcance.
Figure 304 indicates how the intermolecular electro-
magnetic force F between particles varies with the distance
r between their centres.
At distances greater than r
0
(less than 2.5 10
-10
m)
attraction takes place, and at distances closer than r
0
the
particles repel. At r
0
the particles are in equilibrium. Any
displacement from the equilibrium position results in a
simple harmonic oscillation of a particle or molecule.
r
0
r
e
p
u
l
s
i
o
n
a
t
t
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
solid and liquid phase
10r
0
gaseous phase
nuclear separation, r / m
Force, F / N
+

Figure 304 Force versus separation of particles

Figure 305 shows the relationship between the potential
energy and the separation r of two molecules. At 0 K, the
average separation of particles centres is r
0
and the overall
force is zero. Tis is the point of minimum potential
energy. Work will need to be done to move the particles
apart and there will be an increase in potential energy.
r
0
equilibriumseparation
gas
liquid
separation, r / m
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l
e
n
e
r
g
y
,
U
/
J
solid
+

minimumpotential energy=
Figure 305 Potential energy
versus separation of particles
Work done = force distance = F r = change in
potential energy
F =
E
p


____

r

In other words, the gradient of the potential energy curve
at any point on the curve gives the force that must be
applied to hold the molecules at that separation. We can
classify the phases according to the sizes of the energy .
When less than

__

10
, the vibrations occur about fxed
positions and the particles are in the solid phase. When
approximately equal to

__

10
, the particles have sufcient
energy to partly overcome the attractive forces and melting
occurs.
When greater than

__

10
, a liquid can form. When greater
than , the particles have sufcient energy to leave the
liquid and form a gas.
Te kinetic energy is mainly due to the translational,
rotational and vibrational motion of the particles as
depicted in Figure 306.
Vibrational
kinetic energy
Rotational
kinetic energy
Translational
kinetic energy
Figure 306 major particle motion and energy
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3.1.4 MACROSCOPIC CONCEPTS OF
TEMPERATURE
Internal energy and thermal
energy (heat)
A macroscopic property is one that can be observed.
Physical properties such as melting point, boiling point,
density, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion and
electrical conductivity can be observed and measured.
TEMPERATURE
At the macroscopic level, temperature is the degree
of hotness or coldness of a body as measured by a
thermometer. Termometers are made using the
thermometric properties of a substance such as:
the expansion of a column of liquid in a capillary
tube (laboratory and clinical thermometers).
the electrical resistance of a wire (resistance and
thermister thermometers).
the diference in the rates of expansion of two
metals in contact (bimetallic strips).
the pressure of a gas at constant volume.
the volume of a gas at constant pressure (gases
expand by a greater amount and more evenly than
liquids).
the heating of two metal wires wound together
(thermocouple thermometers rely on the two
metals producing diferent currents).
the colour of a solid heated to high temperatures
(pyrometers).
Temperature is measured in Kelvin, K.
INTERNAL ENERGY
As already mentioned, internal energy is the sum total of
the potential energy and the random kinetic energy of the
molecules of the substance making up a system. In order
to apply the Law of conservation to thermal systems, one
has to assume that a system has internal energy.
At the macroscopic level, it can be observed that molecules
are moving. When pollen (a fne powder produced by
fowers) is sprinkled on the surface of water and the set-
up is viewed under magnifcation, it can be seen that the
pollen particles carry out zig-zag motion called Brownian
Motion. Teir motion is caused by the kinetic energy of
the water molecules. Walking past a cofee shop you smell
the aroma of the cofee due to difusion caused by the
kinetic energy of the air molecules allowing the aroma
molecules to spread.
Te expansion of solids, liquids and gases is a macroscopic
property that allows us to understand that matter in a
system has potential energy. When you heat a liquid it can
be seen to expand as in a thermometer and this means
that the potential energy of the system is increasing as
the molecules move further apart. Te compressibility of
gases allow us to understand that the potential energy of
the molecules is decreasing.
Although the internal energy in the examples above can
never be absolutely determined, the change in internal
energy can be observed.
THERMAL ENERGY HEAT
Students should understand that the term thermal
energy refers to the non-mechanical transfer of energy
between a system and its surroundings.
IBO 2007
Terefore, it is incorrect to refer to the thermal energy in a
body. At the macroscopic level, thermal energy (heat) can
be transferred from one body to another by conduction,
convection, radiation or by combinations of these three.
Termal conduction is the process by which a temperature
diference causes the transfer of thermal energy from the
hotter region of the body to the colder region by particle
collision without there being any net movement of the
substance itself.
Termal convection is the process in which a temperature
diference causes the mass movement of fuid particles
from areas of high thermal energy to areas of low thermal
energy (the colder region).
Termal radiation is energy produced by a source because
of its temperature that travels as electromagnetic waves. It
does not need the presence of matter for its transfer.
Conduction can occur in solids, liquids and gases. In
gases it occurs due to the collision between fast and slow
moving particles where kinetic energy is transferred
from the fast to the slow particle. Te transfer of energy
is very slow because the particles are far apart relative
to solids and liquids. In liquids, a particle at higher
temperature vibrates about its position with increased
vibrational energy. Because the majority of the particles
are coupled to other particles they also begin to vibrate
more energetically. Tese in turn cause further particles
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to vibrate and thermal conduction occurs. Tis process is
also slow because the particles have a large relative mass
and the increase in vibrations is rather small. In solids, the
transfer can occur in one of two ways. Most solids behave
similarly to liquids.
However, solids are held in their fxed positions more
rigidly than liquids and the transfer of vibrational energy
is more efective. However, again their large masses do not
allow for large energy transfer. If a substance in the solid
or molten form has mobile electrons, as is the case for
metals, these electrons gain energy due to the temperature
rise and their speeds increase much more than those held
in their fxed positions in the lattice. Metals are said to be
good conductors of heat but most other solids are good
insulators. Saucepans for cooking are usually made of
copper or aluminium because these metals conduct heat
quickly when placed on a stove. Te handle is made from
a good solid insulator to reduce the conduction of heat.
Generally, liquids and gases are not good thermal
conductors. However, they can transfer heat readily by
convection. Ocean currents, wind and weather patterns
suggest that the mass movement of particles from one area
to another can cause movement of particles on the grand
scale.
Figure 307 shows a potassium permanganate crystal placed
in water inside a convection tube. Heat is applied for a
short period of time and the direction of the purple trail
is noted. Particles in a region of high thermal energy are
further apart and hence their density is lower. In a region
of low thermal energy the particles are closer together and
the region is more dense. As a result, the less dense region
rises as it is pushed out of the way by the more dense
region and a convection current is produced.
Heat
Potassium
permanganate
crystal
water
Convection tube
Figure 307 Convection current.
Another way in which a fuid can move is by forced
convection. In this case, a pump or fan system maintains
the movement of a fuid. Te cooling system in nuclear
reactors operates on this principle.
All thermal energy ultimately comes from the Sun in our
solar system. It travels through 150 million km of mostly
empty space. At the Earths atmosphere the radiant energy
is mainly refected back into space. However, some is
transmitted and absorbed causing a heating efect. Just as
the Sun emits thermal radiation so does any source that
produces heat such as a light bulb or an electric heater.
Termal radiation is mainly electromagnetic waves in
the infra-red region of the electromagnetic spectrum at
temperatures below 1000 C. Above this temperature,
wavelengths of the visible and ultra-violet regions are
also detected. Dull black bodies are better absorbers and
radiators than transparent or shiny bodies.
3.1.5,6 THE MOLE,
MOLAR MASS AND
AVOGADROS NUMBER
Te mass of an atom is exceedingly small. For example,
the mass of a fuorine atom is 3.16 10
-23
g and the mass of
the isotope carbon12 is 1.99 10
-23
g. Because the masses
of atoms are so small, it is more convenient to describe
the mass of an atom by comparing its mass with those of
other atoms.
In 1961 the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) defned the masses of atoms relative to
carbon12 that was assigned a value of 12.0000. Terefore,
the relative atomic mass is defned as the mass of an atom
when compared with 1/12 the mass of carbon12 atom.
Just as the relative atomic mass is used to describe the
masses of atoms, the relative molecular mass is used to
describe the masses of molecules. Terefore, the relative
molecular mass is defned as the mass of a molecule when
compared with 1/12 of the mass of a carbon12 atom.
It is convenient to group things into quantities. For
example, a box of diskettes, a ream of photocopy paper
(500 sheets), a dozen eggs are common groupings. Te
SI fundamental unit for the amount of a substance is the
mole (mol).
Te mole is the amount of substance that contains as
many elementary particles as there are in 0.012 kg of
carbon12.
Amadeo Avogadro (1776 1856) found that equal volumes
of gases at the same temperature and pressure contained
the same number of particles. One mole of any gas contains
the Avogadro number of particles N
A
. It is now known
that one mole of a gas occupies 22.4 dm
3
at 0 C and
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101.3 kPa pressure (STP) and contains 6.02 10
23

particles.
When using the mole, the atoms or molecules should be
clearly stipulated. For example, one mole of copper atoms
contains 6.02 10
23
copper atoms. One mole of nitrogen
molecules (N
2
) contains 6.02 10
23
of nitrogen molecules
and 12.04 10
23
nitrogen atoms.
If we have one mole of NH
4
NO
3
, this contains:
1 mol of NH
4
+
ions = 6.02 10
23
ammonium ions
1 mol of NO
3

ions = 6.02 10
23
nitrate ions
2 mol of nitrogen atoms = 1.204 10
24
nitrogen atoms
4 mol of hydrogen atoms = 2.408 10
24
hydrogen atoms
3 mol of oxygen atoms = 1.806 10
24
oxygen atoms
Te amount of substance (the moles) is related to the mass
and the molar mass according to the following equation:
n =
m

__

M

where
n = amount of a substance in mol, m = the mass in g and
M = the molar mass in g mol
-1
. Te molar mass can be
obtained from the periodic table.
Example
1. Calculate the number of moles of oxygen
molecules contained in 64.0 g of oxygen gas, O
2.
2. Calculate the number of oxygen molecules in part
1 of this example.
3. Determine the volume of oxygen gas that would
be present at STP.
4. Calculate the mass in 0.75 mol of carbon dioxide gas.
Solution
1. n =
m

__

M
=
64.0 g

_________________

( 16.0 + 16.0 ) g mol
1

= 2 mol
2. Te number of oxygen molecules
= 2N
A
the number of molecules
= 6.02 10
23
2
= 1.024 10
24
molecules.
3. Volume
= 2 mol 22.4 dm
3

= 44.8 dm
3
4. m = n M
= 0.75 mol (12 +16 +16) g mol
-1

= 33 g
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Exercise 3.1 (b)
1. Te internal energy of a substance is equal to:
A. the total potential energy stored in the
bonds of a substance
B. the potential and kinetic energy of
molecules in a substance
C. the energy stored in bonds and
intermolecular forces of a substance
D. the translational, rotational and vibrational
motion of particles in the substance
2. Te number of moles of sodium chloride (NaCl)
in 100g of pure sodium chloride is (M
r
of NaCl =
58.5 gmol
-1
)
A. 5850 mol
B. 0.585 mol
C. 1.71 mol
D. 41.5 mol
3. Two diferent objects with diferent temperatures
are in thermal contact with one another. When the
objects reach thermal equilibrium, the direction of
transfer of thermal energy will be
A. from the lower temperature object to the
higher temperature object
B. half way between the temperatures of the
two objects
C. from the higher temperature object to the
lower temperature object
D. in many diferent directions
4. A sealed fask contains 16 g of oxygen (mass
number 16) and also 8 g of hydrogen (mass
number 1). Te ratio of the number atoms of
hydrogen to the number of atoms of oxygen is
A. 16
B. 8
C. 4
D. 2
5. Te number of molecules present in 0.5 mol SO
3
is
A. 3 10
23
B. 6 10
23
C. 12 10
23
D. 24 10
23
6. Te number of atoms present in 0.5 mol SO
3
is
A. 3 10
23
B. 6 10
23
C. 12 10
23
D. 24 10
23
7. Calculate the approximate molar masses of each of
the following molecules and compounds:
(a) Cl
2
(b) HCl
(c) CuSO
4
(d) Na
2
CO
3
(e) CH
4
8. Calculate the mass of the given amounts of each of
the following substances:
(a) 2.0 mole of iron, Fe
(b) 0.2 mole of zinc, Zn
(c) 2.5 mole of carbon dioxide, CO
2
(d) 0.001 mole of sulfur dioxide, SO
2
(e) 50 mole of benzene, C
6
H
6
9. Calculate the amount of subtance (number of
mole) in:
(a) 100 g of copper
(b) 5.0 g of oxygen molecules
(c) 100 g of calcium carbonate, CaCO
3
(d) 4.4 g of carbon dioxide
(e) 13.88 g of lithium
10. A sample of aluminium sulfate Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
has a
mass of 34.2 g. Calculate:
(a) the number of alumimium ions Al

3+
in the
sample
(b) the number of sulfate ions SO
4
2-
in the
sample
11. Classify the following as a macroscopic or
microscopic property of a gas
(a) volume
(b) specifc heat capacity
(c) kinetic energy of a particle
(d) pressure
(e) temperature
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3.2.1 Dene specic heat capacity and thermal
capacity.
3.2.2 Solve problems involving specic heat
capacities and thermal capacities.
3.2.3 Explain the physical dierences between
the solid, liquid and gaseous phases in
terms of molecular structure and particle
motion.
3.2.4 Describe and explain the process of phase
changes in terms of molecular behaviour.
3.2.5 Explain in terms of molecular behaviour
why temperature does not change during a
phase change.
3.2.6 Distinguish between evaporation and
boiling.
3.2.7 Dene specic latent heat.
3.2.8 Solve problems involving specic latent
heats.
IBO 2007
3.2.1 THERMAL CAPACITY
When diferent substances undergo the same temperature
change they can store or release diferent amounts of
thermal energy. Tey have diferent thermal (heat)
capacities. If a substance has a high heat capacity it will
take in the thermal energy at a slower rate than a substance
with a low heat capacity because it needs more time to
absorb a greater quantity of thermal energy. Tey also
cool more slowly because they give out thermal energy at
a slower rate.
We defne the thermal (heat) capacity as,
Termal Capacity =
Q

___

T
J K
-1
Q is the change in thermal energy in joules J
T is the change in temperature in kelvin degrees K.
Water is used in car cooling systems and heating systems
because of its high thermal capacity. A metal heat sink is
used on the back of refrigerators because of its low thermal
capacity.
Example
Te thermal capacity of a sphere of lead is 3.2 10
3
JK
-1
Determine how much heat can be released if the
temperature changes from 61

C to 25

C.
Solution
Q T apacity = Thermal c
3.2 10
3
JK
1
61 25 ( ) C =
3.2 10
3
JK
1
36 C =
115200J =
1.2 10
5
J =
Note that a change in Kelvin temperature is the
same as a change in Celsius temperature
3.2.2 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
Heat capacity does not take into account the fact that
diferent masses of the same substance can absorb or
release diferent amounts of thermal energy.
Consider three one kilogram blocks of aluminium, zinc
and lead with the same sized base that have been heated
to the same temperature of 80 C. Tey are quickly placed
on top of a large block of candle wax for a time period as
shown in Figure 308.
Figure 308 Front-on view of the
metal blocks after a period of time.
3.2 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
CANDLE WAX
Aluminium Zinc Lead
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Te aluminium block melts the most wax and the lead
melts the least. Terefore, the metals of the same mass
give out diferent amounts of thermal energy in a certain
time period. Tis can be explained from a microscopic
viewpoint. Te kilogram unit masses have diferent
numbers of particles of diferent types and masses. Te
metal blocks were given the same amount of thermal
energy when they were heated to 80 C. When the thermal
energy gained by each metal is distributed amongst its
particles, the average energy change of each particle will
be diferent for each metal.
To obtain a characteristic value for the heat capacity
of materials, equal masses of the materials must be
considered. Te physical property that includes the mass
is called the specifc heat capacity of a substance c.
Specifc heat capacity or specifc heat is the heat capacity
per unit mass. It is defned as the quantity of thermal
energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of
a substance by one degree Kelvin.
c =
Q

_____

mT

Q = m c T
Q = the change in thermal energy required to produce a
temperature change in Joules, J.
m = mass of the material in grams (g) kilograms (kg)
T = the temperature change in Kelvin, K.
Note that T is always positive because heat always
transfers from the higher temperature region to the lower
temperature region.
For gases, the molar heat capacity at constant volume C
v

and the molar heat capacity at constant pressure C
p
are
more commonly used. Molar heat capacity is the quantity
of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of the
gas by one degree Kelvin under the constant condition.
Figure 309 shows the specifc heat capacity for some
common substances at room temperature (except ice)
Substance Specifc heat
J kg
-1
K
-1
Substance Specifc heat
J kg
-1
K
-1
Lead 1.3 10
2
Iron 4.7 10
2
Mercury 1.4 10
2
Aluminium 9.1 10
2
Zinc 3.8 10
2
Sodium 1.23 10
3
Brass 3.8 10
2
Ice 2.1 10
3
Copper 3.85 10
2
Water 4.18 10
3
Figure 309 Specic heat of some common substances
Example
Determine how much thermal energy is released when
650 g of aluminium is cooled from 80 C to 20 C.
Solution
Using the fact that Q = m.c.T, we have,
Q = 0.650 kg 9.1 10
2
J kg
-1
K
-1
(80 20) K
= 3.549 10
4
J
= 4 10
4
J
Tat is, 4 10
4
J of heat is released.
Example
An active solar heater is used to heat 50 kg of water initially
at a temperature of 12 C. If the average rate that thermal
energy is absorbed in a one hour period is 920 J min
-1
,
determine the equilibrium temperature afer one hour
Solution
Quantity of heat absorbed in one hour = 920 J min
-1

60 min = 5.52 10
4
J
Using the fact that Q = m c T , we have
5.52 10
4
J = 5.0 10
1
kg 4.18 10
3
J kg
-1
K
-1
(T
f
12)K
5.52 10
4
J = 2.09 10
5
JK
-1
(T
f
12) C
5.52 10
4
J = 2.09 10
5
T
f
2.51 10
6
J
2.09 10
5
T
f
= 5.52 10
4
J + 2.51 10
6
J
T
f
=
2.553 10
6
J

______________

2.09 10
5
( J K
1
)

T
f
= 12.26 C
T
f
= 12 C
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EXTENSION METHODS TO DETERMINE
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
A calorimeter is a useful piece of equipment for
investigations in Termal Physics because it allows masses
at diferent temperatures to be mixed with minimum
energy loss to the surroundings. It is used for direct and
indirect methods in determining the specifc heat capacity
of a substance. (Te name of the instrument is derived
from the Imperial unit, the calorie.)
copper vessel
heating coil
liquid
thermometer
stirrer
lagging
joulemeter
Figure 310 Calorimeter being used to measure the
heating eect of a current
Figure 310 illustrates the use of a calorimeter to determine
the specifc heat capacity of a liquid, in this case water.
Te heating coil is used to convert electrical energy to
thermal energy. Te electrical energy can be measured by
a joulemeter or by using a voltmeter/ammeter circuit. Te
duration of time of electrical input is noted.
Te thermal energy gained by the calorimeter cup and the
water is equal to the electrical energy lost to the calorimeter
cup and water.
Electrical energy lost =
V I t = [m c T]
calorimeter cup
+ [m c T]
water
where V is the potential diference across the heating coil
in volts V and I is the current in the amperes, A.
Te specifc heat capacity, c, of the calorimeter cup is
obtained from published values. Te other quantities are
recorded and the specifc heat capacity of the water is
calculated.
In calorimeter investigations, heat losses to the
surroundings need to be minimised. It is normal to polish
the calorimeter cup to reduce loss of heat due to radiation.
Te calorimeter is also insulated with lagging materials
such as wool or polystyrene to reduce heat loss due to
conduction and convection.
Afer the power supply is switched of, the temperature
should continue to rise for a period, and then level out for
an infnite time. However, heat is lost to the surroundings,
and the maximum temperature that could be achieved,
in theory, is never reached. Instead appreciable cooling
occurs. One method used to estimate the theoretical
maximum temperature is to use a cooling correction
curve as shown in Figure 311.
{Note that cooling correction is not required in the syllabus
but is included for possible extended essays.}
t 2t 3t
A
1
A
2

A
1
A
2
------ =

2
+ =

3
, so that

1
= ( )
(= correction)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

C
Time, minutes
actual curve
theoretical curve
room
temp
Figure 311 Graph of cooling correction.
A cooling correction is based on Newtons Law of Cooling.
It states that the rate of loss of heat of a body is proportional
to the diference in temperature between the body and its
surroundings (excess temperature). A full explanation of
this Law will not be given. If the power supply is switched of
at time 2t minutes, then the temperature should continue
to be recorded for a further t minutes. Te correction
to the temperature can be obtained from the graph as
shown. Te fnal temperature,
3
, is then given as the fnal
temperature of the thermometer plus the correction .
Another direct electrical method used to determine the
specifc heat capacity of a metal is shown in Figure 312.
An immersion heater is placed into a metal block. Te
hole for the heater is lubricated with oil to allow even
heat transmission. Te electrical energy lost to the block
is recorded for a given period of time and the specifc
heat of the metal is calculated. Cooling correction is more
important in this case because the temperatures under
which the investigation is carried out could be much
higher than was the case when using a calorimeter.
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metal block
thermometer
lagging
V
A
Low voltage
supply
immersion
heater
Figure 312 Electrical method using
an immersion heater and a metal block
A common indirect method to determine the specifc
heat capacity of a solid and liquids is called the method of
mixtures. In the case of a solid, a known mass of the solid
is heated to a certain temperature, and then transferred
to a known mass of liquid in a calorimeter whose specifc
heat capacity is known. Te change in temperature is
recorded and the specifc heat of the solid is calculated
from the results obtained. In the case of a liquid, a hot
solid of known specifc heat is transferred to a liquid of
unknown specifc heat capacity.
Example
A block of copper of mass 3.0 kg at a temperature of
90 C is transferred to a calorimeter containing 2.00 kg of
water at 20 C. Te mass of the copper calorimeter cup is
0.210 kg. Determine the fnal temperature of the water.
Solution
Te thermal energy gained by the water and the calorimeter
cup will be equal to the thermal energy lost by the copper.
Tat is, [mcT]
copper
= [mcT]
calorimeter cup
+ [mcT]
cup
We also have that,
Termal energy lost by the copper
= (3.0 kg) (3.85 10
2
J kg
-1
K
-1
) (90.0 Tf) K
Termal energy gained by the water
= (2.0 kg) (4.18 10
3
J kg
-1
K
-1
) (Tf 20.0) K
Termal energy gained by the cup
= (0.21 kg) (9.1 10
2
J kg
-1
K
-1
) (Tf 20.0) K
1.04 10
5
1.155 10
3
Tf
= (8.36 10
3
Tf 1.67 10
5
) +(1.91 10
2
Tf 3.82 10
3
)
Tat is,
9.71 10
3
Tf = 2.75 10
5
Giving
Tf = 28.3 C
Te fnal temperature of the water is 28 C
Exercise 3.2 (a)
1. Te amount of thermal energy required to raise
the temperature of 1.53 10
3
g of water from 15 K
to 40 K is
A. 1.6 10
7
J
B. 1.6 10
5
J
C. 4.4 10
7
J
D. 4.4 10
5
J
2. Te specifc heat capacity of a metal block of mass
m is determined by placing a heating coil in it, as
shown in the following diagram.
Te block is electrically heated for time t and the
maximum temperature change recorded is . Te
constant ammeter and voltmeter readings during
the heating are I and V respectively. Te electrical
energy supplied is equal to VIt.
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metal block
thermometer
lagging
V
A
Low voltage
supply
immersion
heater
Te specifc heat capacity is best calculated using
which one of the following expressions?
A. c =
VI
m
B. c =
m
VI
C. c =
m
VIt
D. c =
VIt
m
3. 5.4 10
6
J of energy is required to heat a 28 kg
mass of steel from 22 C to 450 C. Determine the
specifc heat capacity of the steel.
4. Liquid sodium is used as a coolant in some
nuclear reactors. Describe the reason why liquid
sodium is used in preference to water.
5. 6.00 10
2
kg of pyrex glass loses 8.70 10
6
J of
thermal energy. If the temperature of the glass was
initially 95.0 C before cooling, calculate is its fnal
temperature.
(Take the specifc heat capacity of pyrex glass to be
8.40 10
2
J kg
-1
K
-1
)
6. A piece of wood placed in the Sun absorbs more
thermal energy than a piece of shiny metal of the
same mass. Explain why the wood feels cooler
than the metal when you touch them.
7. A hot water vessel contains 3.0 dm
3
at 45 C.
Calculate the rate that the water is losing thermal
energy (in joules per second) if it cools to 38 C
over an 8.0 h period.
8. Determine how many joules of energy are released
when 870 g of aluminium is cooled from 155 C to
20 C.
9. If 2.93 10
6
J is used to raise the temperature of
water from 288 K to 372 K, calculate the mass of
water present.
10. 1.7 mJ of energy is required to cool a 15 kg mass of
brass from 400 C to 25 C. Determine the specifc
heat capacity of brass.
11. A piece of iron is dropped from an aeroplane at
a height of 1.2 km. If 75% of the kinetic energy
of the iron is converted to thermal energy on
impact with the ground, determine the rise in
temperature.
12. If 115 g of water at 75.5 C is mixed with 0.22 kg of
water at 21 C, determine the temperature of the
resulting mixture.
13. Describe an experiment that would allow you to
determine the specifc heat capacity of a metal.
(i) Sketch the apparatus.
(ii) Describe what measurements need to be
made and how they are obtained.
(iii) State and explain the equation used to
calculate the specifc heat capacity of the
metal.
(iv) Describe 2 main sources of error that are
likely to occur in the experiment.
(v) Is the experimental value likely to be higher
or lower than the theoretical value, if the
experiment was carried out in a school
laboratory? Explain your answer.
14. A heating fuid releases 4.2 10
7
Jkg
-1
of heat as it
undergoes combustion. If the fuid is used to heat
250 dm
3
of water from 15 C to 71 C, and the
conversion is 65% efcient, determine the mass
of the heating fuid that will be consumed in this
process.
15. A large boulder of 125 kg falls of a clif of height
122 m into a pool of water containing 120 kg of
water. Determine the rise in temperature of the
water. Assume that no water is lost in the entry of
the boulder, and that all the heat goes to the water.
16. A thermally insulated container of water is
dropped from a large height and collides
inelastically with the ground. Determine the
height from which it is dropped if the temperature
of the water increases by 1.5 C.
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17. A piece of copper is dropped from a height of
225 m. If 75% of its kinetic energy is converted to
heat energy on impact with the ground, calculate
the rise in temperature of the copper. (Use the
table of specifc heat capacities to fnd the value for
copper).
18. 5kg of lead shot is poured into a cylindrical
cardboard tube 2.0 m long. Te ends of the tube
are sealed, and the tube is inverted 50 times. Te
temperature of the lead increases by 4.2 C. If
the specifc heat of lead is 0.031 kcal kg
-1
C
-1
,
determine the number of work units in joules that
are equivalent to the heat unit of 1 kilocalorie.
3.2.3 PHASE STATES
An understanding of thermal energy is based upon a theory
called the moving particle theory or kinetic theory (for
gases) that uses models (Figure 314) to explain the structure
and nature of matter. Te basic assumptions of this moving
particle theory relevant to thermal energy are:
all matter is composed of extremely small particles
all particles are in constant motion
if particles collide with neighbouring particles, they
conserve their kinetic energy
a mutual attractive force exists between particles
solid liquid gas
Figure 314 Arrangement of particles
in solids, liquids and gases
An atom is the smallest neutral particle that represents an
element as displayed in a periodic table of elements. Atoms
contain protons, neutrons and electrons and an array of
other sub-atomic particles. Atomic diameters are of the
order of magnitude 10
10
m. Atoms can combine to form
molecules of substances. In chemistry, the choice of the
terms e.g. atoms, molecules, ions are specifc to elements
and compounds. In physics, the word particle is used to
describe any of these specifc chemistry terms at this stage
of the course.
As previously mentioned, evidence for the constant motion
of particles can be gained from observation of what is
known as Brownian Motion. If pollen grains from fowers
are placed on water and observed under a microscope, the
pollen grains undergo constant random zig-zag motion.
Te motion becomes more vigorous as the thermal energy
is increased with heating. A Whitley Bay smoke cell uses
smoke in air to achieve the same brownian motion. In both
cases, the motion is due to the smaller particles striking
the larger particles and causing them to move.
Te large number of particles in a volume of a solid, liquid
or gas ensures that the number of particles moving in all
directions with a certain velocity is constant over time.
Tere would be no gaseous state if the particles were losing
kinetic energy.
A mutual attractive force must exist between particles
otherwise the particles of nature would not be combined
as we know them. Further explanation of this assumption
will be given later in this topic.
Matter is defned as anything that has mass and occupies
space. Tere are four states of matter which are also called
the four phases of matter solids, liquids, gases and
plasma. Most matter on Earth is in the form of solids,
liquids and gases, but most matter in the Universe is in the
plasma state. Liquids, gases and plasma are fuids.
A plasma is made by heating gaseous atoms and molecules
to a sufcient temperature to cause them to ionise. Te
resulting plasma consists then of some neutral particles but
mostly positive ions and electrons or other negative ions.
Te Sun and other stars are mainly composed of plasma.
Te remainder of this chapter will concentrate on the other
three states of matter, and their behaviour will be explained in
terms of their macroscopic and microscopic characteristics
of which some are given in Figures 315 and 316.
Characteristic Solid Liquid Gas
Shape Defnite Variable Variable
Volume Defnite Defnite Variable
Compressibility
Almost
Incompressible
Very slightly
Compressible
Highly
Compressible
Difusion Small Slow Fast
Comparative
Density
High High Low
Figure 315 Some macroscopic
characteristics of solids, liquids and gases
Macroscopic properties are all the observable behaviours of
that material such as shape, volume and compressibility.
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Te many macroscopic or physical properties of a substance
can provide evidence for the nature and structure of that
substance.
Characteristic Solid Liquid Gas
Kinetic energy Vibrational
Vibrational
Rotational
Some
translational
Mostly
translational
Higher
rotational
Higher
vibrational
Potential energy High Higher Highest
Mean molecular
Separation (r
0
)
r
0
r
0
10r
0
Termal energy
of particles ()
< /10 < > /10 >
Molecules per m
3
10
28
10
28
10
25
Figure 316 Some microscopic
characteristics of solids, liquids and gases
Microscopic characteristics help to explain what is
happening at the atomic level, and this part of the model
will be interpreted further at a later stage.
Te modern technique of X-ray difraction that will be
studied in detail in a later chapter has enabled scientists
to determine the arrangement of particles in solids. Te
particles are closely packed and each particle is strongly
bonded to its neighbour and is held fairly rigidly in a fxed
position to give it defnite shape in a crystalline lattice.
Some patterns are disordered as is the case for ceramics,
rubber, plastics and glass. Tese substances are said to be
amorphous. Te particles have vibrational kinetic energy
in their fxed positions and the force of attraction between
the particles gives them potential energy.
In liquids the particles are still closely packed and the
bonding between particles is still quite strong. However,
they are not held as rigidly in position and the bonds can
break and reform. Tis infers that the particles can slowly
and randomly move relative to each other to produce
variable shape and slow difusion. Particles in a liquid
have vibrational, rotational and some translational kinetic
energy due to their higher mean speeds. Te potential
energy of the particles in a liquid is somewhat higher than
for a solid because the spacing between the particles is
large.
In gases the particles are widely spaced and the particles
only interact signifcantly on collision or very close
approach. Because of the rapid random zig-zag motion of
the particles, a gas will become dispersed throughout any
container into which it is placed. Difusion (the spreading
out from the point of release) can occur readily. Gases
are compressible because the particles are widely spaced
at a distance much greater than the size of the particles.
Te much higher mean speeds are due to an increased
translational kinetic energy of the particles. Gases have
a much higher potential energy than liquids because the
particles are much further apart.
3.2.4 THE PROCESS OF PHASE
CHANGES
A substance can undergo changes of state or phase changes
at diferent temperatures. Pure substances (elements and
compounds) have defnite melting and boiling points
which are characteristic of the particular pure substance
being examined. For example, oxygen has a melting point
of -218.8 C and a boiling point of -183 C at standard
atmospheric pressure.
Te heating curve for benzene is illustrated in Figure 317.
A sample of benzene at 0C is heated in a closed container
and the change in temperature is graphed as a function
of time. Te macroscopic behaviour of benzene can be
described using the graph and the microscopic behaviour
can be interpreted from the macroscopic behaviour.
SOL I D
L I QUI D
GAS
Liquid-gas phase
change
Solid-liquid
phase change
Temperature /C
Heating time /min
melting
point
boiling
point
5.5C
80C
Figure 317 Heating curve for benzene.
When the solid benzene is heated the temperature
begins to rise. When the temperature reaches 5.5 C the
benzene begins to melt. Although heating continues the
temperature of the solid liquid benzene mixture remains
constant until all the benzene has melted. Once all the
benzene has melted the temperature starts to rise until the
liquid benzene begins to boil at a temperature of 80 C.
With continued heating the temperature remains constant
until all the liquid benzene has been converted to the
gaseous state. Te temperature then continues to rise as
the gas is in a closed container.
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3.2.5 MOLECULAR BEHAVIOUR AND
PHASE CHANGES
The moving particle theory can be used to explain the
microscopic behaviour of these phase changes. When
solid benzene is heated the particles of the solid vibrate
at an increasing rate as the temperature is increased.
The vibrational kinetic energy of the particles increases.
At the melting point a temperature is reached at which
the particles vibrate with sufficient thermal energy to
break from their fixed positions and begin to slip over
each other. As the solid continues to melt, more and
more particles gain sufficient energy to overcome the
forces between particles and over time all the solid
particles change to a liquid. The potential energy of
the system increases as the particles begin to move. As
heating continues the temperature of the liquid rises
due to an increase in the vibrational, rotational and
part translational kinetic energy of the particles. At
the boiling point a temperature is reached at which the
particles gain sufficient energy to overcome the inter-
particle forces present in the liquid benzene and escape
into the gaseous state. Continued heating at the boiling
point provides the potential energy needed for all the
benzene molecules to be converted from a liquid to a
gas. With further heating the temperature increases
due to an increase in the kinetic energy of the gaseous
molecules due to the larger translational motion.
3.2.6 EVAPORATION AND BOILING
When water is lef in a container outside, exposed to the
atmosphere, it will eventually evaporate. Mercury from
broken thermometers has to be cleaned up immediately
due to its harmful efects. Water has a boiling point of
100 C and mercury has a boiling point of 357 C. Yet they
both evaporate at room temperature.
Te process of evaporation is a change from the liquid
state to the gaseous state that occurs at a temperature
below the boiling point.
Te moving particle theory can be applied to understand
the evaporation process. A substance at a particular
temperature has a range of kinetic energies. So in a liquid
at any particular instant, a small fraction of the molecules
will have kinetic energies considerably greater then the
average value. If these particles are near the surface of the
liquid, they may have enough kinetic energy to overcome
the attractive forces of neighbouring particles and escape
from the liquid as a vapour. Now that the more energetic
particles have escaped, the average kinetic energy of the
remaining particles in the liquid has been lowered. Since
temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy
of the particles, a lower kinetic energy implies a lower
temperature, and this is the reason why the temperature of
the liquid falls as evaporative cooling takes place. Another
way of explaining the temperature drop is in terms of latent
heat. As a substance evaporates, it needs thermal energy
input to replace its lost latent heat of vaporisation and this
thermal energy can be obtained from the remaining liquid
and its surroundings.
A substance that evaporates rapidly is said to be a volatile
liquid. A liquids volatility is controlled by a factor known
as its equilibrium vapour pressure. Tere are forces that
must be overcome before a particle can leave the surface of
a liquid. Diferent liquids exert diferent vapour pressures
that depend on the relative strengths of the intermolecular
forces present in the liquids. Hydrofuorocarbons and
CFCs used in refrigerators, and ether, chloroform and
ethanol have relatively high vapour pressures.
Te values in Figure 318 compare the vapour pressure of
some liquids at 293 K.
Substance Vapour pressure / kPa
Ether 58.9
Chloroform 19.3
Ethanol 5.8
Water 2.3
Mercury 0.0002
Figure 318 Some common vapour pressures
Although the vapour pressure of mercury is much lower
than the other substances listed at room temperature,
some evaporation does occur. Because of its extreme
toxicity any mercury spill is treated seriously. Ether has a
high vapour pressure. If a stream of air is blown through a
sample of ether in a beaker that is placed on a thin flm of
water, the water will eventually turn to ice.
When overheating occurs in a human on hot days, the
body starts to perspire. Evaporation of the perspiration
results in a loss of thermal energy from the body so that
body temperature can be controlled. Local anaesthetics
with high vapour pressures are used to reduce pain on the
skin. Termal energy fows from the surrounding fesh
causing its temperature to drop and thereby anaesthetises
the area.
A liquid boils when the vapour pressure of the liquid
equals the atmospheric pressure of its surroundings.
As the boiling point is reached, tiny bubbles appear
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throughout the liquid. If the vapour pressure of the bubble
is less than the atmospheric pressure the bubbles are
crushed. However a point is reached when the pressures
are equal. Te bubble will then increase in size as it rises to
the surface of the liquid.
Exercise 3.2 (b)
1. When smoke is strongly illuminated and viewed
under a microscope it is possible to observe
A. all particles moving in straight lines
B. smoke particles moving randomly by air
molecules
C. smoke particles colliding with each other
D. air molecules in random motion
2. Te internal energy of a monatomic gas such as
neon is mainly due to
A. the potential energy holding the atoms in
fxed positions
B. the vibrational energy of the atoms
C. the random translational energy of the
atoms
D. the rotational energy of the atoms
3. For a given mass of a certain liquid, the magnitude
of the thermal energy transfer is the same for the
following two processes
A. freezing and sublimation
B. melting and evaporation
C. evaporation and condensation
D. sublimation and condensation
4. Which of the following is a unit of thermal
energy?
A. watt
B. the product of the newton and the metre
C. the quotient of the watt and the second
D. the product of the joule and the second
Base your answers to Questions 5 and 6 on the following
graph. Te graph shows the temperature of an unknown
substance of mass 10.0 kg as heat is added at a constant
rate of 6300 Jmin
-1
. Te substance is a solid at 0
0
C.
Time / min
0 5 10 15 20
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
/
o
C
150
100
50
5. Te internal potential energy of the unknown
substance increases without any change in internal
kinetic energy from the beginning of the:
A. frst minute to the end of the fourth minute
B. seventh minute to the end of the
seventeenth minute
C. seventeenth minute to the end of the twenty
frst minute
D. nineteenth to the end of the twenty ffh
minute
6. Te specifc heat capacity of the substance when it
is solid is:
A. 63 Jkg
-1
K
-1
B. 105 Jkg
-1
K
-1
C. 126 Jkg
-1
K
-1
D. 504 Jkg
-1
K
-1
7. Give fve macroscopic and fve microscopic
characteristics of the liquid/gas in a butane lighter.
8. Describe the components of internal energy in
each of the following situations
(a) air at room temperature
(b) a jar of honey
(c) a melting ice cream.
9. Explain the diference between heat, thermal
energy and temperature.
10. Does a block of ice contain any heat? Explain your
answer fully.
11. Draw a fully labelled cooling curve for the
situation when steam at 110 C is converted to ice
at 25 C.
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12. (a) Convert 63 C to Kelvin
(b) Convert 52 K to degrees Celsius
13. Te temperatures of the same volume of air and
water are raised by a small amount. Explain why
a diferent amount of heat is required for each
process.
14. If you increase the heat under a pot of water in
which you are boiling potatoes, will the potatoes
be cooked faster?
15. If you wanted to cool a bottle of sof drink at the
beach, would you be better to wrap a wet towel
around it or to put it into the seawater? Explain
your answer.
16. Why is it important not to stand in a draught afer
vigorous exercise?
17. Describe and explain the process of evaporative
cooling in terms of its microscopic properties.
18. A kettle made of stainless steel containing water
is heated to a temperature of 95 C. Describe
the processes of thermal energy transfer that are
occurring in the stainless steel kettle and the water.
3.2.7 LATENT HEAT
Te thermal energy which a particle absorbs in melting,
evaporating or sublimating or gives out in freezing,
condensing or sublimating is called latent heat because it
does not produce a change in temperature. See Figure 320.
THE RMAL E NE RGY ADDE D
melting evaporation
SOL I D L I QUI D GAS
freezing condensation
sublimation
THE RMAL E NE RGY GI VE N OUT
Figure 320 Macroscopic
transformations between states of matter.
Sublimation is a change of phase directly from a solid to
a gas or directly from a gas to a solid. Iodine and solid
carbon dioxide are examples of substances that sublime.
When thermal energy is absorbed/released by a body,
the temperature may rise/fall, or it can remain constant.
If the temperature remains constant then a phase change
will occur as the thermal energy must either increase the
potential energy of the particles as they move further
apart or decrease the potential energy of the particles as
they move closer together. If the temperature changes,
then the energy must increase the average kinetic energy
of the particles.
Te quantity of heat required to change one kilogram of
a substance from one phase to another is called the latent
heat of transformation.
Q = mL
Q is the quantity of heat absorbed or released during the
phase change in J,
m is the mass of the substance in kg and
L is the latent heat of the substance in J kg
-1

L could be the latent heat of fusion L
f
, the latent heat of
vaporisation L
v
or the latent heat of sublimation L
s
. Te
latent heat of fusion of a substance is less than the latent
heat of vaporisation or the latent heat of sublimation. More
work has to be done to reorganise the particles as they
increase their volume in vaporisation and sublimation
than the work required to allow particles to move from
their fxed position and slide over each other in fusion.
Figure 321 lists the latent heat of some substances.
Substance Melting
point
K
Latent heat
of fusion
10
5
J kg
-1

Boiling
point
K
Latent heat of
Vaporisation
10
5
J kg
-1
Oxygen 55 0.14 90 2.1
Ethanol 159 1.05 351 8.7
Lead 600 0.25 1893 7.3
Copper 1356 1.8 2573 73
Water 273 3.34 373 22.5
Figure 321 Some Latent Heat Values
Example
Calculate the heat energy required to evaporate 5.0 kg of
ethanol at its boiling point.
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Solution
Given that m = 5.0 kg and L
v
= 8.7 10
5
J kg
-1
.
We then have,
= 4.35 10
6
J = 4.4 10
6
J
Te heat energy required for the vaporisation is 4.4 10
6
J.
Example
Determine the heat energy released when 1.5 kg of
gaseous water at 100 C is placed in a freezer and
converted to ice at -7
0
C. Te specifc heat capacity of ice
is 2.1 10
3
J kg
1
K
1
.
.
Solution
Te energy changes in this process can be represented as
shown in Figure 322.
Using
Q = mL
V
+ mcT
WATER
+ mL
f
+ mcT
ICE

= m [L
V
+ cT
WATER
+ L
f
+ cT
ICE
]
= 1.5 [22.5 10
5
+ (4180 100) + 3.34 10
5
+ (2100 7)]
= 4.52 10
6
J
Tat is, the energy released is 4.5 10
6
J or 4.5 MJ.
THER MAL ENE RGY R EL EASE D
I CE at L I QUI D water at GASE OUS water at
7C 0 C 0 C 100 C 100 C
L atent heat of fusion L atent heat of evapor ation
Specifc heat I ce Specifc heat water
Figure 322 Energy released in steam-ice change.
Te latent heat of vaporisation can be found using a self-
jacketing vaporiser as shown in Figure 323. Te liquid
to be vaporised is heated electrically so that it boils at a
steady rate. Te vapour that is produced passes to the
condenser through holes labelled H in the neck of the
inner fask. Condensation occurs in the outer fask and
the condenser.
A
Cold water
Condenser
Water outfow
Liquid under
investigation
Heating coil
Vapour acting as
a j acket
Collecting vessel
Condensed vapour
V
H H
Figure 323 Latent heat of vaporisation apparatus.
Eventually, the temperature of all the parts of the apparatus
becomes steady. When this steady state is reached, a
container of known mass is placed under the condenser
outlet for a measured time t, and the measured mass of the
condensed vapour m is determined. Te heater current I
is measured with the ammeter A and potential diference
V is measured with a voltmeter V. Tey are closely
monitored and kept constant with a rheostat.
Te electrical energy supplied is used to vaporise the liquid
and some thermal energy H is lost to the surroundings.
Terefore:
V
1
I
1
t = m
1
L
V
+ H
In order to eliminate H from the relationship, the process
is repeated using a diferent heater potential diference
and current. Te vapour is collected for the same time t
Te rate of vaporisation will be diferent but the heat lost
to the surroundings will be the same as each part of the
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apparatus will be at the same temperature as it was with
the initial rate vaporisation.
Terefore:
V
2
I
2
t = m
2
L
V
+ H
By subtracting the two equations:
(V
1
I
1
V
2
I
2
)t = (m
1
m
2
)L
V
From this equation, the value of the latent heat
of vaporisation of the unknown substance can be
determined.
Exercise 3.2 (c)
1. Te specifc latent heat of fusion of ice is the heat
required to
A. raise the temperature of ice from 0 C to 10 C
B. change 1 dm
3
of ice at 0 C to water at 0 C
C. change 1kg of ice at 0 C to water at 0 C
D. change the temperature of 1 kg by 10 C
2. A substance changes from liquid to gas at its
normal boiling temperature. What change, if
any, occurs in the average kinetic energy and the
average potential energy of its molecules?
Average kinetic Average potential
energy energy
A. constant increases
B. increases constant
C. increases decreases
D. constant constant
3. Termal energy is transferred to a mass of water
in four steps. Which one of the four steps requires
the most thermal energy?
A. 5 C to 20 C
B. 15 C to 35 C
C. 75 C to 90 C
D. 95 C to 101 C
4. Determine the amount of thermal energy that is
required to melt 35 kg of ice at its melting point.
5. A 5.0 10
2
g aluminium block is heated to 350 C.
Determine the number of kilograms of ice at 0 C
that the aluminium block will melt as it cools.
6. Steam coming from a kettle will give you a nastier
burn than boiling water. Explain why.
7. An immersion heater can supply heat at a rate of
5.2 10
2
J s
-1
. Calculate the time that it will take
to completely evaporate 1.25 10
-1
kg of water
initially at a temperature of 21 C?
8. A 3.45 kg sample of iron is heated to a temperature
of 295 C and is then transferred to a 2.0 kg copper
vessel containing 10.0 kg of a liquid at an initial
temperature of 21.0 C. If the fnal temperature of
the mixture is 31.5 C, determine the specifc heat
capacity of the liquid?
9. A mass of dry steam at 1.0 10
2
C is blown over
a 1.5 kg of ice at 0.0 C in an isolated container.
Calculate the mass of steam needed to convert the
ice to water at 21.5 C.
10. A freezer in a refrigerator takes 2.00 hours to
convert 2.15 kg of water initially at 21.5 C to just
frozen ice. Calculate the rate at which the freezer
absorbs heat.
11. Describe an experiment to determine the specifc
heat capacity of an unknown metal. Sketch the
apparatus used and describe what measurements
are made. State the main sources of error and
explain how they can be minimised.
12. Calculate how much thermal energy is released
when 1.2 kg of steam at 100 C is condensed to
water at the same temperature.
(L
v
= 2.25 10
6
Jkg
-1
)
13. Determine how much energy is released when
1.5 kg of gaseous water at 100 C is placed in a
freezer and converted to ice at 7 C . (the specifc
heat capacity of ice is 2.1 10
3
J kg
-1
K
-1
).
14. Describe an experiment that can be used to
determine the latent heat of vaporisation of a
liquid.
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KINETIC MODEL OF AN IDEAL GAS
3.2.9 Dene pressure.
3.2.10 State the assumptions of the kinetic model
Of an ideal gas.
3.2.11 State that temperature is a measure of
the average random kinetic energy of the
molecules of an ideal gas.
3.2.12 Explain the macroscopic behaviour of an
ideal gas in terms of a molecular model.
IBO 2007
3.2.9 PRESSURE
Investigations into the behaviour of gases involve
measurement of pressure, volume, temperature and mass.
Experiments use these macroscopic properties of a gas to
formulate a number of gas laws.
In 1643 Torricelli found that the atmosphere could
support a vertical column of mercury about 76 cm high
and the frst mercury barometer became the standard
instrument for measuring pressure. Te pressure unit
760 mm Hg (760 millimetres of mercury) represented
standard atmospheric pressure. In 1646, Pascal found that
the atmosphere could support a vertical column of water
about 10.4 m high.
For our purposes in this section, pressure can be defned
as the force exerted over an area.
Pressure = Force / Area
P = F /A
Te SI unit of pressure is the pascal Pa.
1 atm = 1.01 10
5
Nm
-2
= 101.3 kPa = 760 mmHg
3.2.10 THE KINETIC MODEL OF AN
IDEAL GAS
An ideal gas is a theoretical gas that obeys the ideal gas
equation exactly. Real gases conform to the gas laws under
certain limited conditions but they can condense to liquids,
then solidify if the temperature is lowered. Furthermore,
there are relatively small forces of attraction between
particles of a real gas, and even this is not allowable for
an ideal gas.
Most gases, at temperatures well above their boiling points
and pressures that are not too high, behave like an ideal gas.
In other words, real gases vary from ideal gas behaviour at
high pressures and low temperatures.
When the moving particle theory is applied to gases it is
generally called the kinetic theory of gases. Te kinetic
theory relates the macroscopic behaviour of an ideal gas to
the behaviour of its molecules.
Te assumptions or postulates of the moving particle
theory are extended for an ideal gas to include
Gases consist of tiny particles called atoms
(monatomic gases such as neon and argon) or
molecules.
Te total number of molecules in any sample of a
gas is extremely large.
Te molecules are in constant random motion.
Te range of the intermolecular forces is small
compared to the average separation of the
molecules.
Te size of the particles is relatively small compared
with the distance between them.
Collisions of short duration occur between
molecules and the walls of the container and the
collisions are perfectly elastic.
No forces act between particles except when they
collide, and hence particles move in straight lines.
Between collisions the molecules obey Newtons
Laws of motion.
Based on these postulates the view of an ideal gas is one
of molecules moving in random straight line paths at
constant speeds until they collide with the sides of the
container or with one another. Teir paths over time are
therefore zig-zags. Because the gas molecules can move
freely and are relatively far apart, they occupy the total
volume of a container.
Te large number of particles ensures that the number of
particles moving in all directions is constant at any time.
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3.2.11 TEMPERATURE AND AVERAGE
RANDOM KINETIC ENERGY
Temperature is a measure of the average random kinetic
energy of an ideal gas.
At the microscopic level, temperature is regarded
as the measure of the average kinetic energy per
molecule associated with its movements. For gases,
it can be shown that the average kinetic energy,

E
k
1
2
-- -mv
2
3
2
-- -kT = = where k = Boltzmann constant
v
2
T
Te term average kinetic energy is used because, at a
particular temperature diferent particles have a wide
range of velocities, especially when they are converted to a
gas. Tis is to say that at any given temperature the average
speed is defnite but the velocities of particular molecules
can change as a result of collision.
Figure 325 shows a series of graphs for the same gas
at three diferent temperatures. In 1859 James Clerk
Maxwell (1831-1879) and in 1861 Ludwig Boltzmann
(1844-1906) developed the mathematics of the kinetic
theory of gases. Te curve is called a Maxwell-Boltzmann
speed distribution and it is calculated using statistical
mechanics. It shows the relationship between the relative
number of particles N in a sample of gas and the speeds v
that the particles have when the temperature is changed.
(T
3
> T
2
> T
1
)
Te graphs do not show a normal distribution as the
graphs are not bell-shaped. Tey are slightly skewed to
the lef. Te minimum speed is zero at the lef end of
the graphs. At the right end they do not touch the x-axis
because a small number of particles have very high speeds.
Te peak of each curve is at the most probable speed v
p

a large number of particles in a sample of gas have their
speeds in this region. When the mathematics of statistical
mechanics is applied it is found that mean squared speed
v
av
2
is higher than the most probable speed. Another
quantity more ofen used is called the root mean square
speed V
rms
and it is equal to the square root of the mean
squared speed.
v
rms
v
2
=
Te root mean square is higher than the mean squared
speed.
Other features of the graphs show that the higher the
temperature, the more symmetric the curves becomes.
Te average speed of the particles increases and the peak
is lowered and shifed to the right. Te areas under the
graphs only have signifcance when N is defned in a
diferent way from above.
Figure 326 shows the distribution of the number of
particles with a particular energy N against the kinetic
energy of the particles E
k
at a particular temperature. Te
shape of the kinetic energy distribution curve is similar to
the speed distribution curve and the total energy of the
gas is given by the area under the curve.
T
1
T
2
T
2
T
1
>
N
E
k
Figure 326 Distribution of kinetic energies
for the same gas at dierent temperatures.
Te average kinetic energy of the particles of all gases is
the same. However, gases have diferent masses. Hydrogen
molecules have about one-sixteenth the mass of oxygen
molecules and therefore have higher speeds if the average
kinetic energy of the hydrogen and the oxygen are the same.
Because the collisions are perfectly elastic there is no loss
in kinetic energy as a result of the collisions.
Figure 325 Maxwell-Boltzmann speed distribution for
the same gas at dierent temperatures.
v
mp
v
v
rms
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
3
T
2
T
1
> >
N
v ms
1
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3.2.12 MACROSCOPIC BEHAVIOUR OF
AN IDEAL GAS
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) discussed that the pressure of a
gas at constant temperature is proportional to its density.
He also investigated how the pressure is related to the
volume for a fxed mass of gas at constant temperature.
Boyles Law relates pressure and volume for a gas at fxed
temperature.
Boyles Law for gases states that the pressure of a fxed mass
of gas is inversely proportional to its volume at constant
temperature.
P
1

__

V
PV = constant
When the conditions are changed, with the temperature
still constant
P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2

Te readings of P and V must be taken slowly to maintain
constant temperature because when air is compressed, it
warms up slightly.
When a pressure versus volume graph is drawn for the
collected data a hyperbola shape is obtained, and when
pressure is plotted against the reciprocal of volume a
straight line (direct proportionality) is obtained. See
Figure 327.
pressure, P mmHg pressure, P mmHg PV
volume, V cm
3
1
V
cm
3 P
Figure 327 (a), (b) and)c) pressure-volume graphs.
Te pressure that the molecules exert is due to their
collisions with the sides of the container. When the
volume of the container is decreased, the frequency of the
particle collisions with the walls of the container increases.
Tis means that there is a greater force in a smaller area
leading to an increase in pressure. Te pressure increase
has nothing to do with the collisions of the particles with
each other.
In 1787 Jacques Charles (17461823) performed
experiments to investigate how the volume of a gas
changed with temperature. Gay-Lussac (17781850)
published more accurate investigations in 1802.
A very simple apparatus to investigate Charles Law is
shown in Figure 328. A sample of dry air is trapped in a
capillary tube by a bead of concentrated sulfuric acid. Te
capillary tube is heated in a water bath and the water is
constantly stirred to ensure that the whole air column is at
the same temperature.
thermometer
water bath
bead of acid
(e.g. sulfuric acid)
air column
capillary tube
H E A T
Figure 328 Apparatus for Charles law.
Te investigation should be carried out slowly to allow
thermal energy to pass into or out of the thick glass walls
of the capillary tube. When the volume and temperature
measurements are plotted, a graph similar to Figure 328
is obtained.
V


c
m
3
273 TC
100
0 273 373 T K
0
Figure 329 Variation of volume with temperature.
Note that from the extrapolation of the straight line that
the volume of gases would be theoretically zero at 273 C
called absolute zero. Te scale chosen is called the Kelvin
scale K.
Te Charles (Gay-Lussac) Law of gases states that:
Te volume of a fxed mass of gas at constant pressure
is directly proportional to its absolute (Kelvin)
temperature.
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Tis can also be stated as:
Te volume of a fxed mass of gas increases by 1/273
of its volume at 0 C for every degree Celsius rise in
temperature provided the pressure is constant.
V T V = kt so that
V
1


___

T
1

= k
Terefore,

V
1


___

T
1

=
V
2


___

T
2

As the temperature of a gas is increased, the average kinetic
energy per molecule increases. Te increase in velocity
of the molecules leads to a greater rate of collisions, and
each collision involves greater impulse. Hence the volume
of the gas increases as the collisions with the sides of the
container increase.
Experiments were similarly carried out to investigate the
relationship between the pressure and temperature of a
fxed mass of various gases.
Te essential parts of the apparatus shown in Figure 330
are a metal sphere or round bottomed fask, and a
Bourdon pressure gauge. Te sphere/fask and bourdon
gauge are connected by a short column of metal tubing/
capillary tube to ensure that as little air as possible is at a
diferent temperature from the main body of enclosed gas.
Te apparatus in Figure 330 allows the pressure of a fxed
volume of gas to be determined as the gas is heated.
Bourdon gauge
counter-balance
metal stem
thermometer
retort
stand
air enclosed
in a metal
sphere
Figure 330 Pressure law apparatus.
Te variation in pressure as the temperature is changed
is measured and graphed. A typical graph is shown in
Figure 331.
273 TC
100
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P

k
P
a
0 273 373 T K
0
Figure 331 Variation of pressure with temperature.
Te Pressure (Admonton) Law of Gases states that:
Te pressure of a fxed mass of gas at constant volume
is directly proportional to its absolute (Kelvin)
temperature.
P T P kT
P
1
T
1
----- - k = =
Terefore,
P
1
T
1
----- -
P
2
T
2
----- - =
As the temperature of a gas is increased, the average kinetic
energy per molecule increases. Te increase in velocity of
the molecules leads to a greater rate of collisions, and each
collision involves greater impulse. Hence the pressure of
the gas increases as the collisions with the sides of the
container increase.
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4
INTRODUCTION
W
hat we learn in this chapter about oscillations
in mechanical systems and of the waves that
oscillating systems may set up, forms the basis for gaining
an understanding of many other areas of physics.
A study of oscillations is important for many reasons, not
least, safety in design. For example, oscillations may be
instigated in a bridge as trafc passes over it. In a worst
case scenario these oscillations can lead to structural
damage in the bridge. Many types of machines (lathes,
car engines etc.) are also subject to oscillations and again,
depending on the nature of the oscillations, machines can
be damaged.
Of course oscillating systems may also be very useful.
Te oscillations of a simple pendulum may be used as
an accurate timing device and the oscillations set up in
a quartz crystal may be used as an even more accurate
timing device.
If an oscillating body causes other particles with which it
is in contact to oscillate, then the energy of the oscillating
body may be propagated as a wave. An oscillating tuning
fork, vibrating string and vibrating reed cause the air
molecules with which they are in contact to oscillate
thereby giving rise to a sound wave that we may hear as
a musical note. As we shall see, oscillating systems and
waves are intimately connected.
On a fundamental level, all atoms and molecules are
in efect oscillating systems. An understanding of
these oscillations is crucial to understanding both the
microscopic and macroscopic properties of a substance.
For example, the dependence of specifc heat capacity
on temperature, (a topic well beyond the scope of an IB
Physics Course) arises from studying atomic oscillations.
Also, by analysing the oscillations of atoms and molecules,
we gain an understanding of the interaction between
matter and radiation. For example, we shall see in Chapter
8 that the Greenhouse Efect is essentially due to the
interaction between infrared radiation and gases such as
carbon dioxide.
It must also be mentioned that the oscillations of electrically
charged particles give rise to electromagnetic waves (light,
radio waves, X-rays etc). Tis is examined in more detail
in Option G on Electromagnetic Waves. However, the
concept of electromagnetic waves is used in several other
places in both the Core and AHL material.
We look frst at the oscillations in mechanical systems.
4.1 Kinematics of Simple Harmonic Motion (2H)
4.2 Energy changes during Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
4.3 Forced Oscillations and Resonance
4.4 Wave Characteristics
4.5 Wave Properties
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4. 1. 1 Describe examples of oscillations.
4.1.2 Dene the terms displacement, amplitude,
frequency, period, phase dierence.
4. 1. 3 Dene simple harmonic motion (SHM) and
state the dening equation as a =
2
x.
4.1.4 Solve problems using the dening
equation for simple harmonic motion.
4. 1. 5 Apply the equations v = v
0
sin t, v = v
0

cos t, v = (x
0

2
x
2
), x = x
0
cos t,
x = x
0
sint, as solutions to the dening
equation for simple harmonic motion.
4.1.6 Solve problems, both graphically and by
calculation, for acceleration, velocity and
displacement during simple harmonic
motion
IBO 2007
4.1.1 EXAMPLES OF OSCILLATING
SYSTEMS
In the introduction, we mentioned several oscillating
systems. Here are a few more:
a boat at anchor at sea
the human vocal chords
an oscillating cantilever
the Earths atmosphere afer a large explosion.
4.1.2 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
ASSOCIATED WITH OSCILLATING
SYSTEMS
In order to understand the terms associated with oscillating
systems, let us look at the oscillation of a so-called simple
pendulum. A simple pendulum consists of a weight (called
the bob) that is suspended vertically by a light string or
thread as shown in Figure 401. Te bob X is suspended by
the thread from the point P.
X
B C
E
D
P

0
-
x
Figure 401 A simple oscillating system
To set the pendulum oscillating, the bob is pulled up to
a position such as B where the angle XPB is
0
. It is then
released. Te bob will now oscillate between the positions
B and C.
Displacement (x, )
Tis refers to the distance that an oscillating system is from
its equilibrium position at any particular instant during
the oscillation. In the case of the simple pendulum the
displacement is best measured as an angular displacement.
For example, in Figure 401 when the bob is at the position
D, the displacement is the angle XPD = and when at E,
is the angle XPE = . Te displacement when the bob is
at X is = 0.
Amplitude (x
0
,
0
)
Tis is the maximum displacement of an oscillating system
from its equilibrium position. For the simple pendulum in
Figure 401 this is clearly
0
.
Period (T)
Tis is the time it takes an oscillating system to make
one complete oscillation. For the simple pendulum in
Figure 401, this is the time it takes to go from X to B, B to
C and then back to X.
4. 1 KINEMATICS OF SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION
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Frequency (f)
Tis is the number of complete oscillations made by the
system in one second.
Relation between frequency and
period
Te time for one complete oscillation is the period T.
Terefore the number of oscillations made in one second
is
1
T
--- . Te number of oscillations made in one second is
also defned as the frequency f, hence:
Equation 4.1
Phase dierence
Suppose we have for instance, two identical pendulums
oscillating next to each other. If the displacements of the
pendulums are the same at all instances of time, then
we say that they are oscillating in phase. If on the other
hand the maximum displacement of one of them is
0

when the maximum displacement of the other is
0
, then
we say that they are oscillating in anti-phase or that the
phase diference between them is 180. Te reason for the
specifcation in terms of angle will become clear in section
4.1.5. In general, the phase diference between two identical
systems oscillating with the same frequency can have any
value between 0 and 360 (or 0 to 2 radians). We shall
see that the concept of phase diference is very important
when discussing certain aspects of wave motion.
Radian measure
When dealing with angular displacements, it is ofen
useful to measure the displacement in radians rather than
in degrees. In Figure 402, the angle measured in radians
is defned as the arc length AB (l) divided by the radius r
of the circle i.e
Equation 4.2
f
1
T
--- = f
1
T
--- =
(rad)
l
r
(rad)
l
r

r
A
B
l

Figure 402 The radian

If = 180 then l is equal to half the circumference of the
circle i.e. l = r. Hence from equation 4.2, we have that
0

(180 )
r
r
(rad)
Hence 1 radian (rad) is equal to 57.3.
4.1.3 DEFINITION OF SIMPLE
HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)
Description of SHM
Suppose we were to attach a fne marking pen to the
bottom of the bob of a simple pendulum and arrange for
this pen to be in contact with a long sheet of white paper
as shown in Figure 403.
Motion of pendulum
Direction of paper
Paper
Figure 403 Arrangement for demonstrating SHM
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As the pendulum oscillates, the paper is pulled at a constant
speed in the direction shown.
Figure 404 shows a particular example of what is traced on
the paper by the marker pen.
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
time/s
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
/
c
m
Figure 404 A sample trace
Te displacement is measured directly from the trace and
the time is calculated from the speed with which the paper
is pulled.
Tere are several things to notice about the trace.
1. One complete oscillation is similar to a sine or
cosine graph.
2. Te period stays constant at about 0.8 s.
(Oscillations in which the period is constant are
called isochronous.)
3. Te amplitude is decaying with time. Tis is
because the pendulum is losing energy to the
surroundings due to friction at the point of
suspension and to air resistance.
Based on this sort of time trace, we can defne a special
type of oscillatory motion. Oscillators that are perfectly
isochronous and whose amplitude does not change
with time are called simple harmonic oscillators and
their motion is referred to as simple harmonic motion
(SHM). Clearly SHM does not exist in the real world as
the oscillations of any vibrating system will eventually
die out. Interestingly enough, the simple pendulum does
not perform SHM for yet another reason, namely that the
period is actually dependant on the amplitude. However,
this only becomes noticeable as
0
exceeds about 40.
Although SHM does not exist in the real world,
many oscillatory systems approximate to this motion.
Furthermore, as part of the scientifc method, it makes
good sense to analyse a simple situation before moving
onto more complex situations.
Angular frequency ()
A very useful quantity associated with oscillatory motion
is angular frequency, . Tis is defned in terms of the
linear frequency as
= 2f Equation 4.3
Using equation 4.1 we also have that
2
T
Equation 4.4
Tere is a connection between angular frequency and the
angular speed of a particle moving in a circle with constant
speed. Te angular speed of the particle is defned as the
number of radians through which the particle moves in
one second. If the time for one complete revolution of the
circle is T , then from equation 4.2 we have that
2
T

or
2
T

Tere is actually a physical connection between angular
speed and SHM in the respect that it can be shown that the
projection of the particle onto any diameter moves with
SHM. See Figure 405.
P
N
As the particle P moves
round the circle, its
projection N ontoa
diameter moves backwards
and forwards along the
diameter with SHM.
Figure 405 Circular and harmonic motion
Denition of SHM
If it were possible to remove all frictional forces acting on
an oscillating pendulum, then the displacement time
graph for the motion would look like that in Figure 406.
Te amplitude does not decay with time. Tis therefore is
a displacement-time graph for SHM
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-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
1 2 3 4 5
time/s
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
/
c
m
Figure 406 A displacement time graph
It turns out that if the acceleration a of a system is directly
proportional to its displacement x from its equilibrium
position and is directed towards the equilibrium position,
then the system will execute SHM. Tis is the formal
defnition of SHM.
We can express this defnition mathematically as
a = const x Equation 4.5
Te negative sign indicates that the acceleration is directed
towards the equilibrium position. Mathematical analysis
shows that the constant is in fact equal to
2
where is the
angular frequency (defned above) of the system. Hence
equation 4.5 becomes
a =
2
x Equation 4.6

Tis equation is the mathematical defnition of SHM.
If a system is performing SHM, then to produce the
acceleration, a force must be acting on the system in the
direction of the acceleration. From our defnition of SHM,
the magnitude of the force F is given by
F = kx Equation 4.7
where k is a constant and the negative sign indicates that
the force is directed towards the equilibrium position of
the system. (Do not confuse this constant k with the spring
constant. However, when dealing with the oscillations
of a mass on the end of a spring, k will be the spring
constant.)
A MATHEMATICAL PERSPECTIVE OF SHM
SHM is a very good example in which to apply the
Newtonian method discussed in Chapter 2; i.e. if the forces
that act on a system are known, then the future behaviour
of the system can be predicted. Here we have a situation in
which the force is given by kx. From Newtons second law
therefore kx = ma, where m is the mass of the system and a
is the acceleration of the system. However, the acceleration
is not constant. For those of you who have a mathematical
bent, the relation between the force and the acceleration is

written as
2
2
d
d
x
kx m
t
= . Tis is what is called a second

order diferential equation. Te solution of the equation
gives x as a function of t. Te actual solution is of the SHM
equation is
x = Pcost + Qsint where P and Q are constants and is

the angular frequency of the system and is equal to .

Whether a particular solution involves the sine function or
the cosine function, depends on the so-called boundary
conditions. If for example x = x
0
(the amplitude) when
t = 0, then the solution is x = x
0
cost.
Te beauty of this mathematical approach is that, once
the general equation has been solved, the solution for
all systems executing SHM is known. All that has to be
shown to know if a system will execute SHM, is that the
acceleration of the system is given by Equation 4.5 or the
force is given by equation 4.7. Te physical quantities that
will depend on is determined by the particular system.
For example, for a weight of mass m oscillating at the end
of a vertically supported spring whose spring constant is k,

then = or , from equation 4.4 For

a simple pendulum, = where l is the length of
the pendulum and g is the acceleration of free fall such
that T = 2

_

l

_

g
.
4.1.4 SOLVING PROBLEMS INVOLVING
a =
2
x
To understand how the equation a =
2
x is used in
particular situations involving SHM let us look at an
example.
TOK A Mathematical Perspective
Galileo stated that the book of nature is written in
mathematical terms. In this respect, it is impossible
to explain to somebody why the period of oscillation
of a simple pendulum depends on the square root of
its length without recourse to solving a second order
diferential equation.
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Example
1. A cylindrical piece of wood foats upright in water
as shown in Figure 407.
push
downwards
water
wood
l
Figure 407 SHM of a oating piece of wood
Te wood is pushed downwards and then released. Te
subsequent acceleration a of the wood is given by the
expression
where = density of water, = density of the wood,
l = length of wood, g = acceleration of free fall and
x = displacement of the wood from its equilibrium position.
(a) Explain why the wood executes SHM.
Answer
Te equation shows that the acceleration of the wood is
proportional to its displacement from equilibrium and
directed towards the equilibrium position.
(b) Te length of the wood is 52 cm and it is
pushed downwards a distance of 24 cm.
Calculate the maximum acceleration of the
wood. ( = 1.0 10
3
kg m
3
,
= 8.4 10
2
kg m
3
, g = 9.8 m s
2
).
Answer
Maximum acceleration is when x = A (the amplitude)
= 2.4 10
-2
m
therefore maximum acceleration
=
3 2
2 2
1.0 10 9.8 24 10
8.4 10 52 10

= 5.4 m s
-2
(c) Calculate the period T of oscillation of the
wood.
Answer

2
=
a
max

____

A
=
5.4

________

24 10
2
= 23 rad
2
= 4.8 rad
T =
2

___

= 1.3 s
(d) State and explain in terms of the period
T of oscillation of the wood, the frst
two instances when the acceleration is a
maximum.
Answer
Te amplitude will be a maximum when t = 0 and again
when
t =
T

__

2

So acceleration is a maximum at t = 0 and t = 0.65 s
4.1.5 SOLUTIONS OF THE SHM
EQUATION
To understand the solutions of the SHM equation, let
us consider the oscillations of a mass suspended from a
vertically supported spring. We shall consider the mass of
the spring to be negligible and for the extension x to obey
the rule F = kx. F (= mg) is the force causing the extension.
Figure 408(a) shows the spring and a suspended weight of
mass m in equilibrium. In Figure 408(b), the weight has
been pulled down a further extension x
0
.
spring
weight of mass m
x0
x0
P
x
unbalanced
force F on
weight =-kx
(a) (b)
equilibriumx = 0
unstretched length
e
ke
mg
Figure 408 SHM of a mass suspended by a spring
In Figure 408 (a), the equilibrium extension of the spring
is e and the net force on the weight is mg ke = 0.
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In Figure 408 (b), if the weight is held in position at x = x
0
and

then released, when the weight moves to position P, a
distance x from the equilibrium position x = 0, the nett force
on the weight is mg ke kx. Clearly, then the unbalanced
force on the weight is kx. When the weight reaches a point
distance x above the equilibrium position, the compression
force in the spring provides the unbalanced force towards
the equilibrium position of the weight.
Te acceleration of the weight is given by Newtons second
law;
F = kx = ma
i.e. Equation 4.8
Tis is of the form a = -
2
x where = , that

is, the weight will execute SHM with a frequency

.
Te displacement of the weight x, determined by solving
Equation 4.8, is given by
Equation 4.9
Tis is the particular solution of the SHM equation for the
oscillation of a weight on the end of a spring. Tis system
is ofen referred to as a harmonic oscillator.
Te velocity v of the weight at any instant can be found
by fnding the gradient of the displacement-time graph.
From Equation 4.9, the displacement graph is a cosine
function and the gradient of a cosine function is a negative
sine function. Te gradient of
x = x
0
cost is in fact T 2T
0,0
ocity
displacement

so
Equation 4.10
where v
0
is the maximum and minimum velocity equal in
magnitude to x
0
.
Students familiar with calculus will recognise the velocity
v as
( )
0
d d
cos sin
d d
o
x
v x t x t
t t
= = = . Similarly,
( )
2 2
0 0
d d
sin cos
d d
v
a x t x t x
t t
= = = =
which of course is just the defning equation of SHM.
However, we have to bear in mind that t varies
between 0 and 2 where cost is negative for t for


and sint is negative for t in the range to

2. Tis efectively means that when the displacement
from equilibrium is positive, the velocity is negative and
so directed towards equilibrium. When the displacement
from equilibrium is negative, the velocity is positive and
so directed away from equilibrium
Te sketch graph in Figure 409 shows the variation with
time t of the displacement x and the corresponding
variation with time t of the velocity v. Tis clearly
demonstrates the relation between the sign of the velocity
and sign of the displacement.
T 2T
0,0
0,0
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
t
x
0
x
0
v
0
v
0
Figure 409 Displacement-time and velocity-time graphs
We can also see how the velocity v changes with
displacement x.
From equation 4.10, we have that
v = x
0
sin t
However we can express sint in terms of cost using the
trigonometric relation
2 2
sin cos 1 + =
From which it can be seen that
Replacing with t we have
2
0
1 cos v x t =
Remembering that

and putting x
0
inside the
square root gives
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v =

_______

(
x
0

2
x
2

)

Bearing in mind that v can be positive or negative, we
must write
v =

_______

(
x
0

2
x
2

)
Equation 4.11
Te velocity is zero when the displacement is a maximum
and is a maximum when the displacement is zero.
Te graph in Figure 410 shows the variation with x of the
velocity v for a system oscillating with a period of 1 sec and
with an amplitude of 5 cm. Te graph shows the variation
over a time of any one period of oscillation.
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
v
/

c
m
s
-
1
x / cm
Figure 410 Velocity-displacement graph
Boundary Conditions
Te two solutions to the general SHM equation are

and . Which solution applies to
a particular system depends, as mentioned above, on the
boundary conditions for that system. For systems such
as the harmonic oscillator and the simple pendulum, the
boundary condition that gives the solution
is that the displacement x = x
0
when t = 0. For some other
systems it might turn out that x = 0 when t =0. Tis will
lead to the solution . From a practical point of
view, the two solutions are essentially the same; for example
when timing the oscillations of a simple pendulum, you
might decide to start the timing when the pendulum bob
passes through the equilibrium position. In efect, the two
solutions difer in phase by .
Te table in Figure 411 summarises the solutions we have
for SHM.
x = x
0
cost x = x
0
sint
=
0
sint =
0
cost
= x
0
sint = x
0
cost
=

______
x
0

2
x
2
=

______
x
0

2
x
2

Figure 411 Common equations
We should mention that since the general solution to
the SHM equation is there are
in fact three solutions to the equation. Tis demonstrates
a fundamental property of second order diferential
equations; that one of the solutions to the equation is the
sum of all the other solutions. Tis is the mathematical
basis of the so-called principle of superposition.
4.1.6 SOLVING SHM PROBLEMS
In this section we look at an example of a typical SHM
problem and its solution.
Examples
Te graph in Figure 412 shows the variation with time t of
the displacement x of a system executing SHM.
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
0. 5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3 3. 5
t /s
x
/
c
m
Figure 412 Displacement time graph for SHM
Use the graph to determine the
(i) period of oscillation
(ii) amplitude of oscillation
(iii) maximum speed
(iv) speed at t = 1.3 s
(v) maximum acceleration
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Solutions
(a) (i) 2.0 s (time for one cycle)
(ii) 8.0 cm
(iii) Using gives
(remember that ) = 25 cm s
-1
(iv) v = v
0
sint = 25sin (1.3). To fnd the
value of the sine function, we have to convert
the 1.3 into degrees (remember and hence
t, is measured in radians)

1 deg therefore 1.3 = 1.3 180
= 234
therefore v
1
= 25sin (234) = +20 cm s
1
.
Or we can solve using

_______

(
x
0

2
x
2

)


from the graph at t = 1.3 s, x = 4.8 cm
therefore v = = 20 cm s
-1
(v) Using =
2
8.0 = 79 m s
-2
Exercise 4.1
1. (a) Answer the same questions (a)(i) to (a)(iv) in the
above example for the system oscillating with SHM
as described by the graph in the Figure below.
(b) Also state two values of t for when the magnitude
of the velocity is a maximum and two values of t
for when the magnitude of the acceleration is a
maximum.
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0. 5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3 3. 5
t /s
x
/
c
m
4.2 ENERGY
CHANGES
DURING SIMPLE
HARMONIC
MOTION SHM
4. 2. 1 Describe the interchange between kinetic
energy and potential energy during SHM

4.2.2 Apply the expression E
K
= m
2
(x
0
2
x
2
) for
the kinetic energy of a particle undergoing
simple harmonic motion, ET = m
2
x
0
2
for the
total energy and E
P
= m
2
x
2
for the potential
energy.
4.2.3 Solve problems, both graphically and by
calculation, involving energy changes during
simple harmonic motion.
IBO 2007
4.2.1 KINETIC AND POTENTIAL
ENERGY CHANGES
We must now look at the energy changes involved in
SHM. To do so, we will again concentrate on the harmonic
oscillator. Te mass is stationary at x = +x
0
(maximum
extension) and also at x = x
0
(maximum compression).
At these two positions the energy of the system is all
potential energy and is in fact the elastic potential energy
stored in the spring. Tis is the total energy of the system
E
T
and clearly
Equation 4.12
Tat is, that for any system performing SHM, the energy of
the system is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
Tis is an important result and one that we shall return to
when we discuss wave motion.
At x = 0 the spring is at its equilibrium extension and the
magnitude of the velocity v of the oscillating mass is a
maximum v
0
. Te energy is all kinetic and again is equal to
E
T
. We can see that this is indeed the case as the expression
for the maximum kinetic energy E
max
in terms of v
0
is
Equation 4.13
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Clearly E
T
and E
max
are equal such that
E
T
=
1

__

2
kx
0

2
= E
max
=
1

__

2
mv
0

2

From which
v
0

2
=
k

__

m
x
0

2
(as v
0
0)
Terefore
v
0
=

__

k

__

m
x
0
= x
0

which ties in with the velocity being equal to the gradient
of the displacement-time graph (see 4.1.5). As the system
oscillates there is a continual interchange between kinetic
energy and potential energy such that the loss in kinetic
energy equals the gain in potential energy and E
T
= E
K
+ E
P
.
4.2.2 THE SHM ENERGY EQUATIONS
Remembering that , we have that
Equation 4.14
Clearly, the potential energy E
P
at any displacement x is
given by
Equation 4.15
At any displacement x, the kinetic energy E
K
is E
K
=
1 __
2
mv
2
Hence remembering that
v
_______
(
x
0
2
x
2
)
, we have
E
K
=
1 __
2
m
2
(
x
0
2
x
2
) Equation 4.16
Although we have derived these equations for a harmonic
oscillator, they are valid for any system oscillating with SHM.
Te sketch graph in Figure 414 shows the variation with
displacement x of E
K
and E
P
for one period.
e
n
e
r
g
y
potential
kinetic
Figure 414 Energy and displacement
4.2.3 SOLVING SHM ENERGY
PROBLEMS
Let us now look at solving a problem involving energy in SHM.
Example
Te amplitude of oscillation of a mass suspended by a
vertical spring is 8.0 cm. Te spring constant of the spring
is 74 N m
1
. Determine
(a) the total energy of the oscillator
(b) the potential and the kinetic energy of the
oscillator at a displacement of 4.8 cm from
equilibrium.
Solution
(a) Spring constant k = 74 N m
-1
and
x
0
= 8.0 10
-2
m
E
T
= kx
0
2
= 74 64 10
-4
= 0.24 J
(b) At x = 4.8 cm
Terefore E
P
= 74 (4.8 10
-2
)
2
= 0.085 10
-4
J
E
K
= E
T
E
P
= 0.24 0.085 = 0.16 J
Exercise 4.2
In a simple atomic model of a solid, the atoms vibrate with
a frequency of 2.0 10
11
Hz. Te amplitude of vibration
of the atoms is 5.5 10
10
m and the mass of each atom is
4.8 10
26
kg. Calculate the total energy of the oscillations
of an atom.
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4.3.1 State what is meant by damping.
4. 3. 2 Describe examples of damped oscillations.
4.3.3 State what is meant by natural frequency of
vibration and forced oscillations.
4.3.4 Describe graphically the variation with
forced frequency of the amplitude of
vibration of an object close to its natural
frequency of vibration.
4. 3. 5 State what is meant by resonance.
4. 3. 6 Describe examples of resonance where
the eect is useful and where it should be
avoided.
IBO 2007
4.3.1 DAMPING
In this section, we look at oscillations of real systems.
In section 4.1.3, we described an arrangement by which
the oscillations of a pendulum could be transcribed onto
paper. Refer to Figure 415.
time
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
Figure 415 Damping
Te amplitude of the oscillations gradually decreases with
time, whereas for SHM, the amplitude stays at the same
value forever. Clearly, the pendulum is losing energy as
it oscillates. Te reason for this is that dissipative forces
are acting that oppose the motion of the pendulum. As
mentioned earlier, these forces arise from air resistance
and though friction at the support. Oscillations, for which
the amplitude decreases with time, are called damped
oscillations.
4.3.2 EXAMPLES OF DAMPED
OSCILLATIONS
All oscillating systems are subject to damping as it is
impossible to completely remove friction. Because of this,
oscillating systems are ofen classifed by the degree of
damping. Te oscillations shown in Figure 415 are said
to be lightly damped. Te decay in amplitude is relatively
slow and the pendulum will make quite a few oscillations
before fnally coming to rest. Whereas the amplitude of
the oscillations shown in Fig 416 decay very rapidly and
the system quickly comes to rest. Such oscillations are said
to be heavily damped.
time
a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Figure 416 Heavily damped oscillations
Consider a harmonic oscillator in which the mass is pulled
down and when released, and the mass comes to rest at
its equilibrium position without oscillating. Te friction
forces acting are such that they prevent oscillations.
However, suppose a very small reduction in the friction
forces would result in heavily damped oscillation of
the oscillator, then the oscillator is said to be critically
damped.
Te graph in Figure 417 shows this special case of damping
known as critical damping.
4.3 FORCED OSCILLATIONS AND RESONANCE
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0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
time / s
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

/

m
Figure 417 Critical damping
Although not in the IB syllabus, a useful way of classifying
oscillating systems, is by a quantity known as the quality
factor or Q-factor. Te Q-factor does have a formal
defnition but it is approximately equal in value to the
number of oscillations that occur before all the energy
of the oscillator is dissipated. For example, a simple
pendulum has a Q-factor of about 1000.
As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, the
oscillations (vibrations) made by certain oscillatory
systems can produce undesirable and sometimes,
dangerous efects. Critical damping plays an important
role in these situations. For example, when a ball strikes
the strings of a tennis racquet, it sets the racquet vibrating
and these vibrations will cause the player to lose some
control over his or her shot. For this reason, some players
fx a damper to the springs. If placed on the strings
in the correct position, this has the efect of producing
critically damped oscillations and as a result the struck
tennis racquet moves smoothly back to equilibrium. Te
same efect can be achieved by making sure that the ball
strikes the strings at a point known as the sweet spot of
which there are two, one of which is know as the centre of
percussion (COP). Cricket and baseball bats likewise have
two sweet spots.
Another example is one that involves vibrations that may
be set up in buildings when there is an earthquake. For this
reason, in regions prone to earthquakes, the foundations
of some buildings are ftted with damping mechanisms.
Tese mechanisms insure any oscillations set up in the
building are critically damped.
Exercise 4.3
Identify which of the following oscillatory systems are
likely to be lightly damped and which are likely to be
heavily damped.
1. Atoms in a solid
2. Car suspension
3. Guitar string
4. Harmonic oscillator under water
5. Quartz crystal
6. A cantilever that is not frmly clamped
7. Oil in a U-tube
8. Water in a U-tube
4.3.3 NATURAL FREQUENCY AND
FORCED OSCILLATIONS
Consider a small child sitting on a swing. If you give the
swing a single push, the swing will oscillate. With no
further pushes, that is energy input, the oscillations of
the swing will die out and the swing will eventually come
to rest. Tis is an example of damped harmonic motion.
Te frequency of oscillation of the swing under these
conditions is called the natural frequency of oscillation
(vibration). So far in this topic, all the systems we have
looked at have been systems oscillating at their natural
frequency.
Suppose now when each time the swing returns to you,
you give it another push. See Figure 418
Figure 418 A forced oscillation
Te amplitude of the swing will get larger and larger and if
you are not careful your little brother or sister, or who ever
the small child might be, will end up looping the loop.
Te frequency with which you push the swing is exactly
equal to the natural frequency of oscillation of the swing
and importantly, is also in phase with the oscillations of the
spring. Since you are actually forcing the swing to oscillate,
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the swing is said to be undergoing forced oscillations. In
this situation the frequency of the so-called driver (in this
case, you) is equal to the natural frequency of oscillation
of the system that is being driven (in this case, the swing).
If you just push the swing occasionally when it returns to
you, then the swing is being forced at a diferent frequency
to its natural frequency. In general, the variation of the
amplitude of the oscillations of a driven system with time
will depend on the
frequency of the driving force
frequency of natural oscillations
amplitude of the driving force
phase diference between driving force frequency
and natural frequency
amount of damping on the system
(Tere are many very good computer simulations
available that enable you to explore the relation between
forced and natural oscillations in detail.)
Te driving force and system are in phase if, when the
amplitude of system is a maximum, it receives maximum
energy input from the driver. Clearly this is when the
amplitude of the driver is a maximum.
What is of particular interest is when the forced frequency
is close to and when it equals the natural frequency. Tis
we look at in the next two sections.
4.3.4 FORCED FREQUENCY AND
AMPLITUDE
We now look at how the amplitude of an oscillating system
varies with the frequency of the driving force.
Te graph in Figure 419 shows the variation with frequency
f of the driving force of the amplitude A of three diferent
systems to which the force is applied.
0
5
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
f/ Hz
A /cm
heavy damping
medium damping
light damping
Figure 419 Forced frequency
Each system has the same frequency of natural oscillation,
f
0
= 15 Hz. Te thing that is diferent about the systems is
that they each have a diferent degree of damping: heavy
(low Q), medium (medium Q), light (large Q).
For the heavily damped system we see that the amplitude
stays very small but starts to increase as the frequency
approaches f
0
and reaches a maximum at f = f
0
; it then
starts to fall away again with increasing frequency.
For the medium damped system, we see that as f approaches
f
0
, the amplitude again starts to increase but at a greater
rate than for the heavily damped system. Te amplitude is
again a maximum at f = f
0
and is greater than that of the
maximum of the heavily damped system.
For the lightly damped system, again the amplitude starts
to increase as f approaches f
0
, but at a very much greater
rate than for the other two systems; the maximum value is
also considerably larger and much more well-defned i.e.
it is much easier to see that the maximum value is in fact
at f = f
0
.
If there were such a thing as a system that performs SHM,
then if this system were driven at a frequency equal to
its natural frequency, its amplitude would be infnite.
Figure 420 shows how the amplitude A for a driven system
with very little damping and whose natural frequency of
oscillation f
0
= 15 Hz , varies with the frequency f of the
driving force.
0
50
100
150
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
f /Hz
A /cm
Figure 420 Amplitude-frequency graph for a lightly
damped oscillator
We see that the maximum amplitude is now very large
and also very sharply defned. Also, either side of f
0
, the
amplitude drops of very rapidly.
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4.3.5 RESONANCE
(Note: As well as the availability of a large number of
computer simulations that demonstrate resonance, there
are also many laboratory demonstrations and experiments
that can be done to demonstrate it).
We have seen that when an oscillatory system is driven at
a frequency equal to its natural frequency, the amplitude
of oscillation is a maximum. Tis phenomenon is known
as resonance. Te frequency at which resonance occurs is
ofen referred to as the resonant frequency.
4.3.6 EXAMPLES OF RESONANCE
In the introduction to this Topic, we referred to resonance
phenomena without actually mentioning the term
resonance. For example we can now understand why
oscillations in machinery can be destructive If a piece
of machinery has a natural frequency of oscillation and
moving parts in the machine act as a driver of forced
oscillations and have a frequency of oscillation equal to
the natural frequency of oscillation of the machine, then
the amplitude of vibration set up in the machine could be
sufcient to cause damage.
Similarly, if a car is driven along a bumpy road, it is possible
that the frequency with which the bumps are crossed by
the car, will just equal the natural frequency of oscillation
of the chassis of the car, If this is the case then the result
can be very uncomfortable.
We now also see why it is important that systems such as
machines, car suspensions, suspension bridges and tall
buildings are critically or heavily damped.
Resonance can also be very useful. For example, the current
in a particular type of electrical circuit oscillates. However,
the oscillating current quickly dies out because of resistance
in the circuit. Such circuits have a resonant frequency and
if driven by an alternating current supply, the amplitude
of the current may become very large, particularly if the
resistance of the circuit is small. Circuits such as this are
referred to as resonant circuits. Television and radios have
resonant circuits that can be tuned to oscillate electrically
at diferent frequencies. In this way they can respond to
the diferent frequencies of electromagnetic waves that are
sent by the transmitting station as these waves now act as
the driving frequency. Tis is discussed in more detail in
Topic F.1
In the introduction we mentioned the use of quartz
crystal as timing devices. If a crystal is set oscillating at
its natural frequency, electric charge constantly builds up
and dies away on it surface in time with the vibration
of the crystal (Tis is known as the piezoelectric efect.).
Tis makes it easy to maintain the oscillations using an
alternating voltage supply as the driving frequency. Te
vibrations of the crystal are then used to maintain the
frequency of oscillation in a resonant circuit. It is the
oscillations in the resonant circuit that control the hands
of an analogue watch or the display of a digital watch.
(Te concept of analogue and digital signals is discussed
in Topics 14.1 and C.1).
It is lef as an exercise to you to think of other situations in
which resonance can be useful or can be harmful.
4.4 WAVE
CHARACTERISTICS
4.4.1 Describe a wave pulse and a continuous
progressive (travelling) wave. (Students
should be able to distinguish between
oscillations and wave motion and
appreciate that in many examples, the
oscillations of the particles are simple
harmonic).
4.4.2 State that progressive (travelling) waves
transfer energy. (Students should
understand that there is no net motion
of the medium through which the wave
travels).
4.4.3 Describe and give examples of transverse
and of longitudinal waves.
4.4.1 Wave pulses and continuous travelling waves
IBO 2007
Perhaps one of the most familiar types of wave motion is
a water wave. However, we can also set up waves in strings
very easily. A simple demonstration is to take a length of
rubber tubing. Hold one end of it and shake that end up
and down. A wave will travel down the tube. If we give the
end of the tube just one shake then we observe a pulse to
travel down the tube. By this we can see that we can have
either a continuous travelling wave or a travelling pulse.
Tis is illustrated in Figure 421 in which we have taken an
instantaneous snap shot of the tube.
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pulse
hand
movement
(a) (b)
Figure 421 Simple waves
We can also set up another type of wave by using a slinky
spring. In this demonstration we lay the spring along the
foor. Hold one end of it and move our hand backwards
and forwards in the direction of the spring. In this way
we see a wave travelling down the spring as a series of
compressions and expansions of the spring as illustrated
in Figure 422.
We can also set up a pulse in the spring by moving our
hand backwards and forwards just once in the direction
of the spring.
Of course we can set up a wave in the spring that is similar
to the one we set up in the rubber tube. We shake the
spring in a direction that is at right angles to the spring as
shown in Figure 422.
compressions
expansions
compress
expand
compress expand compress
2(a) 2(b)
Figure 422 Slinky springs
A very important property associated with all waves is
their so-called periodicity. Waves in fact are periodic
both in time and space and this sometimes makes it
difcult to appreciate what actually is going on in wave
motion. For example, in our demonstration of a wave in
a rubber tube we actually drew a diagram that froze time-
an instantaneous snapshot of the whole string. Hence
Figure 421 shows the periodicity of the wave in space.
Te diagram is repeated as a sketch graph in Figure 423.
Te y-axis shows the displacement of the tube from its
equilibrium position. Te graph is a displacement space
graph.
We now look at one particle of the tube labelled P and
unfreeze time. Te diagram in Figure 424 shows how
the position of P varies with time. Tis illustrates the
periodicity of the wave in time. We recognise that the
point P is actually oscillating with SHM.
Equilibrium
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
o
f
t
u
b
e
distance along tube
P
position
Figure 423 Displacement-space graph
Te y-axis now shows the displacement of the point P from
equilibrium. Te graph is a displacement-time graph.
Te space diagram and the time diagram are both identical
in shape and if we mentally combine them we have the
whole wave moving both in space and time.
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
o
f
p
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
P
f
r
o
m
e
q
u
i
l
i
b
r
i
u
m
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
time
Figure 424 Displacement-Time graph
For the longitudinal wave in the slinky spring,
the displacement-space graph actually shows the
displacement of the individual turns of the spring from
their equilibrium position as a function of distance along
the spring. However, it could equally show how the density
of turns of the spring varies with length along the spring.
Te displacement-time graph shows the displacement of
one turn of the spring from its equilibrium positions as
a function of time.
4.4.2 WHAT IS A WAVE?
We have shown that waves fall into two distinct classes
but as yet we havent actually said what a wave is. Quite
simply a wave is a means by which energy is transferred
between two points in a medium without any net
transfer of the medium itself. By a medium, we mean
the substance or object in which the wave is travelling.
Te important thing is that when a wave travels in a
medium, parts of the medium do not end up at diferent
places. Te energy of the source of the wave is carried
to diferent parts of the medium by the wave. When for
example you see a feld of corn waving in the wind you
actually see a wave carry across the feld but none of the
corn moves to another feld. Similarly with the previous
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demonstrations, the tube and the spring do not end up in
a diferent part of the laboratory. Water waves however,
can be a bit disconcerting. Waves at sea do not transport
water but the tides do. Similarly, a wave on a lake does
not transport water but water can actually be blown
along by the wind. However, if you set up a ripple tank
you will see that water is not transported by the wave set
up by the vibrating dipper.
4.4.3 TRANSVERSE AND
LONGITUDINAL WAVES
Transverse waves
In these types of wave, the source that produces the wave
vibrates at right angles to the direction of travel of the
wave i.e. the direction in which the energy carried by the
wave is propagated. It also means that the particles of the
medium through which the wave travels vibrate at right
angle to the direction of travel of the wave (direction of
energy propagation).
Figure 421 illustrates an example of a transverse wave.
Light is another example of a transverse wave although
this a very special kind of wave. Light waves are discussed
in more detail in Topic G.1.
An important property of transverse waves is that they
cannot propagate through fuids (liquid or gases). Tis is
one reason why light wave are special; they are transverse
and yet can propagate through fuids and through a
vacuum.
Longitudinal waves
In these types of wave, the source that produces the wave
vibrates in the same direction as the direction of travel of
the wave i.e. the direction in which the energy carried by
the wave is propagated. It also means that the particles of
the medium through which the wave travels vibrate in the
same direction of travel of the wave (direction of energy
propagation). Te wave in the slinky spring in Figure 422
is a longitudinal wave as is sound (see Section 4.4.5).
4.4.4 Describe waves in two dimensions,
including the concepts of wavefronts and
rays.
4.4.5 Describe the terms crest, trough,
compression and rarefaction.
4.4.6 Dene the terms displacement, amplitude,
frequency, period, wavelength, wave speed
and intensity.
IBO 2007
4.4.4 WAVE FRONTS AND RAYS
Place a piece of white card beneath a ripple tank and
shine a light on the ripples from above. Te image that
you get on the card will look something like that shown
in Figure 425.
vibrating
dipper
lamp
white paper
ripple tank
Figure 425 A ripple tank
Again this is a snapshot. However, by using a stroboscope
as the source of illumination it is possible to freeze the
waves.
Each bright area of illumination represents a trough or
crest. (Light incident on the top or bottom of a crest will
be transmitted through the water and not refected by the
surface).
Each bright line representing a crest can be thought of as a
wavefront and this is a very good way of representing a
travelling wave as shown in Figure 426.
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wavefronts
direction
of travel

Figure 426 A wavefront

If the wave is a light wave then the arrow that shows the
direction of travel of the wave is none other than what we
call a light ray.
4.4.5 QUALITATIVE TERMS
ASSOCIATED WITH WAVES
Crest Tis is a term coined from water waves and is
used in connection with transverse waves. It refers to the
maximum height of the wave i.e. the point at which the
particles in the medium in which the waves travel, have
maximum displacement.
Trough Again, a term coined from water waves and used
in connection with transverse waves. It refers to the lowest
point of the wave i.e. the point at which the particles in
the medium in which the waves travel, have minimum
displacement (strictly speaking, maximum negative
displacement).
Compression Tis is a term used in connection with
longitudinal wave and refers to the region where the
particles of the medium are bunched up.
Rarefaction Again, a term used in connection with
longitudinal waves referring to the regions where the
particles are stretched out.
In a sound wave, the compression is the region in which
the molecules of the air are pushed together (region of
greatest pressure) and the rarefaction is the region where
the molecules are well separated ( region of least pressure).
In a physiological sense, sound is the ears response to the
changes in pressure in a longitudinal wave in air. If the
frequency of the wave is too low (10 Hz) then the ear will
not detect the pressure changes nor will it if the frequency
is too high (15 kHz).
A longitudinal wave in a slinky spring is analogous to a
sound wave in that each turn of the spring represents an
air molecule.
4.4.6 DEFINITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH
WAVES
Amplitude (A, a)
Tis is the maximum displacement of a particle from its
equilibrium position. (It is also equal to the maximum
displacement of the source that produces the wave).
Te energy that a wave transports per unit time across unit
area of the medium through which it is travelling is called
the intensity (I). From our knowledge of SHM we know
that the energy of the oscillating system is proportional to
the square of the amplitude (equation 4.12). Hence for a
wave of amplitude A, we have that
Period (T)
Tis is the time that it takes a particle to make one complete
oscillation. (It is also equal to the time for the source of the
wave to make one complete oscillation).
Frequency (f)
Tis is the number of oscillations made per second by
a particle. (It is also equal to the number of oscillations
made per second by the source of the wave). Te SI unit of
frequency is the hertz-Hz. Clearly then, f =
1 __
T

Wavelength ()
Tis is the distance along the medium between two
successive particles that have the same displacement
Wave speed (v, c)
Tis is the speed with which energy is carried in the
medium by the wave. A very important fact is that wave
speed depends only on the nature and properties of the
medium.
You can demonstrate this by sending pulses along diferent
types of rubber tubes or by sending pulses along a slinky
in which you alter the distance between successive turns
by stretching it.
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(In some circumstances the wave speed is a function of
wavelength, a phenomenon known as dispersion)
Figure 427 shows how the diferent terms and defnitions
associated with waves relate to both transverse and
longitudinal waves. From these diagrams, we also see that
the wavelength of a transverse wave is equal to the distance
between successive crests and also between successive
troughs. For a longitudinal wave the wavelength is equal
to the distance between successive points of maximum
compression and also between successive points of
maximum rarefaction.
d
i
s
p
la
c
e
m
e
n
t
o
f
e
q
u
i
l
ib
r
iu
m
p
o
s
it
i
o
n
equilibriumposition
of tube
amplitude, A
wavelength
crest crest
trough trough
amplitude wavelength
distance along tube
d
i
s
p
la
c
e
m
e
n
t
o
f
p
a
r
t
ic
l
e
period, T
time
compression
rarefaction
maximum
compression
wavelength
tubefrom
TRANSVERSE
TRANSVERSE
AND
LONGITUDINAL
LONGITUDINAL
period, T
Figure 427 How the denitions apply
4.4.7 Draw and explain displacement-time and
displacement-position graphs for transverse
and for longitudinal waves
4.4.8 Derive and apply the relationship between
wave speed, wavelength and frequency
4.4.9 State that all electromagnetic waves
travel with the same speed in free space
and recall the orders of magnitude of the
wavelengths of the principal radiations in
the electromagnetic spectrum.
IBO 2007
4.4.7 DISPLACEMENT-TIME AND
DISPLACEMENT-POSITION GRAPHS
4.4.8 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
WAVE SPEED, WAVELENGTH
AND FREQUENCY
Figure 428 shows an instantaneous snapshot of a medium
through which a wave is travelling. A particle of the
medium is labelled P.
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
o
f
m
e
d
i
u
m
distance alongmedium
P
At time t = 0
Figure 428 Instantaneous snapshot
of displacement of medium
If we take another photograph half a period later then the
particle P will be in the position shown in Figure 429.
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
o
f
m
e
d
i
u
m
distance along medium
At time t
T
2
--- =
P
Figure 429 Particle P half a period later
In this time the wave will have moved forward a distance
of half a wavelength

2
---
.
We have therefore that the speed v of the wave
=
distance _______
time
=
__
T
, but f =
1 __
T
,
Hence we have
v f =
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Example
Water waves of wavelength 5.0 cm are travelling with a
speed of 1.0 ms
1
.
Calculate the frequency of the source producing the
waves?
Te waves travel into deeper water where their speed is
now 2.0 m s
1
. Calculate the new wavelength
new
of the
waves.
Solution
Using v = f we have that 1.0 = f .05
and so f = 20 Hz.
In the deeper water using v = f we now have that 2.0
= 20
new
and so
new
= 10 cm.
4.4.9 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
We mentioned above that light is a transverse wave but
in fact light is just one example of a most important class
of waves known as electromagnetic waves. Tey are
called electromagnetic waves (em waves) because they
actually consist of an electric feld and a magnetic feld
oscillating at right angles to each other. Teir existence
was frst predicted by Clerk Maxwell in 1864 and verifed
some 20 years later by Heinrich Hertz (hence Hz for the
unit of frequency). Tis was one of the great unifcations
in Physics.
Before Maxwells prediction, Optics (light) was studied
independently of Electricity and Magnetism. Afer the
verifcation of his prediction, there was just the study of
Electromagnetism. Maxwells theory also predicted that
all em waves would have the same speed in free space
(vacuum) of very nearly 3 10
8
m s
1
. Tis prediction
had great implications for the development of Physics as
will be seen in Topics D.1 and H.1.
Te source of all em waves is essentially the accelerated
motion of electric charge. If the charge is oscillating then
the frequency with which the charge oscillates determines
the frequency of the em wave. Te so-called spectrum of
em waves is vast. Suppose in a thought experiment, we
were to have a charged metal sphere and were able to
set it oscillating at diferent frequencies. When vibrating
with a frequency of 10
3
Hz, the oscillating charged
sphere would be a source of long wave radio signals, at
10
9
Hz a source of television signals, at 10
15
Hz a source
of visible light and at 10
18
Hz, it would emit X-rays. Of
course this is just a thought experiment and we should
identify the actual sources of the diferent regions of the
em spectrum. Tese are shown in Figure 430.
Our thought experiment might be somewhat absurd,
but it does emphasise the point that the origin of all em
waves is the accelerated motion of electric charge.
10
3
10
6
Radio waves
10
4
10
18
10
16
10
14
10
12
10
10
10
8
10
6
10
2
10
4
10
10
10
8
10
6
10
4
10
2
10
0
f / Hz
Source Electrons moving in conductors Hot Objects
Microwaves
Infra-red
Ultra-
violet
Gas
discharge
X-rays
-rays
Electrons
striking targets
Radioactive
decay
V
i
s
i
b
l
e
(
v
e
r
y

h
o
t

o
b
j
e
c
t
s
)
/ m
Figure 430 Regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
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4.5.1 Describe the reection and transmission of
waves at a boundary between two media.
4.5.2 State and apply Snells law.
IBO 2007
4.5.1 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
Reection of a single pulse
We now look to see what happens to a wave when it is
incident on the boundary between two media. First of all, we
shall look at a single pulse travelling along a string.
Figure 431 shows a pulse travelling in a string that is fxed
to a rigid support, it is essentially the positive part of a
sine curve.
Figure 431 The incident pulse
When the pulse reaches the end of the string it is refected
Figure 432 shows the refected pulse, this pulse is the
negative part of a sine curve. Some of the energy of the
pulse will actually be absorbed at the support and as such,
the amplitude of the refected pulse will be less than that
of the incident pulse.
Figure 432 The reected pulse
Te main thing to note is that the pulse keeps its shape
except that now it is inverted i.e. the pulse has undergone
a 180 () phase change.
Te reason for this is a little tricky to understand but it is
essentially because the end of string that is fxed cannot
move. As any part of the forward pulse reaches the fxed
end the associated point on the string is moving upward
and so if the fxed point is not to move, the point on the
string that is moving upward must be cancelled out by
a point moving downwards. Tis is an example of the
so-called principle of superposition that we look at in
Section 4.4.5
If the string is not attached to a support then a pulse is still
refected from the end of the string but this time there is no
phase change and so the refected pulse is not inverted.
Reection of wavefronts
REFLECTION
We can use the idea of wavefronts to see what happens
when a wave strikes a barrier. Tis is demonstrated with
a ripple tank.
Figure 433 shows the incident wavefronts and the refected
wavefronts.
incident waves
re ected waves
i.e.
i r
i r
Figure 433 Incident and reected wavefronts
By constructing the associated rays (see Figure 433), we
see that the angle at which the waves are refected fromthe the angle at which the waves are refected from the
barrier is equal to the angle at which they are incident on
the barrier (the angles are measured to the normal to the
barrier). Tat is i = r . All waves, including light, sound
and water obey this rule, the so-called law of refection.
We can use the idea of refection to make a very simple
measurement of the speed of sound. If you stand about
100 m away from a tall wall and clap your hands once,
a short time later you will hear an echo of the clap. Te
sound pulse produced by your hand clap travels to the
4.5 WAVE PROPERTIES
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wall and is refected back. Te trick now is to clap your
hands continuously until each clap is synchronous with
the echo. You should then get a friend to time the number
of claps that you make in say 30 seconds. Let us suppose
that this is 50. Te number of claps per second is therefore
0.6. Tis means that it takes the sound 0.6 seconds to
travel to the wall and back. Te speed of sound can then
be approximated as 330 m s
1
. If you should get this result
then you have done very well indeed since this is very
nearly the value of the speed of sound in air at standard
temperature and pressure. However, in the true spirit of
experimental physics, you should repeat the experiment
several times and at diferent distances and you should
also assess the quantitative error in your result.
Refraction
We now look to see what happens to a wave when it is
incident on the boundary between two media and passes
from one medium to the other (transmission). As for
the single pulse, some energy will be absorbed at the
boundary. Also, as well as energy being transmitted by the
wave, some energy will be refected at the boundary. Here
we will concentrate on the transmitted energy.
We have discussed previously the idea that the speed
of a wave depends only on the nature and properties of
the medium through which the wave travels. Tis gives
rise to the phenomenon of refraction. Tat is the change
in direction of travel of a wave resulting from a change
in speed of the wave. Tis is easily demonstrated with a
ripple tank by arranging two regions of diferent depth.
To achieve this a piece of fat perspex or glass is placed a
short distance from the source of the waves as shown in
Figure 434.
source of plane waves
ripple tank
perspex sheet
water
Figure 434 Ripple tank setup to demonstrate refraction
Figure 435, shows the result of a continuous plane wave
going from deep to shallow water.
deep water shallowwater deep water

s
L I G H T S O U R C E
NB:
d
>
s
perspex sheet
Figure 435 Wavefronts in water of dierent depth
In this diagram the wave fronts are parallel to the boundary
between the two regions. Te frequency of the waves does
not alter so, as we have mentioned before, the wavelength
in the shallow water will be smaller. If the speed of the
waves in the deep water is v
d
and the speed in the shallow
water is v
s
,
then,


such that

v
d
__
v
s

=
d __
s

In Figure 436 the wavefronts are now incident at an angle
to the boundary between the deep and shallow water.
shallow
deep
A
B
C
barrier
Figure 436 Waves incident at an angle
As well as the wavelength being smaller in the shallow
water the direction of travel of the wavefronts also alters.
We can understand this by looking at the wavefront drawn
in bold. By the time that part A of this wavefront reaches
the barrier at B the refracted wave originated from the
barrier will have only reached C since it is travelling more
slowly.
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4.5.2 SNELLS LAW
In 1621 the Dutch physicist Willebrord Snell discovered
and published a very important rule in connection with
the refraction of light.
Figure 437 shows a light ray travelling from one medium
to another. Te line AB (called the normal) is a line
constructed such that it is at right angles to the surface
between the two media. It is used as a reference to enable
the measure of the incident angle, i, and the angle of
refraction r. Snell discovered that for any two media

normal
medium 1
medium 2

2
A
B
Figure 437 Refraction of light rays
Tis is known as Snells law. In fact it enables us to defne
a property of a given optical medium by measuring
the angles when medium 1 is a vacuum. (In the school
laboratory air will sufce.). Te constant is then a property
of medium 2 alone called its refractive index n.
We usually write
When Snell published his law it was essentially an
empirical law and the argument as to the nature of light
was still debatable.
Although we have described Snells law for light rays, we
must remember that a ray is a line that is perpendicular to
the wavefronts of a wave. In this respect Snells law is true
for all waves.
Example
In Figure 438 the wavefronts in medium 1 travel with
speed v
1
and in medium 2 with speed v
2
.
A

2
Y
X

2
medium 1
medium 2
boundary
B
Figure 438 Snells law
In the time that it takes point A on the wavefront XA to
reach Y, point X will have travelled to point B. If we let this
time be t then we have
AY = v
1
t and XB = v
2
t
However from the geometry of the situation we have that
AY = XYsin
1
and XB = XYsin
2
From which

t
t
that is

Tat is, the constant in Snells law is the ratio of the speed
of light in medium 1 to that in medium 2. Te result will
of course be valid for all types of waves.
For light we have that the refractive index of a material
is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuo (c) to that in the
material (v). We can write this as
As mentioned above this result has been confrmed for
light by a direct measurement of the speed of light in water
and subsequently in other materials.
Example
Te refractive index of a certain type of glass is 1.5. Te
speed of light in free space is 3.0 10
8
m s
-1
.
Calculate the speed of light in glass.
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Solution
From Snells law, the speed of light in glass can be found
using c = 3 10
8
m s
-1
.
So, with n = 1.5 and , we have that v = 2 .0 10
8
m s
1
.
4.5.3 Explain and discuss qualitatively the
diraction of waves at apertures and
obstacles.
4.5.4 Describe examples of diraction.
IBO 2007
4.5.3 DIFFRACTION
When waves pass through a slit or any aperture, or pass
the edge of a barrier, they always spread out to some extent
into the region that is not directly in the path of the waves.
Tis phenomenon is called difraction. Tis is clearly
demonstrated in a ripple tank.
Figure 439 (a) shows plane waves incident on a barrier in
which there is a narrow slit, the width of which is similar in
size to the wavelength of the incident waves. Figure 439 (b)
shows plane waves passing the edge of a barrier.
(a) (b)
Figure 439
(a) Diraction at a slit (b) Diraction at an edge
To understand this, we use an idea put forward by
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695). Huygens suggested
that each point on any wavefront acts as a source of a
secondary wave that produce waves with a wavelength
equal to the wavelength associated with the wavefront. In
Figure 440 we can see how this works in the case of plane
wavefronts.
new wavefront
secondary
wave
wavefront
Figure 440 Planar waves
Each point on the wavefront is the source of a secondary
wave and the new wavefront is found by linking together
the efect of all the secondary waves. Since there are, in
this case an infnite number of them, we end up with a
wavefront parallel to the frst wavefront. In the case of the
plane waves travelling through the slit in Figure 438 (b), it
is as if the slit becomes a secondary point source.
If we look at the efect of plane waves incident on a slit
whose width is much larger than the incident wavelength
as shown in Figure 441 then we see that difraction efects
are minimal. We can understand this from the fact that
each point on the slit acts as a secondary source and we
now have a situation where the waves from the secondary
sources results in a wavefront that is nearly planar (see
Figure 440).
Figure 441 Diraction at a large aperture
Difraction efects at edges can also be understood on the
basis of Huygens suggestion. By sketching the wavefronts
of secondary sources at points on a wavefront close to the
edge, it easy to see that difraction efects become more
pronounced as the wavelength of the incident wave is
increased.
4.5.4 EXAMPLES OF DIFFRACTION
We have seen that the ripple tank can be used to
demonstrate the phenomenon of difraction, i.e. the
spreading out of a wave has it goes through an aperture or
encounters an object.
Difraction of sound waves can be demonstrated using the
set up shown Figure 442.
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Te barrier would be expected to prevent the waves
reaching points such as X. However, because of difraction
at the slit, the waves spread out in the region beyond the
slit and the microphone will detect sound at points such
as X.
CRO speaker
signal
generator
microphone
X
barrier
Figure 442 Diraction of sound waves
You can also demonstrate the diffraction of light by
shining laser light through a single narrow slit such that
afer passing through the slit, the light is incident on a
screen. Te efect of difraction at the slit produces a
pattern on the screen that consists of areas of illumination
(bright fringes) separated by dark areas (dark fringes).
In this situation, each point on the slit is acting as a
secondary source and the pattern of light and dark
fringes is a result of the interference (see next section) of
the waves from these sources. (Te difraction of light is
considered in more detail in Option G and Topic 11.3).
As mentioned above, difraction efects at a slit really only
becomes noticeable when the slit width is comparable to
the wavelength. In this respect, if the laser is replaced by a
point source, then as the slit is made wider, the difraction
pattern tends to disappear and the illumination on the
screen becomes more like what one would expect if light
consisted of rays rather than waves. Historically, the
difraction of light was strong evidence for believing that
light did indeed consist of waves.
Te difraction of light can also be demonstrated by
looking directly at a point source through a narrow
slit. Unless the point source is monochromatic a
monochromatic source is one that emits light of a single
colour (i.e. wavelength), you will see a series of diferent
coloured fringes interspersed by dark fringes.
Exercise 4.5 (a)
1. (a) Calculate the wavelengths of
(i) FM radio waves of frequency 96
MHz
(ii) long wave radio waves of frequency
200 kHz.(Speed of light in free space
c = 3.0 10
8
m s
-1
)
(b) Use your answers to (i) and (ii) to explain
why if your car is tuned to FM, it cuts out
when you enter a tunnel but doesnt if you
are tuned to long wave reception. (Hint:
consider difraction)
2. Suggest one reason why ships at sea use a very low
frequency sound for their foghorn.
4.5.5 State the principle of superposition and
explain what is meant by constructive
interference and by destructive interference.
4.5.6 State and apply the conditions for
constructive and for destructive
interference in terms of path dierence and
phase dierence.
4.5.7 Apply the principle of superposition to
determine the resultant of two waves
IBO 2007
4.5.5 THE PRINCIPLE OF
SUPERPOSITION
We now look at what happens when two waves overlap.
For example, in Figure 443 what will happen when the
two pulses on a string travelling in opposite directions
cross each other?
pulse1 pulse 2
Figure 443 Two pulses approaching each other
Tere is a very important principle in physics that applies
not only to waves but to other situations as well. Tis is
the principle of superposition. What it efectively tells us
is that if you want to fnd out the efect of two separate
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causes then you need to add the efects of each separate
cause. In the example of the two pulses, to fnd the net
displacement at any point we add the displacement of
pulse 1 at that point to the displacement of pulse 2 at the
point. We show two examples of this in Figure 444 below
as the pulses move across each other.
pulse 1 pulse 2
pulse 1
pulse2
a
2a
Figure 444 (a) Constructive interference
1. In the Figure 444(a) the pulses do not fully overlap
and in the second diagram they do. In the second
diagram we have we what call full constructive
interference. Te two pulses add to give a single
pulse of twice the amplitude of each separate pulse.
Figure 444
pulse 1 pulse 2
pulse 1
pulse 2
pulse 1
pulse 2
(b) Destructive interference
2. We now consider two pulses as shown in Figure
444 (b).
When these two pulses completely overlap the net
displacement of the string will be zero. We now have
what we call complete destructive interference.

4.5.6 PATH DIFFERENCE AND PHASE
DIFFERENCE
Te schematic diagram in Figure 445 shows part of the
interference pattern that we get from two point sources,
S
1
and S
2
. Te lef hand side is a refection of the pattern
on the right hand side. Te dashed line shows where the
crests from S
1
meet the crests from S
2
, creating a double
crest, i.e., constructive interference.
S
1
S
2
The dashed line shows
where the crests from S
meet the crests from S
creating a double crest
constructive interference.
constructive interference
destructive interference
(crest meets trough)
(crest meets crest)
(antinodes)
(nodes)
1
2
,
, i.e.,
Figure 445 Two source interference
Te sources are two dippers connected to a bar that is
vibrated by an electric motor. Te dippers just touch the
surface of the water in a ripple tank. Te sources therefore
have the same frequency. Tey also are in phase. By this
we mean that when a crest is created by one dipper a
crest is created by the other dipper. Sources that have the
same frequency and that are in phase are called coherent
sources.
Te bold lines in the diagram show the places where
a trough of one wave meets the crest of the other wave
producing complete destructive interference. Te water
at these points will not be displaced and such points
are called nodal points or nodes. Points of maximum
constructive interference are called antinodes. Te bold
lines are therefore called nodal lines.
Te overall pattern produced by the interfering waves is
called an interference pattern.
To emphasise the idea of phase the diagrams in Figure 446
show snapshots of two waves in phase and two waves that
are out of phase.
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Two waves inphase Twowaves out of phase.
wave A
wave B
wave A
wave B
Diagram1
Diagram 2
Figure 446 Phase dierence
Te idea of out of phase comes from the idea that if the
space displacement of wave A in diagram 2 is represented
by y = Asin , then the space displacement of wave B is
y = Asin ( + ). At the instant shown the waves in diagram 1
will reinforce and produce constructive interference whereas
the waves in diagram 2 will produce destructive interference.
Let us now look at the interference between wave sources
from two points in a little more detail.
In Figure 447 we want to know what will be the condition
for there to be a point of maximum or minimum
interference at P.
S
1
S
2
X
P
Figure 447 Interference
S
1
and S
2
are two coherent point sources. For there to be a
maximum at P, a trough must meet a trough or a crest must
meet a crest. Te waves from the sources will have travelled
a diferent distance to P and therefore will not be necessarily
in phase when they reach P. However, if a crest meets a crest
(or trough a trough) at P then they will be in phase. Tey will
be in phase only if the diference in the distances travelled
by the two waves is an integral number of wavelengths. Te
interference of waves is discussed in further detail in Option
G (Chapter 18).
Tis means that path diference
S
2
P S
1
P = S
2
X = n, n = 0, 1, 2, ...
Te waves will be out of phase if the diference in the
distance travelled, is an odd number of half-wavelengths.
So for a minimum we have path diference =
S
2
P S
1
P = S
2
X =
(
n +
1

__

2

)
, n = 0, 1, 2, ...
4.5.7 APPLYING THE PRINCIPLE OF
SUPERPOSITION
It will help you understand the principle of superposition
to do the following exercise.
Exercise 4.5 (b)
Sophia sounds two tuning forks A and B together and
places them close to her ear.
Te graph in Figure 448 shows the variation with time t of
the air pressure close to her ear over a short period of time.
Figur
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
t
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
/
a
r
b
i
t
a
r
y
u
n
i
t
s
tuning fork A
tuning fork B
e 448 Tuning fork graph
On a separate piece of graph paper, use the principle of
superposition to construct a graph that shows the variation
with time t of the resultant pressure close to Sophias ear.
Use your graph to suggest the nature of the sound that
Sophia will hear up until the time that the vibrations of the
tuning forks die out.
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5
INTRODUCTION
F
igure 501 illustrates a typical model of a metal. Metals
are good electrical conductors because of the mobility
of electrons.
+ + +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
electrons
leaving metal
electrons
entering metal
metal rod
metal cations
Figure 501 Model of electrical conduction in metals.
Scientists have gathered evidence to suggest that the
electrons in outer shells of metals move about freely, within
a three-dimensional metal lattice of positively charged
metal ions. Tus, metal structure consists of positive ions
in a sea of delocalised electrons.
Positive ions and free electrons have internal energy that
depends on the temperature of the metal at that point
in time, and the delocalised electrons move about at
enormous speeds of about 10
6
m s
-1
, colliding with the
positive ions in the metals lattice. However, as much as
the speed is high, there is no net movement of charge
unless the conductor is connected to a source of potential
diference (or voltage).
When a dry cell or battery is connected across the ends
of a metal wire, an electric feld is produced in the wire.
Te electrons drif with a drif velocity to the high positive
potential end as shown in Figure 502. Electrons entering at
one end of the metal cause a similar number of electrons to
be displaced from the other end, and the metal conducts.
Even though they are accelerated along their path, it is
estimated that the drif velocity is only a small fraction of
a metre each second (about 10
-4
m s
-1
).
high potential (+)
Electric feld
Drift direction

low potential ()
Figure 502 Drift velocity of electrons.
An electric feld is created when a potential diference
is supplied to a metal wire. Tus, the average speed and
average kinetic energy of the electrons increases. When
they collide with positive ions in the lattice, they give up
some of their energy to them. Afer this event, they are
again accelerated because of the electric feld until the next
collision occurs. At each stage, these collisions generate
heat that causes the temperature of the metal to increase.
We say that a current produces a heating efect.
5.1 Electric Potential Dierence, Current and Resistance
5.2 Electric Circuits
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ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
5.1.1 Dene electric potential dierence.
5.1.2 Determine the change in potential energy
when a charge moves between two points
at dierent potentials.
5.1.3 Dene the electronvolt.
5.1.4 Solve problems involving electric potential
dierence
IBO 2007
5.1.1 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
In an electric circuit, charge is moved from one point in
the circuit to another and in this process electrical energy
supplied by a dry cell or power supply is converted to
other forms of energy. For example, a flament lamp
converts electrical energy into heat and light energy. As
charges move in the circuit, they gain energy supplied by
the energy source.
For a charge to move from one point to another in a circuit,
there has to be a potential diference between the two
points because an amount of electrical energy is changed
to other forms of energy as the charge moves from one
point to another such as from one side of a flament lamp
to the other.
In Chapter 2, we learnt that when a force acts on a mass
and moves it in the direction of the force, then work is
done on the mass. Work is a scalar quantity and is defned
as the force F multiplied by the distance s moved in the
direction of the force. Mathematically, this was stated as:
W F s or W Fs cos = =
Doing work on an object changes its energy.
Tere are a number of diferent ways to defne electric
potential diference:
1. Te electric potential diference between two
points in a conductor carrying a current is defned
as the power dissipated in a load per unit current
in moving from one point to another. V = P / I
2. Te electrical potential diference between two
points in a conductor carrying a current is defned
as the amount of electrical energy that is changed
to other forms of energy when an amount of
charge moves from one point to another, where P
is the power dissipated in watts (W) and I is the
current in amps (A).
Te concept of electric felds will be explored more fully in
Chapter 6. Here is a third way to defne potential diference
in terms of electric potential.
3. Te electrical potential diference between two
points in a conductor carrying a current is defned
as the work done per unit charge in moving a
positive charge from a point at higher potential to
a point at lower potential.
V
E
p

q
----------
W
q
-------- = =
where q is the amount of charge measured in coulombs C.
(If work is done in moving an electron, it would therefore
move from a point at lower potential to a point at higher
potential). So as charge q moves through a potential
diference V, it does work equal to Vq and this work
is equal to the energy given to the load component in the
circuit. Terefore, potential diference is a measure of the
energy released by an electric charge or group of charges.
Te accepted unit of electric potential diference is the
volt, V. It follows that it can also be measured in JC
-1
.
Just as work is a scalar quantity, so too electrical potential
diference is a scalar quantity. When we use the term
voltage, we are loosely talking about electric potential
diference. If the potential diference between the terminals
of a dry cell is 1.5V then the energy used in carrying a
positive charge of +q from one terminal to the other
is 1.5 J C
-1
.
Te work done in transferring a charge from two points
does not depend on the path along which the charge is
taken because potential diference is constant between
two points.
5.1 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE,
CURRENT AND RESISTANCE
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5.1.2 CHANGE IN POTENTIAL ENERGY
BETWEEN 2 POINTS
Suppose there is charge moving in a closed circuit as
shown in Figure 503. When the charge reaches the frst
load resistor at A, power is dissipated in the load resistor
and the electrical energy is converted to heat energy. Tere
is a potential (energy) diference between points A and B
because work has been done on the charge fowing through
the resistor and there will be an energy diference per unit
charge through the resistor.
When it gets to the second load, again energy is dissipated
and there is a potential diference between either side of the
resistor. If the electric potential energy dissipated is the same
in both of the loads, the energy diference per unit charge
will be the same amount. We say the potential diference
across each load resistor would be 3 volts.
I
V
i
0V
V
out
V
out
A
B
6V
3V
+q x
6V
Figure 503 Charge moving in a uniform electric eld
5.1.3 THE ELECTRON-VOLT (eV)
In atomic and nuclear physics, we ofen determine energy
by multiplying charge times voltage (W = qV). Because the
charge on an electron and the charge on the proton are used
so frequently, a useful unit of energy is the electron-volt
(eV).
One electron-volt (1 eV) is defned as the energy acquired
by an electron as a result of moving through a potential
diference of one volt.
Since W = qV, and the magnitude of charge on the
electron (or a proton) is 1.6 10
-19
C, then it follows that
W = (1.6 10
19
C) (1 V) = 1.6 10
19
J

So that, 1 eV = 1.6 10
19
J
An electron that accelerates through a potential diference
of 1000 V will lose 1000 eV of potential energy and will
thus gain 1000 eV (1 keV) of kinetic energy.
Te electron-volt is not an SI unit. In atomic physics, we fnd
that energy is typically a few electron-volts. In nuclear physics
the energy is more likely to be measured in MeV (10
6
eV),
and in particle physics it is typically in GeV (10
9
eV).
5.1.4 SOLVING POTENTIAL
DIFFERENCE PROBLEMS
Example
Calculate the work done in moving 10.0 C through a
potential diference of 150 V
Solution
Using the formula W = qV where the potential diference,
V = 150 V, we have W F x Eq x = =
W q V 1.00 10
5
C ( ) 150 V ( ) = =
= 1.5 10
-3
J
Te work done is 1.5 10
-3
J.
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Example
A 2.0 C charge acquires 2.0 10
-4
J of kinetic energy when
it is accelerated by an electric feld between two points.
Calculate the potential diference between the 2 points.
Solution
Using the formula W / q = V = 2.0 10
-4
J / 2.0 10
-6
C
= 100 V
Te potential diference is 1.0 10
2
V.
Example
Te work done by an external force to move a -8.0 C
charge from point a to point b is 8.0 10
-3
J. If the charge
initially at rest had 4.0 10
-3
J of kinetic energy at point b,
calculate the potential diference between a and b.
Solution
Using the formula V = W / q = 8.0 10
-3
J / -8.0 10
-6
C
= -1.0 10
2
V
Te work done to have a gain in kinetic energy
= 4.0 10
-3
J / 8.0 10
-6
C
= 5.0 10
1
V.
V =1.0 10
2
- 5.0 10
1
V
Te potential diference is 5.0 10
1
V.
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE
5.1.5 Dene electric current.
5.1.6 Dene resistance.
5.1.7 Apply the equation for resistance in the
form where is the resistivity of
the material of the resistor.
5.1.8 State Ohms law.
5.1.9 Compare ohmic and non-ohmic behaviour.
5.1.10 Derive and apply expressions for electrical
power dissipation in resistors.
5.1.11 Solve problems involving potential
dierence, current and resistance.
IBO 2007
5.1.5 ELECTRIC CURRENT
An electric current is a movement of electric charge that
can occur in solids, liquids and gases. A steady current
can be maintained when there is a drif of charge-carriers
between two points of diferent electric potential. Te
charges responsible for the drif are:
Solids
electrons in metals and graphite, and holes in semi-
conductors.
Liquids
positive and negative ions in molten and aqueous
electrolytes.
Gases
electrons and positive ions formed by electrons stripped
from gaseous molecules by large potential diferences.
At this point, we will defne the electric current as the rate
at which charge fows past a given cross-section.
I
q
t
------ =
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It makes sense that for an electric current to fow, there
must be a complete circuit for it to fow through. Te unit
of current from the above equation is the coulomb per
second C s
-1
and this unit is called the ampere (A).
Te ampere or amp is a rather large unit. Current is ofen
expressed in milliamps (mA) and microamps (A) or
even nanoamps and picoamps. Some relevant currents for
situations are given in Figure 504.
A computer chip 10
-12
10
-6
A
Electron beam of a television 10
-3
A
Current dangerous to a human 10
-2
10
-1
A
Household light bulb 0.5 A
Car starter motor 200 A
Lightning 10
4
A
Figure 504 Some typical current situations.
When a current fows in the same direction around an
electric circuit, the current is said to be a direct current
(dc). Dry cell and wet cell batteries supply dc. When the
direction of the current changes with time it is said to be
an alternating current (ac). Household electrical (non-
electronic) appliances are ac.
EXTENSION ONLY
Electric current is a fundamental quantity in physics, and
it is the primary quantity on which electrodynamics is
based. Its SI unit is the ampere (A). Te ampere is defned
in terms of the force per unit length between parallel
current-carrying conductors. Tis defnition is all that is
required for this course. Tis defnition can be extended
further.
When two long parallel current-carrying wires are placed
near each other, the force exerted by each will be a force
of attraction or repulsion depending upon the direction
of the current in each wire. Te force is attractive if the
two currents fow in the same direction, and the force is
repulsive if the two currents fow in opposite directions.
B
1
F
I
1
P
I
1
B
2
F
I
2
Q
I
2
(a) (b)
Figure 505 (a) and (b) Force between two parallel
current-carrying wires.
Figure 505 shows currents I
1
and I
2
fowing in the same
direction in two wires. In part a, at point P on the right
wire, the magnetic feld B
1
is upwards (right-hand screw
rule). Ten using the right-hand palm rule, the direction
of the force F is in an easterly direction. Similar analysis of
the diagram in part b reveals that the force is in a westerly
direction. Both forces are inwards, and the wires will
attract each other. Check that you obtain the same result
as the diagrams.
Te vector diagrams and lines of force or lines of
magnetic fux for currents in the same direction and in
opposite directions are shown in Figures 505 (a) and (b)
respectively.
I
1
I
2
F
F
B
2
B
1
I
1
I
2
F F
B
2
B
1
F
B
current owing
Repulsion
B
current owing into page
Attraction
into page
current ow
out of page
Figure 506 Forces and elds between currents.
Te French physicist Andre Marie Ampre showed that
the quantitative relationship for the force F per unit length
l between two parallel wires carrying currents I
1
and I
2

separated by a distance r in a vacuum was given by
F
l
--- I
1
I
2
1
r
---
F
l
--- kI
1
I
2
1
r
--- =
Terefore,
F

0
2
------ I
1
I
2
l
r
--

0
I
1
I
2
l
2r
------------------ = =
Te constant
0
is called the permeability of free space, is
defned to equal

0
= 4 10
-7
T m A
-1
Tis last equation now allows us to fnally defne the
fundamental unit the ampere.
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Tus one ampere is defned as that current fowing in each
of two indefnitely-long parallel wires of negligible cross-
sectional area separated by a distance of one metre in a
vacuum that results in a force of exactly 2 10
-7
N per
metre of length of each wire
Example
Calculate the current fowing through a hair drier if
it takes 2.40 10
3
C of charge to dry a persons hair in
4.0 minutes.
Solution
To determine the current, given that there exists a charge of
2.40 10
3
C and that it is fowing for a period of 4.0 minutes
(= 240 seconds).
Tis gives, I
q
t
------
2.40 10
3

240
------------------------- 10 A = = =
Te current fowing is 1.0 10
1
A.
Current is a scalar quantity but it is useful to indicate the
direction of fow of current.
Before the electron was discovered, the direction of the
charge-carriers was already defned by scientists and
engineers to be from positive to negative.
Benjamin Franklin stated that an excess of fuid produced
one kind of electric charge which he termed positive, and
a lack of the same fuid produced the other type of electric
charge which he called negative. Franklins designation
of (+) being an excess of electric charge and of () being a
defciency of electric charge was unfortunate.
When batteries and generators, the frst source of
continuous current, were developed in the 1800s, it was
assumed that electric current represented the fow of
positive charge as defned by Franklin. Tis is partly the
reason that electric felds are defned in terms of a positive
test charge, and the lines of electric fux being explained as
going outwards from positive charges.
It is now known that in a metal an electric current is a fow
of electrons from negative to positive.
electron fow conventional current
+
resistor
1.5 V
Figure 507 Conventional and electron currents
Unfortunately, this convention has been kept. Figure 507
shows a simple circuit diagram of a 1.5 V dry cell
connected to a resistor. When drawing and interpreting
circuit diagrams just remember that conventional current
fows from the positive to negative terminal unless you
are specifcally asked for the correct electron fow that
fows from the negative to the positive terminal.
5.1.6 RESISTANCE
Electrical resistance, R, is a measure of how easily charge
fows in a material. Conductors, semiconductors and
insulators difer in their resistance to current fow. An
ohmic material of signifcant resistance placed in an
electric circuit to control current or potential diference is
called a resistor.
Te electrical resistance of a piece of material is defned
by the ratio of the potential diference across the material
to the current that fows through it.
R
V
I
--- =
Te units of resistance are volts per ampere (VA
-1
).
However, a separate SI unit called the ohm is defned as
the resistance through which a current of 1 A fows when
a potential diference of 1 V is applied.
Since the term resistance refers to a small resistance, it is
common for a resistor to have kilo ohm (k) and mega
ohm (M) values.
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5.1.7 FACTORS AFFECTING
RESISTANCE
Te resistance of a conducting wire depends on four main
factors:
length
cross-sectional area
resistivity
temperature
It can be shown that when the temperature is kept constant
R
l
A
--- =
where R is the resistance in , is the resistivity in m,
l is the length of the conductor in m, and A is the cross-
sectional area of the conductor in m
2
.
As the length of a conductor increases, the resistance
increases proportionally
R l
It seems logical that as the length increases so too does the
resistance to the fow of charge across the conductor.
As the cross-sectional area of a conductor increases, the
resistance decreases proportionally.

With increased cross-sectional area, there is a greater

surface through which the charge can drif.
Te resistivity is specifc to the type of material being used
as a resistance and is afected by the nature of the delocalised
electrons and the positive ions within the material. Te
resistivity of a material is the resistance across opposite
faces of a cube with sides of one metre. It can be found
that by plotting a graph of R versus (l / A), the slope of the
linear graph is the resistivity measured in m.
Figure 508 gives the resistivities of various materials at
20
o
C. Te frst three values show that although silver has
a low resistivity, it is expensive to use in electrical circuits.
Copper is the preferred metal although aluminum is
commonly used in electricity transmission cables because of
its lower density. Constantan and nichrome are commonly
used in wire form, and are termed high resistance wires.
Nichrome is used as the heating element in many toasters
and electric radiators. Te semiconductors behave in a
special manner, and pyrex glass is an obvious insulator.
Material
Resistivity
m
Silver 1.6 10
-8
Copper 1.7 10
-8
Aluminium 2.8 10
-8
Tungsten 5.6 10
-8
Constantan (alloy of copper and nickel) 49 10
-8
Nichrome (alloy of nickel, iron & chromium) 100 10
-8
Graphite (3 - 60) 10
-5
Silicon 0.1 - 60
Germanium (1 - 500) 10
-3
Pyrex glass 10
12
Figure 508 Resistivities for certain materials at 20C
Example
Determine the resistance of a piece of copper wire that is
10.0 m long and 1.2 mm in diameter?
Solution
Te resistance, R, is given by the formula R = l / A, where
A = r
2
.
Tis means that
R = (1.7 10
-8
m) (10.0 m) / (6.0 10
-4
)
2
m
2
= 0.150 .
Te resistance of the copper wire is 0.15 .
Te resistance of a material increases with temperature
because of the thermal agitation of the atoms it contains,
and this impedes the movement of electrons that make up
the current.
Te increase in resistance can be shown as
R
f
R
0
1 t + ( ) =
where R
0
equals the resistance at some reference
temperature say 0 C, R
f
is the resistance at some
temperature, t C, above the reference temperature,

and
is the temperature coefcient for the material being used.
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One interesting phenomenon of the efect of temper-
ature on resistance is superconductivity. In 1911,
H. Kammerlingh Onnes found that mercury loses all its
resistance abruptly at a critical temperature of 4.1 K.
When a material attains zero resistance at some critical
temperature, it is called a superconductor. Te possibility
of having a material that has an induced electric current
that lasts forever has become a topic for research
physicists. Just think of the energy saving if the perfect
superconductor is found that can give zero resistance at
room temperature.
5.1.8 OHMS LAW
Te German physicist, Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854),
studied the resistance of diferent materials systematically.
In 1826, he published his fndings for many materials
including metals. He stated that:
Provided the physical conditions such as temperature are
kept constant, the resistance is constant over a wide range
of applied potential diferences, and therefore the potential
diference is directly proportional to the current fowing.
V I
V
I
--- constant =
Tis is known as Ohms Law.
Tere are two relevant statements to be made here. Firstly,
Ohms Law is not really a law but rather an empirical
statement of how materials behave. Many materials
are non-ohmic and this law is only applicable to ohmic
conductors. Secondly, the law should not be written as
R = V / I as this statement defnes resistance.
Te formula is commonly written as:
V IR =
where V is the potential diference across the resistor (in
volts V), I is the current in the resistor (in amperes A) and
R is the resistance (in ohms ). When written in this form
R is understood to be independent of V.
As the current moves through the resistance of a device,
it loses electric potential energy. Te potential energy of
a charge is less upon leaving the resistor than it was upon
entering. We say that there is a potential drop across the
device.
A typical apparatus used in the confrmation of Ohms
Law is shown using a circuit diagram in Figure 509.
V
+
+
+
variable resistor
resistor
voltmeter
Ammeter
A
Figure 509 Typical Ohms law apparatus
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
,

I
potential diference, V
Figure 510 Typical Ohms law graph.
5.1.9 OHMIC AND NON-OHMIC
CONDUCTORS
A graph of current versus the potential diference is
a straight line (see Figure 510). Devices that obey the
linear relationship of the graph are said to be ohmic
devices or ohmic conductors. Tere are very few devices
that are ohmic although some metals can be if there is
no temperature increase due to the heating efect of the
current. However, many useful devices obey the law at
least over a reasonable range. Remember that a resistor
is any device with a potential diference and is not only
restricted to the typical resistor used in the laboratory. It
could be any useful electrical device a flament lamp or
globe, a diode, a thermistor. Figure 511 shows some typical
V versus I graphs for some conductors. When a device
does not obey Ohms Law, it is said to be non-ohmic. Te
flament lamp is non-ohmic because Ohms Law requires
that the temperature remains constant, and this is not the
case for a globe operating.
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Example
An iron draws 6.0 A of current when operating in a country
with a mains supply of 120 V. Calculate the resistance of
the iron?
Solution
We can transpose the formula V = IR to obtain R = V / I .
So that
R
120 V
6.0 A
--------------- 20 = =
Te resistance of the iron is 2.0 10
1
.
5.1.10 POWER DISSIPATION IN
RESISTORS
Electric power is the rate at which energy is supplied to or
used by a device. It is measured in J s
-1
called watts W.
When a steady current is fowing through a load such as
a resistor, it dissipates energy in it. Tis energy is equal to
the potential energy lost by the charge as it moves through
the potential diference that exists between the terminals
of the load.
If a vacuum cleaner has a power rating of 500 W, it means
it is converting electrical energy to mechanical, sound
and heat energy at the rate of 500 J s
-1
. A 60 W light globe
converts electrical energy to light and heat energy at the
rate of 60 J s
-1
.
Some common power ratings of household appliances are
given in Table 512.
V
I
I
V
I
V
I
V
I
V
I
V
I
V
a. b. c.
d. e. f.
g.
Figure 511 Current/voltage relationships for some devices.
KEY: a ohmic conductor b. gas discharge tube
c. thermionic diode d. junction diode
e. flament lamp f. thermistor
g. dilute sulfuric acid
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Appliance Power rating
Blow heater 2 kW
Kettle 1.5 kW
Toaster 1.2 kW
Iron 850 W
Vacuum cleaner 1.2 kW
Television 250 W
Figure 512 Some possible power ratings
of household appliances
Deriving expressions for
determining power
We start with the basic defnition of power, P = W / t,
then, we introduce the diferent expressions that we have
already developed.
Using the result, W = qV and q = It t = q / I , we have
P
qV
q
I
---


-------- IV = =
Te same result could have been obtained using the fact
that the electrical energy,
W qV ItV = =
so that
P
W
t
-----
ItV
t
-------- IV = = =
However, we also have that V = IR , so that
P I IR I
2
R = =
We also could have used I = V / R , giving the result,
P IV
V
R
--- V
V
2
R
------ = = =
Summary
P
W
t
----- I VI
2
R
V
2
R
------ = = = =
Te commercial unit of electrical energy is the kilowatt-
hour (kW h). It is the energy consumed when 1 kW of
power is used for one hour. Te consumer has to pay a
certain cost per kilowatt-hour say 14 cents per kW h.
Te heating efect of a current was investigated in 1841 by
James Joule. He was able to demonstrate that by supplying
electrical energy to a high resistance coil of wire this
energy could be converted to thermal energy.
V I t m c T =
Example
An electrical appliance is rated as 2.5 kW, 240 V.
(a) Determine the current needed for it to
operate.
(b) Calculate the energy it would consume in
2.0 hours.
Solution
(a) Given that P = 2.5 10
3
and V = 240 V, we
use the formula, P = IV. Now,
the current drawn is 1.0 10
1
A.
(b) Next, we use the formula W = VIt, so that
W 240 V ( ) 10.4 A ( ) 7.2 10
3
s ( ) =
1.8 10
7
J =
Te energy consumed is 1.8 10
7
J.
Example
A 2.5 kW blow heater is used for eight hours. Calculate the
cost if electricity is sold at 12 cents per kilowatt-hour?
P IV I
P
V
---
2.5 10
3

240
---------------------- 10.4 = = = =
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Solution
Using the fact that energy consumed (E) = power time,
we have
E 2.5 kW ( ) 8 h ( ) 20 kW h = =
Terefore, the Cost = (20 kW h) $0.12 per kW h = $2.40
Te cost to run the heater is two dollars forty cents ($2.40).
Example
A 1.2 kW electric water heater that is made of aluminium
is used to heat 2.5 L of water from 25 C to the boil. If
the mass of aluminium water heater is 350 g and all the
electrical energy is converted to heat energy, determine
the time in minutes to bring the water to the boil.
(Specifc heat capacity of aluminium is 9.1 10
2
J kg
-1
K
-1
)
Solution
A 1.2 kW heater delivers 1200 joules each second. 2.5 L =
2.5 kg
Te electrical energy is used to heat the heater and the water
from 25 C to 100 C.
Q = mcT
heater
+ mcT
water
= (0.35 kg 9.1 10
2
J kg
-1
K
-1
75 C) +
(2.5kg 4180 J kg
-1
K
-1
75 C)
= 8.08 10
5
J
Now if the heater delivers 1200 J per second, then to consume
8.08 10
5
J will take:

8.08 10
5
J

_________

1200 J

=
673 s

_____

60

= 11.2 min 11 min
Exercise 5.1
1. When a current is fowing through a wire attached
to a dry cell
A. positive charges fow from negative to
positive terminal
B. positive charges fow from positive to
negative terminal
C. negative charges fow from negative to
positive terminal
D. negative charges fow from positive to
negative terminal
2. Te total charge passing the same point in a
conductor during 2.0 s of an electric current of
7.5 mA is
A. 15 nC
B. 15 mC
C. 15 C
D. 1.5 10
4
C
3. An electric heater raises the temperature of a
measured quantity of water. 6.00 10
3
J of energy
is absorbed by the water in 30.0 seconds. What is
the minimum power rating of the heater?
A. 5.00 10
2
W
B. 2.00 10
2
W
C. 2.00 10
3
W
D. 1.80 10
5
W
4. If the power developed in an electric circuit is
doubled, the energy used in one second is
A. halved
B. doubled
C. quartered
D. quadrupled
5. Te electron volt is defned as
A. the energy acquired by an electron when it
passes through a potential diference of 1.0 V.
B. the voltage of an electron.
C. a fraction of the ionisation of an electron.
D. unit of energy exactly equal to 1.6 10
19
J.
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6. Te defnition of the unit of current, the ampere, is
based on
A. the charge per unit time delivered by an
emf of 1.0 V.
B. the force per unit length on parallel
current-carrying wires.
C. the force per unit length on a conductor in
a magnetic feld
D. the charge passing a point per unit time.
7. Identify the charge-carriers in
a. a length of copper wire.
b. an aqueous solution of sodium chloride.
c. the atmosphere during a lightning storm.
8. Te speed with which electrons move through a
copper wire is typically 10
-4
m s
-1
.
a. Explain why is it that the electrons cannot
travel faster in the conductor?
b. Explain why the electron drif produces
heat?
9. Calculate the resistance of a wire if 0.5 V across it
causes a current of 2.5 A to fow.
10. Calculate current fow through a 20 M resistor
connected across a 100 kV power supply.
11. A thin copper wire 200 cm in length has a 9 V dry
cell connected between its ends. Determine the
voltage drop that occurs along 30 cm of this wire.
12. Determine the length of tungsten wire with a
diameter of 1.0 mm that is used to make a 20.0
resistor.
13. A nichrome wire has a diameter of 0.40 mm.
Calculate the length of this wire needed to carry
a current of 30 mA when there is a potential
diference of 12 V across it.
14. Explain in terms of atomic and electron
movement, why resistance increases with
temperature.
15. Determine how many coulombs there are when
2.0 A fows for 2.0 hours?
16. Distinguish the diference between an ohmic and a
nonohmic material.
17. Copy out and complete the table
Appliance
Power
(Watt)
p.d
(Volt)
Current
(Ampere)
Fuse rating needed
(3,5,10,13 A)
Digital clock 4 240
Television 200 240
Hair dryer 110 5
Iron 230 4
Kettle 240 10
18. Calculate the cost of heating the water to wash the
dishes if the sink is 48 cm long, 25 cm wide and
the water is 25 cm high. Te tap water is at 14 C
and the fnal temperature before washing up is
62 C. Power is sold to the consumer at 14 cents
per kilowatt-hour.
19. Te element of an electric jug has a resistance of
60 and draws a current of 3.0 A. Determine by
how much the temperature of 5.0 kg of water will
rise if it is on for 6 minutes.
20. Calculate the cost to heat 200 kg of water from
12C to its boiling point if power costs 14 cents
per kilowatt-hour.
21. Determine the work done in moving a charge
of 10.0 nC through a potential diference of
1.50 10
2
V?
22. An electron in an electron gun of a picture tube is
accelerated by a potential 2.5 10
3
V. Calculate the
kinetic energy gained by the electron in electron-
volts.
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5.2.1 Dene electromotive force (emf).
5.2.2 Describe the concept of internal resistance.
5.2.3 Apply the equations for resistors in series
and in parallel.
5.2.4 Draw circuit diagrams.
5.2.5 Describe the use of ideal ammeters and
ideal voltmeters.
5.2.6 Describe a potential divider.
5.2.7 Explain the use of sensors in potential
divider circuits.
5.2.8 Solve problems involving electric circuits.
IBO 2007
5.2.1 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
In the previous section, potential diference was defned in
terms of the amount of work that has to be done per unit
charge to move a positively-charged body in an electric
feld.
V
W
q
-------- or W q ( ) V = =
From the present defnition of electric current, we have,
I
q
t
------ or q I t = =
By substituting for q in the top equation, we end up with
W I t V or V
W
I t
-------- = =
Terefore it can be stated that
Potential diference in external circuits is the power, (P),
dissipated (released) per unit current
Either defnition for potential diference is acceptable.
However, the above-mentioned ties voltage and current
together.
Note: It is common place to use the expression V = W / It
as opposed to V = W / It and q = It as opposed to
q = It. Tat is, to leave out the change in (or ) notation
when solving problems.
Te terms emf, potential diference and voltage are
commonly interchanged in talking about electricity. Te
term electromotive force should be avoided as it is not a
force at all but rather a potential energy diference. Again,
there are historical reasons for the use of the term in the
frst place.
In the true sense, electromotive force (emf) is the work
per unit charge made available by an electrical source.
For the simple circuit in Figure 507 , the emf of the dry
cell is 1.5 V. However, when a voltmeter is used to test
the potential diference across the resistor the reading on
the voltmeter is found to be less than 1.5 V. Tis is due to
the cell not being an ideal dry cell because it has some
internal resistance.
For the moment, let us say that emf is the energy supplied
per unit charge, and potential diference is the energy
released (dissipated) per unit charge.
Example
A battery supplies 15.0 J of energy to 4.00 C of charge
passing through it. Determine the emf of the battery
Solution
Using the formula, V = W / q, we have, V = 15.0J / 4.00 C
= 3.75 V
Te emf of the battery is 3.75 V.
5.2 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
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The major sources of emf are:
1. ELECTROMAGNETIC
when a coil of wire is rotated in a magnetic feld, an induced
current is produced. Power stations use generators to
produce a current.
2. CHEMICAL
oxidation-reduction reactions transfer electrons between
chemicals. Dry cells, fuel cells and batteries are examples.
3. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
electrons are emitted from certain metal surfaces when
high frequency light is shone on their surfaces. Tese
photocells are used in watches, clocks, automatic doors.
4. PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT
certain crystals can produce a charge on one side when
placed under stress. If one side of the crystal is charged
and the other not, a potential diference exists across the
crystal. Tis is used in crystal microphones.
5. THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT
when two pieces of certain metals are wound together and
one end is heated while the other end is cooled, a current
is produced. Termocouples can be used as temperature-
measuring devices.
5.2.2 TERMINAL VOLTAGE, EMF AND
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
When electrons fow around a circuit, they gain potential
energy in the cell and then lose the energy in the resistors.
In a previous section, it was stated that the emf is the energy
supplied per unit charge, and the potential diference is the
energy released (dissipated) per unit charge in a circuit.
+

I
r
R
V
1
V
2
.m .f
internal resistance of cell
Figure 514 Internal resistance circuit.
In the circuit in Figure 514, the total energy supplied
is determined by the value of the emf. Te total energy
released (per unit charge) is equal to the potential diference
across resistor R plus the potential diference of the internal
resistance r.
emf V
1
V
2
+ IR Ir + I R r + ( ) = = =
IR is known as the terminal voltage.
Tat is,
IR emf Ir =
All sources of emf have some internal resistance and it is a
factor in determining how useful a source of emf is.
A dry cell being a primary cell releases its energy and
becomes dead. When it is just about inoperable, the
buildup of the products of the relevant oxidation-
reduction reaction increases the internal resistance beyond
its normal value. Te emf available does not decrease
from giving the maximum number of joules per coulomb
of charge. However, when much of the emf is used up in
overcoming the potential diference across the internal
resistor, the terminal voltage will drop to zero. Batteries
are generally regarded as being a secondary cell because
they can be recharged many times.
If a series of potential diference readings measured with a
voltmeter across a variable resistor R are taken concurrently
with the current fowing in the circuit measured with
an ammeter for each variable resistance, and a graph of
voltage versus current is plotted, from the relationship
Terminal voltage V emf Ir = =
Te yintercept of the graph will be the value of the emf,
and the negative gradient is the internal resistance.
Example
A dry cell has an internal resistance of 1.50 . A resistor
of 12.0 is connected in series with the dry cell. If the
potential diference across the 12.0 resistor is 1.20 V,
calculate the emf of the cell.
Solution
We frst need to determine the current fowing through the
system. Tis is done by using the formula, V = IR from
where we obtain, I = V / R.
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Terefore, we have that
I
V
R
---
1.20 V
12.0
----------------- 0.100 A = = =
Next, we use the formula, emf = I(R + r), where the internal
resistance, r = 1.5 .
Tat is, emf = I(R + r) = 0.100 A (12.0 + 1.50 )
= 1.35 V
Te emf of the cell is 1.35 V.
5.2.3 D.C. CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Electricity is transmitted to household localities using
alternating current ac as the voltage can be stepped-down
to the local supply voltage before entering houses. Some
household appliances such as lights, stoves, water heaters,
toasters, irons operate using ac. However, electronic
devices such as stereos, computers and televisions operate
using direct current dc. Te power supply is stepped
down to say 12 V by a transformer inside the appliance,
and a diode is inserted (diodes are devices that will only
allow current to fow in one direction). Direct current is
produced.
An electric circuit has three essential components
1. A source of emf.
2. A conducting pathway obtained by conducting
wires or some alternative.
3. A load to consume energy such as a flament
globe, other resistors and electronic components.
A current will always take the easiest path in the circuit.
If for some reason the current fnds a way back to the
source without passing through the essential components,
a short-circuit occurs. Fuses are used in appliances to stop
damage due to short-circuits.
In the mid-nineteenth century, G.R. Kirchof (1824-1887)
stated two simple rules using the laws of conservation of
energy and charge to help in the analysis of direct current
circuits. Tese rules are
KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAWJUNCTION RULE
Te sum of the currents fowing into a point in a circuit
equals the sum of the currents fowing out at that point.
I
I
1
I
2
I
3
Figure 515 Kirchos current law.
In Figure 515, we have that I = I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
+ ..
Tis is based on the Law of Conservation of charge.
KIRCHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW LOOP RULE;
In a closed loop, the sum of the emfs equals the sum of the
potential drops.
In the Figure 516, we have that V = V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
+ ..
V
1
V
2
V
3
I
V
R
1
R
2
R
3
Figure 516 Kirchos voltage law.
Tis is a statement of the law of conservation of energy.
Energy supplied equals the energy released in this closed
path.
Series circuits
In a series circuit with one cell:
1. All the components have only one current
pathway.
2. All components have the same current through
them.
3. Te sum of the potential drop across each
component is equal to the emf of the cell.
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From Kirchofs laws, we have that
I = I
1
= I
2
= I
3
= and V = V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
+ ..
Ten, from Ohms law
R
V
I
---
V
1
V
2
V
3
+ + +
I
------------------------------------------- -
V
1
I
------
V
2
I
------
V
3
I
------ + + + = = =
But, the terms in this sum are equal to R
1
, R
2
, R
3
,
(i.e., R
1
= V
1
/ I, R
2
= V
2
/ I).
So that,
R
ef
R
1
R
2
R
3
+ + + =
Te total or efective resistance R
ef
of a series circuit is
equal to the sum of the separate resistances.
Example
From the diagram given in the Figure below of a potential
divider, calculate
(a) the efective resistance of the circuit
(b) the current fowing
(c) the potential diference across each resistor
V
1
V
2
I
4 V
6 2
Solution
(a) Using our rule (from above), we have that
the efective resistance is given by
R
ef
R
1
R
2
+ 6 2 + 8 = = =
Tat is, the efective resistance is 8 .
(b) We can determine the current by making use
of the formula, I = V / R
ef
.
So that in this instance, we have that
I = 4V / 8 = 0.5 A
Te current fowing is 0.5 A.
(c) Te potential drop across each resistor, R
i
, is
given by, V
i
= IR
i
.
So that for the 6 ohm resistor, the potential
diference (or potential drop) is given by
V
1
= IR
1
= 0.5 6 = 3 V.
Similarly, for the 2 ohm resistor, the potential
diference (or potential drop) is given by V
2
=
IR
2
= 0.5 2 = 1 V.
Te potential diferences in the 6 and the 2 resistors are
3 V and 1 V respectively.
Figure 518 Potential displacement graph.
Figure 518 shows the corresponding potential/displacement
graph for the circuit in the example above.
Notice how we refer to the potential diference, V
1
as
opposed to simply V
1
.
Parallel circuits
In the parallel circuit in Figure 519
Tere is more than one current pathway.
1. All components have the same potential diference
across them.
2. Te sum of the currents fowing into any point is
equal to the sum of the currents fowing out at that
point.
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V
I
1
I
3
I
2
In
I
R
1
R
2
R
3
Rn
V
V
V
V
+

Figure 519 A parallel circuit

From Kirchofs laws, we have that
I I
1
I
2
I
3
+ + + =
and
V V
1
V
2
V
3
= = = =
From Ohms law, we have V = IR V / R = I or 1 / R = I / V
Meaning that,
1
R
ef
---------
I
1
I
2
I
3
+ + +
V
---------------------------------------
I
1
V
----
I
2
V
----
I
3
V
---- + + + = =
However, V = V
1
= V
2
= V
3
=., so that
1
R
ef
---------
I
1
V
1
------
I
2
V
2
------
I
3
V
3
------ + + +
1
R
1
------
1
R
2
------
1
R
3
------ + + + = =
Te efective resistance R
ef
of a parallel circuit is less than
the sum of the separate resistances.
Example
From the diagram given in the Figure below, calculate
(a) the efective resistance of the circuit,
(a) the current fowing in the main circuit,
(a) the current in each resistor.
I
1
I
2
I
6
3
6 V
Solution
(a) Using 1 / R
ef
= 1 / R
1
+ 1 / R
2
, we have,
1
R
ef
---------
1
3
---
1
6
-- - +
3
6
--- R
ef
2 = = =
Te efective resistance is 2 .
(b) We can now determine the current fowing
through the system:
V IR
ef
I
V
R
ef
--------- = =
I
6 V
2
--------- 3 A = =
Te current fowing in the main circuit is 3 A.
(c) Using V
i
= I
i
R
i
, we have:
For the 3 ohm resistor; I = 6 / 3 = 2A
For the 6 ohm resistor; I = 6 / 6 = 1A
Te currents in the 3 and the 6 resistors
are 2 A and 1 A respectively.
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RESISTORS IN COMPOUND
CIRCUITS
Example
From the diagram given in the fgure (below), calculate
I
1
I
2
I
6
3
12 V
I
4
I
(a) the total resistance of the circuit
(b) the current fowing in the main circuit
(c) the current in each resistor
Solution
(a) For the parallel circuit we have,
1
R
ef
---------
1
3
---
1
6
--- +
3
6
--- R
ef
2 = = =
So that , R
ef
= 2
Tus the total resistance (of the parallel and series arms),
R
T
, is given by
R
T
= 2 + 4
= 6
Tat is, the efective resistance is 6 .
(b) To determine the current, once again we use,
V = IR, so that,
I
V
R
T
------
12
6
------ 2 A = = =
Te current fowing in the main circuit is 2 A.
(c) Te current in the 4 resistor is 2 A.
Te potential diference across the 4
resistor = IR = (2 A) . (4 ) = 8 V
Te potential diference across the parallel
network = 12 V 8 V
= 4 V
Te current in the network resistors is given by,
I I
1
I
2
+
V
R
1
------
V
R
2
------ + = =
I
4
3
--- A
4
6
--- A + 1.33 A 0.67 A + = =
Te current in the 4 resistor is 2 A. Te currents in the 3
and the 6 resistors are 1.33 A and 0.67 A respectively.
5.2.4 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
Te circuit symbols shown in Table 522 are used for
drawing circuit diagrams in this course. Tis standard
set of symbols is also provided in the data booklet that is
used during examination sessions. You should use these
symbols in place of any other that you may have learnt.
5.2.5 AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS
Galvanometers are used to detect electric currents. Tey
use a property of electromagnetism a coil with a current
fowing in it experiences a force when placed in a magnetic
feld. Most non-digital ammeters and voltmeters consist
of a moving coil galvanometer connected to resistors.
Digital meters are becoming more common, and the
digital multimeter can act as an ammeter, a voltmeter or
an ohmmeter.
A voltmeter
1. is always connected across a device (in parallel).
2. has a very high resistance so that it takes very little
current from the device whose potential diference
is being measured.
3. has a high resistor (a multiplier) connected in
series with a galvanometer.
4. an ideal voltmeter would have infnite resistance
with no current passing through it and no energy
would be dissipated in it.
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Example
A galvanometer has a resistance of 1.0 10
3
(mainly
due to the resistace of the coil), and gives a full-scale
defection (fsd) for 1.0 mA of current. Calculate the size of
a multiplier resistor that would be needed to convert this
to a voltmeter with a fsd of 10.0 volts.
Solution
Te Figure below demonstrates a possible set up.
G
R
G
10 V
I
R
S
joined wires wires crossing (not joined) cell
battery lamp a.c. supply
switch ammeter voltmeter
galvanometer resistor variable resistor
potentiometer heating element fuse
transformer oscilloscope
A
V
Table 522 Common circuit symbols
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Because the resistors R
g
and R
s
are in series then the
potential diference across the resistors will be 10 volts.
Terefore, I (R
g
+ R
s
) = 10
0.001 (1000 + R
s
) = 10 0.001R
s
= 9
R
s
= 9000
Te multiplier resistor = 9.0 10
3

An ammeter
1. is always connected in series with a circuit.
2. has a very low resistance compared with the
resistance of the circuit so that it will not
signifcantly alter the current fowing in the circuit.
3. has a low resistor (a shunt) connected in parallel
with a galvanometer.
4. would ideally have no resistance with no potential
diference across it and no energy would be
dissipated in it.
Example
A galvanometer has a resistance of 1.0 10
3
(mainly due
to the resistace of the coil), and gives a full-scale defection
(fsd) for 1.0 mA of current. Calculate the size of a shunt
resistor that would be needed to convert this to a meter
with a fsd of 5.0 A.
Solution
Te Figure below demonstrates a possible set up.
G
R
G
I i
I - i
R
S
I
Because the resistors R
g
and R
s
are in parallel then the
potential diference across the resistors is the same.
Terefore, iR
g
= (I i) R
s
.
R
s
= (i / I i) R
g
= [10
-3
A / (5 0.001) A] 1000 = 0.20
Te shunt resistor = 0.20
5.2.6 A POTENTIAL DIVIDER
In electronic systems, it is ofen necessary to obtain smaller
voltages from larger voltages for the various electronic
circuits. A potential divider is a device that produces the
required voltage for a component from a larger voltage.
It consists of a series of resistors or a rheostat (variable
resistor) connected in series in a circuit. A simple voltage
divider is shown in Figure 525.
V
2
V
1
V
R
1
R
2
I
Figure 525 A simple voltage divider
Using Ohms Law, V
1
= IR
1
and V = I(R
1
+ R
2
).
V
1
/ V = IR
1
/ I(R
1
+ R
2
). Terefore,
V
1
= R
1
/ (R
1
+ R
2
) V
Tis is known as the potential divider equation.
Example
In the potential divider shown below, calculate:
(a) the total current in the circuit
(b) the potential diference across each resistor
(c) the voltmeter reading if it was connected
between terminals 2 and 6.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12 V
2 2 2 2 2 2
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Solution
(a) Te total resistance = 12 . From Ohms law
V = IR and I = V / R
I = 12 V / 12 = 1 A
(b) Te 12 V is equally shared by each 2
resistor. Terefore, the potential diference
across each resistor = 2 V. Alternatively,
V = IR = 1 A 2 = 2 V
(c) Between terminals 2 and 6 there are 4
resistors each of 2 . Terefore, the potential
diference the terminals
= 4 2 V = 8 V.
Because resistance is directly proportional to the length of
a resistor, a variable resistor also known as a potentiometer
or colloquially as a pot can also be used to determine the
potential diference across an output transducer (device
for converting energy from one form to another) such as a
flament lamp in Figure 527.
If the pointer was at A then the potential diference would
be zero as there is no power dissipated per unit current
in the potentiometer (the load), and there would be no
output voltage. However, if the pointer is moved up to
two-thirds the length of the potentiometer as in the fgure,
then the output voltage across the flament lamp would be
6V = 4V.
6V
potentiometer
V A
Figure 527 Laboratory potentiometer
Pots have a rotating wheel mounted in plastic and they
are commonly used as volume and tone controls in sound
systems. Tey can be made from wire, metal oxides or
carbon compounds.
5.2.7 SENSORS IN POTENTIAL DIVIDER
CIRCUITS
A number of sensors (input transducers) that rely on a
change in resistance can be used in conjunction with
potential dividers to allow for the transfer of energy from
one form to another. Tree such sensors are:
the light dependent resistor (LDR)
the negative temperature coefcient thermistor
(NTC)
strain gauges.
A light dependent resistor (LDR) is a photo-conductive
cell whose resistance changes with the intensity of the
incident light. Typically, it contains a grid of interlocking
electrodes made of gold deposited on glass over which is
deposited a layer of the semiconductor, cadmium sulfde.
Its range of resistance is from over 10 M in the dark to
about 100 in sunlight. A simple LDR and its circuit
symbol are shown in Figure 528.
Figure 528 A light dependent resistor
Tere are only two ways to construct a voltage divider with
an LDR sensor with the LDR at the top, or with the LDR
at the bottom as shown in Figure 529.
I
V
in
V
in
I
0V 0V
V
out
V
out
Figure 529 (a) and (b) two ways to construct an L.D.R.
Light dependant resistors have many uses in electronic
circuits including smoke detectors, burglar alarms, camera
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light meters, camera aperture controls in automatic cameras
and controls for switching street lights of and on.
Resistors that change resistance with temperature are
called thermistors (derived from thermal resistors).
Tey are made from ceramic materials containing a
semiconductor the main types being bead and rod
thermistors. Te NTC (negative temperature coefcient)
thermistor contains a mixture of iron, nickel and cobalt
oxides with small amounts of other substances. Tey may
have a positive (PTC) or negative (NTC) temperature
coefcient according to the equation:
R
f
R
0
1 t + ( ) =
where R
0
equals the resistance at some reference
temperature say 0 C, R
f
is the resistance at some
temperature, t C, above the reference temperature,

and
is the temperature coefcient for the material being
used.
Te circuit symbol for a thermistor is shown in Figure 530.
Figure 530 The circuit symbol for a thermistor
For a NTC thermistor, the resistance decreases when
the temperature rises and therefore they can pass more
current. Tis current could be used to to operate a
galvonometer with a scale calibrated in degrees as used
in electronic thermometers or car coolant system gauges.
Termistors are also used in data-logging temperature
probes but the analogue signal has to be converted to
digital signal using an analogue to digital converter
(ADC).
With normal resistors the resistance becomes higher when
the temperature increases and they therefore have a small
positive temperature coefcient. Figures 531 and 532
demonstrate how the resistance changes with temperature
for both types of thermistors.
20 40 60 80 100
Temperature / C
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

50
10
Figure 531 A PTC thermistor
20 40 60 80 100
200
Temperature / C
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

Figure 532 An NTC thermistor

An electronic thermometer can be made using an NTC
thermistor as shown in Figure 533.
200
milliammeter
with fsd
0 10 mA
Figure 533 An electronic thermometer
When a metal conducting wire is put under vertical
strain, it will become longer and thinner and as a result
its resistance will increase. An electrical strain gauge is a
device that employs this principle. It can be used to obtain
information about the size and distribution of strains in
structures such as metal bridges and aircraf to name but
two. A simple gauge consists of very fne parallel threads
of a continous metal alloy wire cemented to a thin piece of
paper that are hooked up to a resistance measuring device
with thick connecting wires as shown in Figure 534.
When it is securely attached on the metal to be tested, it
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will experience the same strain as the test metal and as this
happens the strain gauge wire become longer and thinner
and as such the resistance increases.
thin threads
of wire
thin paper
connecting lead
structure under strain
Figure 534 A resistance measuring device
5.2.8 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Many problems have been done with their worked
examples. Now try to solve the following exercise.
Exercise 5.2
1. Tree identical resistors of 3 are connected in
parallel in a circuit. Te efective resistance would be
A. 1
B. 3
C. 6
D. 9
2. In a television tube the picture is produced in a
fuorescent material at the front of the picture tube by
A. an electrical discharge
B. a beam of positive ions
C. an electrolytic deposition of metal atoms
D. a stream of electrons
3. A 100 W light globe gives out a brighter light than
a 60 W globe mainly because
A. a larger potential diference is used to run it
B. its resistance wire flament is longer
C. more electric current fows through it
D. it has a higher amount of inert gas in it
4. In the circuit below, a heater with resistance In the circuit below, a heater with resistance R
is connected in series with a 48 V supply and a
resistor S.
48 V
S
R
If the potential diference across the heater is to be
maintained at 12 V, the resistance of the resistor S
should be
A. R / 2
B. R / 4
C. R / 3
D. 3R
5. Te diagrams below show circuits X, Y and Z
of three resistors, each resistor having the same
resistance.
circuit X circuit Z circuit Y
Which one of the following shows the resistances
of the circuits in increasing order of magnitude?
lowest highest
A. Y Z X
B. Z X Y Z X Y Z X Y
C. X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z
D. Z Y X Z Y X Z Y X
6. Te graph below shows the current/voltage
characteristics of a flament lamp.
24
16
8
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Voltage /V
C
u
r
r
e
n
t


A
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Te resistance of the flament at 3.0 V is
A. 0.25
B. 250
C. 4000
D. 8000
7. Metal X has half the resistivity of metal Y and
length three times that of Y. If both X and Y have
the same surface area, the ratio of their resistance
R
X
/ R
Y
is:
A. 3 : 4
B. 2 : 3
C. 1.5 : 1
D. 2 : 9
8. Tree identical resistors of 3 are connected in
parallel in a circuit. Te efective resistance would be
A. 1
B. 3
C. 6
D. 9
9. If 18 J of work must be done to move 2.0 C of
charge from point A to point B in an electric feld,
the potential diference between points A and B is:
A. 0.1 V
B. 9.0 V
C. 12 V
D. 20 V
10. Te fundamental SI unit the ampere is defned
in terms of:
A. potential diference and resistance
B. the time rate of change of charge in a circuit
C. the force acting between two current
carrying wires
D. the product of charge and time
11. A 100 W light globe gives out a brighter light than
a 60 W globe mainly because
A. a larger potential diference is used to run it
B. its resistance wire flament is longer
C. more electric current fows through it
D. it has a higher amount of inert gas in it
12. Tree identical lamps L
1
, L
2
and L
3
are connected
as shown in the following diagram.
L
1
L
3
L
2
S
When switch S is closed
A. L
1
and L
3
brighten and L
2
goes out
B. all three lamps glow with the same
brightness
C. L
2
brightens and L
1
and L
3
remain
unchanged
D. L
1
and L
3
go dimmer and L
2
goes out
13. Two resistors are connected in parallel and have
the currents I
1
and I
2
as shown in the diagram
If the efective resistance of the circuit is R then
A. R = (R
1
+ R
2
) / R
1
R
2
B. I
1
/R
1
= I
2
/ R
2
C. R = R
1
R
2
/ R
1
+ R
2
D. R = I (R
1
+ R
2
) / R
1
R
2
14. Te following circuit was set up to determine the
internal resistance r of a dry cell. Te load resistor
was varied from 100 to 150, and the current in
the circuit was measured using an ammeter. Te
two respective values of the current are given in
the circuits.
I
1
I
2
R
1
R
2
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Te internal resistance r of the dry cell is
A. 3.0
B. 7.1
C. 58.8
D. 250
15. Tis question concerns the electric circuit below
I
1
2
4
12V
Te cell voltage is 12 V. Te value of current I
1
is
A. 2 A
B. 4 A
C. 6 A
D. 9 A
16. Consider the circuit below that contains a 15 V
battery with zero internal resistance.
4
15 V
4
4
X
Y
3
A voltmeter connected between the points X and
Y should read:
A. 0 V
B. 3 V
C. 6 V
D. 9 V
17. Determine the equivalent resistance when 12 ,
6 and 4 are placed in
(a) series
(b) parallel
18. Calculate the work done in moving a 12.0 C
through a p.d of 240 V.
19. Te diagram shows resistances joined in a
compound circuit.
I
1
I
2
I
4
6
12.2 V
I
2 20
(a) Determine the total resistance of the circuit.
(b) Calculate current fows through the 2.0
resistor.
(c) Deduce the potential diference across the
20.0 resistor.
(d) Determine is the potential diference across
the 6.0 resistor.
(e) Calculate is the current through the 4.0
resistor.
20. A photo-electric cell draws a current of 0.12 A
when driving a small load of resistance 2 . If
the emf of the cell is 0.8 V, determine the internal
resistance of it under these conditions.
21. In terms of emf and internal resistance, explain
why is it possible to re-charge a nickel-cadmium
cell while normal dry cells have to be discarded
once they are fat.
22. When a dry cell is connected to a circuit with a
load resistor of 4.0 , there is a terminal voltage
of 1.3 V. When the load resistor is changed to
12 , the terminal voltage is found to be 1.45 V.
Calculate
(a) the emf of the cell.
(b) the internal resistance of the cell.
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23. Calculate the current fowing through a hair drier
if it takes 2.40 10
3
C of charge to dry a persons
hair in 3.0 minutes.
24. An iron draws 6.0 A of current when operating in
a country with a mains-supply of 240 V. Calculate
the resistance of the iron.
25. An electrical appliance is rated as 2.5 kW, 240 V
(a) Calculate the current it needs to draw in
order to operate.
(b) Determine how much energy would be
consumed in 2 hours.
26. A 2.5 kW blow heater is used for eight hours.
Calculate the cost of running the blow heater if the
electricity is sold at 15 cents per kilowatt-hour.
27. Te circuit below refers to the following questions:
(i) Determine the current fowing through R,
and the value of resistor R.
(ii) Deduce the reading on the voltmeter V.
28. (i) Describe the meaning of the 12 V on a 12
volt car battery.
(ii) A 14 V car battery drops to 12 V when
supplying a current of 5.0 A. Determine the
internal resistance of the battery.
29. A circuit was set up to investigate the relationship
between the current I through a resistor and the
magnitude of the resistance R while a constant
electromotive force was supplied by a dry cell.
Te results of the investigation are given in the
following table:
R 0.5 I 0.1 A
2.0 5.0
6.0 1.7
12 0.83
16 0.63
18 0.56
(a) Complete the last column for the inverse of
the current giving the correct unit.
(b) Plot a graph of R against 1 / I
(c) Describe the relationship that exists
between the resistance and the current.
(d) Determine the electromotive force of the
dry cell
30. Starting from the laws of conservation of energy
and conservation of charge, derive a formula for
calculating the efective resistance of two resistors
in parallel.
31. Te diagram shows a typical circuit.
1.0 2.0
0.5
1.0
1.0
A
B
C
D
1.5 V
(a) Determine the efective resistance of the
whole circuit.
(b) Determine the currents fowing in each
network resistor.
(c) Determine the potential diferences V
AB
and
V
AD
.
(d) Determine the potential diference between
B and D.
32. Determine the resistance of the LDR in the . Determine the resistance of the LDR in the
diagram below if a current of 4.5 mA is fowing in
the circuit.
9 V
1 k
I
35 A
24.0
3.0
R
V
4.0
1.0
100.0 V
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6
6.1.1 State Newtons universal law of gravitation.
6.1.2 Dene gravitational eld strength.
6.1.3 Determine the gravitational eld due to
one or more point masses.
6.1.4 Derive an expression for gravitational
eld strength at the surface of a planet,
assuming that all its mass is concentrated at
its centre.
6.1.5 Solve problems involving gravitational
forces and elds.
IBO 2007
6.1.1 NEWTONS UNIVERSAL LAW OF
GRAVITATION
I
n the Principia Newton stated his Universal Law of
Gravitation as follows:
Every material particle in the Universe attracts every other
material particle with a force that is directly proportional
to the product of the masses of the particles and that
is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
r
F
12
F
21
m
1
m
2
Figure 601 Newtons law of gravitation
We can write this law mathematically as:
F
12
Gm
1
m
2
r
2
-------------------a
12
F
21
= =
F
12 is the force that particle 1 exerts on particle 2 and
F
21 is the force that particle 2 exerts on particle 1.

12 is a unit vector directed along the line joining the

particles.
m
1
and m
2
are the masses of the two particles respectively
and r is their separation.
G is a constant known as the Universal Gravitational
Constant and its accepted present day value is
6.67 10
11
N m
-2
kg
-2
.
Tere are several things to note about this equation. Te
forces between the particles obey Newtons third law
as discussed in Section 2.7. Tat is, the forces are equal
and opposite. Te mass of the particles is in fact their
gravitational mass as discussed in Section 2.3.3.
6.1 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE AND FIELD
FIELDS AND FORCES
6.1 Gravitational force and eld
6.2 Electric force and eld
6.3 Magnetic force and eld
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Every particle in the Universe, according to Newton, obeys
this law and this is why the law is known as a universal
law. Tis is the frst time in the history of physics that
we come across the idea of the universal application of a
physical law. It is now an accepted fact that if a physical
law is indeed to be a law and not just a rule then it must be
universal. Newton was also very careful to specify the word
particle. Clearly any two objects will attract each other
because of the attraction between the respective particles
of each object. However, this will be a very complicated
force and will depend on the respective shapes of the
bodies. Do not be fooled into thinking that for objects we
need only specify the distance r as the distance between
their respective centres of mass. If this were the case it
would be impossible to peel an orange. Te centre of mass
of the orange is at its centre and the centre of the mass
of the peel is also at this point. If we think that r in the
Newton Law refers to the distance between the centres of
mass of objects the distance between the two centres of
mass is zero. Te force therefore between the peel and the
orange is infnite.
You will almost invariably in the IB course and elsewhere,
come across the law written in its scalar form as
F
Gm
1
m
2
r
2
------------------- =
However, do not forget its vector nature nor that it is a
force law between particles and not objects or masses.
6.1.2 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH
Te Law of Universal Gravitation is an inverse square
law and in this sense is very similar to the Coulomb
force law discussed in topic 6.2. In fact if you replace
m with q in the Newton law and G with
4
0
------------
then we have
the Coulomb law (except of course we can have negative
charge but as far as we know there is no negative mass).
So all that follows in the rest of this section is very similar
to that to be discussed in topic 6.2 in connection with
Coulombs Law.
Any particle in the Universe exerts a gravitational force
on any other particle in the Universe. In this sense we can
think of the efect that a particle P for example produces
on other particles without even knowing the location of P.
We can think of a feld of infuence radiating out from
P. Tis infuence we call the Gravitational Field and by
introducing this concept we are essentially moving our
attention from the source of the feld to the efect that the
source produces.
In Figure 602 a particle of mass m is placed at point X
somewhere in the Universe.
particle P
m
X
acceleration and direction of
the gravitational feld at X.
Figure 602 Force and acceleration
Te particle is observed to accelerate in the direction
shown. We deduce that this acceleration is due to a
gravitational feld at X. We do not know the source of the
feld but that at this stage does not matter. We are only
concerned with the efect of the feld. If the mass of P is
small then it will not efect the feld at X with its own feld.
We defne the gravitational feld strength I at X in terms of
the force that is exerted on P as follows
I
F
m
---- =
Tat is the gravitational feld strength at a point is the
force exerted per unit mass on a particle of small mass
placed at that point.
From Newtons 2nd law F = ma we see that the feld strength
is actually equal to the acceleration of the particle. Te
gravitational feld strength is ofen given the symbol g So
we can express the magnitude of the feld strength in either
N kg
-1
or m s
-2
. However, if we are dealing explicitly with
feld strengths then we tend to use the unit N kg
-1
.
6.1.3,4 THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
STRENGTH OF POINT MASSES
AND SPHERE
Figure 603(a) shows the feld pattern for an isolated
particle of mass M.
M
M
m
r
(a)
(b)
Figure 603 (a) and (b)
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Clearly this is only a representation since the feld due to
M acts at all points in space.
Suppose we now place a particle of mass m a distance r
from M as shown in Figure 603 (b).
Te gravitational law gives the magnitude of the force that
M exerts on m
F
GMm
r
2
-------------- =
So the magnitude of the gravitational feld strength I
m
----
is given by
I
GM
r
2
--------- =
If we wish to fnd the feld strength at a point due to at a point due to
two or more point masses, then we use vector addition.
(Tis is another example of the general principle of super-
position - see 4.5.5). In Figure 604 the magnitude of the
feld strength produced by the point mass M
1
at point P is
I
1
and that of point mass M
2
is I
2
.
M
1
M
2
I
1
I
2
P
Figure 604 Vector addition
If I
1
and I
2
are at right angles to each other, the resultant
magnitude of the feld strength I at P is given by:

2 2
1 2
I I I = +
If the particle of mass M is replaced with a sphere of mass
M and radius R, as shown in Figure 605, then rely on the
fact that the sphere behaves as a point mass situated at its
centre, the feld strength at the surface of the sphere will
be given by
I
GM
R
2
--------- =
R
m
M
Figure 605 Field strength
If the sphere is the Earth then
I
GM
e
R
e
2
------------ =
But the feld strength is equal to the acceleration that is
produced on a mass hence the acceleration of free fall at
the surface of the Earth, g
0
, is given by , is given by
g
0
GM
e
R
e
2
----------- - =
Tis actually means that whenever you determine the
acceleration of free fall g
0
at any point on the Earth you are
in fact measuring the gravitational feld strength at that
point. It can also be seen now why the value of g varies
with height above the surface of the Earth. Since at a height
of h above the surface of the Earth the feld strength, g, is
given by
g
GM
e
R
e
h + ( )
2
---------------------- - =
It can be shown that if we have a hollow sphere then the
feld strength at all points within the sphere is zero. Tis
fact can be used to deduce an expression for the feld
strength at points inside the Earth.
It is lef as an exercise to demonstrate (if desired since this
is not in the syllabus) that if is the mean density of the
Earth then at a point distance r from the centre of the
Earth the value of g is given by
g
4
3
---r G =
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6.1.5 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
GRAVITATIONAL FORCES AND
FIELDS
Example
Take the value of g
0
= 10 N kg
-1
and the mean radius of the
Earth to be 6.4 10
6
m to estimate a value for the mass of
the Earth.
Solution
We have
g
0
GM
e
R
e
2
----------- - =
, therefore
M
e
g
0
R
e
2
G
------------
10 6.4 10
6
( )
2

6.7 10
11

------------------------------------------ = =


6 10
24
kg.
Example
Assuming the Earth and Moon to be isolated from all
other masses, use the following data to estimate the mass
of the Moon.
mass of Earth = 6.0 10
24
kg
distance between centre of Earth and centre of Moon
= 3.8 10
8
m
distance from centre of Earth at which gravitational feld
is zero = 3.42 10
8
m
Solution
Since M
e
/(3.42 10
8
)
2
= M
m
/(3.8 10
8
3.42 10
8
)
2

M
m
= 7.4 10
22
kg
6.2 ELECTRIC FORCE
AND FIELD
6.2.1 State that there are two types of electric
charge.
6.2.2 State and apply the law of conservation of
charge.

6.2.3 Describe and explain the dierence in the
electrical properties of conductors and
insulators.
6.2.4 State Coulombs law.
6.2.5 Dene electric eld strength.
6.2.6 Determine the electric eld strength due to
one or more point charges.

6.2.7 Draw the electric eld patterns for dierent
charge congurations.
6.2.8 Solve problems involving electric charges,
forces and elds.
IBO 2007
6.2.1 TYPES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
Tere are 2 types of electric charge positive charge and
negative charge.
It was not until the late 1890s through the work of
J.J. Tomson that the true nature of electrons was
discovered through experiments with cathode ray tubes.
With this exploration of atoms and quantum mechanics
in the 1900s, the electrical properties of matter were
understood.
We now know that
charge is conserved
charge is quantised
the force between two point charges varies as the
inverse square law of the distance between the two
charges.
Tese properties will be outlined further in a later section
of this chapter.
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We will begin with the study of stationary electric charges-
electrostatics.
Te present quantum mechanical model of the atom
suggests that the positively charged protons and the
neutral neutrons are held tightly in the nucleus by the
short-range strong nuclear force, and that the negatively
charged electrons are held in energy levels around the
nucleus by the electromagnetic force. Te electrons in a
material are relatively free to move, and some electrons,
given the right conditions, can move from one material
to another. Te materials can become electrically charged.
Te materials can either have an excess of electrons or a
defciency of electrons.
substances with an excess of electrons are
negatively charged.
substances with a defciency of electrons are
positively charged.
When a perspex rod is rubbed with a piece of silk,
the perspex rod becomes positively charged and the
silk becomes negatively charged as demonstrated in
Figure 606.
Before rubbing
perspex silk
After rubbing
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
electron
transfer
perspex silk
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Figure 606 Charging a perspex rod rubbed with silk.
Te perspex rod and the silk are initially electrically
neutral as each material has the same number of positive
and negative charges. Te action of friction allows the less
tightly held electrons of the perspex rod to be transferred
to the silk. With time, the excess electrons on the silk will
leak of its surface.
It has been further found that
ebonite (a certain black material) rubbed with fur
becomes negatively charged.
polythene rubbed with a woollen cloth becomes
negatively charged.
cellulose acetate rubbed with a woollen cloth
becomes positively charged.
Figure 607 shows a charged perspex rod placed on a pivot
balance. If a charged perspex strip is brought near the
perspex rod, the two repel each other causing the rod to
rotate. Te opposite can be observed with a perspex rod/
ebonite strip situation.
By the use of this simple observation, it is possible to
conclude that
Like charges repel each other
Unlike charges attract each other

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
repulsion
attraction
perspex strip
ebonite strip
charged perspex rod
charged perspex rod

Figure 607 Attraction and repulsion

6.2.2 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
CHARGE
When charging objects by friction, charge is not created
but rather redistributed on the two surfaces. Tis can be
stated according to the Law of conservation of electric
charge that states that in a closed system, the amount of
charge is constant. Examine Figure 606 there is a total of
16 positive charges and a total of 16 negative charges on the
perspex rod and the silk before rubbing. Afer the process
of electrifcation by friction, the charge is redistributed
but the same number of positive and negative charges
exist. In other words, charge is conserved.
6.2.3 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Metals consist of positive ions surrounded by a sea of
delocalised electrons (electrons that are not all attached to
a specifc atom). Hence there are many electrons available
for conduction. Solutions that conduct (electrolytes)
contain electrons and positive and negative ions that are
free to move. Terefore, conductors have a low electrical
resistance.
If a conductor is held in the hand, any excess of electron
charge that forms on the conductor will be transferred
to the earth through the body of the person holding the
conductor. Conversely, any defciency of electron charge
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that forms on the conductor will be transferred from
the earth through the body of the person holding the
conductor. It is said that the conductor is earthed.
In an insulator, the electrons are held tightly by the atomic
nuclei and are not as free to move through a material. Tey
can accumulate on the surface of the insulator but they are
not conducting.
According to the energy band theory that is used to
explain the properties of conductors, semiconductors
(such as germanium and silicon), and insulators, the
valence or outer-shell electrons are held in the valence
band that is full or partially flled with electrons. When
there are many atoms in close proximity (as there is with
all materials), there also exists an upper energy band
known as the conduction band. Te conduction band is
empty. A forbidden energy gap exists between the valence
and conduction bands.
For conductors such as metals, the valence and conduction
bands overlap. However, in insulators, the energy gap
between the valence band and the conduction band
is large. Terefore, electrons cannot move across the
forbidden energy gap. Insulators thus have a high electrical
resistance and when a perspex or other insulating material
is held, the electrons remain on the surface of the insulator
and are not able to be conducted through the person.
Te charge on an insulator will remain for a short period
of time until it leaks of the surface or is discharged.
6.2.4 COULOMBS LAW
Te French physicist, Charles Augustin Coulomb
(1738-1806), using a torsion balance of his own invention,
confrmed the existence of an inverse square law of electric
charge. A typical Coulomb torsion balance model is shown
in Figure 608.
+
+
+
+
+
+
counter balance
torsion rod
charged spheres
Figure 608 A Coulomb torsion balance
It consists of two conducting spheres fxed on an insulated
rod that is suspended by a thin wire fbre connected to
a suspension head. Te whole apparatus is enclosed in a
container to make sure that air currents do not disturb
the degree of twist of the thin fbre when a test charge
is lowered through a small opening in the apparatus
component containing the spheres. Te twist on the
wire can be calibrated from the twist produced by small
known forces and is read of the scale on the suspension
head. Using the apparatus, Coulomb could determine the
relationship that exists between the magnitude of two
charges and force, and the distance and force.
Te quantitative relationship that exists between electric
point charges separated by a distance was frst stated by
Coulomb in 1785. Using the torsion balance in Figure 608 he
measured the quantity of charge, the distance separating the
point charges and the force acting on the charged spheres.
On the basis of his experiments, he concluded that
1. the force F between two point charges q
1
and q
2

was directly proportional to the product of the two
point charges.
F q
1
q
2

2. the force between the two point charges was
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them r
2
.
F
1
r
2
-----
Terefore, it follows that
F
q
1
q
2

r
2
-----------------
3. F
kq
1
q
2
r
2
-------------- =
When F is measured in newtons (N), q
1
and q
2
in coulombs
(C), and r in metres (m), the quantitative statement of
Coulombs Law can be expressed mathematically as
F
q
1
q
2
4
0
r
2
----------------- =
where k = 1 / 4
0
is the constant of proportionality. Its
value is 9.0 10
9
N m
2
C
-2
. Te part of the constant
0
is
called the permittivity constant of free space. On its own,
it has a value of 8.9 10
-12
N m
2
C
-2
, and this value applies
if the experiment is carried out in air or in a vacuum. If the
experiment is carried out in another medium, the value of

0
will need to be substituted with another value.
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Te coulomb is a large unit of charge, and it is more
common to measure in micro-coulombs C and nano-
coulombs nC. One coulomb is the charge on 6.25 10
18

electrons or protons. Terefore, the charge on a single
proton or on a single electron is 1.60 10
-19
C. Te
coulomb will be defned at a later stage as it is based upon
the defnition of electric current.
Note that is is not necessary to include the sign of the
charge when carrying out the calculations. Simply use the
magnitude of the point charge and then draw a diagram
with the signs of each point charge shown, this will also
indicate whether the force is attractive or repulsive.
6.2.5 ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH
Tere is a similarity between the expressions for the
gravitational force between two point masses and the
coulombic force between two point charges in a vacuum.
Tey both obey a product/inverse square law. Tere is
no gravitational analogue of electrical permittivity as the
gravitational force does not depend on the medium in
which they are situated. Furthermore, the gravitational
force, unlike the coulombic force, is always a force of
attraction. But overall, the similarities outweigh the
diferences.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867) reasoned that just as
Newton had developed the gravitational feld concept,
so too the concept of electric feld could be an analogy
of this. Faraday argued that an electric feld is a region of
infuence around a point charge or group of point charges.
If an electric feld is present at a particular place, when a
second point charge is placed near it, it feels a force. Te
stronger the feld, the stronger the electric force will be.
Te electric feld has direction because the force on the
charged particle has direction. Te direction of the electric
feld is defned as the direction of the force it causes to act
on a small positive test charge.
Faraday introduced the concept of lines of force or lines of
electric fux to show the direction that an isolated charge
would follow if placed in the feld. Te feld around a
positive point charge is shown in Figure 609.
+
q
1
Figure 609 Electric eld around a positive point charge
Lines of force or lines of electric fux are imaginary, and
they are simply used to assist in an understanding of the
nature of electric felds. Tey obey the following rules:
1. they start on a positive charge and end on a
negative charge.
2. they meet electrostatically charged conductors at
right angles.
3. they never cross over one another.
4. their density is an indication of the strength of the
electric feld.
5. there is no electric feld in a hollow conductor.
6. the electric feld is uniform between two
oppositely charged parallel conducting plates.
Te electric feld strength or electric feld intensity at
any point in space, E is equal to the force per unit charge
exerted on a positive test charge.
E
F
q
---- =
or
F E q =
Electric feld strength is a vector quantity and it is measured
in N C
-1
or V m
-1
.
6.2.6 ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO ONE OR
MORE POINT CHARGE
Te electric feld due to an isolated point charge can be
determined using Coulombs Law and the defnition of
electric feld strength. In Figure 610, if the point charges
q
1
and q
2
are both positive and point charge q
2
is held
stationary, then q
1
would experience a force to the right.
If the point charge q
1
was negative it would experience a
force to the lef.
q
2
q
1
F
Direction of force, F,
depends on the signs
of both point charges.
Figure 610 The direction of the force depends on both
point charges
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Since the forces are the same, that is, F = k q
1
q
2
/ r
2
and
F = Eq
1
, we then have that
kq
1
q
2
r
2
-------------- Eq
1
=
Terefore, the electric feld due to a point charge q
2
, is
given by
E
kq
2
r
2
-------- =
or
E
q
2
4
0
r
2
----------------- =
If q
1
is positive, the direction of the electric feld is radially
outwards from q
2
as shown in Figure 611. If q
1
is negative,
then the direction of the electric feld is radially inwards
(towards q
2
).
+q
2
q
2
E feld due +ve charge E feld due to ve charge
Figure 611 Electric elds around point charges
6.2.7 ELECTRIC FIELD PATTERNS
FOR DIFFERENT CHARGE
CONFIGURATIONS
Lines of electric fux for various point charge confgurations
are shown in Figure 612. Although it is not obvious in
the diagrams, when a positive point test charge is moved
further from the point charges, the radial lines of electric
fux become further spaced apart.

+ + + + + + +

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
E = 0 inside
strongest weakest eld
+
+ +

Figure 612 Electric elds for some charge distributions

For the oppositely charged parallel plates, the electric feld
is approximately uniform meaning that the electric feld
strength is the same at all points within the plates. Note
the edge efect where the electric feld lines are now radial
at the ends of the plates and thus the electric feld strength
changes.
6.2.8 SOLVING PROBLEMS INVOLVING
ELECTRIC CHARGES, FORCES
AND FIELDS
Example
Calculate the force acting between two point charges of
+10.0 C and -5.0 C separated by a distance of 10.0 cm
in a vacuum.
Solution
Using F = k q
1
q
2
/ r
2
, q
1
= 10 C = 10 10
-6
C and q
2
= (-5)
C = -5 10
-6
C . We have,
F
9.0 10
9
N m
2
C
2
10 10
6
C ( ) 5 10
6
C ( )
0.1 m ( )
2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 45 N = =
As the answer is negative, it implies that the force is attractive.
Tat is, there is a force of attraction of 45 N.
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Example
Te force between two point charges is 20.0 N. If one
charge is doubled, the other charge tripled and the
distance between them is halved, calculate the resultant
force between them.
Solution
Let the original charges be Q
1
and Q
2
, and their separation be
R, so that the force between these two charges is given by
F
1
kQ
1
Q
2
R
2
----------------- =
Now, let the new charges be q
1
and q
2
and their separation
be r, so that q
1
= 2Q
1
,
q
2
= 3Q
2
, and r = R.
Te force between q
1
and q
2
is F
kq
1
q
2
r
2
-------------- =
Substituting the respective values, we have
F
kq
1
q
2
r
2
--------------
k 2Q
1
( ) 3Q
2
( )
1
2
---R


2
--------------------------------- = =
Tis means that the force is 24 times larger than it was
originally. (i.e., 24 20.0 N)
Te resultant force is 480 N.
6kQ
1
Q
2
0.25 R
2
-------------------- =
24
kQ
1
Q
2
R
2
----------------- =
24F
1
=
6kQ
1
Q
2
0.25 R
2
-------------------- =
24
kQ
1
Q
2
R
2
----------------- =
24F
1
=
Example
Charges of +1C are located at the corners of a 45 right-
angled triangle as shown in the Figure below.
+1 C
+1 C
+ 1 C
1 m
1 m
Determine the resultant force on the charge located at the
right angle.
Solution
+1 C
+1 C
+1 C
F
1
F
2
1 m
1 m q
3
q
1
q
2
Te rough vector diagram could be shown as above:
If several point charges are present, the net force on any
one of them will be the vector sum of the forces due to each
of the others as shown in the fgure above. Since the three
point charges are positive, then there will be repulsion on the
bottom point charge due to each of the two point charges.
Te force on the point charge on the right angle due to the
top point charge is calculated as:
F
1
kq
1
q
2
r
2
--------------
9.0 10
9
N m
2
C
2
1 C ( ) 1 C ( )
1m ( )
2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = =
= 9 10
9
N
Te force on the point charge on the right angle due to the
right point charge is calculated as
F
2
kq
1
q
3
r
2
--------------
9.0 10
9
N m
2
C
2
1 C ( ) 1 C ( )
1m ( )
2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = =
= 9 10
9
N
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Te resultant force is given by the vector addition of the two
forces that can be obtained by Pythagorean theorem as in
the Figure below.
F
1
9 10
9
N =
F
2
9 10
9
N =
F
R

Te direction of the resultant force can be calculated using
trigonometry:
tan
opposite
adjacent
--------------------
9 10
9

9 10
9

----------------- 1 45 = = = =
Te resultant force is 1.3 10
10
N in a direction of 45 from
the horizontal and downwards towards the right.
Example
Now consider the same problem as the previous one,
but this time, the charges are set up as shown in the
fgure below.
+1 C
+1 C
+ 1 C
1 m 1 m
Determine the resultant force on the charge located at the
right angle?
F
R
( )
2
F
1
( )
2
F
2
( )
2
+ =
9 10
9
( )
2
9 10
9
( )
2
+ =
2 9 10
9
( )
2
=
12.7 10
9
N = F
F
R
( )
2
F
1
( )
2
F
2
( )
2
+ =
9 10
9
( )
2
9 10
9
( )
2
+ =
2 9 10
9
( )
2
=
12.7 10
9
N = F
Solution
Te rough vector diagram could be shown as follows:
+1 C +1 C
+1 C
F
1
F
2
1 m 1 m
q
3
q
1
q
2
Te force on the point charge on the right angle due to the
two top point charges is still calculated as before.
i.e., F
1
kq
1
q
2
r
2
--------------
9.0 10
9
1 ( ) 1 ( )
1m ( )
2
-------------------------------------------------- = =
9.0 10
9
=

F
2
kq
1
q
3
r
2
--------------
9.0 10
9
1 ( ) 1 ( )
1m ( )
2
-------------------------------------------------- = =

9.0 10
9
= N

However, this time the resultant force is shown in the
fgure below Again, using Pythagoras theorem, we have
that
F
1
F
2
F
R

Te direction of the resultant force can be calculated using
trigonometry:

Te resultant force is 1.3 10
10
N in a vertical downwards
direction.
F
R
( )
2
F
1
( )
2
F
2
( )
2
+ =
9 10
9
( )
2
9 10
9
( )
2
+ =
2 9 10
9
( )
2
=
12.7 10 N
9
=
F
R
( )
2
F
1
( )
2
F
2
( )
2
+ =
9 10
9
( )
2
9 10
9
( )
2
+ =
2 9 10
9
( )
2
=
12.7 10 N
9
=
tan
opposite
adjacent
--------------------
9 10
9

9 10
9

----------------- 1 45 = = = = tan
opposite
adjacent
--------------------
9 10
9

9 10
9

----------------- 1 45 = = = =
19 april 09 Physics Ch 6 final.i160 160 22/05/2009 11:52:30 AM
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Example
A point charge of 25 C experiences a force of
1.0 10
-4
N. Calculate the electric feld strength producing
this force.
Solution
Using the formula, E = F / q, we have that
E
1.0 10
4
N
2.5 10
5
C
------------------------------- 4.0 NC
1
= =
Te electric feld strength is 4.0 N C
-1
(in the direction of the
force).
Example
Calculate the electric feld strength 1.5 cm from a point
charge of 1.00 10
2
pC in a vacuum.
Solution
Using the formula, E = q / 4
0
r
2
E = (9 10
9
Nm
2
C
-2
) (1.00 10
-10
C) (1.5 10
-2
m)
2

= 4.0 10
3
N C
-1
Te electric feld strength is 4.0 10
3
N C
-1
(radially
outwards).
Example
Te feld at a particular place due to more than one point
charge is the vector sum of the felds caused by each point
charge on its own.
Calculate the electric feld strength at X due to the charges
shown in the following Figure.
Solution
1.2 m 1.0 m
+ 1.2 C
0.8 C
X
E due to 0.80 C point charge is given by kq / r
2

= (9 10
9
Nm
2
C
-2
) (-0.8 C) (1.0 m)
2
= - 7.2 10
9
NC
-1
i.e., the E feld, E
1
, has a magnitude of 7.2 10
9
NC
-1
(radially
inwards).Te approximate direction is north-east.
E due to +1.2 C point charge is given by kq / r
2
= (9 10
9
Nm
2
C
-2
) (+1.2 C) (1.2 m)
2
= 7.5 10
9
NC
-1
i.e., the E feld, E
2
, has a magnitude of 7.5 10
9
NC
-1

(radially outwards).
Te approximate direction is south-east
Te Figure below shows the vectors of the two electric felds,
and chooses an angle to measure as a reference for the
direction of the resultant electric feld. (Another reference
angle could be chosen).
1.2 m
1.0 m
0.8 C
X
E
1
E
2
+ 1.2 C

From Pythagoras theorem, we have E
R
2
= (7.2 10
9
)
2
+
(7.5 10
9
)
2
E
2
E
1
E
R
Final vector diagram

E
2
E
1
E
R
Final vector diagram

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E
tan
opposite
adjacent
--------------------
7.2 10
9

7.5 10
9

---------------------- 0.96 , 4350 = = = =

so that E
R
= 10.4 10
9
N C
-1
Next, we have that
i.e. = 44 and = tan
1
(1/1.2) = 40
Resultant feld at X is 1.0 10
10
NC
1
at 1 below a horizontal
line drawn through X.
Exercise 6.2
1. A metal sphere with an excess of 11 electrons
touches an identical metal sphere with an excess of
15 electrons. Afer the spheres touch, the number
of excess electrons on the second sphere is
A. 26
B. 2
C. 13
D. 4
2. When hair is combed with a plastic comb, the hair
becomes positively charged because the comb
A transfers electrons to the hair.
B. transfers protons to the hair.
C. removes protons from the hair.
D. removes electrons from the hair.
3. Which of the diagrams below describe the greatest
coulombic force?
A
B
C
D
q
3q
3q
2q
2q
2q
2q 6q
2l
2l
l
l
4. Te diagram below represents two charged parallel
plates.
+ + + + + + + +

B
A
C
What is the strength of the electric feld relative to
locations A, B and C?
A. greater at A than at B
B. greater at C than at A
C. greater at B than at C
D. the same at A, B and C
5. A negatively charged sphere of negligible mass is
moving horizontally in an easterly direction. It
enters two long parallel plates carrying opposite
charges. Which one of the following fgures best
shows the path followed by the sphere?
A. + + + + + B. + + + + +
-
- - - - - - - - -
C. + + + + + D. + + + + +
6. Electric feld strength may be defned as
A. the force per unit point charge
B. the force exerted on a test point charge
C. the force per unit charge exerted on a
positive test charge
D. the force per unit positive charge
7. Two conducting spheres of charge Q
1
and Q
2

whose centres are separated by a distance d
attract each other with an electrostatic force F.
If the charge on each sphere is halved and their
separation is reduced to one-quarter of its original
value, the new force of attraction is given by:
A. F
B. 4F
C. 8F
D. 64F
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8. Tree charges are placed at equal distances from
each other as shown
+5 C
X
-5 C +5 C
Te arrow that best represents the resultant force
on X is
A.
B.
C.
D.
9. If the magnitude of the charge on each of
two negatively charged objects is halved, the
electrostatic force between the objects will:
A. remain the same
B. decrease to one-half
C. decrease to one-quarter
D. decrease to one-sixteenth
10. Which of the following is a vector quantity?
A. potential diference
B. electric feld intensity
C. electric charge
D. electric power
11. An electrostatic force F exists between two points
with a separation of d metres. Which graph best
represent s the relationship between F and d?
d d
F
F
A
B
d d
F F
C D
12. In terms of electrostatic induction, explain why
road petrol tankers have a length of chain attached
to the rear of the truck that touches the road.
13. Explain why charging the nozzle of a spray
painting device will use less paint.
14. Why should spare petrol for cars be carried in a
metal rather than a plastic container?
15. Explain why it is not wise to play golf during a
thunderstorm.
16. Explain why the inside of a car is a safe place
during a thunderstorm.
17. Calculate is the charge on 4.0 10
20
protons?
18. Two charges of 6.00 C and +8.00 C attract
each other with a force of 3.0 10
3
N in a vacuum.
Calculate the distance between the particles?
19. Calculate the electric feld strength at a point
2.4 m from a point charge of 5.7 C in air.
20. Deduce the electric feld strength at a point
midway between charges of +7.2 10
-6
C and
3.4 10
-6
C that are 2.0 m apart in air.
21. Describe how the electric feld strength at a point
is similar to, and diferent from the gravitational
feld strength at a point.
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22. Sketch the electric feld around two negatively
charged point charges separated by distance d if
one point charge has twice the charge of the other
point charge.
23. Two point charges placed 2.5 10
-1
m apart in
parafn oil, carry charges of +7.00 pC and +9.00
pC. Calculate the force on each point charge.
( = 4.18 10
-11
C
-1
N
-1
m
2
).
24. Tree identical 2.00 10
-5
C point charges are
placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of
sides 1.0 m. Te triangle has one apex C pointing
up the page and 2 base angles A and B. Deduce the
magnitude and direction of the force acting at A.
25. What is the force acting between two point
charges of +10.0C and 5.0C when separated by
a distance of 10.0 cm in a vacuum?
26. Point charges of +1C are located at the corners of a
45
0
right-angled triangle as shown in the diagram.
+ 1C + 1C
+ 1C
1 m 1 m
What is the resultant force on the charge located at
the right angle?
27. Determine the electric feld strength at a point
3.0 m from a point charge of 5.7 mC in air.
28. Describe what is meant by the term zero potential.
29. Determine how many electron-volts of energy
are gained by an electron when it is accelerated
through 250 V in a television tube. Determine
many joules of energy does it gain.
30. Two point charges, X and Y, are separated by a
distance of 100 cm as shown in the following
diagram:
+1.0 C +4.0 C
X Y
100 cm
Deduce at what point the magnitude of the electric
feld is equal to zero.
6.3 MAGNETIC
FORCE AND
FIELD
6.3.1 State that moving charges give rise to
magnetic elds.
6.3.2 Draw magnetic eld patterns due to
currents.
6.3.3 Determine the direction of the force on a
current-carrying conductor in a magnetic
eld.
6.3.4 Determine the direction of the force on a
charge moving in a magnetic eld.
6.3.5 Dene the magnitude and direction of a
magnetic eld.
6.3.6 Solve problems involving magnetic forces,
elds and currents.
IBO 2007
6.3.1 MOVING CHARGES AND
MAGNETIC FIELDS
Just as scientists use the concept of gravitational felds and
electric felds to explain certain phenomena, so too the
concept of magnetic felds and lines of magnetic fux are
used to explain the nature of magnetism. (Tere are some
diferences as will be discussed later).
A magnetic feld is said to exist at a point if a compass
needle placed there experiences a force. Te appearance
of a magnetic feld can be obtained with the use of iron
flings or plotting compasses. Te direction of the feld is
given by the direction that the compass needles point.
Figure 629 demonstrates the use of iron flings and plotting
compasses to detect the magnetic felds of a bar magnet
and bar magnets used in combination. Te compass
needles shown for the single bar magnet point along the
lines of magnetic fux. Te magnetic feld produced for the
two like poles have no magnetic feld at some point P. If
there are no lines of magnetic fux, there is no magnetic
feld.
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N S
paper with magnet underneath
iron flings
Figure 629 Magnetic eld patterns of bar magnets
Te Danish physicist, Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851),
in 1819, showed conclusively that there existed a
relationship between electricity and magnetism. He
placed a magnetic needle on a freely rotating pivot point
beneath and parallel to a conducting wire. He aligned the
compass needle and wire so that it lay along the earths
magnetic north-south orientation. When no current was
fowing in the wire, there was no defection in the needle.
However, when the current was switched on, the needle
swung to an east-west direction almost perpendicular to
the wire. When he reversed the direction of the current,
the needle swung in the opposite direction. Tis is shown
in Figure 630.
current
fow
N N S S
Needles beneath wire
current
fow
N N S S
Needles above wire
N
W E
Figure 630 Oersteds experiment.
Up to this stage, all forces were believed to act along a line
joining the sources such as the force between two masses,
the force between two charges or the force between two
magnetic poles. With Oersteds fndings, the force did
not act along the line joining the forces but rather it acted
perpendicular to the line of action. On closer examination
and analysis, it was determined that the conducting wire
produced its own magnetic feld. Te magnetic needle,
upon interaction with the conducting wires magnetic feld,
turns so that it is tangentially (not radially) perpendicular
to the wire. Terefore, the magnetic feld produced by
the conducting wire produces a circular magnetic feld.
A force is also experienced when a moving charge or a
beam of moving charges is placed in a magnetic feld. Tis
is what happens in a television set. We will look more
closely at moving charges in the next chapter on Atomic
and Nuclear physics.
A charged particle can be accelerated by an electric feld
or by a magnetic feld because it experiences a force when
infuenced by either or both felds. Electric felds can
accelerate both moving and stationary charged particles.
However, a charge must be moving for a magnetic feld to
infuence it. Furthermore, it cannot be moving parallel to
the magnetic feld to experience a force.
As stated, stationary charges experience no force in a
magnetic feld. However, if charged particles move in a
magnetic feld, a force is exerted on them. Tis force causes
them to defect if they are not confned in a conductor.
6.3.2 MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERNS
DUE TO CURRENTS
Te magnetic feld of a straight current-carrying wire can
be investigated using plotting compasses or iron flings
sprinkled around the wire as demonstrated with plotting
compasses in Figure 631. Te lines of force (magnetic fux)
around the wire can be seen to be a series of concentric
circles that are drawn further apart as the disance away
from the wire increases.
compass indicating direction
of magnetic feld.
direction of current
Figure 631 Magnetic eld around wire carrying a
current
Te direction of the magnetic feld for a straight conducting
wire can be obtained using the right-hand grip rule
demonstrated in Figure 632.
current fow
Thumb points in direction
of conventional current
Fingers curl around the conductor
(indicating the direction of magnetic feld).
Figure 632 The right hand grip rule
When the thumb of the right hand points in the direction
of the conventional current, the fngers curl in the
direction of the magnetic feld.
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A more convenient two-dimensional representation of
currents and magnetic felds is ofen used as shown in
Figure 633. A cross () indicates that the current is into the
page and a dot (.) indicates a current fow out of the page.
indicates, I out page
indicates, I into page
lines of magnetic
feld
Figure 633 The magnetic eld around a conductor
Te magnetic feld due to current in a fat coil (single loop)
is shown in Figure 634. Note that the lines of magnetic
fux are dense in the middle of the coil and towards the lef
and right current-carrying wires. Tis is similar to what
happens with a U-shaped magnet (horseshoe magnet).
Te strength of the magnetic feld increases in a coil.
current win coil
Battery source
Figure 634 The magnetic eld
due to current in a single loop
A useful method for determining the polarity of the fat
coil is shown in Figure 635.
I
I
North end of a solenoid South end of a solenoid
Figure 635 The polarity of a at coil
If the conventional current is moving anti-clockwise, that
end of the loop is a north pole. In this case the lef side of
the loop is a north pole. If the current fows clockwise as
on the right side of the loop, it is a south pole.
A solenoid consists of many coils of a single long wire,
and when a current fows in it, a magnetic feld similar to
a bar magnet is produced. By using plotting compasses as
shown in Figure 636 the direction of the magnetic feld
can be determined.
I
+
North pole
South pole
Figure 636 Magnetic eld of a solenoid
Te feld inside the coil is very strong and uniform
and this makes solenoids useful devices in science and
technology.
Te polarity of each end of the solenoid can be determined
using the same method as shown in Figure 635. If the
conventional current when viewed head-on is moving
anti- clockwise, that end of the solenoid is a north pole.
If the current fows clockwise, when viewed head-on it
is a south pole. Te north and south poles are shown in
Figure 636. Check them for yourself.
Te strength of the magnetic feld inside a solenoid can be
increased by:
1. Increasing the current fowing.
2. Increasing the number of coils per unit length.
3. Inserting a sof iron core in the coil.
When a sof-iron core is inserted into a solenoid and the
current is switched on, an electromagnet is produced. If
the current is switched of, the solenoid loses its magnetic
properties. We say it is a temporary magnet in this case.
However, electromagnets can be lef on for long periods of
time and most magnets in science and industry are of this
sort. Electromagnets have many practical uses in scrap
metal yards, in electric bells, in particle accelerators and
maglev trains.
A relay is an electromagnet switch using a small current to
switch on a larger current. Tis can be employed to switch
on motors or electronic components commonly used in
security systems.
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Exercise 6.3 (a)
1. Explain why steel ships tend to become
magnetised during the shipbuilding construction.
2. Magnets are ofen ftted to the doors of
refrigerators to keep them closed. Use the concept
of magnetic induction to explain this practical
application.
3. Draw a diagram to show the magnetic feld pattern
round two magnets with their unlike poles close
together where the strength of the feld of one
magnet is twice the strength of the other feld.
4. If a solenoid is viewed from one end, and the
current travels in an anti-clockwise direction, what
is the polarity of that end?
6.3.3 FORCE ON A MOVING
CURRENT
Suppose a long straight current-carrying wire is hung
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic feld
between the poles of a U-shaped magnet, as shown in
Figure 637. If a conventional current is then allowed
to fow in the wire in a downwards direction, the wire
experiences a force and it tends to want to be catapulted
out of the magnet. Tis is known as the motor efect and
this efect is put to practical use in electric motors.
N
S
current
switch
supply
wood
wire
current
N S
+

Figure 637 Conductor in a magnetic eld

Te reason for the movement is due to the interaction
of the two magnetic felds - that of the magnet and the
magnetic feld produced by the current-carrying wire.
Figure 638 shows the resultant magnetic feld in this
case. If the current was reversed, then the wire would be
catapulted inwards.
movement
magnetic feld
current
Figure 638 The motor eect
Te direction of the force experienced by moving currents
in a magnetic feld can be determined by the vector addition
of the two felds. However, an easier way for determining
the direction of the force is to use a right-hand palm rule
or Flemings lef-hand rule. Tere are a variety of hand
rules used and it very much depends on the textbook you
use as to what rules will be given. It is really up to you to
use the hand rule that you prefer. Figure 639 shows three
hand rules commonly used.
F
I
B
Thumb points in direction
of current
Fingers point
along lines of
magnetic feld
Force comes out of palm
Figure (a)
B
F
I
Thumb points in direction
of force
Current points
along lines of
magnetic feld
Magnetic feld comes out of palm
Figure (b)
B
I
F
Field along frst fnger
Current along second fnger
Force along thumb
Left Hand
Figure (c)
Figure 639 Hand rules used to
show the direction of force.
In Figure 639 (a), if the fngers of your right hand point
in the direction of the magnetic feld B, and your thumb
points in the direction of the conventional current, then
your palm points in the direction of the force. Tis rule
is called the right-hand palm rule. An alternative to this
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is shown in Figure 639 (b). (Tis is the rule preferrd by the
author because the fngers give a sense of fow of conventional
current and the palm points north-south like a bar magnet
and the thumb is the direction of movement or force).
Figure 639 (c) is Flemings lef hand rule. Te first finger
gives the direction of the magnetic field, the second fnger
gives the direction of conventional current, and the thumb
gives the movement or force direction
Try these rules for the examples in Figures 637 and 638 to
see which one you prefer.
Note that these rules are for conventional current and not
true electron fow. If electron fow is to be determined,
apply a rule of choice and fnd the force for conventional
fow, say north then state your answer as the opposite
direction, in this case south.
6.3.4 FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE
As stated, stationary charges experience no force in a
magnetic feld. However, if charged particles move in a
magnetic feld, a force is exerted on them. Tis force causes
them to defect if they are not confned in a conductor.
Te same hand rules can be used to determine the direction
of the force experience on a charge. However, remember
that they apply to moving positive charge. If an electron
is moving, as is more commonly the case, remember to
apply the rule and then reverse the force direction.
When the positive charges move as shown in Figure 640,
they will experience an upwards force. Check this for
yourself using one of the hand rules.
+
+
+
+
+ +
F
B
Direction of charge movement
moving positive
charge, q
N
S
Figure 640 Force on a moving charge
6.3.5 MAGNITUDE OF MOVING
CURRENTS AND CHARGES
When an electric current fows in a conductor, and the
conductor is placed in a magnetic feld, the force on the
conductor is due to the individual forces on each of the
individual charges in the conductor. Te magnitude of the
magnetic force F is found to be directly proportional to:
1. the strength of the magnetic feld B measured in
teslas (T)
2. the current fowing in the wire I measured in
amperes (A)
3. the length of the conductor in the magnetic feld l
measured in metres (m).
So that
F Il B =
Tis force is greatest when the magnetic feld is
perpendicular to the conductor. Sometimes the wire in
the magnetic feld is at an angle to the magnetic feld. In
this case
F IlB sin =
Terefore, as decreases, so too does the force. When
= 0 the current in the conductor is moving parallel to
the magnetic feld and no force on the conductor occurs.
Te force experienced can be increased if the number of
turns of wire carrying the current is increased. In this case
the force is given by F Il Bn = where n is the number
of turns of wire. When there are a number of turns of
wire suspended between a magnetic feld, the device is
commonly called a wire toroid.
In order to determine the magnitude of the force
experienced by a single point charge q, we will follow
through the following derivation.
Te velocity of the particle is given by
v
displacement
time
-------------------------------
s
t
-- = =
If the length of the charge carrier is l, then
v
l
t
- l vt = =
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But, q = It = q / t and F = I lB
By substitution, the force on an individual charge is given by
F
q
t
-- - vt ( ) B =
Tat is,
F qvB =
If a charged particle enters a uniform magnetic feld at an
angle other than 90, the force it experiences is given by
F qvB sin =
When = 90, and the magnetic feld is uniform, the
particle will undergo uniform circular motion as the force
it experiences is at right angles to its motion. Te radius of
its circular motion is given by:
qvB
mv
2
r
---------- r
mv
qB
------- = =
When the particle enters the feld at an angle other than a
right angle, it will follow a helical path.
6.3.6 SOLVING PROBLEMS INVOLVING
MAGNETIC FORCES, FIELDS AND
CURRENTS
Example
A wire that is carrying a current of 3.50 A east has 2.00 m
of its length in a uniform magnetic feld of magnetic fux
density of 5.00 10
7
T directed vertically downwards into
the paper. Determine the magnitude and direction of the
force it experiences.
Solution
Using the formula for the force on a wire in a magnetic feld,
we have:
F = IlB = (3.5 A) (2.00 m) (5.00 10
-7
T) = 3.50 10
-6
N.




2.00 m
I = 3.5 A
Force
Te force on the conductor is 3.50 10
-6
N north.
Example
An electron is moving with a speed of 3.0 10
5
m s
-1
in a
direction that is at right angles to a uniform magnetic feld
of 3.0 10
3
T. Calculate
a. the force exerted on the electron.
b. the radius of the path of the electron.
Solution
a. Using the formula, F = qv B, we have
F 1.6 10
19
C ( ) 3.0 10
5
ms
1
( ) 3.0 10
3
T ( ) =
1.44 10
16
N =
Te force exerted on the electron is 1.4 x 10
-16
N at right
angles to the magnetic feld and the path of its motion.
b. Te force on each charge is given by either of the
formulas, F = qv B and F= mv
2
/ r.
Equating these two expressions we can determine the radius
of the path:
mv
2
r
---------- qvB r
mv
2
qvB
---------- r
mv
qB
------- = = =
Tat is, r = [(9.11 10
-31
kg) (3.0 10
5
ms
-1
)]
[(1.6 10
-19
C) (3.0 10
-3
T)]

= 5.69 10
-4
Te radius of the path is 5.7 10
-4
m.
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Exercise 6.3 (b)
1. A suitable unit of magnetic feld strength is
A. A N
-1
m
-1

B. kg s
-2
A
-1

C. A m N
-1
D. kg A s
2
2. An electron enters a uniform magnetic feld
that is at right angles to its original direction of
movement. Te path of the electron is:
A. an arc of a circle.
B. helical.
C. part of a parabola.
D. a straight line.
3. Two long straight wires with currents fowing in
opposite directions experience a force because:
A. the current in both wires increases
B. the current in both wires decreases
C. the current in the wires produces an
attraction
D the current in the wires produces a
repulsion
4. Determine in which direction the wire moves in
the diagram shown.
S
N
Current in a wire
A. outwards
B. inwards
C. it does not move
D. sideways
5. An electron passes through a uniform magnetic
feld of 0.050 T at right angles to the direction of the
feld at a velocity of 2.5 10
6
ms
-1
. Te magnitude
of the force on the electron in newtons is:
A. 2.0 10
-14

B. 4.0 10
-14

C. 8.0 10
-14

D. zero
6. Two parallel wires carry currents I of equal
magnitude in opposite directions as shown
in the diagram
X Y Z
I I
Te line along which the magnetic felds cancel is
A. X
B. Y
C. Z
D. the magnetic felds do not cancel
7. A beam of protons enter a uniform magnetic feld
directed into the page as shown
x x x x x x x x
x x x x + + + +
+ + + + x x x x
+ + + + + + + +
protons
Te protons will experience a force that pushes them
A. into the page
B. out of the page
C. upwards
D. downwards
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8. Below is a schematic diagram of a coil connected
to a battery.
X
When an electric current fows in the circuit, the
end of the coil labelled X will be:
A. a south pole
B. a north pole
C. either a north or a south pole
D. neither a north or a south pole
9. An ion carrying a charge of 3.2 10
-19
C enters
a feld of magnetic fux density of 1.5 T with a
velocity of 2.5 10
5
m s
-1
perpendicular to the
feld. Calculate the force on the ion.
10. A straight wire of length 50 cm carries a current of
50 A. Te wire is at right angles to a magnetic feld
of 0.3 T. Calculate the force on the wire.
11. A straight wire of length 1.4 m carries a current
of 2.5 A. If the wire is in a direction of 25 to a
magnetic feld of 0.7 T, calculate the force on the
wire.
12. A beam of electrons enters a pair of crossed
electric and magnetic felds in which the electric
feld strength of 3.0 10
4
V m
-1
and magnetic fux
density of 1.0 10
-2
T. If the beam is not defected
from its path by the felds, what must be the speed
of the electrons?
13. An electron in one of the electron guns of a
television picture tube is accelerated by a potential
diference of 1.2 10
4
V. It is then defected by a
magnetic feld of 6.0 10
-4
T. Determine
i. the velocity of the electron when it enters
the magnetic feld.
ii. the radius of curvature of the electron while
it is in the magnetic feld.
14. A point charge of 15 C is moving due north at
1.0 10
3
ms
-1
enters a uniform magnetic feld of
1.2 10
-4
T directed into the page. Determine
the magnitude and direction of the force on the
charge.
15. A vertical wire 50 cm long carries a current of
1.5 A from the north to the south. It experiences a
force of 0.2 N.
(a) Determine the magnitude of the magnetic feld
(b) Determine how the force could be increased to
2 N.
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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
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7
7.1 THE ATOM
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
7.1.1 Describe a model of the atom that features
a small nucleus surrounded by electrons.
7.1.2 Outline the evidence that supports a
nuclear model of the atom.
7.1.3 Outline one limitation of the simple model
of the nuclear atom.
7.1.4 Outline evidence for the existence of
atomic energy levels.
IBO 2007
7.1.1 A SIMPLE ATOMIC MODEL
B
etween 1911 and 1913, Ernest Rutherford, a New
Zealander working at Cambridge University in
England, developed a model of the atom that in essence,
was not replaced until 1926. In this model, the electrons
orbit a positively charged nucleus. In a neutral atom, the
number of orbital electrons is the same as the number
of protons in the nucleus. Te simplest atom, that of the
element hydrogen, consists of a single electron orbiting a
single proton. Te centripetal force keeping the electron
is orbit is provided by the Coulomb attraction between
proton and electron, the proton being positively charged
and the electron negatively charged. Te magnitude of the
charge on the electron is equal to the magnitude of the
charge on the proton. In 1910, the American physicist,
Robert Millikan made the frst precise determination of
the charge on an electron as 1.602 10
-19
C (Te current
value is 1.60217733 10
-19
C). Earlier, in 1897, the English
physicist J. J. Tomson had measured the ratio of the

electron charge to its mass,
e
e
m
. From the value of
e
e
m


found by Tomson, Millikans determination of e enabled
the mass of the electron to be determined. Te current
value for the electron mass m
e
is 9.10938188 10
-31
kg.
Te current value for mass of the proton m
p
is
1.67262158 10
-27
kg.
7.1.2 EVIDENCE FOR THE
RUTHERFORD NUCLEAR ATOM
Te work of J. J. Tomson had indicated that the atom
consists of a mixture of heavy positive particles, protons,
and light negative particles, electrons. As suggested above,
Rutherford devised an experiment to fnd out how the
particles of the atom might be mixed. Te experiment
was carried out by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden and in
order to outline the experiment, we must anticipate work
discussed in Topic 7.2. Certain elements are unstable and
disintegrate spontaneously. Such an element is radium
and one of the products of the so-called radioactive decay
of a radium atom, is a helium nucleus. Helium nuclei
emitted as the result of radioactive decay are called alpha-
particles (). When -particles strike a fuorescent screen,
a pinpoint fash of light is seen.
7.1 The atom
7.2 Radioactivity
7.3 Nuclear reactions, ssion and fusion
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Rutherford studied how -particles were absorbed by
matter and found that they were readily absorbed by thin
sheets of metal. However, he found that they were able to
penetrate gold-foil which, due to the malleable nature of
gold, can be made very thin.
Figure 701 illustrates the principle of the experiment
carried out by Geiger and Marsden.
Evacuated
region
Gold
foil
-rays
Flourescent
screen
Lead
container
Radium
Figure 701 Geiger and Marsdens experiment
A piece of radium is placed in a lead casket such that a
narrow beam of particles emerge from the tunnel in the
casket Te particle beam is incident on a piece of gold-
foil behind which is placed a fuorescent screen. Te whole
apparatus is sealed in a vacuum.
Te result is rather surprising. Most of the -particles
go straight through, but a few are scattered through
quite large angle whilst some are even turned back on
themselves. Rutherford was led to the conclusion that most
of the gold-foil was empty space. However, to account
for the scattering, some of the particles must encounter
a relative massive object which defects them from their
path. Imagine fring a stream of bullets at a bale of hay
in which is embedded a few stones. Most of the bullets
go straight through but the ones which strike a stone will
ricochet at varying angles depending on how they hit the
stone. Rutherford suggested that the atom consisted of a
positively charged centre (the stones) about which there
was a mist of electrons (the straw). He neglected the
interaction of the -particles with the electrons because
of the latters tiny mass and difuse distribution. Te
signifcant reaction was between the massive positively
charged centre of the gold atoms and the incoming -
particles. Rutherford was in fact quoted as saying It was
quite the most incredible event that has ever happened to
me in my life. It was almost as incredible as if you had fred
a 15inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back
and hit you.
Figure 702 illustrates the paths that might be followed as
the -particles pass through the gold-foil.
Gold nucleus
Gold nucleus
Gold nucleus
(a) near miss
(b) direct hit
(c) miss
Figure 702 The paths of alpha particles through gold foil
It is the results of the Geiger-Marsden experiment that
led to the atomic model outlined in 7.1.1 above. Detailed
analysis of their results indicated that the gold atoms had
a nuclear diameter of the order of 10
-14
m, which meant
that the radius of a proton is the order of 10
-15
m. Work
contemporary to that of Geiger and Marsden, using
X-rays, had shown the atomic radius to be of the order
of 10
-10
m. To give some understanding to the meaning of
the expression an atom is mainly empty space, consider
the nucleus of the hydrogen atom to be the size of a tennis
ball, then the radial orbit of the electron would be about
2 km.
7.1.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE SIMPLE
NUCLEAR MODEL OF THE ATOM
Te atomic model proposed by Rutherford has certain
problems associated with it. In particular, Maxwells theory
of electromagnetic (em) radiation (see 4.4.9) demonstrated
that accelerated electric charges emit em radiation. It is
difcult therefore to see how the Rutherford atom could
be stable since the orbiting electrons would be losing
their energy by emitting radiation and as such, would
soon spiral into the nucleus. Furthermore, how could the
nucleus be stable; what was there to stop the protons fying
apart from each other due to Coulomb repulsion?
Te model was also unable to account for that the fact that
many elements exhibited a range of atomic masses. For
example, J.J. Tomson had shown that neon is made up of
atoms some of whose atomic mass is 20 and others whose
atomic mass is 22.
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Rutherford recognised that his new model had these
limitations and he actually made some predictions about
an improved model of the atom, even hypothesising the
existence of the neutron. However, it was Niels Bohr who in
1914 proposed a model that went some way to answering
the electron radiation conundrum.
7.1.4 EVIDENCE FOR ATOMIC ENERGY
LEVELS
Emission spectra
If a sufciently high potential diference is applied between
the ends of a glass tube that is evacuated apart from the
presence of a small amount of mercury vapour, the tube
will glow. To study the radiation emitted by the tube, the
emitted radiation could be passed through a slit and then
through a dispersive medium such as a prism. Te prism
splits the radiation into its component wavelengths. If
the light emerging from the prism is brought to a focus,
an image of the slit will be formed for each wavelength
present in the radiation. Whereas the radiation from an
incandescent solid (e.g the flament of a lit lamp) produces
a continuous spectrum of colours, the mercury source
produces a line spectrum. Each line in this spectrum is an
image of the slit and in the visible region, mercury gives
rise to three distinct lines- yellow, green and blue.
Te study of line spectra is of great interest as it is found
that all the elements in the gaseous phase give rise to a line
spectrum that is characteristic of the particular element.
In fact elements can be identifed by their characteristic
spectrum and is one way that astronomers are able to
determine the elements present in the surface of a star (see
Option E). Also, the spectrum of an element provides clues
as to the atomic structure of the atoms of the element.
In 1905, based on the work of Max Planck, Einstein proposed
that light is made of small packets of energy called photons.
Each photon has an energy E given by E = hf, where h is
a constant known as the Planck constant and has a value
6.6 10
-34
J s. Te photon model of light suggests an atomic
model that accounts for the existence of the line spectra of
the elements. If it is assumed that the electrons in atoms
can only have certain discrete energies or, looking at it
another way, can only occupy certain allowed energy
levels within an atom, then when an electron moves from
one energy level to a lower energy level, it emits a photon
whose energy is equal to the diference in the energy of the
two levels. Te situation is somewhat analogous to a ball
bouncing down a fight of stairs; instead of the ball losing
energy continuously when rolling down the banisters, it
loses it in discrete amounts. (Te photon model of light and
atomic energy levels are discussed in much more detail in
Topic 13.1).
-2.4 10
-19
J
-5.4 10
-19
J
photon electron
Figure 703 Shows two of the allowed
energy levels of atomic hydrogen.
When the electron makes the transition as shown in
Figure 703, it emits a photon whose frequency is given by
the Planck formula i.e
19
14
34
3.0 10
4.5 10
6.6 10
E
f
h

= = =

Hz
Te associated wavelength is given by
8
7
14
3 10
6.6 10
4.5 10
c
f

= = =

m
Tis is in fact the measured value of the wavelength of the
red line in the visible spectrum of atomic hydrogen.
In most situations, the electrons in an atom will occupy the
lowest possible energy states. Electrons will only move to
higher energy levels if they obtain energy from somewhere
such as when the element is heated or, as mentioned
above, when subjected to an electrical discharge. When
the electrons are in their lowest allowed levels, the atom
is said to be unexcited and when electrons are in higher
energy levels, the atom is said to be excited. To move from
a lower level to a higher energy level, an electron must
absorb an amount of energy exactly equal to the diference
in the energy between the levels.
(For IBO reference, carrying out calculations using the
Planck relationship will not be expected at SL; the above is
just to try and help explain how the existence of line spectra
strongly supports the existence of atomic energy levels).
Absorption spectra
Atomic line spectra can be obtained in another way. If the
radiation from a flament lamp passes through a slit and
then a tube containing unexcited mercury vapour and is
then focussed afer passing through a prism, the resulting
spectrum is continuous but is crossed with dark lines.
Tese lines correspond exactly to the lines in the emission
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spectrum of mercury. To understand this, suppose the
diference in energy between the lowest energy level and
the next highest level in mercury atoms is E, then to make
the transition between these levels, an electron must
absorb a photon of energy E. Tere are many such photons
of this energy present in the radiation from the flament.
On absorbing one of these photons, the electron will move
to the higher level but then almost immediately fall back
to the lower level and in doing so, will emit a photon also
of energy E. However, the direction in which this photon
is emitted will not necessarily be in the direction of the
incident radiation. Te result of this absorption and re-
emission is therefore, a sharp drop in intensity in the
incident radiation that has a wavelength determined by
the photon energy E. Te phenomenon of absorption
spectra is of great importance in the study of molecular
structure since excitation of molecules will ofen cause
them to dissociate before they reach excitation energies.
NUCLEAR STRUCTURE
7.1.5 Explain the terms nuclide, isotope and
nucleon.
7.1.6 Dene nucleon number A, proton number Z
and neutron number N.
7.1.7 Describe the interactions in a nucleus.
IBO 2007
7.1.5-7 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE
Isotopes
Many elements have forms that are chemically identical
but each form has a diferent mass. Tese forms are called
isotopes. Te existence of isotopes explains why the
chemical masses of elements do not have integral values
since a sample of an element will consist of a mixture of
isotopes present in the sample in diferent proportions.
The neutron
Te explanation for the existence of isotopes did not come
until 1932 when James Chadwick an English physicist,
isolated an uncharged particle that has a mass very nearly
the same as the proton mass. Since 1920, both Rutherford
and Chadwick had believed that an electrically neutral
particle existed. An uncharged particle will not interact
with the electric felds of the nuclei of matter through
which it is passing and will therefore have considerable
penetrating ability. In 1930 Walther Bothe and Herbert
Becker found that when beryllium is bombarded with -
particles a very penetrating radiation was produced. It is
this radiation that Chadwick showed to consist of identical
uncharged particles. Tese particles he called neutrons
and the current value of the neutron mass m
n
is 1.67262158
10
-27
kg.
Te neutron explains the existence of isotopes in the
respect that, a nucleus is regarded as being made up of
protons and neutrons. Te nuclei of the diferent isotopes
of an element have the same number of protons but have
diferent numbers of neutrons. For example, there are three
stable isotopes of oxygen; each nucleus has eight protons
but the nuclei of the three isotopes have eight, nine and
ten neutrons respectively.
In the study of particle physics, the proton and neutron
are regarded as diferent charge states of the same particle
called the nucleon. (Particle physics is studied in depth in
Options D SL, and Option J-HL).
Nuclide, nucleon number, proton
number and neutron number
Te three isotopes of oxygen mentioned above are
expressed symbolically as
16
8
O ,
17
8
Oand
18
8
Orespectively.
Te O is the chemical symbol for oxygen, the subscript
is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of the
isotope and the superscript, the number of protons plus
neutrons. Each symbol therefore refers to a single nucleus
and when expressed in this form, the nucleus is referred
to as a nuclide. In general, any nuclide X is expressed as
X
A
Z
A is the nucleon number
Z is the proton number
We also defne the neutron number N as N = A Z.
It should be mentioned that it is the proton number that
identifes a particular element and hence the electronic
confguration of the atoms of the element. And it is the
electronic confguration that determines the chemical
properties of the element and also many of the elements
physical properties such as electrical conductivity and
tensile strength.
090513 Physics Ch 7 for Paul.ind176 176 22/05/2009 11:53:31 AM
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Nuclear interactions
Shortly afer the discovery of the neutron, Hideki Yukawa,
a Japanese physicist, postulated a strong force of attraction
between nucleons that overcomes the Coulomb repulsion
between protons. Te existence of the force postulated by
Yukawa is now well established and is known as the strong
nuclear interaction. Te force is independent of whether
the particles involved are protons or neutrons and at
nucleon separations of about 1.3 fm, the force is some 100
times stronger than the Coulomb force between protons.
At separations greater than 1.3 fm, the force falls rapidly to
zero. At smaller separations the force is strongly repulsive
thereby keeping the nucleons at an average separation of
about 1.3 fm. (1 femtometre = 10
-15
m)
7.2 RADIOACTIVE
DECAY
7.2.1 Describe the phenomenon of natural
radioactive decay.
7.2.2 Describe the properties of and particles
and radiation.
7.2.3 Describe the ionizing properties of and
particles and radiation.
7.2.4 Outline the biological eects of ionizing
radiation.
7.2.5 Explain why some nuclei are stable while
others are unstable.
IBO 2007
7.2.1 NATURAL RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Certain elements emit radiation spontaneously, i.e. without
any external excitation; this phenomenon is called natural
radioactive decay. It was frst discovered by the Austrian
physicist Henri Becquerel in 1896, who found that uranium
salts which had been protected from exciting radiations
for several months still emitted penetrating radiation
seemingly without any loss in intensity. Becquerel
discovered that the uranium itself was responsible for this
radiation and also that the radiation was independent of
pressure, temperature and chemical combination.
Tis indicated that the radioactive properties of uranium
were due to the nucleus of the atom and not to the
electronic structure.
7.2.2 THE RADIATIONS (, , )
Shortly afer Becquerels discovery two physicists working
in France, Pierre and Marie Curie isolated two other
radioactive elements, polonium and radium each of which
is several million times more active than uranium. An
extremely good account of the Curies heroic experiments
can be found in Madame Curies biography written by her
daughter, Irene. At frst it was thought that the radiation
emitted by radioactive elements were of the same nature
as the X-rays that had been discovered the previous year.
However, in 1897, Rutherford found that two types of
radiation occurred in radioactivity, some of the rays being
much more penetrating than the others. He called the less
penetrating rays alpha () rays and the more penetrating
ones beta () rays.
In 1900 Paul Villiard, also French, detected a third type
radiation which was even more penetrating than -rays.
Naturally enough he called this third type gamma ()
radiation.
Madame Curie deduced from their absorption properties
that -rays consisted of material particles and Rutherford
showed that these particles carried a positive charge equal
to about twice the electron charge but that they were
very much more massive than electrons. Ten in 1909, in
conjunction with Royds, Rutherford identifed -particles
as helium nuclei.
-particles have a range in air at STP of about 4 cm and
are readily stopped by a few sheets of writing paper.
-particles were soon identifed as electrons that have
considerable energy. Tey travel several metres in air
before being absorbed. Tey can also penetrate thin sheets
of aluminium.
In 1928 the English physicist Paul Dirac predicted the
existence of a positively charged electron and in 1932
this particle was found by the American physicist Carl
Anderson, to be present in cosmic radiation. Ten in
1934, the Curies daughter Irene, along with her husband
Frederic Joliot, discovered the positively charged electron,
now called the positron (e+,
+
) , to be present in certain
radioactive decay.
-rays are not infuenced by electric or magnetic felds
but can be difracted by crystals. Tis indicates that -rays
consist of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation
typically in the range 5-0.05 nm. From the Planck
relation, E hf , this means that the photons associated
with -radiation have very high energies and are therefore
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very penetrating; in fact a considerable thickness of lead is
required to stop them.
Te energies are given in MeV ( 1eV = 1.6 10
-19
J see 5.1.3)
-decay
A nucleus of a radioactive element that emits an -particle
must transform into a nucleus of another element. Te
nucleus of the so-called parent element loses two neutrons
and two protons. Terefore the nucleon number (A)
changes by 4 and the proton number (Z) by 2. Te nucleus
formed by this decay is called the daughter nucleus. We
may express such a nuclear decay by the nuclear reaction
equation
X
A
Z

4
2
Y
A
Z
-
-
+
4
2
He
(parent) (daughter) (-particle)
For example the isotope uranium238 is radioactive
and decays by emitting radiation to form the isotope
thorium-234, the nuclear reaction equation being:
238 234 4
92 90 2
U Th He
Or simply
238 234
92 90
U T +

Clearly in any nuclear radioactive decay equation, the

nucleon number and proton number of the lef-hand
side of the equation must equal the nucleon number and
proton number of the right-hand side of the equation.

-
and
+
decay (HL only)
In 1950 it was discovered that a free neutron decays into
a proton and an electron afer an average life of about 17
minutes. Another particle, the antineutrino is also emitted
in this decay. In order to conserve momentum and energy
in decay, the existence of the neutrino was postulated
in 1934 by the Italian physicist Enrico Fermi. Tis particle
is extraordinarily difcult to detect. It has zero rest mass
so travels at the speed of light; it is uncharged and rarely
reacts with matter (Millions upon millions of neutrinos
pass through the human body every second). However, in
1956, the neutrino was fnally detected. It turns out though,
that in -decay in order to conserve other quantities, it
must be an antineutrino and not a neutrino that is involved.
(Conservation laws along with particles and their antiparticles
are discussed in detail in Option J).
Te decay equation of a free neutron is
1 1 0
0 1 1
n p e

+ +

Or simply
n
0
p
+
+ e
-
+

is the symbol for the antineutrino.

Te origin of - particle is the decay of a neutron within a
nucleus into a proton. Te nucleon number of a daughter
nucleus of an element formed by
-
decay will therefore
remain the same as the nucleon number of the parent
nucleus. However, its proton number will increase by 1.
Hence we can write in general that

X
A
Z

1
Y
A
Z
+
0
1

-
+

(parent) (daughter) (electron) (antineutrino)

For example, a nucleus of the isotope thorium-234 formed
by the decay of uranium-238, undergoes - decay to form
a nucleus of the isotope protactinium-234. Te nuclear
reaction equation for this decay is
234 234 0
90 91 1
Th Pa e

+ +
-
Or simply
234 234
90 91
Th Pa e

+ +
-
Te origin of + particles is from the decay of a proton
within a nucleus into a neutron. Te decay equation of the
proton is
1

1
p
1

0
n +
0

1
e +
Name Identifcation Charge Kinetic energy range/MeV Rest mass/kg Penetration range
alpha,
helium nucleus +2e
2 10 6.70 10
-27
4 cm air sheet of thin paper
beta,
-
,
+
electron/positron -e, +e
0.1 1.0 9.11 10
-31
1-3 m in air thin aluminium sheet
Gamma
high frequency em
radiation (photon)
zero
10
-3
3
zero several cm of lead
Figure 704 A summary of radiations and their properties (table)
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Or simply
p
+
n
0
+ e
+
+
is the symbol for the neutrino.
For example, a nucleus of the isotope ruthenium-90 decays
to a nucleus of the isotope technetium-90. Te nuclear
reaction equation for this decay is
90 90 0
44 43 1
Ru Tc e v

Or simply
90 90
44 43
Ru Tc e v

Unlike free neutrons, free protons are stable (although
current theory suggests that they have an average life
of 10
30
years.). Tis probably explains why most of the
observable matter in the universe is hydrogen.
radiation
Te source of radiation in radioactive decay arises from
the fact that the nucleus, just like the atom, possesses
energy levels. In and decay, the parent nuclide ofen
decays to an excited state of the daughter nuclide. Te
daughter nuclide then drops to its ground state by emitting
a photon. Nuclear energy levels are of the order of MeV
hence the high energy of the emitted photon. (Nuclear
energy levels are discussed in more detail in topic 11).
7.2.3 IONIZING PROPERTIES OF ,
AND RADIATION
As -particles travel through air, they readily interact
with the air molecules by grabbing two electrons from
a molecule and so becoming a neutral helium atom.
Tis leaves the air molecule electrically charged and the
air through which the -particle are passing is said to
be ionized. If the air is situated between two electrodes,
the positive ions created by the passage of the -particles
will migrate to the negative electrode and an ionization
current can be detected.
-particles and radiation may also cause ionization but
in this situation the particles of the radiation actually
remove electrons from the air molecules by collision with
the molecules, thereby creating an electron-ion pair. Tis
phenomenon of ionizing is used in particle detectors such
as Geiger tubes and cloud and bubble chambers.
7.2.4 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
RADIATION
It is well known that X-rays and the radioactive
radiations can cause severe damage to living organisms.
Te mechanism of this damage is not fully understood.
However, it seems that when radiation is absorbed by a
complex organic molecule, instead of straightforward
excitation of the molecule, re-organization of the molecule
may take place. For example, two hydroxyl radicals, (.OH)
2

may combine to form hydrogen peroxide, H
2
O
2
. Such re-
combinations can have drastic efects particularly in the
DNA of cells where an error in the genetic coding may
give rise to mutations in the next generation. Another
efect of the upset in the genetic coding in a cell is that
it may cause the cells to keep dividing without any check
thereby resulting in a cancerous tumour.
Such afects on the genetic coding in cells are nearly
always harmful and furthermore there is no safe lower
limit of radiation as far as these genetic disturbances are
concerned. Since -radiation is the most readily absorbed
of the radiations, this is by far the most harmful. However,
one would have to swallow or breathe a radioactive source
that emits -radiation for it to be destructive, for as we
have mentioned above, the radiation is readily stopped by
about 4 cm of air. Combining the distance that one might
be from a radioactive source and the penetrating properties
of radiation, suggests that -radiation is probably the most
threatening because it can travel several metres in air but is
readily absorbed by body tissue. Most radiation is likely
to pass through human tissue, but on the other hand it can
travel long distances in air.
Te efect of all the radiations is essentially the same and
the probability of genetic damage increases with increasing
intensity and exposure to radiation. Because of this it is
vitally important that we are exposed to the minimum
of radiation. Te efects of the atom bombs dropped on
Nagasaki and Hiroshima are still with us and this should
be a salutary lesson to all Governments.
Te efects of radiation on the whole body have been
studied in great detail. Te radiation energy absorption
by the body of about 0.25 J kg
-1
causes changes in the
blood and may lead to leukaemia; 0.8 1.0 J kg
-1
gives
rise to severe illness (radiation sickness) with the chance
of recovery within about 6 months, whereas about
5 J kg
-1
is fatal. For this reason, people working in hospital
X-ray departments, radioisotope laboratories, outer space
and nuclear power stations take great precautions against
exposure to radiation.
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On the plus side, the controlled use of the radiations
associated with radioactivity is of great beneft in the
treatment of cancerous tumours (see Option I).
7.2.5 NUCLEAR STABILITY
Figure 705 shows the variation with proton number (Z)
of the neutron number (N) (number of neutrons) of the
naturally occurring isotopes. Te straight line is the plot
of the points given by N = Z.
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Proton number ( Z )
N
e
u
t
r
o
n
n
u
m
b
e
r
(
N
=
A

Z
)
U
238
92
N = Z
stable isotopes
radioactive isotopes
Figure 705 The variation of neutron number with
proton number
From Figure 705 we see that for nuclei of the elements
with Z less than about 20, the number of protons is equal
to the number of neutrons. Above Z = 20, there is an
excess of neutrons over protons and this excess increases
with increasing Z. We can understand this from the
fact that as Z increases so does the electrostatic force of
repulsion between protons. To balance this, the number
of neutrons is increased thereby increasing the strong
nuclear force of attraction between the nucleons. When a
proton is added to a nucleus, it will exert roughly the same
force of repulsion on the other protons in the nucleus. Tis
is because it is very nearly the same distance from each
of the other protons. However, the strong nuclear force
is very short range and is only really efective between
adjacent neighbours. So as the size of the nucleus increases,
proportionally more and more neutrons must be added.
Each time protons and neutrons are added, they have to
go into a higher energy state and eventually a nuclear size
is reached at which the nucleus becomes unstable ( a bit
like piling bricks on top of one another) and the nucleus
tries to reach a more stable state by emitting a nuclear sub-
group consisting of two protons and two neutrons i.e. a
helium nucleus ( particle).
Consider now a nucleus of the isotope
65
28
Ni. Tis nucleus
is unstable because the neutron excess is too great, each
neutron added having to go into a higher energy state.
To become stable, one of the neutrons will change into
a proton by emitting an electron i.e. a
-
-particle. On
the other hand, a nucleus of the isotope
54
25
Mn does not
contain enough neutrons to be stable. To become stable, a
proton changes into a neutron by emitting a positron i.e.
a
+
particle.
HALF-LIFE
7.2.6 State that radioactive decay is a random
and spontaneous process and that the rate
of decay decreases exponentially with time.
7.2.7 Dene the term radioactive half-life.
7.2.8 Determine the half-life of a nuclide from a
decay curve.
7.2.9 Solve radioactive decay problems involving
integral numbers of half-lives.
IBO 2007
7.2.6-8 RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE
(Tis topic is explored in more depth in topic 13 and SL
option B)
We have no means of knowing when a particular atom in
a sample of radioactive element will undergo radioactive
decay. You could sit watching an atom of uranium-238
and it might undergo decay in the next few seconds. On
the other hand, you might wait 10
9
years or even longer,
before it decayed. However, in any sample of a radioactive
element there will be a very large number of atoms. It is
therefore possible to predict the probability of decay of a
particular atom. What we can say is that the more atoms
in a sample, the more are likely to decay in a given time.
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Te rate of decay of atoms at a given instant is therefore
proportional to the number of radioactive atoms of the
element in the sample at that instant. As time goes by,
the number of atoms of the element in the sample will
decrease and so therefore will the rate of decay or activity
as it is called. Of course, the number of atoms in the sample
will not change since, when an atom of the element decays,
it decays into an atom of another element.
Exponential decay
Tere are many examples in nature where the rate of change
at a particular instant of a quantity is proportional to the
quantity at that instant. A very good example of this is the
volume rate of fow of water from the hole in a bottom of
the can. Here the volume rate is proportional to the volume
of water in the can at any instant. Rates of change such as
this, all possess a very important property, namely that the
quantity halves in value in equal increments of time. For
example, if the quantity Q in question has a value of 120
at time zero and a value of 60, 20 seconds later, then it will
have a value of 30 a further 20 seconds later and a value
of 15 another 20 seconds later. If the quantity Q is plotted
against time t, we get the graph shown in Figure 706.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 20 40 60 80 100
t / s
Q
Figure 706 Exponential decay
Tis type of decay is called an exponential decay. Te
time it takes for the quantity to reach half its initial value
is called the half-life. Clearly the half-life is independent
of the initial value of the quantity and depends only on the
physical nature to which the quantity refers. For instance,
in the case of water fowing from a can, the half-life will
depend on the size of the hole in the can and we might
expect it to depend on the temperature of the water and
the amount and type of impurities in the water. (Perhaps
here, is a good idea for an experiment to assess the Design
criterion in IA). For radioactive elements, the half-life
depends only on the particular element and nothing else.
For the case of a radioactive element its half life is therefore
defned as the time it takes the activity of a sample of the
element to halve in value or the time it takes for half the
atoms in the sample of element to decay.
Te number of atoms that decay in unit time i.e. the activity
of the sample, has the SI unit the becquerel (Bq).
We also note from the graph, that theoretically it takes
an infnite amount of time for the activity of a sample of
a radioactive isotope to fall to zero. In this respect, we
cannot ask the question for how long does the activity of
a sample last?
7.2.9 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
INTEGRAL NUMBER OF HALF-LIVES
Example
A freshly prepared sample of the isotope iodine-131 has
an initial activity of 2.0 10
5
Bq. Afer 40 days the activity
of the sample is 6.3 10
3
Bq.
Estimate the half life of iodine-131.
By plotting a suitable graph, estimate the activity of the
sample afer 12 days.
Solution
If we keep halving the activity 2.0 10
5
, we get 1.0 10
5
,
0.5 10
5
, 0.25 10
5
, 0.125 10
5
, 0.0625 10
5
( 6.3 10
3
).
So 5 half-lives = 40 days. Hence 1 half-life = 8 days.
Another way of looking at this is to note that the activity
of a sample afer n half-lives is
0
n
2
A
where A
0
is the initial activity. For this situation we

have
5
n
3
2.0 10
2 32
6.3 10

= =

, giving
n = 8.
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Te data points for a graph showing the variation with
time of the activity are shown below:
time/days activity/Bq 10
5
0 2
8 1
16 0.5
24 0.25
So the graph is as follows
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
time / days
a
c
i
t
v
i
t
y
/
B
q
x
1
0
5
From which we see that afer 12 days the activity is
7.0 10
4
Bq.
Exercise 7.2
1. Te initial activity of a sample of a radioactive
isotope decreases by a factor of
1
16
afer 90 hours.
Calculate the half-life of the isotope.
2. Te graph below shows the variation with time
t of the activity A of a sample of the isotope
xenon-114. Use the graph to determine the half-
life of xenon-114.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
t /s
A
/
M
B
q
7.3 NUCLEAR
REACTIONS,
FISSION AND
FUSION
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
7.3.1 Describe and give an example of an
articial (induced) transmutation.
7.3.2 Construct and complete nuclear equations.
7.3.3 Dene the term unied atomic mass unit.
7.3.4 Apply the Einstein massenergy
equivalence relationship.
7.3.5 Dene the concepts of mass defect, binding
energy and binding energy per nucleon.
7.3.6 Draw and annotate a graph showing the
variation with nucleon number of the
binding energy per nucleon.
7.3.7 Solve problems involving mass defect and
binding energy.
IBO 2007
7.3.1,2 ARTIFICIAL (INDUCED)
TRANSMUTATION
So far only transmutation of elements has been discussed,
i.e.the transformation of one element into another, that
takes place through natural radioactivity. In 1919
Rutherford discovered that when nitrogen gas is
bombarded with -particles, oxygen and protons are
produced. He surmised that the following reaction takes
place:
4 14 17 1
2 7 8 1
He N O H + +
Afer the discovery of this induced transformation,
Rutherford working in conjunction with Chadwick,
succeeded in producing artifcial transmutation of all the
elements from boron to potassium (excluding carbon and
oxygen) by bombarding them with -particles.
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In 1934 Irne Curie and F. Joliot made the frst discovery
of artifcial radioactive isotopes by the bombardment of
aluminium with -particles to produce a radioactive
isotope of phosphorus. Te nuclear reaction equation for
this is
4 27 30 1
2 13 15 0
He Al P n + +
Tis isotope of phosphorus is radioactive and undergoes
positron decay as follows
Following the work of Curie and Joliot, extensive work
was carried out into the production of artifcial isotopes.
It was found that neutrons are particularly efective in
inducing artifcial transmutation to produce artifcial
radioactive isotopes. Neutrons may be produced from the
bombardment of beryllium with -particles. Te nuclear
reaction equation for this is
A typical neutron reaction is the bombardment of lithium
to produce the radioactive isotope of hydrogen called
tritium. Te nuclear reaction equation for this is
6 1 3 4
3 0 1 2
Li n H He + +
For those of you studying the Option I (Medical Physics),
the importance of artifcial isotopes in both therapy and
diagnosis, is discussed in detail.
It is lef as an exercise for you to identify the bombarding
particle in following nuclear reactions:
1.
14 1 14
7 1 6
N H+ C +
2.
6 4 4
3 2 2
Li + He+ He
3.
205 206 1
81 82 0
Tl Pb+ n +
7.3.3 THE ATOMIC MASS UNIT (U)
In nuclear physics we are concerned with the interaction
of diferent nuclei and therefore an explicit knowledge of
individual isotopic masses is of fundamental importance.
For this reason the old scale of atomic masses based on
expressing the atomic mass of oxygen as 16, is of little
use, oxygen alone having three isotopes. Te atomic
mass scale was therefore introduced based on the atomic
mass unit. Tis unit is defned as
1
12
the mass of an atom
of carbon- 12 or, to put it another way, a carbon atom has
a mass of exactly 12 u. We know that 12 g of carbon (1
mole) has 6.02 10
23
nuclei. Terefore 1 u is equivalent
to
1
12
th of
23
12
6.02 10
= 1.661 10
-24
g = 1.661 10
-27
kg.
7.3.4 THE EINSTEIN MASS-ENERGY
RELATION
(Tis topic is discussed in more detail in Option H, topic 4)
One consequence of Einsteins Special Teory of Relativity
is that in order for the conservation of momentum to be
conserved for observers in relative motion, the observer
who considers him or herself to be at rest, will observe
that the mass of an object in the moving reference frame
increases with the relative speed of the frames. One of the
frames of reference might be a moving object. For example,
if we measure the mass of an electron moving relative to us,
the mass will be measured as being greater than the mass
of the electron when it is at rest relative to us, the rest-mass.
However, an observer sitting on the electron will measure
the rest mass. Tis leads to the famous Einstein equation
E
tot
= mc
2
where E
tot
(ofen just written as E) is the total
energy of the body, m is the measured mass and c is the
speed of light in a vacuum. Te total energy E
tot
consists of
two parts, the rest-mass energy and the kinetic energy E
K
of the object. So in general it is written:
E
tot
= m
0
c
2
+ E
K
Where m
0
is the rest mass of the object.
Nuclear reactions are ofen only concerned with the rest-
mass.
Essentially, the Einstein equation tells us that energy and
mass are interchangeable. If for example, it were possible
to convert 1 kg of matter completely to energy we would
get 9 10
16
J of energy (1 c
2
). Looking at it another way,
if a coal-fred power station produces say 9 TJ of energy a
day, then if you were to measure the mass of the coal used
per day and then measure the mass of all the ash and fumes
produced per day, you would fnd that the two masses

would difer by about 0.1 g (
9 10
12
c
2
).
In table 701 we have seen that it is usual to express particle
energies in electronvolt rather than joule. Using the
Einstein relation, we can express particle mass in derived
energy units.
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For example, the atomic mass unit = 1.661 10
-27
kg
which is equivalent to 1.661 10
-27
(2.998 10
8
)
2
J
or
-27 8 2
-19
1.661 10 (2.998 10 )
1.602 10

eV = 931.5 MeV

(working to four signifcant digits).
However, bearing in mind that energy and mass cannot

have the same units and that
2
E
m
c
,
we have that 1 atomic mass unit = 931.5 MeV c
-2
.
Table 710 shows the diferent units used for the rest mass
of the electron, proton and neutron.
(All values, apart from values in atomic mass unit, are
quoted to four signifcant digits).
particle
Rest-mass
kg u MeV c
-2
electron (m
e
) 9.109 10
-31
0.00054858 0.5110
proton (m
p
) 1.673 10
-27
1.007276 938.2
neutron (m
n
) 1.675 10
-27
1.008665 939.6
Figure 710 Particle rest-mass (table)
7.3.4-6 APPLYING THE MASS-ENERGY
RELATION
Mass defect Q
Let us now examine a nuclear reaction using the idea of
mass-energy conversion. For example, consider the decay
of a nucleus of radium-226 into a nucleus of radon-222.
Te reaction equation is
226 222 4
88 86 2
Ra Rn He +
Te rest masses of the nuclei are as follows
226
88
Ra = 226.0254 u
222
86
Rn = 222.0175 u
4
2
He = 4.0026 u
Te right-hand side of the reaction equation difers in mass
from the lef-hand side by +0.0053 u. Tis mass defciency,
or mass defect as it is usually referred to, just as in the
coal-fred power station mentioned above, represents
the energy released in the reaction. If ignoring any recoil
energy of the radon nucleus, then this energy is the kinetic
energy of the -particle emitted in the decay.
Using the conversion of units, we see that 0.0053 u has a
mass of 4.956 MeV c
-2
. Tis means that the kinetic energy
of the -particle is 4.956 MeV.
Te fact that the mass defect is positive indicates that
energy is released in the reaction and the reaction will take
place spontaneously.
If the mass defect is negative in a reaction then this means
that energy must be supplied for the reaction to take place.
For example, let us postulate the following reaction:
23 19 4
11 9 2
Na F He Q + +
where Q is the mass defect.
If factoring in the rest masses the equation becomes
22.9897 u 18.9984 u + 4.0026 u + Q
Tis gives Q = - 0.0113 u = -10.4 MeV c
-2
.
In other words for such a reaction to take place 10.4 MeV of
energy must be supplied.
23
11
Na is therefore not radioactive
but a stable nuclide.
Binding energy
A very important quantity associated with a nuclear
reaction is the nuclear binding energy. To understand
this concept, suppose we add up the individual masses of
the individual nucleons that comprise the helium nucleus,
then we fnd that this sum does not equal the mass of the
nucleus as a whole. Tis is shown below
2m
p
+ 2 m
n

4
2
He+ Q
(2 938.2 + 2 939.6) MeV c
-2
3728 MeV c
-2
+ Q
To give Q = 28.00 MeV c
-2
.
Tis efectively means that when a helium nucleus is
assembled from nucleons, 28 MeV of energy is released.
Or looking at it another way, 28 MeV of energy is required
to separate the nucleus into its individual nucleons since if
we postulate, as we did above for the decay of
23
11
Na , this
reaction
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4
2
He 2m
p
+ 2 m
n
+ Q
then Q = - 28 MeV c
-2
.
Te defnition of nuclear binding energy is therefore
either the energy required to separate the nucleus into
it individual nucleons or the energy that would be
released in assembling a nucleus from its individual
nucleons. Since the potential energy of a nucleus is less
than the potential energy of its separate nucleons, some
texts take the binding energy to be a negative quantity.
In this book, however, we will regard it to be a positive
quantity on the basis that the greater the energy required
to separate a nucleus into its nucleons, the greater the
diference between the potential energy of the nucleus and
its individual nucleons.
Binding energy per nucleon
Rather than just referring to the binding energy of the
nuclei of diferent isotopes, it is much more important to
consider the binding energy per nucleon. Te addition of
each nucleon to a nucleus increases the total binding energy
of the nucleus by about 8 MeV. However, the increase is
not linear and if we plot the binding energy per nucleon
against nucleon number N, the graph (Figure 711) shows
some very interesting features.
Te most stable nuclei are those with the greatest binding
energy per nucleon as this means that more energy is
required to separate the nucleus into its constituent
nucleons. For example, much less energy is required per
nucleon to take apart a nucleus of uranium-235 than a
nucleus of helium-4. Te most stable element is iron (Fe)
as this has the greatest binding energy per nucleon. Tis
graph shall be referred to again in section 7.3.9
7.3.7 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING MASS
DEFECT AND BINDING ENERGY
Example
1. Calculate the kinetic energy in MeV of the tritium
plus the helium nucleus in the following nuclear
reaction.
6 1 3 4
3 0 1 2
Li n H He + +
mass of
6
3
Li = 6.015126 u
mass of
3
1
H = 3.016030 u
mass of
4
2
He = 4.002604 u
neutron mass = 1.008665 u
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
239
U
138
Ba
32
S
12
C
1
H
B
i
n
d
i
n
g
E
n
e
r
g
y
p
e
r
n
u
c
l
e
o
n
/
M
e
V
p
e
r
n
u
c
l
e
o
n
Mass number (number of nucleons)
56
Fe
Fusion
Fission
A
B
Figure 711 Binding energy per nucleon
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Solution
Adding the masses of the lef-hand and right-hand side of
reaction equation gives:
Q = 0.005157 u. Using 1 u = 935.1 MeV, then Q = 4.822 MeV
Exercise 7.3 (a)
1. Calculate the energy required to separate a nucleus
of lithium-6 into its constituent nucleons. Hence
fnd the binding energy per nucleon of lithium-6.
2. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of an -
particle
3. Deduce, whether the following reaction may take
place spontaneously.
212 208
83 81
Bi Tl +
mass of
212
83
Bi = 211.99127 u
mass of
208
81
Tl = 207.98201 u
FISSION AND FUSION
7.3.8 Describe the processes of nuclear ssion
and nuclear fusion.
7.3.9 Apply the graph in 7.3.6 to account for the
energy release in the processes of ssion
and fusion.
7.3.10 State that nuclear fusion is the main source
of the Suns energy.

7.3.11 Solve problems involving ssion and fusion
reactions.
IBO 2007
7.3.8 FISSION AND FUSION
(Te use of fssion and fusion as world energy sources is also
discussed in detail in Topic 8.4)
Fission
Nuclear reactions produce very much more energy per
particle than do chemical reactions. For example, the
oxidization of one carbon atom produces about 4 eV of
energy whereas the decay of a uranium atom produces
about 4 MeV. However, natural radioactive isotopes do
not occur in sufcient quantity to be a practical source of
energy. It was not until the discovery of nuclear fssion
that the possibility of nuclear reactions as a cheap and
abundant source of energy became possible. In 1934
Fermi discovered that when uranium was bombarded
with neutrons, radioactive products were produced.
Ten in 1939 Hahn and Strassman showed that one of
the radioactive products was barium (Z = 56). It is now
understood that a nucleus of uranium may capture a
neutron to form an unstable isotope. Either of the following
reactions may occur:
238 1 239 239
92 0 92 93
U n U Np +e +
-
(where Np is the transuranic nuclide neptunium)
238 1 239 1
92 0 92 0
U n U n X Y x + + +
where X and Y are two fssion elements and x is the
number of neutrons produced.
Which reaction takes place is dependant on the energy of
the bombarding neutron.
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A typical fssion reaction might be
238 1 90 146 1
92 0 38 54 0
U n Sr Xe 3 n + + +
Given the following data, it is lef as an exercise for you to
show that energy released in this reaction is about 160 MeV:
mass of
238
U = 238.050788 u
mass of
90
Sr = 89.907737 u
mass of
146
Xe = 145.947750 u
Te energy released appears in the form of kinetic energy
of the fssion nuclei and neutrons.
Te three neutrons produced is the key to using fssion as
a sustainable energy source as discussed in topic 8.4. Both
the strontium isotope and xenon isotope produced are
radioactive. Strontium-90 has a half-life of about 30 years
and therein lies the main problem (as well as the large
amounts of -radiation also produced) with nuclear fssion
as a sustainable energy source the fact that the fssion
nuclei are radioactive ofen with relatively long half-lives.
Te isotope uranium-235 also undergoes fssion and much
more readily than uranium-238. A typical fssion reaction
might be
235 1 103 131 1
92 0 38 54 0
U n Sr I 2 n + + +
Fusion
Energy can also be obtained from nuclear reactions by
arranging for two nuclei to fuse together as we alluded
to when we discussed nuclear binding energy above.
To produce nuclear fusion very high temperatures and
pressures are needed so that nuclei can overcome the
coulombic repulsion force between them and thereby
come under the infuence of the strong nuclear force. A
typical nuclear reaction might be
2 3 4 1
1 1 2 0
H+ H He+ n
In this reaction a nucleus of deuterium combines with a
nucleus of tritium to form a nucleus of helium and a free
neutron.
Given the following data it is lef as an exercise for you to
show that energy released in this reaction is about 18 MeV:
mass of
2
H = 2.014102 u
mass of
3
H = 3.016049 u
mass of
4
He

= 4.002604 u
Te energy released appears in the form of kinetic energy
of the helium nucleus and neutron.
Te advantage that fusion has compared to fssion as a
source of sustainable energy is that no radioactive elements
are produced. Te disadvantage is obtaining and maintaining
the high temperature and pressure needed to initiate fusion.
Again, this is discussed in more detail in topic 8.4.
7.3.9 APPLYING THE BINDING ENERGY
CURVE
Te graph in Figure 711 of binding energy per nucleon
versus nucleon number shows that the nuclides with
a nucleon number of about 60 are the most stable. Tis
helps us to understand why the high nucleon number
nuclides may undergo fssion and the low nucleon number
nuclides may under go fusion- they are trying to reach
the nuclide that is most stable. For example consider the
fssion reaction
238 1 90 146 1
92 0 38 54 0
U n Sr Xe 3 n + + +
From the graph (Figure 711) we have that
total binding energy of
238
U = 7.6 238 = 1800 MeV
total binding energy of
90
Sr = 8.7 90 = 780 MeV
total binding energy of
146
Xe = 8.2 146 = 1200 MeV
Hence the sum of the total binding energies of the fssion
nuclei is greater than the total binding energy of the
uranium-238 nucleus. Efectively the system has become
more stable by losing energy.
Similarly for the fusion reaction
2 3 4 1
1 1 2 0
H+ H He+ n the
total binding energy of the helium nucleus is greater than
the sum of binding energies of the tritium and deuterium
nuclei. So, again as for fssion, the system has efectively
become more stable by losing energy.
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7.3.10 NUCLEAR FUSION AND THE SUN
Our Sun is an enormous factory in which hydrogen is
converted into helium. At some time in its early life, due to
gravitational collapse of the hydrogen making up the Sun,
the pressure and temperature of the interior became high
enough to initiate fusion of the hydrogen. Once started,
the fusion will continue until all the hydrogen is used up,
probably in about 10
10
years from now.
One of the suggested fusion cycles that may take place in
the Sun is
For the complete cycle the frst two reaction must occur
twice and the fnal result is one helium nucleus, two
positrons, two protons and two neutrinos. Te protons are
available for further fusion.
In stars that are much more massive than our Sun, as they
age fusion of elements with higher atomic numbers takes
place until fnally iron is reached and no further fusion
can take place as seen from the binding energy graph. Tis
evolution of stars is discussed in detail in Option E.
7.3.11 SOLVE PROBLEMS ON FISSION
AND FUSION REACTIONS
Te type of problems you might be expected to solve
associated with fssion and fusion have been looked at
above. However, here are a two more.
Exercise 7.3 (b)
1. Determine the number x of neutrons produced
and calculate the energy released in the following
fssion reaction
235 1 144 90 1
92 0 56 36 0
U n Ba Kr n x + + +
mass of
235
U = 235.043929 u
mass of
146
Ba = 143.922952 u
mass of
90
Kr = 89.919516 u
2. Show that in the fusion cycle given in 7.3.10, the
energy released is about 30 MeV.
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CLIMATE CHANGE
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8
INTRODUCTION
I
n Chapter 2, energy was defned as the capacity to do
work. Te various forms of energy can be classifed as:
Mechanical (kinetic and potential)
Heat
Radiant (electromagnetic)
Chemical (potential)
Sound
Electrical/magnetic
Nuclear
Mechanical energy includes both kinetic and potential
energy. Friction is mechanical energy as it is caused by
kinetic energy and potential energy of a body as a force is
applied through a distance.
Heat energy is the energy a body possesses because of
its internal energy due to the motion of the particles it
contains.
Radiant energy is the source of all life on the Earth and
is the greatest potential energy resource available for
the future. When radiant energy in the form of light is
absorbed by plants, it is converted into stored chemical
energy. Tis energy is available as food or biomass. Biomass
is used to produce fuels. It is electromagnetic in nature
and is possessed by all components of the electromagnetic
spectrum (rays, Xrays, UV radiation, visible light,
IR radiation, microwaves and radio waves). Infra-red
radiation falling on a body is converted into thermal
energy. Solar energy is a form of radiant energy.
Chemical energy is the energy locked up in fuels and
other chemicals. Te energy obtained by the combustion
of fuels represents a major source of energy in current use.
All food that we eat is a store of chemical energy. It can
be considered to be latent potential energy that a body
possesses.
Sound energy is produced by longitudinal waves that
have an organised and periodic pattern that causes the
vibration of the particles in the same direction as the
transfer of energy.
Electrical energy is the energy carried by moving
charges and these moving charges produce a magnetic
feld. Trough the process of electromagnetic induction,
electricity has become the greatest form of energy used by
man in everyday life.
Nuclear energy is the potential binding energy released
during a nuclear reaction when mass is converted to
thermal and perhaps light energy. Nuclear fssion reactors
are starting to gain a renewed acceptance and nuclear
fusion has potential for the future when the technology
becomes available.
8.1 Energy degradation & power generation
8.2 World energy sources
8.3 Fossil fuel power production
8.4 Non-fossil fuel power production
8.5 Greenhouse eect
8.6 Global warming
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8.1.1 State that thermal energy may be
completely converted to work in a single
process, but that continuous conversion
of this energy into work requires a cyclical
process and the transfer of some energy
from the system.
8.1.2 Explain what is meant by degraded energy.
8.1.3 Construct and analyse energy ow
diagrams (Sankey diagrams) and identify
where the energy is degraded.

8.1.4 Outline the principal mechanisms involved
in the production of electrical power.
IBO 2007
8.1.1 THERMAL ENERGY IN A
CYCLICAL PROCESS
Suppose a piston was placed on a heat reservoir, such as
the hot plate of a stove. Termal energy is supplied by
the heat reservoir, and work is done by the gas inside
the piston as it expands. But this is not an engine as it
only operates in one direction. Te gas cannot expand
indefnitely because as the volume of the piston increases
the pressure decreases (Boyles Law) as the force exerted on
the walls of the piston by the gas molecules per unit area is
continually decreasing. Some point will be reached when
the expanding gas will not be able to move the piston. For
this simple engine to function, the piston must eventually
be compressed to restore the system to its original position
ready to do work.
A thermodynamic engine is a device that transforms
thermal energy to mechanical energy (work) as in an
engine, or mechanical energy to thermal energy such
as in refrigeration and air-conditioning systems. Cars,
steam trains, jets and rockets have engines that transform
fuel energy (chemical energy) into the kinetic energy of
their motion. In all presently manufactured engines, the
conversion is accompanied by the emission of exhaust
gases that waste some of the thermal energy. Consequently,
these engines are not very efcient as only part of the
thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy. An
engine has two crucial features:
It must work in cycles to be useful.
Te cyclic engine must have more than one heat reservoir.
A thermodynamic cycle is a process in which the system is
returned to the same state from which it started. Tat is, the
initial and fnal states are the same in the cyclic process.
Figure 801 shows a series of schematic diagrams for the
cycle of an internal combustion engine as used in most
automobiles.
With the exhaust valve closed, a mixture of petrol
vapour and air is drawn into the combustion
chamber through the inlet valve as the piston
moves down during the intake stroke.
Both valves are closed and the piston moves
up to squeeze the mixture of petrol vapour and
air to about th its original volume during the
compression stroke.
With both valves closed, the mixture is ignited by
a spark from the spark plug.
Te mixture burns rapidly and the hot gases then
expand against the piston in the power stroke.
Te exhaust valve is opened as the piston moves
upwards during the exhaust stroke, and the cycle
begins again.
intake valve
closed
exhaust valve
closed
compression stroke
crankshaft
Gas vapor
and mixture
intake valve
open
exhaust valve
closed
intake stroke
crankshaft
piston
intake valve
closed
exhaust valve
closed
ignition
intake valve
closed
exhaust valve
closed
power stroke
intake valve
closed
exhaust valve
open
exhaust
spent fuel
gases
Figure 801 The Internal Combustion Engine
For a cycle to do net work, thermal contact with the original
heat reservoir must be broken, and temperatures other
than that of the original heat reservoir must play a part in
the process. In the above example, if the piston is returned
8.1 ENERGY DEGRADATION & POWER GENERATION
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to its original position while in contact with the hot plate,
then all the work that the gas did in the expansion will
have to be used in the compression. On a p V diagram,
one would draw an isotherm for the expansion and an
isotherm for the compression lying on top of the expansion
isotherm but in the opposite direction. Terefore, the area
enclosed by the cycle would be zero. However, if the gas is
compressed at a lower temperature the internal pressure
of the system will be lower than during the expansion.
Less work will be needed for the compression than was
produced in the expansion, and there will be net work
available for transformation to mechanical energy.
Motor cars usually have four or six pistons but fve and eight
cylinders are also common. Te pistons are connected by
a crankshaf to a fywheel which keeps the engine turning
over during the power stroke. Automobiles are about 25%
efcient.
Figure 802 shows the p-V graph for the Otto cycle designed
by Nikolaus Otto in 1976. Te Otto cycle is similar to the
present day car engine.
Figure 802 The Otto cycle
Te fuel-air mixture enters the piston at point A. Te
compression AB is carried out rapidly with no heat
exchange making it an adiabatic compression. Te
ignition and combustion of the gases introduces a heat
input Q
H
that raises the temperature at constant volume
from B to C. Te power stroke is an adiabatic expansion
from C to D. Termal energy Q
L
leaves the system during
the exhaust stroke, and cooling occurs at constant volume
from D to A. Te net work is represented by the enclosed
area ABCD.
Diesel engines use diesel instead of petrol, and there is
no spark from a spark plug to cause ignition. Tey do not
have a carburettor which is used to produce a spray of
the fuel-air mixture. Rather, the air is sucked in and the
diesel is introduced through a valve when the piston is at
the top of the compression stroke. During the adiabatic
compression, the air is squeezed to one-sixteenth of its
volume. Tis makes the air so hot that the fuel ignites of its
own accord and explodes as soon as it enters through the
valve. Diesel engines with 40% efciency are amongst the
most efcient engines used today. Figure 803 demonstrates
the diesel cycle patented by Rudolf Diesel in 1892.
A
B C
D
maximum temperature
minimum temperature
Q
H
Q
L
V
1
V
2
p
V
adiabatic expansion
adiabatic
compression
constant
volume (V
1
)
constant
pressure
Figure 803 The Diesel cycle
Jet engines burn fuel continuously. Tey suck air in the
front of the engine and this air is compressed by the
compressor fans. Te air becomes so hot that it burns in
the continuous fuel supply. Exhaust gases are blown out
the back of the engine propelling the engine forward.
Tese gases also turn a turbine that supplies electricity to
the jet, and keeps the compressor fans turning.
8.1.2 ENERGY DEGRADATION
When energy is transferred from one form to other forms,
the energy before the transformation is equal to the energy
afer (Law of conservation of energy). However, some of the
energy afer the transformation may be in a less useful form.
We say that the energy has been degraded. For example,
in a simple battery operated fashlight, an energy input of
100 units of chemical potential energy will give a 10 unit
output of light energy and the light energy is enhanced by
placing a curved mirror behind the lamp to concentrate
the light into a beam. Te other 90 units of output is used
in heating up the flament of the light bulb and in heating
the battery and the surroundings. Tese 90 units of energy
output have become degraded. Te thermal energy that
is transferred to the surroundings, the flament and the
battery is no longer available to perform useful work.
Te Second Law of Termodynamics in one form states
that engines are theoretically inefcient users of energy.
Te efciency of an energy conversion process is a ratio of
the useful energy output to the total energy input usually
expressed as a percentage. In practice, the efciency is
even lower than this theoretical value. Figure 804 gives
A
B
C
D
maximumtemperature
minimumtemperature
Q
H
Q
L
V
1
V
2
p
V
adiabatic expansion
adiabatic
compression
constant
volume (V
1
)
constant
volume (V
2
)
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examples of the efciency attainable by some devices in
their energy conversion process.
Chemical energy and electrical energy are considered
to be high-grade energy because they can be converted
to other forms of energy. However, there is a gradual
degradation of the high-grade energy to low-grade energy
in the operation of machines as the entropy (amount of
disorder in a system) increases. It has become increasingly
more important that man explores the renewable energy
sources so that the energy demands of the future can be
met with new high-grade energy.
8.1.3 ENERGY TRANSFER DIAGRAMS
One useful way of showing the energy degradation is by
using energy transfer diagrams. For a certain fashlight,
the energy transfer can be represented as shown in the
Sankey diagram in Figure 805.
100 J chemical
energy
5 J light
energy
95 J thermal
energy
Figure 805 Sankey diagram for a torch
In a Sankey diagram, the thickness of each arrow gives an
indication of the scale of each energy transformation. Te
total energy before the energy transfer is equal to the total
energy afer the transfer otherwise the Law of conservation
of energy would be violated. Te problem is that once
the thermal energy is transferred to the surroundings, it
cannot be used to do useful work. Scientists are becoming
more aware of this waste and there are many innovations
being made in building designs to use some of this energy
for heating purposes.
Te efciency of this simple fashlight is 5%. Te
efciency of any system can be determined by using the
relationship:
useful energy output
total energy input
100% Efciency =
8.1.4 POWER STATIONS
Power stations rely on thermal energy, gravitational
potential energy or wind power to supply the kinetic
energy to rotate a turbine. Te turbine contains blades that
are made to rotate by the force of water, gas, steam or wind.
As the turbine rotates, it turns the shaf of a generator.
Te electrical energy can be produced by rotating coils in
a magnetic feld as previously discussed in the topic on
electromagnetism.
Typically, fossil fuel power stations have a higher efciency
than nuclear power stations because current technology
permits a higher temperature of 650 K versus the 570 K of
a nuclear power plant.
Te principle mechanisms involved in the production of
electrical power with fossil fuels can be demonstrated by
looking at the energy conversions in a coal-fred power
station using a Sankey energy transfer diagram as shown
in Figure 806.
100 units of
energy stored
in the fuel
9 units
wasted in
the
furnace
47 units wasted
to the cooling
towers
3 units wasted by
friction in the
turbine and the
generator
40 units of
useful energy
Figure 806 Sankey diagram
for a coal-red power station
Another useful energy transfer diagram is shown in
Figure 807. Te rectangles contain the diferent forms of
energy, the circles show the conversion process, and the

Mechanical Electric Radiant Chemical Termal
Mechanical
99% (electric generator) 100% (brakes)
Gravitational
potential
85% (water turbine) 90% (hydro- electricity)
Electric
93% (electric motor) 40% (gas laser) 72% (wet cell battery) 100% (heating coil)
Radiant
55% (wind power) 27% (solar cell) 0.6% (photosynthesis) 100% (solar furnace)
Chemical
45% (animal muscle) 10% (dry cell battery) 15% (chemical laser) 88% (steam furnace)
Termal
52% (steam turbine) 7% (thermocouple) 5% (fuorescent tube)
Figure 804 Eciency of some energy conversion devices table
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arrows show energy changes and energy outputs. Te
linked forms of energy can be said to form an energy
chain.
coal furnace
thermal
energy
steam
generator
potential
latent heat
steam
turbine
kinetic
energy
AC
generator
electrical
energy
9 units
lost as heat
100
units
40
units
lost as heat
in transition
friction
friction
50 units lost as
heat to the
cooling towers
Figure 807 Energy ow diagram
for a coal-red power station
Heat energy is produced by the combustion of coal in a
furnace. Liquid water absorbs the heat energy in a heat
exchanger under pressure, and it is turned into steam.
Te steam contains latent potential energy as it has been
converted from a liquid to a gas. Steam under pressure is
capable of doing mechanical work to supply the rotational
kinetic energy to turn the steam turbines. Te turbine is
coupled to the generator that produces electrical energy.
Energy is lost to the surroundings at many stages. For
example, if 100 units of energy are supplied from the
primary energy source then only 40 units of useful
energy is available. Te majority of the useful energy is
lost to water in the cooling towers as heat is evolved in
the condensation component of the heat exchanger cycle.
Other forms of energy loss are shown on the arrowed parts
of the diagram.
An oil-fred power station has a similar energy fow
and efciency to a coal-fred power station. However, a
natural gas-fred power station is more efcient as they
use combined cycle gas turbines (CCGT). A jet engine is
used in place of the turbine to turn the generator. Natural
gas is used to power the jet engine and the exhaust fumes
from the jet engine are used to produce steam which turns
the generator. Tese power stations can be up to 55%
efcient.
Te production of the majority of electrical power involves
the combustion of coal, natural gas and oil or the fssion of
uranium-235. It depends on the energy sources available
to countries. For example, most coal-fred power stations
are found close to the coal source. Countries like Japan rely
heavily on the importation of coal and natural gas as there
are no reserves of fossil fuels available. In mountainous
areas, hydro-electricity is common as water stored in dams
can be used to rotate turbines.
By referring to the section on electromagnetic induction
in Chapter 12 it can be deduced that a changing magnetic
fux produces an induced eletromotive force (e.m.f).
Te rotating turbines contain coils of a conducting
wire. When the coils are rotated in a magnetic feld, the
alternating current generator converts the kinetic energy
into electrical energy. An alternating current is the present
preferred option when compared to direct current because
transformers can be used to step-up and step-down the
voltage in the power grid. However, this is slowly changing
in some countries.
Te turbines drive the alternators that produce three-
phase electricity. Most generators use stationary electro-
magnets to provide the magnetic felds. Tey have a
rotating armature with hundreds of coils of copper wire
wound around an iron core. With more coils a greater
induced emf can be produced. Tese coils are arranged in
sets. By having a number of electromagnets and three sets
of armature coils for each magnetic pole of the
electromagnets, separated by an angle of 120, three e.m.fs
can be produced during each revolution of the alternator.
Tese three-phase generators are more energy efcient
then a single-phase generator. Most power stations will
have a number of generators with power ratings between
300 to 1000 MW.
Each alternator can produce voltages as high as 25kV. Step-
up transformers increase the voltage to as high as 700 kV.
Tis increased voltage results in a decreased current that
reduces the heating losses in the power transmission.
Additional transformers in the power grid further reduce
energy losses and gradually lower the voltage to the
required domestic or industrial level. Useful energy is lost
due to eddy currents in the transformers in the form of
thermal and sound energy. Termal energy is also lost due
to the current in the transmission cables.
Alternating current is the preferred transmission type.
However, more and more high voltage direct current
transmission (HVDC) is occurring. Tere are advantages
in both systems. For example, dc currents travel through
more of the cross-sectional area of a conducting cable
whereas ac currents tend to travel through the outer
portion of the cable a phenomenon known as the skin
efect. Furthermore, three-phase ac requires multiples
of 3 cables whereas dc only requires sets of 2. Tere are
also problems synchronising generating stations to run at
the same frequency. With increased globalisation and the
selling of commodities such as electric power, dc does not
have these problems.
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Exercise 8.1
1. Te most efcient energy conversion occurs in
A. tidal power stations
B. diesel engines
C. solar panels
D. hydro-electric power stations
2. Te original source of tidal power is the
A. Moon
B. Earth
C. Sun
D. water
3. Heat engines
A. produce more work output than energy
input
B. take in thermal energy at a low temperature
and exhaust it at high temperature
C. convert heat into mechanical energy
D. can be close to 100% efcient
4. All the following statements are correct EXCEPT
A. generators convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy
B. nuclear reactors convert mass into energy
C. chemical energy is a form of potential
energy
D. thermal energy and solar energy are the same
5. Two diferent objects that have diferent
temperatures are in thermal contact with one
another. It is the temperatures of the two objects
that determines,
A. the amount of internal energy in each
object
B. the process by which thermal energy is
transferred
C. the specifc heat capacity of each object
D. the direction of transfer of thermal energy
between the objects
6. A generator takes in an amount E
k
of kinetic
energy. An amount W of useful electrical energy is
produced. An amount Q of thermal energy is lost
due to the moving parts of the generator. Te law
of conservation of energy and the efciency of the
generator are given by which of the following?
Law of conservation of energy Efciency
A. E
k
= W + Q W
B. E
k
= W + Q W / E
k
C. E
k
= W Q W / Q
D. E
k
= W - Q W / (E
k
Q)
7. Te diagram below is a Sankey diagram for
a typical oil-fred power station. It shows the
useful electrical output afer the energy has been
transmitted to your home. Analyse the energy that
is lost from the energy input to the fnal energy
output. Determine the overall efciency of the
system.
8. Copy and complete the following table to show
the energy conversions for various devices. (Tere
could be more than one type of energy produced).
Device From To
Cigarette lighter
Human body
Microphone
Car engine
Light bulb
Light emitting diode
Refrigerator
Stereo speaker
Termocouple
Atomic bomb
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8.2.1 Identify dierent world energy sources.
8.2.2 Outline and distinguish between renewable
and non-renewable energy sources.
8.2.3 Dene the energy density of a fuel.
8.2.4 Discuss how choice of fuel is inuenced by
its energy density.
8.2.5 State the relative proportions of world use
of the dierent energy sources that are
available.
8.2.6 Discuss the relative advantages and
disadvantages of various energy sources.
IBO 2007
8.2.1 DIFFERENT WORLD ENERGY
SOURCES
Most of the energy supply used today is derived from
fossil fuels which are naturally occurring fuels that have
been formed from the remains of plants and animals over
millions of years. Te common fossil fuels are peat, coal,
crude oil, oil shale, oil tar and natural gas.
When these fuels are burnt in air (oxygen) they produce
carbon dioxide (CO
2
), water and varying amounts of
energy per kilogram of fuel. Tere are also indirect means
of producing thermal energy by the chemical and physical
processing of fossil fuels such as coke and coal gas from
coal, and petrol from crude oil.
Although the main products of the combustion of fossil
fuels are carbon dioxide and water there are many other
products that are released into the environment. Because
of incomplete combustion, carbon (soot) and carbon
monoxide (a poisonous gas in high concentrations) are
also produced. Furthermore, pollution is caused by the
emmision of sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, unburnt
hydrocarbons and particulate matter.
Because of the abundance of carbon dioxide in the air
from the carbon cycle, disposal of carbon dioxide into
the air was believed to be harmless. However, it is a well
known fact the the percentage of carbon dioxide in the
air is increasing. Even if volcanic activity, forest fres and
burning of to clear land has changed this composition,
there is little doubt that mans use of fossil fuels has
contributed to the increased concentration of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. Tere has been an increased
anxiety by many scientists, world leaders of governments
and environmentalists as well as world citizens as to the
long term efects of carbon dioxide increase. Many believe
that these increase in concentration is increasing the
temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans because of
the enhanced greenhouse efect.
Te primary source of world energy has directly or
indirectly had its origin due to the radiant energy from
the Sun. Te Sun is a medium-size hydrogen/helium star
that uses nuclear fusion to convert millions of tonnes of
mass into energy each second. It has been in existence in
excess of 6 billion years and it has enough hydrogen to last
for at least another 8 billion years. It has been providing
90% of the thermal energy needed to heat the Earth to a
temperature comfortable enough for a diversity of living
things to exist.
For recorded history, the Sun has allowed plants and
certain bacteria to convert solar energy into chemical
energy stored in sugars and other carbon compounds.
First-order consumers eat plants and other higher order
consumers eat both plants and other animals to obtain
the chemical energy necessary to survive. However, even
today, up to 40% of the worlds population does not get
the minimum requirement of 8500 kJ of energy through
food per day. Apart from the fact that the Sun produces
90% of the thermal energy needed to heat the Earth, it is
also indirectly responsible for wind, ocean currents, wave
action, water evaporation and precipitation, food, wood,
biomass and the fossil fuels.
Some of these properties are now being used for alternative
energy sources such as hydroelectricity, wind power,
biogas, passive solar energy panels and photovoltaic cells.
Nuclear fssion is the source of nuclear energy in reactors
and geothermal plants. Te process of nuclear fusion
reactors is being developed. Te Moons gravitation is
the cause of tides and there are a few tidal power stations
in operation. Chemical energy is also used for supply of
energy in batteries and fuel cells.
8.2 WORLD ENERGY SOURCES
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8.2.2 NON-RENEWABLE AND
RENEWABLE ENERGY
A non-renewable source is one that is considered to be a
temporary source that is depleted when it is used. (Nuclear
energy could be considered to be a non-renewable source
of energy also. However, modern breeder reactors can
produce more fssionable material than they consume
and it is estimated that reserves of nuclear fuels could last
for several thousand years. We will not treat uranium as
a non-renewable source and we never consider it to be a
fossil fuel).
Coal is an organic material made up primarily of carbon,
along with varying amounts of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
and sulfur. It is a sedimentary rock usually found as
layers associated with sandstone and shale. It is the most
abundant fossil fuel and has a high heat of combustion. It
is formed by the partial decomposition of plant material.
If you look at peat or brown coal under a microscope, bits
of fossilised wood, leaves, and other plant material can
be seen. When it was formed millions of years ago in the
Carboniferous or younger geological periods such as the
Permian period, there was abundant plant growth. Te
plant material was laid down in waters
with a low fow rate
free of excessive minerals
where there was an absence of air
that received little other sediment
Swamps would have been good environments for the
beginning of coal formation because in stagnant water
very little oxygen is present. In a swampy environment,
anaerobic bacteria attack plant matter and partially
decompose it. Carbon becomes concentrated in the
remains. Te bacteria gradually decrease, as they are killed
by the poisonous acids produced in the decomposition
process. At this stage, the plant matter is converted to
peat.
Peat is a brownish material that looks like wood. Although
it can be burnt as a fuel, it contains a lot of water, and is
very smoky when burnt.
As the peat became buried beneath more plant matter, the
pressure and temperature increased and the water was
squeezed out of it. At a later stage in geological history, the
swamp was covered rapidly with a sedimentary layer of
rock. As the material became compacted the carbon
content increased and the peat converted to lignite, then
to sub-bituminous coal and fnally bituminous coal. If
the coal strata were then subjected to folding which
increases the heat and pressure, a metamorphic rock called
anthracite is formed. At each stage in the rank advance,
the coal has a higher carbon content and a higher energy
content per unit mass. Figure 811 demonstrates the
formation of diferent coals.
Swamp
Peat (50 m)
Bacterial
decomposition P
P
Lignite (10 m) Bituminous coal (5 m)
Anthracite P Overlying sediment pressure
Carbon: 60% 70% 80% 95%
Energy: 5,500,000 6,500,000 7,800.000 8,600,000
NB: The energy is the Energy per kilogram(calories).
Figure 811 The formation of coal
Crude oil and natural gas are products of the
decomposition of marine plants and animals that were
rapidly buried in sedimentary basins where there was
a lack of oxygen. Te organic material was laid down
in a body of stagnant water where the presence of the
depositing organic matter created an acid environment.
Te organic matter was quickly buried beneath mud.
Te source rocks were buried under sufcient cover of
overlaying strata so that the conditions were right for
the conversion of the organic matter in the source rock
into hydrocarbons and other organic compounds. When
the hydrocarbons and other organic compounds were
generated, they were dispersed as individual molecules in
the source rock. With increased heat, pressure and Earth
movement, these molecules migrated into other porous,
permeable reservoir rocks. With further heat and pressure,
these reservoir rocks became trapped between impervious
(non-porous) cap rocks. Te oil and gas in the reservoir
rocks also became trapped with the less dense gas rising
to the top and the more dense liquid and solid crude oil
sinking to the bottom of the trapped reserve. Figure 812
shows the accumulation in a reservoir rock.
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Gas
OIL
Shale or limestone
Sandstone
resevoir
rocks
Water drive
Cap rock
Oil fow
Shale or limestone
Figure 812 Accumulation of oil in reservoir rock
A borehole is drilled into the rock containing hydrocarbons
using diamond core bits, and the reservoir is opened to
the atmosphere and afer the release of the natural gas the
crude oil is pumped to the surface. If the pressure is not
great enough or the liquid is too viscous to fow, the crude
oil can be pumped to the surface.
Te crude oil is separated into fractions in a fractionating
column using fractional distillation. Te crude oil is
heated to about 400 C to produce a hot liquid/vapour
mixture. Te lower boiling point components rise higher
up in the fractionating column where they are condensed.
Te higher boiling point components are removed lower
in the fractionating column.
Crude oil is found as a liquid or a vapour although some
oil can exist as a solid. Te solid/ liquid components are
known as crude oil and the gaseous component is known
as natural gas.
Although hydrocarbons have been found in rocks formed
more than a billion years ago, it is thought that most
reserves were formed less than 500 million years ago.
Some formed as recently as 10 million years ago, and it is
believed that some is being formed today.
Oil shale and oil tar deposits make up less than 2% of
the worlds fossil reserves. Oil shale is complex solid
hydrocarbon material called kerogen. It is found in a fne-
grained sedimentary rock called marl. Exploration and
refning of this material began during the 1980s when
oil prices escalated. It requires a high capital outlay to
produce the fuel from the kerogen and at this stage it is
not considered viable for economic reasons. Tar sands are
deposits that contain a tarlike material called bitumen.
It is found in the same geographic areas as oil is. It can be
pyrolysed to produce crude oil. Te extraction and refning
of tar sands can be done at a price similar to crude oil.
Tere are a number of tar oil plants in North America.
As fossil fuels are exhausted, we will come to rely on
alternative renewable energy sources. A renewable energy
source is one that is permanent or one that can be
replenished as it is used. Renewable sources being
developed for commercial use include nuclear fssion,
solar energy, biomass, wind energy, tidal energy, wave
energy, hydro-electric energy and geothermal energy.
Nuclear fusion is likely to be the energy source of the
future but at this stage the reaction of the fusion elements
can neither be contained nor controlled.
Figure 813 shows some of the processes whereby renewable
energy is produced in industrialised societies.
CHEMICAL
POTENTIAL
ENERGY
SOLAR ENERGY
Waves Wi nd Solar cells
geothermal
biomass
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY
fuel
biomass
NUCLEAR
ENERGY
nuclear fssion
GRAVITATIONAL
POTENTIAL
ENERGY
tidal
hydroelectric
Figure 813 Renewable energy transformations
8.2.3 ENERGY DENSITY OF A FUEL
Energy density of a fuel is the amount of potential
energy stored in a fuel per unit mass, or per unit volume
depending on the fuel being discussed. In some cases it is
obvious from context which quantity is most useful. For
example, for coal, nuclear fuels and crude oil, energy per
unit mass is the most important parameter. However, when
discussing pressurized gases the energy per unit volume
is more appropriate. When comparing, for example, the
efectiveness of hydrogen fuel to petrol or gasoline both
fgures are appropriate. Tis is because hydrogen gas has
a higher energy density per unit mass than does gasoline,
but a much lower energy density per unit volume in most
applications.
We are interested in the chemical potential energy storage
within a fuel. Terefore, the energy density relates the
mass of an energy store to its stored energy. Te higher
the energy density, the more energy may be stored or
transported for the same amount of mass.
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Energy Density Of A Fuel = Chemical Potential Energy Mass
It is measured in joules per gram (J g
-1
). Bomb calorimetry
is used to determine the value and this technique requires
only small masses of a sample. However, the joule is a
small quantity and therefore it is more common to use
bigger units such as megajoules per kilogram MJ kg
-1
.
Figure 814 gives some approximate energy density values
for some fuels. When solving examination questions please
consult the table that is provided in the IB Data Booklet.
Type Of Fuel
Gravimetric
Energy
Density
MJ kg
-1
Volumetric
Energy
Density
MJ dm
-3
Wood 15
Coal 24 20
Crude Oil 42 27
LPG (Liquefed Petroleum Gas) 34.5 22
Compressed Natural Gas 55-56 10
Aviation Fuel 43 33
Ethanol 29.6 20
Plant Biomass 18
Lead-acid Battery 0.1
Nuclear Fission Of U-235 300 000 000
Nuclear Fusion 90 000 000
Figure 814 Energy density values for some fuels table
8.2.4 ENERGY DENSITY AND CHOICE
OF FUEL
Figure 814 clearly shows that the energy density of
uranium-235 would make it the best fuel per kilogram.
However, nuclear power stations are very expensive to
build and the cost for the production of electricity per
kilowatt-hour is more expensive than the fossil fuels.
Tere are also political, social and environmental factors
to consider. Te use of fossil fuels is the most cost efective
way to produce energy.
Depending on the situation with regards to the use and
storage of a fuel, the energy density will be an important
consideration. For example, natural gas can be piped from
the gas feld to a site usually close to a shipping terminal
where it can be placed in tanks as compressed natural gas
and then be transported by ship to various countries in
need of this fuel.
Te energy density of coal is not the only consideration
that has to be calculated. Its rank, chemical composition
and heating ability are other important factors (refer to
Figure 815). Coal with diferent rank advance will produce
difering amounts of heat for a given mass. Te grade of
a sample of coal does not always indicate the chemical
composition of that coal. However, with rank advance
the purity of carbon content generally increases from
peat lignite (brown coal) sub-bituminous coal
bituminous coal anthracite. Chemical composition of
the coal is defned in terms of the analysis of its moisture
content, volatile matter (percentage of the coal that is lost
as vapours when heated in the absence of air), ash, and
fxed carbon. Table 815 lists some typical moisture values
of some ranks of coal.
Rank Of Coal
Percentage Moisture
Content
Peat 75 80
Lignite 50 70
Bituminous Coal 5 10
Anthracite 2 5
Figure 815 Dierent coals
If the coal is dried and analysed then the percentage by
composition of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and volatile
matter changes. Figure 816 lists the approximate
percentage composition by mass of diferent ranks of coal
afer they have been dried.
Component
Percentage By Mass
Peat Lignite
Bituminous
Coal
Anthracite
Carbon 50 60 60 75 80 90 90 95
Oxygen 35 40 20 30 10 15 2 3
Hydrogen 5 6 5 6 4 5 2 3
Volatile matter 60 65 45 55 20 40 5 7
Figure 816 Compostion of coal
Because of the high composition of volatile matter in peat
and lignite, they cannot be transported for long distances
because of safety risks. Usually, a power station will be
placed where the mine is located.
Other elemental analysis of nitrogen and sulfur within the
coal will determine the choice when using various coals.
Te coal in some countries has a high sulfur content and
this greatly afects air quality in some areas. On the other
hand, Australian bituminous coal and anthracite is low in
sulfur and it has become a top export fuel to Asia.
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Example 1
A sample of lignite has a moisture content of 65%.
(i) Determine how much water is in a 10 tonne
sample of this coal before crushing and drying?
(ii) Explain how the moisture content will reduce
the amount of heat that can be obtained from
combustion of the coal.
Solution
(i) Tere is 65% moisture content.
Terefore, the amount of water will be
0.65 10 000 kg = 6 500 kg
(ii) Te more water present, the less coal there is to burn
and some of the heat released has to be used to heat
and evaporate the water.
Example 2
A sample of anthracite has a moisture content of 5% and
when dried it has an energy density of 35 kJ g
-1
. Assuming
that during coal combustion the temperature of the
water in the coal is raised from 20
o
C to 100
o
C and then
vaporised at 100
o
C, estimate the energy density of the coal
as it is mined.
Solution
Energy required to convert the water to steam = mcT + mL
V
Since there is 5% moisture content, there is 5 g of water per
100g of coal. For 5 grams,
Q = 5g 4.18 Jg
-1
K
-1
(100
o
C 20
o
C) + 5g (22.5 10
2
J g
-1
)
= 12 922 J = 13 kJ
Te energy in the other 95 grams of anthracite is
35 kJ g
-1
95 g
= 3 325kJ
Te total usable energy in 100 grams
= 3 325 13 kJ = 3 312 kJ
For one gram this would be 33.12 kJ
Te energy density as it is mined will be 33.12 kJ per gram.
8.2.5 WORLD CONSUMPTION OF
FUELS
Figure 817 shows the approximate world consumption
fgures expressed as percentage of use.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
B
i
o
m
a
s
s

a
n
d

o
t
h
e
r
s
H
y
d
r
o
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
N
u
c
l
e
a
r
C
o
a
l
N
a
t
u
r
a
l

G
a
s
O
i
l
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
Figure 817 World fuel consumption
Te 1% for biomass and others include biomass, solar,
geothermal, wind power and other alternatives. Te
percentage use represents all uses of the fuels. Much of
the crude oil and natural gas is used for the petrochemical
industry for the manufacture of plastics, pharmaceuticals
and many more synthetic materials. Tese 2 fuels are also
used for transportation fuels. Te next biggest use is for
the production of electricity. Each country in the world
has diferent resources and as such these percentage use
will difer from country to country.
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8.2.6 ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF FUELS
Te advantages and disadvantages of coal, natural gas,
oil and nuclear fuels will be discussed in sections 8.3 and
8.4. Te importance of fuels to meet the worlds energy
consumption cannot be overlooked. Te fossil fuels
are dirty fuels and they are the cause for environmental
pollution and land degradation. Tere is little doubt that
fossil fuels are partly to blame for the increased levels of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which could be the
cause of global warming. However, there appears to be
another school of thought that argues that the increased
carbon dioxide and melting of the ice caps may be due to
natural cycles in the Earths history. Ice core samples in
Greenland have revealed that the Earth has been hotter in
the past. Where one would expect low sea level countries
like Te Maldives to have rising sea levels, it has been
found that the sea levels have actually decreased. However,
the majority of scientists believe that combustion of fossil
fuels is the major cause in global warming due to the
greenhouse efect.
Nuclear energy power stations increased during 1950-1970.
However, there was a lull in power production until the
present century due to people being unsatisfed with the
potential hazards of nuclear meltdowns as occurred in the
USA (Tree Mile Island in 1979) and the Ukraine (Chernobyl
in 1986) and the hazards associated with radioactive
wastes produced by nuclear fssion. However, there has
been a recent renaissance in nuclear power production as
governments look for greener fuels to meet there electricity
needs. France is a major producer of nuclear energy and
sells electricity to many neighbouring nations.
Hydropower accounts for 19% of the world electricity
supply, utilising one third of its economically exploitable
potential.Te advantages of hydro-electric power are
numerous. It avoids emissions of greenhouse gases, sulfur
dioxide and particulates.Te efciency is high and the
running costs are low. Tere is no pollution and the energy
resource is renewable. Te main disadvantages are that
large dams need to be built with population displacement
and the fooding of plant and animal habitats, and farming
land. Tere have been some dam failure resulting in the
death of villagers downstream from the dam reservoir.
Because of its advantages industrialised countries have
already developed their hydro-electric potential.
Geothermal power is a cheap source of energy in past and
present volcanic areas. Tere are large geothermal plants
in Iceland, Italy, New Zealand, Japan, Hawaii, Mexico and
Chile. In many places the underground temperature is
greater than 150 C at depths less than 3 kilometres and
there is commonly circulation of underground water.
Te steam that is produced is piped under pressure to
the surface to drive turbines and thus generate electricity.
Geothermal power has great potential for many countries
that have hot beds of rocks and an artesian water supply.
Te disadvantages of geothermal power include the release
of polluting gases such as as sulfur dioxide and hydrogen
sulfde into the atmosphere and groundwater pollution by
chemicals including heavy metals.
Te main advantage of tidal power is that there is
no pollution and the energy is renewable. Te main
disadvantage is that there are few areas in the world
that have the necessary tidal range. Te construction
costs are high. Because high tides occur approximately
50 minutes later each day, it is difcult to meet electricity
demand during some high peak times. Tere are also
long construction times, high capital intensity, and these
factors are likely to rule out signifcant cost reductions in
the near term.
Solar energy was neglected as an energy resource but
today there is renewed interest because of its many
advantages. It is a means of using a free, renewable energy
resource. It is available to some extent everywhere in the
world, unlike fossil fuels and nuclear power. It is exempt
from rising energy prices. Few environmental problems
are created. It can be used in a variety of energy
transformations for heating, cooling, electricity, trans-
portation, lighting and mechanical power.
Its disadvantages are also evident. It produces a small
energy output per surface area of the cell being used. For
large-scale production, it requires thousands of mirrors or
cells that take up a large area of land. It is intermittent with
its output being upset by night and clouds. It is relatively
expensive to set up and thus requires many years before
the investment is returned.
Wind power is cheap, clean, renewable and infnite. It can
be used to provide electricity to remote areas of the world.
However, winds resulting from the heating of the Earth
are somewhat unpredictable. Te initial set-up costs are
high, the structures sufer from metal fatigue and they are
noisy.Te better option being considered today is to use
wind turbines in association with another power source.
One possibility is to combine solar power and wind power.
Usually, when Sunny there is little wind but when it is
overcast there is more wind. Another possibility is to use
the wind to pump water into high dams associated with
hydro-electric power stations and then to run the water
downhill during high electricity demand periods.
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Wave and ocean current power has great potential.
Recent favourable technological developments in
Scotland, Australia, Denmark and the USA suggest that it
could provide 10% of the current world electricity supply
(if appropriately harnessed) - and the potential synergies
with the ofshore oil and gas industry. However, the
cost for electricity using waves is too high at this stage.
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) technology is
also a high potential energy source but further R&D are
still needed, in order to be able to build a representative
pilot plant to demonstrate OTECs advantages. Te most
promising wave power is the oscillating water column
(OWC) wave energy converters that will be examined in
section 8.4.21.
8.3 FOSSIL FUEL
POWER
PRODUCTION
8.3.1 Outline the historical and geographical
reasons for the widespread use of fossil
fuels.
8.3.2 Discuss the energy density of fossil fuels
with respect to the demands of power
stations.
8.3.3 Discuss the relative advantages and
disadvantages associated with the
transportation and storage of fossil fuels.
8.3.4 State the overall eciency of power
stations fuelled by dierent fossil fuels.
8.3.5 Describe the environmental problems
associated with the recovery of fossil fuels
and their use in power stations.
IBO 2007
8.3.1 FOSSIL FUELS
HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY
Until the middle of the nineteenth century, animals were
the prime source of power. Tey could exist on 8500 kJ
per day. Te ancient Greeks, Romans and Egyptians
constructed their temples, aqueducts and pyramids by
hand with the aid of oxen, horses and mules, pulleys,
levers. Te only purely mechanical sources of power were
windmills, waterwheels and sailing ships.
Since the 1400s (world population was half a billion),
as the standard of living of the world improved, the
population of the world has increased exponentially. Te
estimate of the population in 1900 was 1 billion, in 1970
it was nearing the 4 billion mark and today it has passed 6
billion. Te data in Figure 818 shows that the population
is still increasing but at a lower rate than in the past.
3 Billion
9 Billion
8 Billion
7 Billion
6 Billion
5 Billion
4 Billion
1
9
5
0
2
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
1
9
9
0
1
9
8
0
1
9
7
0
1
9
6
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
3
0
2
0
4
0
2
0
5
0
Year
P
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

(
b
i
l
l
i
o
n
s
)
0
8
9
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
10
Figure 818 Past and predicted world population growth
Consumption of natural gas, crude oil and coal has
increased dramatically to meet the demands of the
population. Te consumption of oil since 1970 has been
more than the total consumption of the previous 200 years
and half the consumption of all fossil fuels has occurred
in the past 50 years. Again, the industrialised countries
are the biggest consumers. For example, the USA with
5% of the worlds population uses 33% of the worlds total
energy whereas India with 15% of the worlds population
only consumes 1% of its total energy. More energy is used
in the USA for airconditioning than is used by 1 billion
Chinese for all their energy purposes.
Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in the world and
at this stage, we have consumed less than 10% of the
original supply. Coal will last another 400 to 600 years at
the present rate of consumption. Figure 819 demonstrates
two estimated coal production/consumption curves at a
production rate given in billions of tonnes per year.
Each tonne of coal is equivalent to 10
10
J of energy.
1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800
10
20
30
P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n
r
a
t
e
1
0
9
m
e
t
r
i
c
t
o
n
n
e
s
p
e
r
y
e
a
r
Year
Figure 819 Two estimated coal production/
consumption curves
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Te proven recoverable reserves of coal in the world was
estimated to be 1 078 734 million tonnes in 1990. Tese
reserves are found on every continent and this is the
reason for its wide use since early times. Figure 820 gives
an estimate of the coal reserves in various countries.
Country Reserve percentage
USA 24
Former USSR* 22
China 15
Australia 8
Germany 7
India 6
South Africa 5
Poland 4
Canada 2
Others 7
(* Countries in the former USSR include Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan,
Kirgyztan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.)
Figure 820 Coal reserves in the world table
We have already consumed 30% of the original supply of
oil and natural gas and it is expected that the supply of
these non-renewable sources will only last another 40 to
80 years. Figure 821 shows two estimated oil production/
consumption curves at a production rate of 10
9
barrels per
year. (We do not get oil in barrels but this is the commodity
unit of sale in business markets). Each barrel of oil is
equivalent to 5. 9 10
9
J of energy.
1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 2075 2100
10
20
30
40
80% i n 58 years
P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

1
0
9

b
a
r
r
e
l
s

p
e
r

y
e
a
r
Figure 821 Estimated world production of crude oil
Te proven recoverable reserves of oil in the world was
estimated to be 136 500 million tonnes in 1990. Tese
reserves are found mainly in the Middle East and South
America. Figure 822 gives an estimate of the oil reserves
in various countries.
Country Reserve percentage
Saudi Arabia 25
Iraq 10
UAE 10
Kuwait 10
Iran 9
Former USSR* 6
Venezuela 6
Mexico 5
USA 3
China 2
Libya 2
Nigeria/Others
2

10
Figure 822 Oil reserves in the world
Te proven recoverable reserves of gas are more widely
spread throughout the world and natural gas has become
the preferred fuel in many of the modern power stations
Figure 823 gives a percentage estimate of the gas reserves
in various countries.
Country Reserve percentage
Former USSR* 38
Iran 14
UAE 4
Saudi Arabia 4
USA 4
Qatar 4
Algeria 3
Venezuela 3
Canada 2
Iraq 2
Nigeria 2
Indonesia 2
Australia 2
Others 16
Figure 823 Gas reserves in the world
With the advent of the Industrial Revolution in the 1750s,
the steam engine and later the internal combustion energy
became the principal sources of power. At their best steam
engines were only 8% efcient. Large amounts of energy
were needed to make and run machinery, to make roads
and railway lines, to service cities as the rural population
focked to the cities for employment.
In the steam engine, water is heated in a boiler heat
reservoir (high temperature) to produce steam. Te steam
passes into an open intake valve where it expands causing
a piston to move outwards. As the piston returns to its
original position, the intake valve is closed and the exhaust
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valve opens allowing the exhaust gas to be forced into a
condenser heat reservoir (low temperature). Te cycle is
shown in Figure 824.
heat
boiler
valve
cylinder
piston
condenser
Figure 824 The steam engine
With the steam engine came the opportunity to transport
agricultural products from the country to cities and
industrial products to the country and other cities.
However, the Industrial Revolution saw the production of
large amounts of steel from iron ore and coke (a strong
porous solid composed mainly of carbon).
Terefore, the advent of industrialisation saw a marked
increase in the rate of energy useage which led to industries
being established close to the source of the fuel in order to
cut down on transportation costs. Coal is a versatile fuel
that can be used directly as a solid fuel or modifed to coke,
processed to liquid and gaseous fuels or manufactured
into a wide range of chemicals. Every tonne of a 60%
iron ore requires one tonne of coke. Before electricity was
produced afer the discovery of electromagntic induction
in 1832, town gas was produced for industry and homes
for supplying heat energy for cooking and warming houses
and for lighting. Tose countries who were successful
in modernising usually centred their manufacturing
industries close to coal mines. Tis is especially true in the
Ruhrgebiet of Germany and the coal mines of the USA,
China, Australia, United Kingdom and Russia.
Te steam engine (and steam turbine) are examples of
external combustion engines. Te fuel is burnt outside the
engine and the thermal energy is transferred to a piston or
a turbine chamber by means of steam.
Most electricity is produced today using steam turbines.
Te piston is replaced with a rotating turbine that contains
blades. Te rotating turbine converts mechanical energy
to electrical energy via a generator. Heat from a fossil fuel
(coal or natural gas) or nuclear fuel is added to water to
form high-pressure steam. Te steam performs work by
expanding against the turbine blades. To be compressed
at low pressure, the steam is condensed. Tis requires
that heat is extracted from the water, and this is achieved
by using cooling towers. Steam turbines are about 40%
efcient.
Te intensive use of electrical energy and fossil fuels for
the use in turbines and heat engines is a fairly recent
development in the history of our civilisation. Tese
engines consume large amounts of energy to the extent
that we consume up to one million kJ per person per day
in the industrialised world. Te industrial world consisting
of one-third of the worlds population consumes 80% of
the worlds energy.
8.3.2 ENERGY DENSITY OF FOSSIL
FUELS AND POWER STATION
DEMAND
Each type of fuel used in fossil fuelled power stations has
a diferent energy density. Although the energy density
of lower ranked coals is not as high as bituminous coal
and anthracite, many economic factors still make power
stations in lignite areas feasible. Te mines may be open
cut mines rather than below the surface mines, they may
be close to capital cities or they may be close to shipping
terminals. Similarly, oil felds might be close to population
areas. A big advantage of natural gas is that it does not have
to be in situ because it can be piped over long distances
thus not requiring transportation. Natural gas can be
liquefed and shipped to countries that have the demand
for this export commodity.
Tere are diferent demands on power stations throughout
a day as there are peak and of-peak periods due to our
lifestyle choices. While many industries never stop, humans
have an appetite for power from around 18:00 hours until
we go to sleep. Te frst hydro-electric power station at
Niagara Falls in New York state and Canada designed by
Nikola Tesla uses the of-peak electricity surplus to pump
the water back into containment dams above the falls.
During demand periods, the water is released from the
dams to achieve more megawatts of energy per hour.
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Figure 825 lists typical energy density values of the major
fuels used in fossil-fuelled power stations as well as petrol.
Fuel
Energy Density (Coals When Dried)
Solid Or Liquid Gas
MJ kg
-1
MJ dm
-3
MJ dm
-3
natural gas 55-56 23-24 0.038-0.039
propane 50.0 25.4 0.093
butane 49.5 28.7 0.124
gasoline 56.5 45-55
peat 25
lignite 25-30
bituminous coal 30-35
anthracite 35-38
Figure 825 Typical energy densities for
dried coals and other fuels (table)
Because of the higher energy density of natural gas, it is
becoming the preferred choice of the new power stations
that are coming into production. Natural gas is also cleaner
and less polluting than coals and oils.
Example
A coal-fred power station burns coal with 50% moisture
content. Te composition of the dried sample is found to
contain on analysis 72% carbon, 5% hydrogen and 23%
oxygen. If 500 tonnes is burnt hourly:
(a) Estimate the mass of water vapour emitted from
the cooling towers each hour.
(b) Estimate the mass of water vapour produced in a week.
(c) Estimate the volume of condensed water vapour
produced in a week.
Solution
(a) Assuming the hydrogen and oxygen is converted to
steam, the total amount of steam = 50% + 28% of
the remaining 50% = 64%
64% of 500 tonnes = 320 tonnes.
(b) 320 24 7 = 5.4 10
4
tonnes
(c) 1 tonne = 1000 kg 1dm
3
= 1kg
5.4 10
4
tonnes 1000 = 5.4 10
7
dm
3
.
Example
A 250 MW coal-fred power station burns coal with an
energy density of 35 MJ kg
-1
. Water enters the cooling
tower at a temperature of 293 K and leaves at a temperature
of 350 K and the water fows through the cooling tower at
the rate of 4200 kg s
-1
.
(a) Calculate the energy removed by the water each
second.
(b) Calculate the energy produced by the combustion
of coal each second.
(c) Calculate the overall efciency of the power
station.
(d) Calculate the mass of coal burnt each second.
Solution
(a) Te power station produces 250 MW of power per
second
Q = m c T = 4200 kg 4180 J kg
-1
K
-1
(350 293 K) =
1.000692 10
9
J
= 1 10
9
J per second = 1000 MW.
(b) Te answer is 1250 MW. 1000 MW is degraded in
the cooling tower and there is 250 MW output as
electrical energy. Terefore, the energy produced by
combustion of coal = 1000 +250 = 1250 MW.
(c) Efciency = useful energy output total energy
input 100%
= 250 1250 100% = 20%
(d) 1250 10
6
35 10
6
= 35.7 kg
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8.3.3 TRANSPORTATION AND
STORAGE OF FOSSIL FUELS
A decision to develop a coal mine, an oil feld or a gas
feld as a commercial venture requires that many factors
have to be taken into account. Some of the considerations
include
the location of the reserve
the availability of water
construction costs
the mining and treatment costs
the cost of towns and services to house the
workers and their families
the cost of transportation systems
the price obtained for the fossil fuel
the energy density of a coal
the type of light or heavy crude oil
the lifetime of the reserve
the environmental costs as imposed by
government regulations.
Transportation and storage of fossil fuels can be under-
taken using pipelines, railroads, trucks and ships. Natural
gas is usually transported and stored in pipelines although
exports of LNG are shipped in pressurised containers.
Pipelines are a cost efective means of distributing natural
gas and there are many agreements between countries
who pipe their gas to other countries as is the case with the
vast reserves of the Russian Federation. Te disadvantages
of piping gas include unsightly pipelines, possible leakage,
explosions, governments holding other countries to
ransom when they do not conform to political issues, and,
possible terrorist activities.
Many oil refneries are located near the sea close to large
cities so that the labour force and social infrastructures
are available, and to ensure that the import or export of
crude oil and it fractions can be transported by ships to
their destinations throughout the world. Te biggest
disadvantage of shipping has proven to be the oil slicks that
have threatened wildlife due to sinking and leaking ships.
At the refneries, great care has to be taken in storing the
crude oil fractions in tanks that have containment walls
to protect leakage or explosion. Pipelines are common in
many countries. However, they are unsightly and they are
open to terrorist attack as has been the case in Iraq, Nigeria
and Kuwait in recent times. Likewise, the transportation of
petrol and diesel from the cities to the outlying provinces
also has its associated hazards of leakages, transport
accidents and explosions.
Power stations using coal are preferably located near coal
mines to minimise transport costs. Furthermore, many
steel mills are located near mines as much of the coal is
required for coking (the removal of volatiles from the coal
to produce coke). Te coke is used in blast furnaces to aid
in the reduction of iron ore to iron. In Australia, around
8% of the coal mined is used for coking and 25% is used as
steaming coal in power stations. 45% is exported to Asia by
ships. Again, it is not surprising that the major coal mines
are located close to shipping docks. Te coal is railed to
the docks. Coal with high rank advance is relatively safe to
transport and store.
8.3.4 EFFICIENCY OF FOSSIL FUELLED
POWER STATIONS
Tere are three main factors which afect the efciency of
power stations:
fuel type (lignite, black coal, gas, oil)
the load factor (full load, part load)
the employed technology (conventional, combined
heat and power)
Power stations are becoming more efcient and many
conventional ones have improved their efciency by 5
to 10 percent over the last 30 years. Tis is mainly due
to a better cooling water source allowing for a greater
variation between the hot and cold reservoirs. A power
station in Denmark obtains 45% efciency, the worlds
highest for an operational, single cycle, large coal-fred plant.
Conventional coal-fred power stations can obtain
efciencies in the 33 39 percent range. Gas-powered power
stations are in the 33 46 percentage efciency range.
Te load factor is an indication of electricity used by
consumers and it is calculated by dividing the average load
by the peak load over a certain period of time. Residential
homes tend to have low load factors because people only
use electricity during certain hours of the day. Industrial
consumers will have high load factors because they operate
throughout the day and night.
Te highest efciencies are being obtained in combined
cycle plants such as the cogeneration or CHP (combined
heat and power) plants. In a combined cycle plant, surplus
heat from a gas turbine is used to produce steam which
in turn drives a steam turbine. Efciencies of over 50%
can be achieved. Furthermore, if the plants waste heat is
utilized for the heating of houses or an industrial process,
efciencies of 80% are achievable.
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8.3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL RECOVERY
AND USE CONCERNS
Coal can be mined in two ways:
Underground mine seams through tunneling
Open cut or strip mining
Te recovery of coal from underground mines is
dangerous and more expensive than open pit and strip
mining. Te mines have to be ventilated so that poisonous
and fammable gases and particulate matter are removed
and all the water has to be pumped to the surface. Tere
are many accidents due to fres and collapsing rocks. Tere
is also a risk of black lung disease to the miners due to
particulate matter accumulating in their lungs. Not all of
the coal can be removed as coal pillars support the roof
of the coal seam to stop the mine collapsing. Further
support is provided by timber, steel, concrete or roof bolts
as shown in Figure 826. In many discontinued mines there
has been collapsed roofs which cause land subsistence at
the surface and houses and other buildings can become
structurally unsafe.
Ceiling
bolts
Coal
pillar
Coal
seam
Upper rock
strata
Figure 826 Supporting the roof of a coal seam
When coal seams are close to the surface, the topsoil is
removed and the coal is mined in open cut pits. In strip
mining, the overburden rock strata and soil is removed and
piled on the previously mined area and mining proceeds
in a series of strips across the coal seam. Most of the coal
can be be extracted and the cost is less expensive than
underground mining. Lower grade coals can be used. If
the land is not reclaimed within a short period then water
erosion can occur and sulfur deposits can react with these
to form acid. Reclamation of the land can be undertaken
by covering the ugly area with topsoil and planting trees
and grass over the area. Some power plants use the ash
from coal combustion to fll the area. However, the ash
combines with water to form alkalis. It has also become
popular to use compacted garbage to fll the land.
Crude oil and natural gas recovery is very expensive when
compared to coal mining. It can take 30 years of geological
mapping, geophysical seismic exploration, geochemical
surveys, core sampling for botanical microorganisms,
drill prospecting, onshore and ofshore engineering and
construction of production facilities before a substantial
sedimentary basin reserve comes into production at costs
around 10 000 million dollars.
If the sedimentary basin looks promising then a drilling
program begins. Oil formations are usually drilled using
mud-rotary and diamond core drilling.
Te mud-rotary method consists of a tri-cone bit with
water and clay circulation which stops the hole in the
relatively sof sedimentary rock from collapsing. Te
geologists get information from these holes by examining
the rock chips called cuttings or by lowering geophysical
instruments down the hole. Some mud-rotary holes for oil
exploration can be as deep as 9 kilometres and may cost
in the vicinity of 2 million dollars per hole. In diamond
core drilling, a drill bit set with small diamonds can drill
through very hard rocks. A cylindrical core of the rock
formations is brought to the surface and information can
be gathered.
Tere are onshore and ofshore reserves in basins at a
depth usually between 2 to 6 kilometres underground.
Ofshore drilling is very expensive and therefore once a
drilling platform has been anchored in the sea, between
10 and 30 wells are drilled using a technique known as
directional drilling. Te holes reach out from the platform
to the target areas. Te platforms have to be a safe work
environment for up to 80 workers whose job it is to drill
holes, supervise production, maintain the platform,
provide food and accommodation. Te platforms also
need space for a helipad, cranes, communication dishes
and towers and safety capsules.
Te gas and crude are brought to the surface by natural
water drive or by artifcial means. Te water/oil mixture
is passed through a separator and the water, sand
and gases in solution are removed. Te oil is pumped
through pipelines under high pressure to sea terminals
and refneries. Natural gas is mainly methane but it also
contains ethane, propane, butane, pentane and impurities
of sulfur and nitrogen compounds. Te impurities have to
be removed to give the natural gas a marketable value.
Ofshore exploration has little efect on the environment.
Dynamite is no longer used to cause shock waves for
seismic exploration. Modern air guns have little harmful
efect to marine life. Te greatest source of environmental
damage can be caused by oil blowouts when the pressure
in the reservoir exceeds the pressure of the mud column
in the drill hole.
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Figure 827 shows the quantities of fuel and air used
hourly in a typical coal-fred power station and the hourly
production of exhaust gases and ash.
9100 tonnes of fue gases
8200 tonnes of air
1000 tonnes of coal
100 tonnes of ash
FURNACE
75.6% N
2
23.1% O
2
1.2% Ar
0.1% CO
2
68% N
2
, 22% CO
2
, 5% H
2
O, 3% O
2
2% made up of Ar, NO, SO
2
Figure 827 Hourly use of reactants
and products of a coal power station
Pollutants are substances that have undesirable efects
on living things and property. Air pollution occurs when
these pollutants are introduced into the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are the major
pollutants introduced into the air by fossil-fuelled power
stations. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas that reduces
the ability of the blood to transport oxygen from the lungs
to the cells in the body. If the carbon monoxide is in a high
enough concentration, the haemoglobin reacts with the
carbon monoxide rather than the oxygen and poisoning
or death can occur. Luckily, most of the carbon monoxide
is quickly removed from the atmosphere by soil bacteria.
Carbon dioxide as already noted is increasing in the
atmosphere and it is believed that infra-red radiation is
being trapped in the atmosphere due to carbon dioxide
increase. Trough the enhanced greenhouse efect, the
lower atmosphere temperature could increase by several
degrees and this will contribute to global warming.
Te sulfur dioxide results from the combustion of carbon
compounds containing sulfur and the oxidation of metal
sulfdes in the coal. Attempts are made to minimise sulfur
gases in a scrubber. Sulfur dioxide can combine with
water in the atmosphere to form sulfurous acid (H
2
SO
3
),
a mildly acidic solution that falls as acid rain. Many plants
are sensitive to sulfur dioxide as it reduces the production
of chlorophyll and their leaves turn yellow. At higher
concentrations it can cause plants and trees to dry out,
bleach and die. Humans who sufer from respiratory
problems can have problems when the gas reacts with
moisture above the larynx. Te efects are increased further
if particles are present as the sulfur dioxide adheres to them
and they are carried into the bronchus and alveoli. Sulfur
dioxide can also reduce the growth of nitrogen-fxing soil
bacteria. Petroleum refning and the production of coke
also contribute to atmospheric sulfur dioxide.
Oxides of nitrogen are formed either from the combustion
of carbon compounds containing nitrogen or the reaction
at high temperature between nitrogen and oxygen
in the air. Tese oxides of nitrogen can also be an
environmental hazard. Te reactions of oxides of nitrogen
and hydrocarbons can produce photochemical smog. In
the presence of ultra-violet radiation nitrogen dioxide
decomposes to an oxygen free radical that can react with
oxygen molecules to form ozone which is harmful to
plants and animals.
Power stations and factories produce particulate matter
(small dust particles or ash) in the form of silica and
metallic oxides, silicates and sulfates. By the use of
electrostatics, much of this matter can be removed so that
it does not enter the atmosphere, and the removed matter
can be recycled to produce construction materials such as
bricks. Figure 816 shows the basics of a typical electrostatic
precipitator.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Positively charged mesh
smoke particles
metal plates
metal plates
are earthed
Chimney
smoke and
dust particles
Figure 828 Schematic diagram
of an electrostatic precipitator
A metal grid made of mesh is charged positively to about
50 000 V to cause the smoke surrounding it to be ionised
to produce electrons and positive smoke ions. Te positive
ions are repelled from the mesh and attach themselves to
some of the dust particles in the smoke. Te charged dust
particles are attracted to Earthed plates where they stick.
A mechanical device hits the plates periodically and the
ash falls into collecting bins.
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Exercise 8.3
1. Which one of the following is not considered to be
a fossil fuel?
A. wood
B. uranium
C. coal
D. crude oil
2. Te correct rank advance for rank advance of coal is:
A. lignite, peat, bituminous coal, anthracite
B. bituminous coal, peat, anthracite, lignite
C. peat, lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite
D. anthracite, lignite, bituminous coal, peat
3. Te fuel below with the highest energy density
value is:
A. coal
B. crude oil
C. ethanol
D. compressed natural gas
4. Why are energy density values of fuels usually
expressed in J g
-1
rather than kJ mol
-1
?
5. A schematic diagram of a typical coal-fred power
station is shown in the fgure below.
Coal
storage
Crusher
Coal
Bin
Pulveriser
BottomAsh
Boiler
Steam
Turbine
Generator
Cooling
water
Water
Top ash
Electrostatic
precipitator
Combustion gases
Set up transformer
Electricity
Coal delivery
Suggest a reason why coal is ground to a fne
powder before combustion.
6. A sample of lignite has a moisture content of
65% and when dried it has an energy density of
28 kJ g
-1
. Assuming that during coal combustion
the temperature of the water in the coal is raised
from 20 C to 100 C and then vaporised at 100 C,
estimate the energy density of the coal as it is mined.
7. A coal-fred power station burns coal with 30%
moisture content. Te composition of the dried
sample is found to contain on analysis 70%
carbon, 5% hydrogen and 25% oxygen. If 1000
tonnes is burnt hourly:
(a) Estimate the mass of water vapour emitted
from the cooling towers each hour?
(b) Estimate the mass of water vapour
produced in a week?
(c) Estimate the volume of condensed water
vapour produced in a week?

8. It has been suggested that crude oil should be used
for other purposes rather than as a transportation
fuel. Deduce the reasoning behind this statement.
9. Assume that a sample of coal has an empirical
formula C
5
H
4
and that a coal-fred power station
burns a 1000 tonne of coal per hour.
(a) Write an equation for the complete
combustion of the coal.
(b) Calculate the mass of oxygen required for
this combustion each hour.
(c) If 25 dm
3
of oxygen is required per mole,
calculate the volume of oxygen that is
required each hour for this combustion.
(d) Air contains approximately 20% oxygen.
What volume of air is required hourly.
10. A coal-fred power station has a power output of
500 MW and operates at an efciency of 35%. Te
energy density of the coal being consumed during
combustion is 31.5 MJ kg
-1
.
(a) Determine the rate at which heat is being
produced by the burning coal.
(b) Determine the rate at which coal is being
burned.
(c) Te heat is discarded into the cooling
towers of the power plant and is then stored
in containment reservoirs. Determine the
water fow rate needed to maintain the
water temperature in the towers at 10 C.
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Nuclear power
8.4.1 Describe how neutrons produced in a
ssion reaction may be used to initiate
further ssion reactions (chain reaction).
8.4.2 Distinguish between controlled
nuclear ssion (power production) and
uncontrolled nuclear ssion (nuclear
weapons).
8.4.3 Describe what is meant by fuel enrichment.

8.4.4 Describe the main energy transformations
that take place in a nuclear power station.
8.4.5 Discuss the role of the moderator and the
control rods in the production of controlled
ssion in a thermal ssion reactor.
8.4.6 Discuss the role of the heat exchanger in a
ssion reactor.
IBO 2007
8.4.1 THE ROLE OF NEUTRONS IN
NUCLEAR FISSION
Recall that nuclear reactions are reactions that result in
changes to the nuclei and occur whenever a parent nuclide
gains, loses or changes one of its nucleons (a nuclear
particle such as a proton or neutron). Te products of
the transmutation are daughter nuclides and elementary
particles. One way to cause a nuclear transmutation is
using a nuclear fssion reaction. In this transmutation, a
stable parent nuclide is bombarded with slow or thermal
(with energy 1 eV or speeds of 1.2 10
3
ms
-1
or 1.2 km s
-1
)
neutrons in what is called neutron activation.
Figure 830 shows a schematic representation of the nuclear
fssion of U235. An intermediate unstable nucleus U236
that fssions rapidly then produces two daughter nuclides
(M
1
a smaller- and M
2
a larger fragment), fast neutrons
with speeds near 2 10
7
m s
-1
(20 000 km s
-1
), elementary
particles such as neutrinos () and particles, and
radiation.
Te process of nuclear fssion and the manner of how a neutron
fred at a nuclide can produce smaller fragments is explained
using the liquid drop model as shown in Figure 831.
n
(Bombarding neutron)
U
235

fast

fast

fast

M
1
M
2

fast fast neutrino

neutrino
beta rays

gamma rays
M
1
M
2
light fission fragment
heavier fission fragment
U
236 short lived, vibrating high energy nucleus
U
236
Figure 830 Nuclear ssion of U235
An analogy to help explain this could be a drop of water
when it breaks up as it falls from a dripping tap. Te water
droplet can be seen to be stretching and wobbling before
it breaks apart into smaller fragments. Te counter forces
of surface tension and intermolecular forces between
the water molecules are holding the water droplet intact
before it breaks up.
Bombarding
neutron
INITIAL STATE
FINAL STATE
Ba
141
Kr
92
n
n
n
n neutron
U
235
Figure 831 The liquid drop model
In a similar manner, the balance of electrostatic forces
between protons and the short- range strong nuclear force
holds the nucleus together. If a fast neutron was fred at the
nucleus, it would pass straight through the nucleus leaving
it unchanged. However, with a slow neutron absorbed, the
unstable isotope U236 is momentarily formed causing
the nucleus to deform due to the balance of forces being
disturbed. Te nucleus oscillates and the electrostatic
repulsive forces between the protons dominate causing
the nucleus to break up into two smaller fragments. Te
long-ranged coulombic forces of repulsion between the
protons now dominate over the short-ranged nuclear
forces of attraction.
8.4 NONFOSSIL FUEL POWER PRODUCTION
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In any nuclear reaction, certain Conservation Laws govern
the reaction:
1. momentum is conserved (relativistically)
2. total charge is conserved (charge of products =
charge of reactants)
3. the number of nucleons remain constant
4. mass-energy is conserved ( E = mc
2
)
Since the parent nuclide is stationary, the kinetic energy
before the reaction is due to the kinetic energy of the fred
neutron. However, the kinetic energy afer the reaction is
greater than the kinetic energy of the initial neutron the
mass defect m has been changed into energy E.
Te smallest possible amount of fssionable material that
will sustain a chain reaction is called the critical mass.
Te critical mass is determined when one of the neutrons
released by fssion will cause another fssion. Apart from
the amount of fssionable material, the shape of the
material is also important. Te preferred fuel for thermal
reactors is solid uranium pellets contained in cylindrical
fuel rods made of a zirconium alloy. Tis alloy is capable
of withstanding high temperatures without distorting
and becoming stuck in the fuel rod cavities. Not all the
neutrons produced will leak from the reactor core and this
is taken into consideration when determining the critical
mass. Typically in a small thermal reactor, the critical mass
(contained as pellets in the fuel rods) is a few kilograms in
mass. Tere are about 150 fuel assemblies (see Figure 832)
containing about 60 fuel rods each placed into the core of
the reactor. In the Chernobyl nuclear accident of 1986, it
was determined that the ziconium alloy cladding of the
fuel rods overheated and led to the release of the fssion
products causing a meltdown in the reactor core.
Control rods Fuel rods
Figure 832 Fuel rod assembly
8.4.2 CONTROLLED AND
UNCONTROLLED NUCLEAR
FISSION
In 1938, two German scientists, Otto Hahn and Fritz
Strassmann following on from the works of the Italian
scientist, Enrico Fermi, found that when uranium-235 was
bombarded with neutrons, two lighter fragment daughter
nuclides and other rare Earth elements were formed. Two
of the many possible nuclear transmutation reactions are
In other words, not every nucleus of U235 produces
the same two daughter nuclides although some daughter
fragments are more probable than others. In general we
can write:
where x is a positive integer.
Te implications of this research would have far-reaching
consequences in the history of our civilisation. In 1939,
Albert Einstein wrote to the then US president Franklin
Roosevelt discussing the military applications of fssion
research. Within a short time, Te Manhattan Project,
the precursor for the design of the bombs that destroyed
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan, had begun. Today, the
threat of military use of nuclear fssion is still real and the
United Nations is concerned that some countries may have
nuclear weapon ambition. However, the fssion process
has valid uses in medical research and power generation.
When fssion takes place, additional neutrons (2 or 3) are
released which leads to the possibility of producing a self-
sustaining chain reaction as demonstrated in Figure 833.
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lost neutron
1st generation 2nd generation 3rd generation 4th generation
neutron neutron neutron neutron
U
235
92
Figure 833 The principle of a chain reaction
If there are too few neutrons the nuclear chain reaction will
cease and the reactor will shut down. If there are too many
neutrons a runaway reaction will cause an explosion. Te
reaction will become uncontrolled as in a typical atomic
bomb where enough fssionable material is in a sufciently
small space. In a nuclear reactor, if a chain reaction was
to occur, the large amounts of energy would cause the
fuel to melt and set fre to the reactor in what is called a
meltdown.
8.4.3 FUEL ENRICHMENT
Not all uranium atoms will undergo fssion in a controlled
manner. Natural uranium obtained from oxides of
uranium ores such as pitchblende consists of 99.3% of the
uranium238 isotope, 0.7% of the uranium235 isotope
and 0.006% uranium234.
U238 and U234 are not fssionable with thermal
neutrons. Only U235 is readily fssionable with thermal
neutrons (neutrons that have energy comparable to gas
particles at normal temperatures). Most commercial
reactors are thermal reactors.
Most thermal reactor fuel is a mixture of fssionable and
fertile material but it is enriched with U235 to increase the
probability of fssion occurring. Te common enrichment
procedure involves the formation of uranium hexafuoride
gas followed by the separation of the U235 and U238
isotopes in a gas centrifuge.
8.4.4 ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS OF
A NUCLEAR POWER STATION
Te principle mechanisms involved in the production of
electrical power can be demonstrated by looking at the
energy conversions in a power station using an energy
fow diagram as shown in Figure 834. Te rectangles
contain the diferent forms of energy, the circles show the
conversion process, and the arrows show energy changes
and energy outputs. Te linked forms of energy can be
said to form an energy chain.
uranium
reactor
core
thermal
energy
steam
generator
potential
latent heat
steam
turbine
kinetic
energy
AC
generator
electrical
energy
15 units
lost as heat
100
units
30
units
lost as heat
in transmission
friction
friction
50 units lost as
heat to the
cooling towers
Figure 834 Principal mechanisms
in a nuclear power station
Te efciency can be represented by the Sankey diagram
as in Figure 835.
15 units lost
in the reactor
core
50 units lost as
heat to the
cooling towers
5 units lost due to
friction and
transmission
30 units
electrical
output
100 units
input
Figure 835 The eciency of a power station
Heat energy is produced by the fssion of uranium nuclei
in the core of the nuclear reactor. Heavy water absorbs
the heat energy in a heat exchanger under pressure, and
it is turned into steam. Te steam contains latent potential
energy as it has been converted from a liquid to a gas.
Steam under pressure is capable of doing mechanical work
to supply the rotational kinetic energy to turn the steam
turbines. Te turbine is coupled to the generator that
produces electrical energy.
Energy is lost to the surroundings at many stages. For
example, if 100 units of energy are supplied from the
primary energy source then only 30 units of useful
energy is available. Te majority of the useful energy is
lost to water in the cooling towers as heat is evolved in
the condensation component of the heat exchanger cycle.
Other forms of energy loss are shown on the arrowed parts
of the diagram.
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8.4.5 ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A
THERMAL FISSION REACTOR
Te essential features of a thermal reactor are:
the fuel
a moderator
the control rods
the coolant
radiation shielding
Te moderator is a material that will slow down the
fast neutrons to the speed of the slow thermal neutrons
needed for a self-sustained reaction without absorbing the
neutrons when they collide with the moderator material.
Te moderator material is placed around the reactor core
and in between each of the fuel assemblies. In order to be
efective, the moderator must have a mass very close to
the mass of a neutron so that the fast neutron can loose
maximum energy in a single collision. Moderators include
ordinary water, heavy water (D
2
O), graphite, beryllium or
liquid sodium. In the Chernobyl accident, the graphite
core caught fre. Graphite fres are almost impossible to
fully extinguish. Te reactor core sank to the bottom of the
reactor building and a theory called the China Syndrome
developed that the core could continue to burn out of
control until it would eventually penetrate the Earths
surface.
If this had occurred, the core would have reached the water
table and there would have been a massive radioactive
cloud of steam many times the radioactivity of the original
cloud. Fortunately, this did not happen.
Te rate of nuclear fssion in the reactor core can be
controlled by inserting or removing the control rods.
Te control rods are constructed of materials that absorb
neutrons. Te rods are usually steel rods containing boron
or cadmium that are said to have high neutron capture per
cross-section. Most reactors have two sets of control rods:
one set of regulating rods for routine control of the fssion
rate, the other as a safety measure in case they have to be
lowered into the core during an emergency shut-down.
Te regulating rods can be added or removed, or partially
or fully inserted into the core as needed. Tere can be a
large number of control rods in or out of a reactor.
Te coolant circulates through the reactor core and
removes thermal energy transferring it to where it can do
useful work by converting water into steam. Te energy
release in a single fssion reaction is about 200 MeV or
3.2 10
-11
J. Because the coolant is in direct contact with the
reactor core, it can become radioactive and contaminated.
Terefore, the coolant must exchange its heat with a
secondary cooling circuit through a heat exchanger. Te
steam produced in the secondary loop drives a turbine
to produce electricity. Te low pressure steam that
passes through the turbine is passed into cooling ponds
or cooling towers where the excess heat is dissipated.
Common coolants include air, helium gas, heavy water,
liquid sodium or certain liquid organic compounds. In
many reactors, the coolant is also the moderator.
Te radiation shielding ensures the safety of personnel
working inside and around the reactor from sufering
the ill efects of radiation exposure. Tere are usually two
shields: several metres of high-density concrete to protect
the walls of the reactor core from radiation leakage and to
help refect neutrons back into the core and a biological
shield to protect personnel made of several centimetres of
high density concrete.
A typical schematic diagram of a thermal reactor is shown
in Figure 836.
Pump
Pump
Coolant
Coolant
Low pressure water High pressure water
Hot water
Cool water
Steam condenser
Core
(Fuel & moderator)
Fuel rods
High pressure steam
Steam
turbine
Electric generator
Low
pressure
steam
Steam
generator
Primary loop Secondary loop
Figure 836 A schematic thermal reactor
8.4.6 THE HEAT EXCHANGER IN
NUCLEAR REACTORS
Recall that we cannot convert all the random motion
associated with the internal energy into useful work but
we can at least extract some useful work from internal
energy using a heat engine. To make a heat engine, we
need a source of heat and a working fuid. Recall also that
according to the Second Law of Termodynamics that it is
impossible to construct a heat engine operating in a cycle
that extracts heat from a reservoir and delivers an equal
amount of work.
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A heat exchanger is a system basically acting as a heat
engine driven by chemical reactions (the combustion of
fossil fuels) or by nuclear reactions. Te working fuid is
water heated in a boiler that is converted to steam at high
pressure. In a nuclear power station, the heat produced by
the nuclear reactor is fed via the closed primary loop to a
steam generator vessel.
Te steam generated expands adiabatically against the
blades of a turbine a fan-like structure that spins when
struck by the steam. Te turbine is coupled to a generator
that converts mechanical kinetic energy to electrical
energy. Te energy fow diagram of a heat exchanger is
shown in Figure 837.
High temperature reservoir at T
H
Q
H
Q
L
W
Lowtemperature reservoir at T
L
Figure 837 Energy ow diagram of a heat exchanger
When the steam leaves the turbine, it is in the gaseous
state at a higher temperature than the water supplied to
the boiler. If the steam had returned to the original liquid
state all the energy acquired in the boiler would have been
extracted as work and the Second Law of Termodynamics
would be violated.
To complete the cycle and to use the steam again, the
steam is run through a condenser. Te condenser is a
coil of pipes in contact with a large volume of water, and
carries the steam back to the boiler as cool water. Te basic
design features are shown in Figure 839.
Cooling tower
Sprinkler
system
Generator
Turbine
Condenser
Control rods
Steamgenerator
Pressure
container
Containment
housing
pump
Bafes
Figure 839 Design features of the
heat exchanger and cooling tower
Te temperature of the reactor is limited to a temperature
of 570 K. Higher temperatures tend to damage the fuel
rods. Typically, the water in the secondary loop is returned
afer condensation to the boiler at a temperature of 310 K.
It can be shown that, the maximum possible efciency of a
nuclear power plant is:
1
Q
L
Q
H
-------- 1
310
570
--------- 0.46 46% = = = =
With further energy used to drive pumps and pollution
control devices, the efciency is usually reduced to 34%.
Many of the original power plants used water in the
reservoir surrounding the condenser from rivers and
lakes to cool the steam back to liquid water. However, this
caused thermal pollution and produced many ecological
problems. Today, expensive cooling towers release the
waste heat to the air. Tis form of thermal pollution has a
decreased environmental efect.
8.4.7 Describe how neutron capture by a
nucleus of uranium-238 (
238
U) results in the
production of a nucleus of plutonium-239
(
239
Pu).
8.4.8 Describe the importance of plutonium-239
(
239
Pu) as a nuclear fuel.
8.4.9 Discuss safety issues and risks associated
with the production of nuclear power.
8.4.10 Outline the problems associated with
producing nuclear power using nuclear
fusion.
8.4.11 Solve problems on the production of
nuclear power.
IBO 2007
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8.4.7 NEUTRON CAPTURE AND
PLUTONIUM239
U-238 is a non-fssionable isotope but it is called a fertile
material because it can be converted by neutron capture to
U239 according to the following nuclear equation:
U
238
92
n
1
0
U
239
92
+
Tis isotope undergoes -decay to produce fssionable
plutonium Pu239 according to the following nuclear
equations:
U
239
92
Np
239
93
+ + e
0
-1
v
_
antineutrino

-
Np
239
93
Pu
239
94
+ + e
0
-1
v
_
-
Ten
Te Pu239 is fssionable as can be shown in the following
equation and large amounts of energy are released:
8.4.8 PLUTONIUM239 AS A
NUCLEAR FUEL
Tis type of fssion reaction is used in slow and fast breeder
reactors (a nuclear fssion reactor that creates or breeds
more fssionable material than consumed).
As an isotope, uranium-238 is 140 times more abundant
than uranium-235. Te neutrons given of in a uranium-
235 fssion can breed more fuel if the non-fssionable
uranium-238 is placed in a blanket around control rods
containing plutonium-239 and uranium-235 as shown
in Figure 840. In a fast breeder reactor, the fast neutrons
produced by uranium-235 fssion are used to produce
Pu-239. On average 2.4 neutrons are produced in a U-235
fssion with one neutron required for the next fssion and
1.4 lef for neutron capture by U-238.
Pu
239
94
n
1
0
Ba
147
56
S
90
38
r 3 n
1
0
+ + + Pu
239
94
n
1
0
Ba
147
56
S
90
38
r 3 n
1
0
+ + +
Blanket of uranium-238
Plutonium-239 and uranium-235
control rods
Figure 840 Uranium-238 blanket
Suppose there were 100 fssions of U-235 and there were
240 neutrons produced. 100 neutrons will be needed
for the fssion of U-235 and there will be 140 neutrons
available. Suppose some neutrons are lost and that there
is 110 available for capture by non-fssionable U-238
to produce 110 Pu-239 fssions. Terefore, 100 U-235
fssions would produce 110 Pu-239 fssions which is a 10%
increase in fuel.
No moderator is used as the neutrons do not have to be
slowed down. Liquid sodium is used as the coolant.
8.4.9 SAFETY AND RISKS OF NUCLEAR
POWER
A signifcant shif to nuclear energy would reduce the need
to use coal, natural gas and oil-based power plants. Tese
fossil fuel power plants are more efcient than nuclear
power plants but they too have their environmental
impacts. As well as the thermal pollution produced in the
heat exchange process, they contribute far more to the
greenhouse efect and the contamination of ecosystems.
Nuclear power produces a signifcant amount of energy
even though only 30% of the energy eventually reaches
the electricity power grid with the other 70% being wasted
in the production and transmission process. Te reserves
of uranium and thorium fuels are signifcant with some
estimates of time of depletion as high as 2000 years.
However, a signifcant shif to nuclear power could result
in these being used up in a relatively short period of time,
perhaps 100 years.
Te main risks associated with the production of nuclear
power are:
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Problems associated with the mining of uranium
Problems with the disposal of nuclear waste
Te risk of a thermal meltdown
Te risk that nuclear power programmes may be
used as a means to produce nuclear weapons
Uranium ore can be mined by open pit and underground
mining or solution mining where solutions are pumped
underground to leach the uranium-bearing minerals
from sand. Extraction of uranium from sea water has
also been undertaken. Uranium mining is considerably
more dangerous than other mining. Te biggest risk is the
exposure of miners and the environment to radon-222 gas
and other highly radioactive daughter products as well as
seepage water containing radioactive and toxic materials.
In the 1950s, a signifcant number of American uranium
miners developed small-cell lung cancer due to the radon
that was shown to be the cancer causing agent.
Te technology to build and operate fssion reactors is
signifcant. However, the main concern seems to be the
efective disposal of the low-level (radioactive cooling
water, laboratory equipment and protective clothing)
intermediate-level (coolant) and high-level (fuel rods)
waste. Te products of fssion called ash include isotopes
of the elements strontium, caesium and krypton and
these are highly radioactive with a half-life of 30 years or
less. Perhaps the biggest concern is that plutonium-239,
another highly radioactive product has a half-life of 24 600
years. Tis isotope is also a threat as it is used in nuclear
warheads. Even though uranium-235 is only mildly
radioactive, it becomes contaminated with the other
highly reactive isotopes within the reactor. Presently, the
disposal methods include storage in deep underground
storage areas. If the present disposal methods fail, then
the danger to the environment would be catastrophic.
Radioactive waste would fnd its way into the food chain
and underground water would be contaminated. A new
method of disposal where the waste is ground into a
powder and then made into a synthetic rock is having
some success.
Provided the reactors are maintained and built to standard,
no obvious pollutants escape into the atmosphere that
would contribute to the greenhouse efect. However, even
with expensive cooling towers and cooling ponds, thermal
pollution from the heat produced by the exchanger process
could contribute to global warming.
Opposition to nuclear fssion has grown extensively
especially since the bad accident at Chernobyl in the
Ukraine that upon explosion sent a cloud of radioactive
dust and gases across Northern Europe. Te engineers
were carrying out some tests on the coolant and the
control rods. Te coolant was not recycling and when the
alarm was raised, they turned the coolant back on. When
the coolant interacted with the reactor there was a nuclear
meltdown and its associated explosion. Te thermal
energy produced was so high that the graphite moderator
caught on fre and it had to be encased in concrete. Te
immediate population were exposed to high doses of
ionising radiation that destroyed body tissues and death
occurred immediately or soon afer exposure. Te efects
of lower doses did not show up for years afer exposure but
there was many cases of illness due to various changes in
DNA molecules and chromosomes that caused cancer and
other genetic efects leading to further deaths.
Farmers throughout Northern Europe had to stop selling
grains, fruit, livestock and dairy products due to the
chances of radioactive fallout entering the food chain. It
took them years before the radiation levels had fallen to
acceptable levels.
Te disadvantage of possible nuclear power plant
containment failure is always with us. Nuclear terrorism
is always present. Australia, a big exporter of uranium is
making plans to begin a nuclear energy program. Nuclear
fssion does provide large amounts of electrical power and
the use of fssion is likely to continue until solar energy
and nuclear fusion become viable alternatives.
8.4.10 PROBLEMS UNSOLVED WITH
NUCLEAR FUSION
Recall the process of the nuclear fusion mechanism that
you have already studied in Chapter 7. Controlled nuclear
fusion could be the ideal energy source of the future
because of its clean image. Tere are many technological
problems that need to be overcome and some scientists
believe that the costs involved in the technology would
mean that the cost to produce electricity will be too high
when compared to other energy sources. To date, more
energy is required to produce the fusion than the energy
produced by the nuclear reaction. However, if perfected,
it would not require expensive mining and far less
radioactive waste would be produced. It is said that one
cubic kilometre of seawater would produce more energy
than all the fossil fuels on the Earth.
Te most probable way to produce electricity would be
to fuse deuterium with tritium. Deuterium atoms can be
extracted from seawater and tritium can be bred from
lithium. When deuterium and tritium are fused, a neutron
with very high speed is ejected. As it collides with other
atoms most of its kinetic energy is converted to heat. In
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order to overcome the electrostatic forces of repulsion
between the hydrogen isotopes they need to be heated to
an extremely high temperature around 100 000 C so that
they can be ionised into electrons and positively charged
ions in a plasma that expands in all directions.
In order for fusion to occur, the plasma has to be confned
for 1 second with a density of about 500 trillion atoms per
cubic centimetre. Because fusion is not a chain reaction,
these temperature and density conditions have to be
maintained for future fusions to occur. Because the plasma
is electrically charged, a magnetic feld surrounding the
plasma (a magnetic bottle) could lead to a confned and
controlled plasma that can undergo nuclear fusion.
8.4.11 PROBLEMS ON THE
PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR
POWER
Example
Suppose that the average power consumption for a
household is 500 W per day. Estimate the amount of
uranium-235 that would have to undergo fssion to supply
the household with electrical energy for a year. Assume
that for each fssion, 200 MeV is released.
Solution
200 MeV = 200 10
6
eV 1.6 10
-19
C = 3.2 10
-11
J.
500 W = 500 Js
-1
.
Te total number of seconds in a year
= 60 60 24 365.25 = 3.16 10
7
s
Terefore, the total electrical energy per year
= 3.16 10
7
s 500 Js
1
= 1.58 10
10
Jyr
1
.
1 fssion produces 3.2 10
-11
J. So for 1.58 10
10
J there
would be
1.58 10
10
J / 3.2 10
-11
J = 4.9375 10
20
fssions.
Recall that 1u = 1.661 10
-27
kg
Mass of uranium-235
= 235 1.661 10
-27
kg = 3.90335 10
-25
kg per fssion
Mass of uranium-235 needed
= 3.90335 10
-25
kg 4.9375 10
20
fssions
= 1.93 10
-4
kg or 0.193 g
Example
A fssion reaction taking place in a nuclear power reactor is
n. 3 Kr Ba U n
1
0
89
36
144
56
235
92
1
0
+ + +
Estimate the initial amount of uranium-235 needed to
operate a 600 MW reactor for one year assuming 40%
efciency and that for each fssion, 200 MeV is released.
Solution
200 MeV = 200 10
6
eV 1.6 10
-19
C = 9.6 10
-11
J.
600 MW = 600 10
6
Js
-1
.
Te total number of seconds in a year
= 60 60 24 365.25 = 3.16 10
7
s
Per year the total electrical energy
= 3.16 10
7
s 600 10
6
Js
1
= 1.896 10
16
Jyr
1
.
Since 40% efcient, the total energy needed
=
1.896 10
16
Jyr
1

______________

0.4
= 4.74 10
16
Jyr
1
.
1 fssion produces 3.2 10
-11
J. So for 4.74 10
16
J there
would be
4.74 10
16
J / 3.2 10
-11
J = 1.48125 10
27
fssions.
Mass of uranium-235 = 235 1.661 10
-27
kg
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= 3.90335 10
-25
kg per fssion
Mass of uranium-235 needed
= 3.90335 10
-25
kg 1.48125 10
27
fssions
= 578.2 kg
Exercise 8.4 (a)
1. Identify the missing product in the reaction
Pu
239
94
n
1
0
Ru
106
44
2 n
1
0
+ + +
A. Sn
50
B. Sn
50
C. Sn
50
D. Sn
50
2. Fission is the process by which
A. two light nuclei combine to form a heavier
nucleus.
B. a heavy nucleus splits to form two lighter
nuclei.
C. a heavy nucleus splits to form an alpha
particle and another nucleus.
D. a light nucleus splits to form an electron
and another nucleus.
3. Te term critical mass refers to
A. the mass defect when a fssile nucleus decays.
B. the mass of a fssile nucleus.
C. the mass required for a selfsustaining
fssion reaction.
D. the mass of uranium235 required to fuel a
nuclear reactor.
4. Te purpose of the control rods in a nuclear
reactor is to:
A. absorb excess neutrons
B. slow down the neutrons
C. provide a container for the fuel
D. reduce the radioactivity of the fssile
materials
5. Which of the following is a fssion reaction?
A. U
235
92
He
4
2
T
231
90
+
B. C
12
6
H
1
1
N
13
7
+ +
C. He
4
2
N
14
7
O
17
8
H
1
1
+ +
D.
6. Why is a
238
92
U nucleus more likely to undergo
alpha decay than fssion as a means of attaining
stability?
7. (a) Explain how fssion reactions, once started,
are considered to be self-sustaining.
(b) How is the chain reaction in nuclear
reactors controlled?
8. Te thermal power from the reactor is 2400 MW
and this is used to operate the steam generator
and turbine. Te mechanical power output of the
generator and turbine is used to drive a generator.
Te generator is 60 % efcient and produces
600 MW of electrical power. Tis is represented by
the energy fow diagram below.
uranium
reactor
core
thermal
energy
steam
generator
potential
latent heat
steam
turbine
kinetic
energy
AC
generator
electrical
energy
2400 MW
lost as heat
lost as heat
in transmission
friction
friction
heat to the
cooling towers
600 MW
(i) Calculate the power input to the generator.
(ii) Calculate the power lost from the generator.
(iii) Calculate the power lost by the heat engine.
9. (a) What are the strongest arguments in favour
of pursuing nuclear fssion as a source of
energy?
(b) What are the strongest arguments against
using nuclear fssion as source of energy?
10. Determine the number of fssions that will occur
per second in a 500 MW nuclear reactor. Assume
that 200 MeV is released per fssion.
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11. State three essential diferences between chemical
bond breaking and nuclear fssion.
12. Estimate the initial amount of uranium-235
needed to operate a 500 MW reactor for one year
assuming 35% efciency and that for each fssion,
200 MeV is released.
Solar power
8.4.12 Distinguish between a photovoltaic cell
and a solar heating panel.
8.4.13 Outline reasons for seasonal and regional
variations in the solar power incident per unit
area of the Earths surface.
8.4.14 Solve problems involving specic
applications of photovoltaic cells and solar
heating panels.
IBO 2007
8.4.12 ACTIVE SOLAR HEATERS AND
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
Solar or radiant energy can be converted directly to
thermal energy or electrical energy. Solar heating can be
achieved by both passive and active methods.
When the Suns rays strike building materials with
diferent specifc heat capacities, the internal energy of the
materials increases by the relevant conduction, convection
or radiation method of heat transfer. If buildings are
oriented correctly and materials are chosen that increase
the insulation properties, then the solar energy can be
captured passively, and energy costs can be reduced.
Active solar heating can be achieved by the use of solar
collectors to convert solar energy into heat energy. Solar
panels are mainly used to produce domestic hot water.
Te water can reach a temperature up to 70 C. Tey can
also used for space heating and heating swimming pools.
Figure 842 is a schematic diagram of a typical solar panel.
Water is pumped through thin copper tubing that has been
embedded in a blackened copper plate that is insulated
on the bottom. Tis is covered with a glass plate, and
the system is mounted in a metal frame. As the radiant
energy enters the glass plate the infra-red radiation is
captured, and the cold water is warmed. Te warmed
water is pumped through a heat exchanger mounted in an
insulated hot water system.
SOLAR PANEL
HOT WATER TANK
pump
warm water
out
to house
thin copper
tubing
cold water in
blackened
collector
insulation
water inlet
heat exchange
Figure 842 A solar collector
Parabolic dish collectors or solar furnaces are under
construction in a number of countries. Te Suns rays
are converged to a point by a parabolic mirror and
temperatures greater than 3000C can be produced. If
a boiler is placed at the focus position, the steam that is
generated can drive a turbine. A solar furnace that can
generate 1 MW of thermal energy has been constructed in
the French Pyrenees. It consists of a 45 m refector made
of 20 000 small mirrors moulded into a parabolic shape.
60 large computer controlled mirrors that follow the Sun
refect light onto the parabolic mirror.
Two common methods used for the production of
electrical energy from solar energy are:
photovoltaic solar cells
thermoelectric devices
Photovoltaic devices use the photoelectric efect. Photons
from radiant energy excite electrons in a doped semi-
conducting material such as silicon or germanium, and
the element becomes conducting allowing electrons to
fow in an external circuit to produce electrical energy.
Te photons must have enough energy to cause electrons
to move and this energy is available in the entire visible
region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Modern solar cells consist of thin circular wafers made
of p-type and n-type silicon (4 valence electrons).
Doping with Group 5 element (5 valence electrons)
such as arsenic (As) produces an electron rich layer / n-
type semiconductor. Tis electron is free to move about.
Doping with Group 3 (3 valence electrons) element such as
gallium (Ga) produces an electron defcient layer / p-type
semiconductor. Tere are not enough electrons to form
a covalent bond with a neighbouring atom. An electron
from the n-type semiconductor can move into the hole.
Te electrons can move from hole to hole and produce a
potential diference. Te wafers are about 1 mm thick and
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they have a diameter of 5-8 cm and they are placed on top
of each other to form a layer. Representations of p-type
and p-type semiconductors are shown in Figure 843.
Si
Si Si
Si Si Si
As Ga
free
electron
bond with
one electron
hole
n-type
semiconductor
p-type
semiconductor
Figure 843 Types of semiconductors
Photovoltaic devices are a source of non-polluting,
renewable energy that can be used in some ares of the
world. Unfortunately, photovoltaic cells produce a very
small voltage and provide very little current. Tey can
be used to run electronic devices such as televisions and
sound systems but cannot be used for high power rated
appliances such washing machines, refrigerators and
electric stoves. If connected in series the net voltage and
current can be increased. Te initial establishment costs
are high and their efciency at this stage is only 30%.
Termoelectric converters appear to be a better option
for the future. Tey not only use the visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum but also the infra-red region
- the heating region of the em spectrum. Bars of doped
silicon are again used to create an emf between the hot end
and the cold end. By connecting p-type and n-type bars in
series higher voltages can be obtained.
Its disadvantages are also evident. It produces a small
energy output per surface area of the cell being used. For
large-scale production, it requires thousands of mirrors or
cells that take up a large area of land. It is intermittent with
its output being upset by night and clouds. It is relatively
expensive to set up and thus requires many years before
the investment is returned.
8.4.13 SOLAR SEASONAL AND
REGIONAL VARIATION
Te main factors that account for solar seasonal and
regional variation are:
the solar constant
the Earths distance from the Sun
the altitude of the Sun in the sky
the length of night and day
Te average radiant power radiated to an area placed
perpendicular to the outer surface of the Earths atmosphere
while the Earth is at its mean distance from the Sun defnes
the irradiance or solar constant at a particular surface.
Tis varies with Sunspot activity which has a cycle around
11 years.
Since the Earth-to-Sun distance varies over the course
of a year from perihelion (nearest on Jan.3) to aphelion
(furthest on Jul. 3) due to the elliptical orbit of the Earth,
the solar constant varies about 6% from 1038 Wm
-2
to
1398 Wm
-2
. Furthermore, the energy radiated by the
Sun has changed over its time of stellar evolution. As
the solar constant applies perpendicular to the top of the
atmosphere, and because the atmosphere reduces this fux
considerably on a clear day, the value is reduced to about
1 kWm
-2
. On an overcast day this value could be as low as
a few watts per square metre.
Solar radiation reaching the Earth will be diferent in
regions at diferent latitudes because of the Suns altitude
in the sky. At the equator, solar radiation has to travel
through a smaller depth of the atmosphere than at the
poles. Each bundle of solar insolation (the energy received
by the Earth as incoming short-wave radiation) has twice
the area to heat up at 60
0
than at the equator. Tere is also
less atmosphere near the equator and this means there will
be less refection and absorption of radiation.
Seasonal variations afect the amount of received radiation
because the seasons will determine how spread out the rays
become. Because the Earth is tilted on its axis by 23
0
,
at the poles there is no insolation for several months of
the year.
In terms of the actual power that reaches an object on the
Earth, many other factors have to be taken into account.
Te albedo (the fraction of incident light difusely refected
from a surface) of the Earth is about 30%. On its way
through the atmosphere, solar radiation is absorbed and
scattered to a diferent degree depending on the altitude
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of the Sun at a particular place on Earth. Te lower the
Suns altitude the greater is the zenith distance and thus
the greater the degree of absorption and scattering.
Other factors that afect climate include changes in the
Earths orbit every 100 000 and 400 000 years, changes in
the tilt of the Earths axis, volcanic emissions, continental
drif afecting the ocean currents and winds and human
activity such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation.
8.4.14 SOLVING PROBLEMS ON SOLAR
RADIATION
Example
A solar panel with dimensions 2 m by 4 m is placed at an
angle of 30
0
to the incoming solar radiation. On a clear
day, 1000 Wm
-2
reaches the Earths surface. Determine
how much energy can an ideal solar panel generate in a
day.
Solution
Area of the solar panel = 8 m
2
. Area in radiation terms =
8 cos 30= 6.93 m
2

1000 Wm
-2
. = 1000 J s
-1
m
-2

Energy produced / day
= (1000 J s
-1
m
-2
)(6.93 m
2
)(24 h day
-1
)(60 min h
-1
)
(60 s min
-1
) = 5.98 10
8
J
Te energy produced per day = 6.0 10
8
J
Example
An active solar heater of volume 1.4 m
3
is to provide the
energy to heat water from 20 C to 50 C. Te average
power received from the Sun is 0.90 kWm
-2
.
(a) Deduce that 1.8 10
8
J of energy is required to
heat the volume of water in the tank from 20 C to
50 C.
(b) Estimate the minimum area of the solar panel
needed to provide 1.8 10
8
J of energy in 2.0
hours.
Solution
(a) mass of water
= 1.4 10
3
kg;
energy required
= 1.4 10
3
kg 4.18 10
3
Jkg
-1
C 30 C
= 1.8 10
8
J.
(b) energy provided in 2 hours = 7 200 900 A.
therefore A = (1.8 10
8
J) / (7200 s 900 Js
-1
)
= 27.8 m
2
.
Hydroelectric power
8.4.15 Distinguish between dierent hydroelectric
schemes.
8.4.16 Describe the main energy transformations
that take place in hydroelectric schemes.
8.4.17 Solve problems involving hydroelectric
schemes.
IBO 2007
8.4.15 TYPES OF HYDROELECTRIC
SCHEMES
Gravitational potential energy can be converted into
electrical energy in hydro-electric power stations. Tere
are three main schemes used to produce electricity:
water storage in lakes
tidal water storage
pump storage
Hydro-electric power stations are widely used in
mountainous areas of countries throughout the world.
Te energy is ultimately derived from the radiant energy
of the Sun through the water cycle. Water that has fallen
in the mountains is piped from rivers and stored in large
artifcial lakes that have been dammed. Te water retained
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behind dams fows down penstocks and turns turbines
which run the generators. Te Tree Gorges Dam on the
Yangtze River will be the largest hydroelectric dam in the
world with a generating capacity of 18 200 MW when it is
completed in 2009. Te dam is more than two kilometres
wide and it has a height of 185 metres. Its reservoir will
stretch over 600 kilometres upstream and force the
displacement of more than 1.3 million people.
Tides are produced by the interaction of the gravitational
pull of the Moon and to some extent the Sun on the oceans.
It is because of the Moon that so much energy is found
in the oceans and the seas. It orbits the Earth on average
in 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes and it rotates on its axis
also in this time. Te gravitational force of the Earth has
slowed down the Moons rotation about its axis until the
rotational period exactly matches the revolution period
about the Earth. As a result of this uncanny rotation there
is a far side of the Moon that we do not see.
Tidal power stations can also be considered to be hydro-
electric. Tey have been built in Russia and France, and
other countries have stations in the developmental stage.
Te source of the energy can be assumed to be the kinetic
energy of the Earths rotation. Coastal estuaries that
have a large vertical range in tides can be considered to
be potential sites for tidal power stations. Te station in
France is situated on the estuary of the River Rance has a
tidal range of 8.4 metres and generates 10 MW of electrical
energy for each of the 24 turbines.
Stations consist of a dam to catch the high tide water and
a series of sluices. Te sluices are opened to let the high-
tide water in. Te water is released at low-tide, and the
gravitational potential energy is used to drive turbines
which produce electrical energy. During low peak
electricity demand, the water is pumped into the holding
dam by the generators that can act as a pump.
Pump storage systems can be used in of-peak electricity
demand periods. Te water is pumped from low reservoirs
to higher reservoirs during this period. Even though the
energy used in pumping the water uphill is more than the
energy gained when the water fows downhill, this water
can be used to produce more electricity during demand
periods.
8.4.16 ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS IN
HYDROELECTRIC SCHEMES
Te water trapped in reservoirs behind dams possesses
gravitational potential energy. Te water falls through a
series of pipes where its potential energy is converted to
rotational kinetic energy that drives a series of turbines.
Te rotating turbines drive generators that convert the
kinetic energy to electrical energy by electromagnetic
induction. A energy fow diagram is shown in Figure 844.
radiant
energy
gravitational
potential energy
dam
rotational
kinetic energy
turbine
electrical
energy
electromagnetic induction
evaporation precipitation
Figure 844 Energy ow for hydro-electricicty
Te amount of energy available is directly proportional to
the rate of fow of water and the height through which the
water falls. Some dams rely on a small rate of fow, with
a large fall and others have a large water fow through a
smaller fall. With some hydro- electric stations, electricity
is used to pump the water uphill to reservoirs during of-
peak electricity use.
8.4.17 SOLVE PROBLEMS ON
HYDROELECTRIC SCHEMES
Te power generated can be determined by knowing
the rate of fow of a volume of freshwater or seawater.
In order to determine the mass of water that is passing
through the system, the density of the water will need to
be considered.
Gravitational potential energy = m g h
Power = mass / volume volume / time g h
Tis is dimensionally correct:
J s
-1
= kg m
-3
m
3
s
-1
m s
-2
m = kg m
2
s
-3
P = g h volume per second
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For tidal power, there is an area A of water at a height R.
Te mass of the water would be given by
m = AR
Te water level rises and falls between each tidal surge, so
the centre of mass of the water would be at R/2. Terefore,
the change in potential energy as the water runs out would
be:
E
p
= (AR) g R/2 = (AgR
2
) / 2
Example
A barrage is placed across the mouth of a river as shown
in the diagram of a tidal power station. If the barrage
height is 15 m and water fows through 5 turbines at a rate
of 1.0 10
2
kg per second in each turbine, calculate the
power that could be produced if the power plant is 0% 6
efcient. Assume the density of seawater is 1030 kgm
-3
.
trapped sea water
turbine
sea at low tide
barrage
Solution
Because the water level will change the average height of
water = h/2.
Power = g h volume per second
= 1000kg
-3
500 kg s
-1
9.8 ms
-2
150 m
= 735 10
6
J s
-1
If 60% efcient then the power produced = 0.6 735 10
6
J s
-1
Total power = 441 MW
Example
If water from a pumped storage dam fell through a pipe
150 m at a rate of 500 kg per second, calculate the power
that could be produced if the power plant is 60% efcient.
Assume the density of water is 1000 kgm
-3
.
Solution
Power = g h volume per second
= 1000kg
-3
500 kg s
-1
9.8 ms
-2
150 m
= 735 10
6
J s
-1
If 60% efcient then the power produced = 0.6 735 10
6
J s
-1
Total power = 441 MW.
Wind power
8.4.18 Outline the basic features of a wind
generator.
8.4.19 Determine the power that may be
delivered by a wind generator, assuming
that the wind kinetic energy is completely
converted into mechanical kinetic energy,
and explain why this is impossible.
8.4.20 Solve problems involving wind power.
IBO 2007
8.4.18 BASIC FEATURES OF WIND
GENERATORS
Winds are produced due to the uneven heating of the
Earths surface. Te Suns rays strike the equatorial regions
at right angles but they approach the polar regions at an
angle, large-scale convection currents are set up in the
Earths atmosphere. Te inconsistency in the wind patterns
is further compounded by the Earths axial spin and the
diference in local surface conditions (mountains, deserts,
oceans, lakes, forests).
Wind power has been used in countries for centuries to
run windmills for grinding grain and pumping water. Te
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modern wind turbines used today in the world can have
60 metre blades that can drive a generator to produce
4 MW of electricity. Te basic components of a wind
power system are a tower to support the rotating blades
(horizontal or vertical axis blades), a generator and a
storage or grid system.
A horizontal axis wind turbine is shown in Figure 846.
Te blades can be rotated so that they can be steered into
the wind. However, the generator usually has to be placed
on the tower near the rotor shaf as a result of this.
Slip ring
Gear box
Generator
Power cable
Rotor diameter
Centre
Wind
Figure 846 Horizontal axis wind turbine
Te vertical axis wind turbine has the advantage that it
does not have to be steered into the wind and as a result,
the generator can be placed at the bottom of the system.
However, if the weight of the blades becomes too great, a
lot of stress is put on the pivot to the generator.
8.4.19 POWER PRODUCED BY WIND
GENERATORS
It has been determined through experiment that the power
output of a wind generator is:
directly proportional to the blade area A.
directly proportional to the cube of the wind
speed v.
Consider a wind turbine that has a blade radius r as shown
in Figure 847.
Te area A swept out by the blades = r
2
Wind speed v = distance d time t and d = v t
In one second the volume of air passing the turbine = v A
Terefore, the mass of air m passing the turbine in 1 second
= v A where is the air density.
Te kinetic energy available each second
= m v
2
= ( v A) v
2
= A v
3

Power available = A v
3

Wind speed v
Air density Blade
radius r
d
Figure 847 Power output of a wind generator
In reality, the power produced cannot strictly obey this
equation as there are great fuctuations in wind speed and
air density throughout the days and months of the year.
Te electricity from wind power can be stored in batteries
for later use but this storage method is very expensive. Te
most practical system is to set up a wind farm consisting
of a large number of wind turbines interconnected to
produce a power grid.
Wind power is cheap, clean, renewable and infnite. It can
be used to provide electricity to remote areas of the world.
However, winds resulting from the heating of the Earth
are somewhat unpredictable. Te initial set-up costs are
high, the structures sufer from metal fatigue and they are
noisy.
Te better option being considered today is to use wind
turbines in association with another power source. One
possibility is to combine solar power and wind power.
Usually, when sunny there is little wind but when it is
overcast there is more wind. Another possibility is to use
the wind to pump water into high dams associated with
hydro-electric power stations and then to run the water
downhill during high electricity demand periods.
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8.4.20 SOLVING PROBLEMS INVOLVING
WIND POWER
Example
A wind turbine has blades 20 m long and the speed of the
wind is 25 ms
-1
on a day when the air density is 1.3 kgm
-3
.
Calculate the power that could be produced if the turbine
is 30% efcient.
Solution
Power = A v
3
and A = r
2
= 0.3 0.5 10
2
m
2
1.3 kgm
-3
25
3
m
3
s
-3

= 9.57 10
5
W
= 0.96 MW
Example
A wind generator is being used to power a solar heater
pump. If the power of the solar heater pump is 0.5 kW,
the average local wind speed is 8.0 ms
-1
and the average
density of air is 1.1 kgm
-3
, deduce whether it would be
possible to power the pump using the wind generator.
Solution
Power = A v
3
and A = r
2
500 Js
-1
= 0.5 r
2
m
2
1.1 kgm
-3
8.0
3
m
3
s
-3
r =

_____

2P

_____

v
3
=

_____________________

1000

_____________________

1.1 kgm
-3
512 m
3
s
-3

= 0.75 m
Tis is a small diameter so it could be feasible provided the
wind speed was always present.
Wave power
8.4.21 Describe the principle of operation of an
oscillating water column (OWC) ocean-
wave energy converter.
8.4.22 Determine the power per unit length of a
wave front, assuming a rectangular prole for
the wave.
8.4.23 Solve problems involving wave power.
IBO 2007
8.4.21 OSCILLATING WATER COLUMN
OCEAN-WAVE ENERGY
CONVERTER
Tere are three types of wave energy collectors that are
showing potential for harnessing wave energy. Tese can
be grouped into:
buoyant moored devices
hinged contour devices
oscillating water column (OWC) devices
Te buoyant moored devices foat above or below the
water and are moored to the sea foor with cables. Te
Salter Duck is such an example as shown in Figure 848.
As it bobs backwards and forwards matching the wave
motion, it turns a generator.
cable
waves
sea foor
salter
duck
pivot for rotation
Figure 848 Salter duck
Hinged contour devices consist of a series of foating
mattresses that are hinged together. As the sections
move with the waves, the motion is resisted at the joints
by hydraulic pumps that push high-pressure oil through
hydraulic motors that produce electric power.
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Te most promising wave energy converters are the
oscillating water column (OWC) devices because of their
simple operation that uses conventional technology. Tese
can be moored to the ocean foor or built into clifs or
ocean retainer walls as demonstrated in Figures 849 and
850 respectively. As the wave enters a capture chamber,
the air inside the chamber is compressed and the high
velocity air provides the kinetic energy needed to drive
a turbine connected to a generator. Ten as the captured
water level drops, there is a rapid decompression of the
air in the chamber which again turns the turbine that has
been specially designed with a special valve system that
turns in the same direction regardless of the direction of
air fowing across the turbine blades.
Figure 849 Oshore oscillating water column
Capture
Chamber rr
Air is compressed A
inside chamber
turbine
Figure 850 Onshore oscillating water column
Te best places in the world for capturing wave power are
the north and south temperate zones where the prevailing
westerly winds are strongest in the winter. Tere are
OWC wave power stations in England (average power
of 7.5 kW) and Japan (average power of 6 kW) and there
is a promising project on the Island of Islay of the west
coast of Scotland being conducted by private enterprise in
which the OWC feeds a pair of counter-rotating turbines
each of which drives a 250 kW generator.
8.4.22 POWER PER UNIT LENGTH OF A
WAVEFRONT
Wave size is determined by the speed of wind, the distance
over which the wind excites the waves and by the depth
and topography of the seafoor. Wave motion is highest at
the surface and diminishes with depth.
Te potential energy of a set of waves is directly
proportional to wave amplitude squared and is also
directly proportional to the wave velocity. Te total energy
of a wave is the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic
energy created.
If one assumes that the wave is sinusoidal the potential
energy in joules is given by the formula:
PE = g
A
2

___

2
sin
2
(kx t)
where:
= water density (kg/m
3
)
w = wave width (m) (assumed equal to the width of the
chamber)
A = wave amplitude
k = the wave number 2 /
= wavelength (m)
= wave frequency 2 / T (rad s
-1
)
T = wave period (s)
Example
If the wave potential energy over one period is to be
calculated this equation afer diferentiation becomes
PE = g A
2

Te total kinetic energy over one period is equal to the
total potential energy:
KE = g A
2

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Te total energy over one period will be:
E
T
= g A
2

Te power generated, work / time will equal:
P = g A
2
/ T
Power per wavelength = g A
2
f
Tis can be more importantly be expressed as:
Power per metre = g A
2
v
(where v is the speed of the wave.)
Te density of seawater at the surface of the ocean varies
from 1020 to 1029 kilograms per cubic metre.
8.4.22 SOLVING PROBLEMS INVOLVING
WAVE POWER
Example
If a wave is 3 m high and has a wavelength of 100 m and a
frequency of 0.1 s
-1
, estimate the power for each metre of
the wave.
Solution
Power / = g A
2
f
Power
= 100 0.5 1020 kgm
-3
10 ms
-2
(1.5)
2
m
2
1m 0.1s
-1

= 1.14 10
6
kg m
2
s
-3
= 114 kW per metre.
Example
If a wave is 3 m high and has a wavelength of 100 m and
a period of 8 s, estimate the power over each metre of
wavefront and calculate the wave speed.
Solution
Power = g A
2
/T
= 0.5 1020 kgm
-3
10 ms
-2
(1.5)
2
m
2
100m 1m / 8s
= 143 10
3
kg m
2
s
-3
= 143 kW per metre.
Wave speed = wavelength / period = 100 m / 8 s = 12.5 ms
-1
Figure 851 summarises some of the advantages and
disadvantages of the use of non-renewable and renewable
energy sources.
Exercise 8.4 (b)
1. Doping a semicondutor to improve its
conductivity means:
A. adding elements with 3 valence electrons
B. adding silicon or germanium to the
semiconductor
C. adding group 3 and group 5 elements
D. adding elements with 5 valence electrons
2. Solar energy:
A. is converted completely into electricity in a
photovoltaic cell
B. is not able to be stored
C. is a renewable energy source
D. is suitable only for heating water
3. All the following statements are correct EXCEPT
A. generators convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy
B. nuclear reactors convert mass into energy
C. chemical energy is a form of potential energy
D. thermal energy and solar energy are the same
4. Photovoltaic cells can operate when the incident
photons have
A. frequencies above visible light
B. infra-red frequencies
C. microwave frequencies
D. frequencies below visible light
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5. In terms of energy transformations, distinguish
between a solar panel and a solar cell.
6. A wind turbine farm is being designed for a town
with a total required energy of 150 TJ per year.
Tere is available space for 25 turbines and the
average annual wind speed is 15 ms
-1
.
(a) Deduce that the average required output
from one turbine is 0.19 MW.
(b) Estimate the blade radius of the wind
turbine that will give a power output of 0.19
MW. (Density of air = 1.3 kg m
-
3
)
7. An active solar heater of volume 2.4 m
3
is to
provide the energy to heat water from 20 C to
60 C. Te average power received from the Sun is
1000 Wm
-2
.
(a) Deduce that 4.0 10
8
J of energy is required
to heat the volume of water in the tank
from 20 C to 60 C.
(b) Estimate the minimum area of the solar
panel needed to provide 4.0 10
8
J of
energy in 2.0 hours.
8. If a wave is 12 m high and has a wavelength of
30 m and a frequency of 0.1 s
-1
, estimate the
power for each metre of the wave.
Type Of Power Advantages Disadvantages
Coal Cheap to use
High power output
Can be used easily
Large reserves still available
Lowest energy density of fossil fuels
Non-renewable
High CO
2
and SO
2
emissions
Contribute to the enhanced greenhouse efect
Oil Convenient in some oil producing countries
Can be used in engines
Medium energy density
Non-renewable
High CO
2
and SO
2
emissions
Contribute to the enhanced greenhouse efect
Natural gas High energy density
Cleaner and more efcient than other fossil fuels
Can be used in engines
Medium CO
2
emissions
Non-renewable
Contribute to the enhanced greenhouse efect
Nuclear High power output
Reserves available
Expensive to build and run
Radioactive materials have to be disposed of
Possible nuclear accident
Passive solar No fuel costs
Renewable
Non-polluting
Only works in daylight
Not efcient when clouds present
Power output is low
Photovoltaic solar No fuel costs
Renewable
Non-polluting
Only works in daylight
Not efcient when clouds present
Power output is low
Initial costs high
Energy needs to be stored
Hydro-electric
Tidal
No fuel costs
Renewable
Non-polluting
Need correct location
Changes in the environment destroys ecosystems
and can displace people
Expensive to construct
Wind No fuel costs
Renewable
Non-polluting
Need a windy location
Power output is low
Environmentally noisy
High maintenance costs due to metal stress and
strain
Wave No fuel costs
Renewable
Non-polluting
High maintenance due to the power of waves
High establishment costs.
Figure 851 Comparison of energy resources
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9. If a wave is 12 m high and has a wavelength of
25 m and a period of 8 s, estimate the power over
each metre of wavefront and calculate the wave
speed.
10. In a hydro-electric power station, water falls
through a 75 m pipe at the rate of 1500 kg s
-1
.
How many megawatts of electric power could be
produced by the power plant if it is 80% efcient?
11. A photovoltaic cell can produce an average 40
Wm
-2
of electrical energy if it is directly facing
the Sun at the equator. If a house has an electrical
consumption of 75 kW, what would be the
required surface area of cells needed to provide the
power requirements of the household.
12. Te following table shows the power generated by
a small wind turbine as a function of wind speed
and radius of the blade. Plot graphs to show the
linear relationships that exist between the power
generated and these variables
Power / W
Blade
radius / m
Power / W
Wind speed
10
4
/ km h
-1
300 0.5 20 12.6
400 0.7 80 15.9
500 0.8 200 20
620 0.9 370 25.2
805 1.0 580 29.2
1020 1.1 610 30.4
1020 35
8.5 GREENHOUSE
EFFECT
Solar radiation
8.5.1 Calculate the intensity of the Suns radiation
incident on a planet.
8.5.2 Dene albedo.
8.5.3 State factors that determine a planets
albedo.
IBO 2007
8.5.1 INTENSITY OF THE SUNS
RADIATION
Solar energy represents the greatest potential energy
source available to man. It is produced by nuclear fusion
reactions within the Sun.
Te Earth, which is approximately 1.5 10
8
km from the
Sun, receives the Suns radiant energy over empty or nearly
empty space. Te temperature of the Suns surface is about
6000 K. About 43% of its radiation is in the visible region
of the electromagnetic spectrum with 49% in the infra-
red region and 8% in the ultra-violet region. Te Earth
intercepts only a small part of the Suns total radiation
(about 0.5 of a billionth).
Te average radiant power radiated to an area placed
perpendicular to the outer surface of the Earths
atmosphere while the Earth is at its mean distance from
the Sun defnes the fux density or solar constant at a
particular surface. It is defned as the amount of solar
energy per second that falls on an area of 1m
2
of the upper
atmosphere perpendicular to the Suns rays. Its value is
found to be equal to 1.35 10
3
Wm
-2
or 1.35 kWm
-2
. Te
total solar irradiance has been monitored with absolute
radiometers since 1978 on board fve satellites.Te term
solar constant is a misnomer because it is not constant.
Since the Earth-to-Sun distance varies by about 6% over
the course of a year from perihelion (nearest on January 3)
to aphelion (furthest on July 3) due to the elliptical orbit
of the Earth, the solar constant varies from 1038 Wm
-2
to
1398 Wm
-2
. Furthermore, the energy radiated by the Sun
has changed over its time of stellar evolution.
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As the solar constant applies perpendicular to the top of
the atmosphere, and because the atmosphere reduces this
fux considerably on a clear day, the value is reduced to
about 1 kWm
-2
. On an overcast day this value could be as
low as a few watts per square metre.
In terms of the actual power that reaches an object on the
Earth, many other factors have to be taken into account.
Te albedo (the fraction of incident light difusely refected
from a surface) of the Earth is about 30%. On its way
through the atmosphere, solar radiation is absorbed and
scattered to a diferent degree depending on the altitude
of the Sun at a particular place on Earth. Te lower the
Suns altitude the greater is the zenith distance and thus
the greater the degree of absorption and scattering.
Te total solar radiation or irradiance reaching the top of
the atmosphere is about 1.7 10
17
W. Distributed over the
whole globe, this amounts to about 170 Wm
-2
averaged
over a day and night.
Example
How much solar radiation does one square metre of the
Earths surface receive per day?
Solution
In one day, the solar radiation would be
170 W m
2
1 m
2
24 h 4080 W h =
For the land area of the USA, the solar radiation available
over the total land surface is over 1017 kW h annually. Tis
is about 600 times greater than the total energy consumption
of the USA.
Example
Given that the mean Sun-Earth distance is 1.5 10
8
km
and that the power received at the top of the Earths
atmosphere is given by the solar constant, determine the
total power generated by the Sun.
Solution
Every square metre at an EarthSun mean distance receives
1.35 kW m
-2

Te surface area of a sphere = 4 r
2

Total power received = 4 (1.5 10
11
m)
2
(1.35 10
3
J m
-2
)
= 3.8 10
26
J.
8.5.2 ALBEDO
Te term albedo () (Latin for white) at a surface is the
ratio between the incoming radiation and the amount
refected expressed as a coefcient or as a percentage.
Solar radiation is mainly radiated in the visible region of
the electromagnetic spectrum (0.4 m to 0.7 m) and by
incoming short-wave infra-red radiation called
insolation. Tis radiation can pass through the
atmosphere to warm the land and sea by the so called
natural greenhouse efect.
Water vapour and clouds can absorb radiation in the
0.4 m to 0.7 m range and carbon dioxide can absorb
radiation in the 4 m to 7 m range. Between 7 m to
13 m range, more than 70% of the radiation escapes into
space. About 7% is radiated in the short-wave ultraviolet
region around 0.5 m. Te Earth is cooled by outgoing
longer wave infra-red radiation in the night. Te Earth
receives approximately 1 kW m
-2
on a clear day at the rate
of 1.7 10
7
W s
-1
.
Te incoming solar radiation is insolated, refected and re-
transmitted in various ways. Figure 853 demonstrates how
100 units of input solar radiation is distributed. It can be
seen that:
30% is refected back into space mostly by the
polar icecaps and particulate matter in the
atmosphere. Tis refected radiant energy mainly
consists of short wavelength electromagnetic
radiation such as ultra-violet radiation.
51% is absorbed by the Earth during the day as
thermal energy which is then radiated back into
space during the night as radiant thermal energy
consisting of long wavelength electromagnetic
infra-red radiation.
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23% of the 51% is used in the water cycle.
Te radiant energy is absorbed by water and
evaporation occurs as enough energy is supplied
to overcome the latent heat of vaporisation. Te
gaseous water vapour is carried by convection
currents higher into the atmosphere, and clouds
with high potential energy are formed.
Space
51%absorbed
15%water vapor
6% 26% 38%
Latent heat
fux
Longwave
radiation
Sensible heat fux
23%
7%
21%
Water vapor
emission, CO
2
Cloud emission
Cloud absoprtion
3%
16%water vapor
absorption,dust, O
2
Solar radiation
100%
6% 20% 4%
Cloud refection
Surface refection
Backscattering
Shortwaves
Longwaves
Outgoing
Outgoing
Atmosphere
Land & ocean
absorption, CO
2
Figure 853 Solar radiation energy input and output
0.25% of the radiant energy is consumed in supplying the
energy that drives the convection currents of the oceans and
atmosphere, and only 0.025% is stored by photosynthesis
in plants as chemical potential energy. Tis has been the
main source of fossil fuels.
Solar or radiant energy can be converted indirectly to
electrical energy by:
biomass conversion
wind power
wave energy
geothermal energy
8.5.3 FACTORS THAT AFFECT PLANET
ALBEDO
Te Earths albedo varies daily and is dependent on season
(cloud formations) and latitude. In thin clouds, the albedo
varies from 30-40 per cent whereas in thicker cumulo-
nimbus clouds the albedo can be 90 per cent. Albedos also
vary over diferent land surfaces, water surfaces, urban
areas, grasslands and forests and ice and snow surfaces.
Some albedos are given in Figure 854. Te global annual
mean albedo is 0.3 (30%) on Earth.
Surfaces Albedo %
Oceans 10
Dark soils 10
Pine forests 15
Urban areas 15
Light coloured deserts 40
Deciduous forests 25
Fresh snow 85
Ice 90
Whole planet 31
Figure 854 Albedo percentages
of dierent surfaces
8.5.4 Describe the greenhouse eect.
8.5.5 Identify the main greenhouse gases and
their sources.
8.5.6 Explain the molecular mechanisms by which
greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation.
8.5.7 Analyse absorption graphs to compare the
relative eects of dierent greenhouse gases.
8.5.8 Outline the nature of black-body radiation.
8.5.9 Draw and annotate a graph of the emission
spectra of black bodies at dierent
temperatures.
8.5.10 State the StefanBoltzmann law and apply
it to compare emission rates from dierent
surfaces.
8.5.11 Apply the concept of emissivity to compare
the emission rates from the dierent
surfaces.
8.5.12 Dene surface heat capacity C
s
.

8.5.13 Solve problems on the greenhouse eect and
the heating of planets using a simple energy
balance climate model.
IBO 2007
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8.5.4 DESCRIBING THE GREENHOUSE
EFFECT
Te Moon is able to provide information as to what
it would be like if there was no atmosphere around the
Earth. Being at approximately the same distance from the
Sun as the Earth and without an atmosphere, the Moons
average temperature is -18 C. But to say that the Moon
and the Earth are at the right distance from the Sun is
an oversimplifed understanding of why Earths average
temperature is around 34 C warmer than the Moon. Te
real reason is due to certain gases in our atmosphere causing
the natural greenhouse efect. Te Earths atmosphere is
around 71% nitrogen (N
2
) and 21% oxygen (O
2
). Being
diatomic molecules with a triple bond and a double bond
respectively between the two atoms, their vibration are
restricted because they are tightly bound together and as a
result they do not absorb heat and make no contribution
to the natural greenhouse efect. However, there are 1% of
natural greenhouse gases (water vapour, carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide) in the atmosphere that make
a major contribution to keeping the Earth at its current
temperature.
So what is the natural greenhouse efect? Put simply, the
natural greenhouse efect is a phenomenon in which the
natural greenhouse gases absorb the outgoing long wave
radiation from the Earth and re-radiate some of it back
to the Earth. It is a process for maintaining an energy
balancing process between the amount of long wave
radiation leaving the Earth and the amount of energy
coming in from the Sun. Provided that the Suns radiant
energy remains constant and the percentage of greenhouse
gases remains the same, then the established equilibrium
will remain steady and the average temperature of the
Earth will be maintained at 16 C.
As mentioned earlier, about 43% of the radiation from the
Sun is in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum
with 49% in the infra-red region and 8% in the ultra-
violet region. Te greenhouse gases of Earths atmosphere
absorb ultraviolet and infrared solar radiation before it
penetrates to the surface. However, most of the radiation
in the visible region passes through the atmosphere where
it is absorbed by the land, waters and vegetation being
transformed into heat and then re-radiated as long wave
infra-red radiation. Te long wave infrared radiation is
absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and then
re-radiated back to the biosphere.
8.5.5 THE GREENHOUSE GASES AND
THEIR SOURCES
As mentioned earlier, the main natural greenhouse gases are:
carbon dioxide (CO
2
)
water vapour (H
2
O)
methane (CH
4
)
nitrous oxide (N
2
O)
ozone (O
3
)
Te concentration of these natural greenhouse gases has
been afected by human activity in what is known as the
enhanced greenhouse efect and this increase will be
examined in Section 8.6 concerning global warming.
Carbon dioxide has always been the largest contributor
to greenhouse gas concentration and in the 1700s it
was thought to have a concentration of about 280 parts
per million (ppm). Te natural production is caused by
respiration, organic decay of plants and animals, natural
forest fres, dissolved carbon dioxide and volcanic
activity.
Methane concentrations in the 1700s were believed to be
around 0.7 parts per million. Te main natural source is
decaying vegetation. Even when we burp and pass wind
we are removing methane and other gases from our body
due to the fermentation of plants in our digestive system.
Decaying vegetation is found in agriculture and in wetland
peat bogs.
Water vapour is found in the atmosphere due to the water
cycle in which water is evaporated from mainly the oceans
and in the transpiration of plants (loosing water from
their leaves).
Nitrous oxide exists in parts per billion and the
concentration in the 1700s was thought to be about 250
parts per billion (ppb). Natural sources include forests,
grasslands, oceans and soil cultivation.
Chlorofuorocarbons (CFCs) and ozone (O
3
) are also
greenhouse gases. CFCs were found in refrigerants,
aerosol sprays, solvents and foams but since the realisation
that they were responsible for ozone depletion in the
stratosphere has led to them being phased out and replaced
with more suitable compounds. Ozone is produced by the
action of sunlight on oxygen molecules and it is produced
in the lower atmosphere as a component of photochemical
smog. Its contribution to the greenhouse efect is not fully
understood at this stage.
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8.5.6 THE MOLECULAR MECHANISM
FOR ABSORBING INFRARED
RADIATION
Because ultraviolet radiation is more energetic than
infrared radiation it tends to break bonds between atoms
joined together. On the other hand, infrared radiation
being less energetic tends to cause the atoms to vibrate
in various ways. When the frequency of the infrared
radiation is equal to the frequency of vibration then
resonance occurs. Tis means that the frequency of the
radiation is equal to the natural frequency of vibration
of two atoms bonded together. It just so happens that the
natural frequency of vibration of the molecules of the
greenhouse gases is in the infrared region.
If resonance occurs and the molecular dipole moment
undergoes a change, then the greenhouse gas will absorb
energy from the albedo infrared radiation coming from a
surface. Only certain energies for the system are allowed
and only photons with certain energies will excite
molecular vibrations. Terefore vibrational motion is
quantized and transitions can occur between diferent
vibrational energy levels. Te absorbed energy can then
be re-radiated back into the biosphere.
In order to examine the vibrations of greenhouse gases
and other molecules and compounds the analysis is
carried out by infrared spectrophotometry. In a digital
IR spectrometer, a glowing flament produces infrared
radiation in the form of heat and this is passed through
an unknown sample held in a small transparent container.
A detecting device then measures the amount of radiation
at various wavelengths that is transmitted by the sample.
Tis information is recorded as a spectrum showing
the percentage transmission against the wavelength in
micrometres (microns) (m) or the frequency.
We have already learnt that energy is directly proportional
to frequency or inversely proportional to wavelength
(E = hf or E = hc / ). If the wave number is the number
of waves per centimetre (cm
-1
) we have a variable that
is directly proportional to energy. When the energy of
the infrared radiation from the instrument matches the
energy of vibration of a molecule in the sample, radiation
is absorbed, and the frequency given in wave numbers
(cm
-1
) of the infrared radiation matches the frequency of
the vibration. Each sample examined has its own individual
spectrum and therefore a blueprint of the sample just like
the DNA of an individual.
8.5.7 ANALYSIS OF IR ABSORPTION
GRAPHS
Let us take carbon dioxide as an example to examine the
diferent modes of possible vibration. Tis molecule is a
tri-atomic molecule that is linear in shape and it has two
C=O bonds. Te molecule can move (translate) in three
dimensional space and it can rotate in two directions. Te
most important factor if it is to absorb energy is that it
must vibrate at the resonance frequency so as to change
its molecular dipole moment. Imagine that the atoms are
connected by a spring and when they absorb infrared
radiation they can have diferent types of vibrations.
Carbon dioxide being a linear molecule can have 3N 5
vibrational modes (where N is the number of atoms). It
has 3 atoms so it can have 3 3 5 = 4 vibrational modes
and these vibrations are shown by arrows in Figure 855.
Figure 855 Vibrational modes of carbon dioxide
Te top 2 vibrations represent the stretching of the C=O
bonds, one in a symmetric mode with both C=O bonds
lengthening and contracting in-phase. Tis symmetric
stretch is infrared inactive because there is no change in the
molecular dipole moment and so this vibration is not seen
in infrared spectrum of CO
2
. Te top right diagram is in
an asymmetric mode with one bond shortening while the
other lengthens. Te asymmetric stretch is infrared active
due a change in the molecular dipole moment. Infrared
radiation at 2349 cm
-1
(4.26 m) excites this particular
vibration. Te two bottom diagrams show vibrations of
equal energy with one mode being in the plane of the
paper and the other out of the plane of the paper. Infrared
radiation at 667 cm
-1
(15.00 m) excites these vibrations.
Figure 856 shows the IR spectrum for carbon dioxide at
4 kPa pressure with the 2 peaks clearly visible.
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O
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4000 3900 3400 2900 1900 2400 1400 900
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

t
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
a
n
c
e
wavenumber (cm
-1
)
Figure 856 IR spectrum of carbon dioxide
Methane being another greenhouse gas has even more
modes of vibration. It has a tetrahedral shape. For a non-
linear molecule there are 3n 6 modes of vibration and
methane CH
4
has 3 5 6 = 9 modes of vibration. Tere
are other ways that vibrations can occur in methane that
were not evident in carbon dioxide. Apart from stretching,
methane can have bending (1300 1500 cm
-1
)

and rocking
(600 900 cm
-1
) C H bond vibrations. Te IR spectrum
of methane is shown in Figure 857.
4000 3900 3400 2900 1900 2400 1400 900
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

t
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
a
n
c
e
wavenumber (cm
-1
)
Figure 857 IR spectrum of methane
8.5.8 BLACK-BODY RADIATION
If a shiny metal tin and a dull black tin are placed in the Sun
and their inside temperatures are recorded afer a period
of time, it is found that the air inside the dull black tin is
at a higher temperature than the shiny one. Terefore, the
black tin must absorb more radiation than the shiny one
and as such the black tin must refect and transmit less
radiation than the shiny one. Furthermore, the dull black
tin is a better radiator (emitter) than the shiny one and
this is why the radiation grids on the back of a refrigerator
are painted black.
Black-body radiation is the radiation emitted by a perfect
emitter. Te radiation is sometimes called temperature
radiation because the relative intensities of the emitted
wavelengths are dependant only on the temperature of the
black body.
An almost perfect black body can be made by painting the
inside of an enclosed cylinder black and punching a small
hole in the lid of the cylinder as shown in Figure 858. Te
hole looks black because the incident light ray is refected
many times of the walls of the cylinder. With the inside
painted black the cylinder becomes as good a radiator and
as bad a refector as possible. In experiments performed
by Lummer and Pringsheim in 1899, they used an enclosed
porcelain sphere that was made black on the inside with
soot. Porcelain can be heated to high temperatures which
allows for a range of spectral colours, and infrared and
ultraviolet spectra to be observed.
Incident ray
Dull black
cylinder
Figure 858 A black-body with multiple reections
If the porcelain is heated to a given temperature black
body radiation emerges from the hole. Depending on
the temperature, the emerging radiation may appear
red, yellow, blue or even white if the temperature is high
enough. Emission occurs at every wavelength of light
because it must be able to absorb every wavelength of all
the incoming radiation. By using a suitable spectrometer,
radiation intensity can be measured in the infrared, visible
and ultra-violet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
8.5.9 EMISSION SPECTRA OF BLACK
BODIES
Te emission spectra of black bodies at diferent
temperatures can be observed in Figure 859 which shows
the relative intensities of the diferent wavelengths. It is
evident that as the temperature rises:
the intensity of every wavelength increases
the total energy emitted increases because the
power radiated increases
the intensity of shorter wavelengths increases rapidly
the curves are skewed to the lef
the curves move more into the red
the peak wavelengths are all in the infrared region
the peak wavelength moves to the lef
the curves get closer to the x-axis but never touch it.
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1 5 4 3 2
Wavelength / m
1250 K
1500 K
1750 K
2000 K
P
o
w
e
r

r
a
d
i
a
t
e
d

a
t

e
a
c
h

w
a
v
e
l
e
n
g
t
h
I
n
f
r
a
-
r
e
d
Peak wavelength
Intensity curve
for each temperature
V
i
s
i
b
l
e
U
V
Figure 859 Black body radiation
at dierent temperatures.
Te temperature of the Sun is about 6000 K. Figure 860
shows emission spectra of black bodies at even higher
temperatures. Note that sunlight has its peak at 500 nm
and that all colours of the visible spectrum are present in
the emission spectra thus accounting for the reason that
the Sun appears white.
1000 1500 2000 500 2500 100
Visible
3000 K
4000 K
5000 K
6000 K
8
2
1
7
3
4
5
6
9
10
P
o
w
e
r

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
1
0
1
3

w
a
t
t
s

/

m
3
)
Wavelength / nm
Figure 860 Intensity distribution in black body
radiation at higher temperatures.
8.5.10 THE STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW
Te total area under a spectral emission curve for a certain
temperature T represents the total energy radiated per
metre
2
per unit time E and for that assigned temperature
it has been found to be directly proportional to the fourth
power T
4
. E T
4
E = T
4
Tis relationship is called Stefans law, and the constant
is called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and is equal to
5.67 10
-8
W m
-2
K
-4
.
Te power radiated by an area A of a black body radiator
is represented by
P = A T
4
Example
Te tungsten flament of a pyrometer (instrument for
measuring high temperature thermal radiation) has a
length of 0.50 m and an diameter of 5.0 10
-5
m. Te
power rating is 60 W. Estimate the steady temperature of
the flament. Assume that the radiation from the flament
is the same as a perfect black body radiator at that steady
temperature.
Solution
Power radiated = power received = 60 W
60 = P = A T
4
Te surface area of tungsten flament (cylinder) = 2 r h
= 2 5 10
-5
m 0.5 m = 1.57 10
-4
m
2
P = 1.57 10
-4
m
2
5.67 10
-8
W m
-2
K
- 4
T
4
T = [(60 W) (1.57 10
-4
m
2
5.67 10
-8
W m
-2
K
-4
)]
1/ 4
= 1611 K = 1600 K
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Example
If one assumes that the Sun is a perfect black body with
a surface temperature of 6000 K, calculate the energy per
second radiated from its surface.
(Assume the radius of the Sun = 7 10
8
m and
= 5.7 10
8
W m
2
K
4
)
Solution
Te surface area of a sphere = 4r
2
Energy per second = P = A T
4
= 4r
2
T
4
P = 4 (7 10
8
)
2
m
2
5.7 10
8
W m
2
K
4
6000
4
K
4
P = 4.55 10
12
Wm
2
Example
Te solar power received on the surface of the Earth at
normal incidence is about 1400 Wm
2
. Deduce that the
power output per square centimetre of the Suns surface
is about 7.5 10
7
Wm
2
. Comment on some assumptions
that have been made in determining this answer. (Take the
Suns radius as 6.5 10
8
m and the radius of the Earths
orbit around the Sun as 1.5 10
11
m).
Solution
Some assumptions are: the Sun and the Earth act as perfect
black bodies, that the Earths orbit around the Sun is circular
rather than elliptical or all of the Suns radiation falls on a
sphere of this radius, that the Sun and the Earth are uniform
spheres, and that the Earths atmosphere absorbs no energy.
Te surface area of a sphere = 4 r
2
Te total energy radiated by the Sun per second (power) =
A T
4
= 4r
S
2
T
4
Tis energy falls around a circular sphere equivalent to the
Earths orbit around the Sun equal to 4 r
E

2
.
Terefore, the power received per square metre on the Earth
will be a fraction of that radiated by the Sun.
Power radiated by the Sun = (4r
E

2
4r
S
2
) 1400 Wm
-2
P = (1.5 10
11
)
2
(6.5 10
8
)
2
1400 Wm
-2
= 7.46 10
7
Wm
-2
8.5.11 EMISSIVITY AND EMISSION RATE
FROM SURFACES
Stefans Law can also be written in the following way:
P = eA T
4
Te factor e is called the emissivity of a material. Emissivity
is the ratio of the amount of energy radiated from a material
at a certain temperature and the energy that would come
from a blackbody at the same temperature and as such
would be a number between 0 and 1. Black surfaces will
have a value close to 1 and shiny surfaces will have a value
close to 0. Most materials are coloured and they refect some
wavelengths better than others. For example, a blue object
will refect blue and absorb the other colours of the visible
spectrum and a black object will absorb nearly all spectral
colours. Terefore efective emissivity is also afected by the
surface emissivity and wavelength dependence.
Some approximate values are given in Figure 861.
Material Emissivity Material Emissivity
mercury 0.05 0.15 snow 0.9
tungsten 0.1 0.6 ice 0.98
rusted iron 0.6 0.9 plate glass 0.85
water 0.6 0.7 coal 0.95
soil 0.4 0.95 black paint 0.92
Figure 861 Approximate emissivity values
Example
Te Sun is at 50 to the horizontal on a clear day. Estimate
how much radiation from the Sun is absorbed per hour
by an animal that has a total area exposed to the Sun of
2.0 m
2
.
(Assume = 5.7 10
-8
W m
-2
K
- 4
and the emissivity to be 0.8)
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Solution
Animal A
50
A

c
o
s

5
0

Example
Take the average temperature to be 300 K.
Energy per second = P = eA T
4
cos 50
P = 0.8 2.0 m
2
5.7 10
-8
W m
-2
K
- 4
300
4
K
4
cos 50
P = 4.75 10
2
W
Tis is the energy absorbed per second. Multiply by 3600
P = 1.7 10
6
W h
-1

8.5.12 SURFACE HEAT CAPACITY
Surface heat capacity C
s
is the energy required to raise
the temperature of a unit area of a planets surface by one
degree Kelvin and is measured in Jm
-2
K
-1
.
C
s
= Q / A T
Te Sun deposits about 340 watts per square metre on
the Earths surface. But each surface will have a diferent
surface heat capacity. Surfaces like water have the ability to
heat up and cool down slowly whereas sand in comparison
heats up and cools down more quickly. Tis is the cause of
convection currents close to the sea.
A large amount of the thermal energy from insolation or
the greenhouse efect is stored in the upper 70 m of the
oceans which make up about 70% of the Earths surface.
Te efective heat capacity of a 1 m
2
of the Earth can be
determined using the equation:
C
S
= f c h
where f = 0.7 (fraction of Earth covered by water),
= the density of sea water 1023 kgm
-3
,
c = the specifc heat capacity of water 4186 Jkg
-1
K
-1
h = the depth of seawater that stores thermal energy.
So C
S
= 0.7 1023 kgm
-3
4180 Jkg
-1
K
-1
70 m = 2.1 10
8

Jm
-2
K
-1
In other words, to change the temperature of 1m
2
of the
Earth by 1 K will take on average 2.1 10
8
J of energy.
Figure 863 gives some approximate specifc heat capacity
values for some environmental materials.
Substance
Specifc Heat Capacity
(J kg
-1
K
-1
)
Water 4180
Ice 2100
Average rock 2000
Wet sand (20%) 1500
Snow 880
Vegetated land 830
Air 700
Figure 863 Approximate specic heat capacity values
for some environmental materials table.
Example
Estimate the efective heat capacity of the land surface if
the specifc heat capacity of rock and 20% wet sand are
2000 J kg
-1
K
-1
and 1500 J kg
-1
K
-1
respectively and the
thermal energy is captured in the top 2 m. (Make the
density equal to 2000 kgm
-3
).
Solution
C
S
= f c h
f = 0.3 (fraction of Earth covered by land),
= the average density is 2000 kgm
-3
,
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c = the average specifc heat capacity could be 1750 Jkg
-1
K
-1
h = the depth of land that stores thermal energy.
So C
S
= 0.3 2000 kgm
-3
1750 Jkg
-1
K
-1
2 m
= 2.1 10
6
Jm
-2
K
-1
.
Example
It takes 2 10
11
J of thermal energy to heat 50 m
2
of the
Earth by 10 K. Determine the surface heat capacity of the
Earth.
Solution
Q = A C
s
T C
s
= Q / T A
C
s
= 2 10
11
J / 50 m
2
10 K = 4 10
8
Jm
2
K
-1
8.5.13 ENERGY BALANCE CLIMATE
MODELS
Modeling is an ancient mathematical tool that allows us to
simplify the real world to solve problems. We use models
everyday of our lives without thinking about it. We use the
internet to purchase products, to make airline and motel
bookings and to fnd directions to our destinations. So we
are solving problems using a system that has been set up
using mathematical formulae in data spreadsheets.
Tere are 4 main types of climate models:
energy balance models (EBM) use spreadsheets to
study the incoming and outgoing global radiation
balance and energy transfers using diferent
latitudes from the equator to the poles
one-dimensional radiative-convective models
(RCM) simulate atmospheric environments by
only cosisdering the radiation balance and heat
transport by convection heat transfer
two-dimensional statistical-dynamical models
(STM) are a combination of the energy balance
and radiative-convective models
three-dimensional general circulation models
(GCM) which try to simulate the global and the
continental climate considerations.
General Circulation Models (GCM) are used to monitor
the efects of the changing atmosphere as caused by the
increased concentrations of the major greenhouse gases
since pre-industrial times up to the present time and
further into the future. GCMs use sophisticated computer
models and complex mathematical equations to simulate
and assess factors such as the winds, temperatures,
pressures, cloud cover and precipitation to get a picture of
what is the efect of increased greenhouse concentrations
on the environment.
We will concentrate on the simplest atmospheric model
- the energy balance climate model. Te word balance
infers that the system is in equilibrium with no energy being
accumulated in the Earths surface and atmosphere. Tis
model attempts to account for the diference between the
incoming radiation intensity and the outgoing radiation
intensity, and the simplest energy balance model chooses
temperature as the only variable to be considered. For the
Earths average temperature to remain steady, energy must
leave a surface at the same rate as it arrived at the surface
otherwise the Earths temperature will rise. By taking a
small region of latitude around the Earth called a latitude
belt the temperature at the surface can be studied.
If we take the Earth and slice it up into grid regions by
choosing latitude and longitude boundaries, we can study
surface heat capacities and radiation diferences in that
geographical region. For example, at latitudes between
60 and 70 north and longitudes 140 and 165 west Alaska
is located, and at latitudes between 0 and 10 south and
longitudes 110 and 130 east Papua New Guinea is located.
Te two climate regions chosen will have considerable
diferences in the incoming and outgoing radiation
intensity. In fact there is also considerable diferences in
the incoming and outgoing radiation intensity within
each chosen region. Terefore, it may be more appropriate
to choose a one-dimensional model such as only
concentrating on one latitude belt.
Recall that the albedo at a surface is the ratio between the
incoming radiation and the amount refected expressed as
a coefcient or as a percentage. Also, recall that the Earths
albedo varies daily and is dependent on season (cloud
formations) and latitude, diferent land surfaces, water
surfaces, urban areas, grasslands and forests and ice and
snow surfaces.
If all the radiation from the Sun reached the Earth then
the incoming radiation would be equal to:
R
E

2
(m
2
) the solar constant (Wm
-2
)
to give the fnal units of J s
-1
, where R
E
is the mean
average radius of the Earth.
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Remember that the solar constant at a particular surface
was previously defned as the amount of solar energy per
second that falls on an area of 1m
2
of the upper atmosphere
perpendicular to the Suns rays, and its value is equal to
1.35 10
3
Wm
-2
.
Of course this is not the power that arrives on 1 m
2
of
the Earths surface because the planets average incoming
radiation (insolation) is refected and scattered and
absorbed. Of the 100 units of insolation, 28 units is refected
of the clouds and aerosols, 18 units are absorbed in the
atmosphere and 4 units are refected of land surfaces. In
fact the fraction of power from the solar constant at the
Earths surface is 343 Wm
-2
.
Te temperature of the Earth can be determined by fnding
the Earths average incoming insolation and subtracting
the amount refected back into space by the global albedo
and adding in the the energy that is supplied to the surface
by the greenhouse efect.
Te incoming radiation only falls on an area equal to
R
E

2
because only one side of the Earth is facing the Sun
to receive the incoming radiation. Now each 1 m
2
will
have its own albedo and its own surface temperature and
adjustments to the above value of the incoming radiation
have to be made to account for these factors. It can be
proposed in the balance climate model that the incoming
radiation will therefore be equal to:
R
E

2
(1 ) (m
2
) the solar constant (Wm
-2
) where is
the albedo.
Assuming that the the Earth is radiating over its entire
surface area then the outgoing radiation can be obtained
using Stefans Law and is determined to be equal to:
4 R
E
2
T
E
4
Terefore, assuming a balance in thermal equilibrium:
R
E
2
(1 ) solar constant = 4 R
E
2
T
E
4
(1 ) x solar constant / 4 = T
E
4
Let us see if this equilibrium state can match some known
quantities in the following example.
Example
If the long-wave radiation fux from the surface of the
Earth has an average value of 240 Wm
-2
and the average
temperature somewhere in the atmosphere is 255 K,
determine the incoming and outgoing radiation of the
Earth. Assume the global albedo is 0.3.
Solution
Incoming radiation = (1 ) solar constant / 4
= (1 0.3) 1.35 10
3
Wm
-2
4 = 236.25 Wm
-2
Outgoing radiation = T
E
4

= 5.7 10
-8
W m
-2
K
- 4
(255)
4
K
4
= 241 Wm
-2
Tese values are nearly equal to the average radiation fux
value of 240 Wm
-2
.
Now let us examine the long-wave radiation fux for some
diferent latitudes that have diferent land fractions, ocean
fractions and sea ice fractions. Table 864 gives some values
and their respective albedos. It may be worthwhile to look at
an atlas so that the values given make some sense. Te zonal
surface albedo for each latitude is determined by taking the
various surfaces and their albedo into account.
L
a
t
i
t
u
d
e
O
c
e
a
n

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
O
c
e
a
n

a
l
b
e
d
o
L
a
n
d

a
l
b
e
d
o

S
S
e
a

i
c
e

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
Z
o
n
a
l

s
u
r
f
a
c
e

a
l
b
e
d
o
85 N 0.81 0.24 0.12 0.90 0.44
55 N 0.42 0.09 0.16 0.00 0.13
25 N 0.68 0.08 0.25 0.00 0.13
5 N 0.77 0.07 0.12 0.00 0.08
5 S 0.77 0.07 0.12 0.00 0.08
25 S 0.76 0.08 0.18 0.00 0.10
55 S 0.98 0.09 0.16 0.00 0.09
Figure 864 Land surface fractions and albedos
Te model equation now becomes:
(1
S
) solar constant / 4 = T
E
4
19 april 09 Physics Ch 8 final.i238 238 22/05/2009 11:55:18 AM
ENERGY, POWER AND CLIMATE CHANGE
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Example
Determine the average zonal surface temperatures for the
latitude belts 85 N and 25 S.
Solution

(1
S
) solar constant

___________________

4
= T
E
4

so T =
4

____________________

(1
S
) solar constant

___________________

4

For 85N, T =
4

_______________________

(1 0.44) 1.35 10
3
Wm
2

_______________________

4 5.7 10
8
W m
2
K
4
= 240 K
For 25
0
S, T =
4

_______________________

(1 0.10) 1.35 10
3
Wm
2

_______________________

4 5.7 10
8
W m
2
K
4
= 270.2 K
Tere appears to be something wrong with these
temperatures using the zonal surface albedos. Tey are too
low, and the reason why is because the insolation absorbed
in the atmosphere has not been taken into account. Tese
temperature values are not the surface temperatures but
rather the low atmosphere temperatures because the
atmospheric absorption and scattering has to be included.
If the insolation and cloud cover for the latitude belts is
included a planetary albedo value can be found. Table 865
provides this information for some latitude belts.
L
a
t
i
t
u
d
e
C
o
m
b
i
n
e
d

i
n
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

(
W
m
-
2
)
C
l
o
u
d

c
o
v
e
r

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
P
l
a
n
e
t
a
r
y

a
l
b
e
d
o




(

P
)
A
c
t
u
a
l

a
v
e
r
a
g
e

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
K
)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

d
i
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

(
K
)
85 N 179.0 0.64 0.426 258.2 - 41.0
55 N 285.5 0.67 0.365 278.3 14.9
25 N 394.8 0.41 0.225 298.1 14.7
5 N 417.7 0.49 0.241 299.4 14.9
5 S 417.7 0.49 0.241 299.4 14.9
25 S 394.8 0.46 0.223 296.4 16.5
55 S 285.5 0.73 0.374 279.5 13.3
Figure 865 Insolation, cloud cover and planetary albedos
Te model equation now becomes:
(1
P
) insolation + F = T
S
4
F is the zonal long wave radiation fux and is equal to
240 Wm
-2
as seen earlier in this section. Te surface
temperature can now be obtained from the model.
Example
Determine the average zonal surface temperatures for the
latitude belts 55 N and 25 S. Are these temperature values
in agreement with the actual average temperatures?
Solution
(1
P
) insolation + F = T
E
4

so T =
4

____________________

(1
P
) insolation + F

____________________

For 55 N
T =
4

_______________________________

(1 0.365) 285.5 Wm
2
+ 240 Wm
2

_______________________________

5.7 10
8
W m
2
K
4
= 290 K
For 25 S,
T =
4

_______________________________

(1 0.241) 394.8 Wm
2
+ 240 Wm
2

_______________________________

5.7 10
8
W m
2
K
4
= 310 K
Tese temperatures are still not in agreement with the
actual average temperatures of the 2 latitude belts. Tere
appears to be 293.2 278.3 = 14.9 K and 311.9 296.4
= 15.5 K diference for the 55 north and the 25 south
latitude belts.
Te fnal column in Table 865 gives the temperature
diference from the actual average Earth temperature at
each latitude using the present balance climate model. As
can be seen the values at the equator are higher and the
value in the northern polar region is lower. It has been
suggested that the problem is to do with the transfer of
heat due to convection in the atmosphere. Tere exists a
temperature gradient between diferent zones of the Earth
and it takes time for equilibrium to be established. Te rate
at which heat is transferred between the equator and the
polar region is a function of the temperature gradient.
It has been found that the transport of heat from the
equator to the polar regions is a function of the zonal
temperature, the global temperature, and the dynamical
energy transport coefcient .
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Te globally average temperature can be taken as 288 K at
present. Te equation now becomes:
(1
P
) insolation - F = (T
S
- T
S
)
where T
S
is the average latitude belt temperature, T
S
is
the globally averaged temperature and is the dynamical
energy transport coefcient with a value of 3.4 Wm
-2
K
-1
.
It has also been shown that clouds enhance warming in
the polar regions and causes cooling in the tropics. Tis
factor is called the cloud top feedback and is equal to:
= + C

where represents the adjusted polar transport coefcient

and C

is the cloud feedback for a given latitude.

Tis fnal adjustment makes the original equation
become:
(1
P
) insolation - F = (T
S
- T
S
)
Figure 866 provides this information for some latitude
belts.
L
a
t
i
t
u
d
e
C
o
m
b
i
n
e
d

i
n
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n
(
W
m
-
2
)
P
l
a
n
e
t
a
r
y

a
l
b
e
d
o

(

P
)
C

+

C

A
c
t
u
a
l


t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
K
)
N
e
w

v
a
l
u
e
s

(
K
)
85 N 179.0 0.426 1.29 4.69 258.2 258.7
55 N 285.5 0.365 1.85 5.25 278.3 276.8
25 N 394.8 0.225 2.58 5.98 298.1 299.0
5 N 417.7 0.241 3.14 6.54 299.4 299.8
5 S 417.7 0.241 3.14 6.54 299.4 299.8
25 S 394.8 0.223 2.58 5.98 296.4 299.1
55 S 285.5 0.374 1.85 5.25 279.5 276.3
Figure 866 Adjustment values
Tere are many energy balance climate models and they
are only as good as the mathematics. If the mathematics
is wrong or the wrong data is collected, then the model is
fawed from the very beginning.
Tis model is highly oversimplifed because the model is
not global but rather restricted to a certain small latitudinal
region and it doeas not account for the fow of energy
from one zone to the next or the fact that each latitude
zone will receive diferent amounts of incoming radiation
depending on whether they are close to the equator or
at the north and south extremes. Furthermore, it does
not account for cloud cover. Te model could be greatly
improved by taking these factors into consideration or by
using a more complex model such as three-dimensional
general circulation model.
Now suppose there was an increase to the amount of
incoming radiation from the Sun. According to our energy
balance climate model, there would also be an increase
in the outgoing radiation so that equilibrium could be
re-established. Tis increase would cause the planetary
temperature to increase.
Let us suppose that the solar constant at the 25 S latitude
belt increased by 10% for one year when the albedo was 0.3
and the temperature somewhere above in the atmosphere
was 255 K. Te temperature change will be given by:
T = new temperature old temperature
It can be shown that the change in this regions temperature
over a period of time is given by:
______________________________________________
(Incoming radiation intensity outgoing radiation intensity) time time

surface heat capacity
T =
(I
in
I
out
)t

__________

C
s

Let us go back to our basic model. Using the equations:
Incoming radiation =
(1 ) 1.1 solar constant

________________________

4

=
(1 0.3) 1.1 1.35 10
3
Wm
2

___________________________

4
= 259.875 W m
2
Outgoing radiation = T
E
4

= 5.7 10
8
W m
2
K
4
(255)
4
K
4
= 241 W m
2
Te change in temperature T would equal:

(259.875 Wm
2
241 Wm
2
) 60 60 24 365

______________________________________

4 10
8
J m
2
K
1
= 1.49 K
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Exercise 8.5
1. All of the following are natural greenhouse gases
EXCEPT:
A. methane
B. nitrogen
C. water vapour
D. nitrous oxide
Te following information is about questions 2-5.
A perfectly black body sphere is at a steady
temperature of 473 K and is enclosed in a
container at absolute zero temperature. It radiates
thermal energy at a rate of 300 Js
-1
.
2. If the temperature of the sphere is increased to
946 K it radiates heat at a rate of:
A. 300 W
B. 1200 W
C. 3200 W
D. 4800 W
3. If the radius of the sphere is doubled it radiates
heat at a rate of:
A. 300 W
B. 1200 W
C. 3200 W
D. 4800 W
4. If the temperature of the enclosure is raised to
500 K it radiates heat at a rate of:
A. 300 W
B. 1200 W
C. 3200 W
D. 4800 W
5. If the enclosure is at 473 K the net rate of heat loss
would be:
A. 0 W
B. 300 W
C. 1200 W
D. 100 000 W
6. Te relative intensities of the emitted wavelengths
of a perfect black body are dependant on the
A. the surface area of the black body
B. the temperature of the black body
C. the radiation per square metre
D. the radiation per second
7. By referring to Figures 859 and 860 answer the
following questions.
(a) What is the diference between a black body
radiator and a non-black body radiator.
(b) Explain why a body at 1500 K is red hot
whereas a body at 3000 K is white hot.
(c) How can you use the information from the
graphs to attempt to explain Stefans law?
(d) As the temperature increases, what changes
take place to the energy distribution among
the wavelengths radiated?
8. A very long thin-walled glass tube of diameter
2.0 cm carries oil at a temperature 40 C above
that of the surrounding air that is at a temperature
of 27 C. Estimate the energy lost per unit length.
9. (a) Estimate the mean surface temperature
of the Earth if the Suns rays are normally
incident on the Earth. Assume the Earth is
in radiative equilibrium with the Sun. Te
Suns temperature is 6000 K and its radius is
6.5 10
8
m. Te distance of the Earth from
the Sun is1.5 10
11
m.
(b) What assumptions have been made about
the temperature obtained?
10. Estimate the efective heat capacity of the oceans if
the specifc heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg
-1
K
-1

and the thermal energy is captured in the top
50 m. (Make the density equal to 1030 kgm
-3
).
11. Suppose that the solar constant at the 25 S
latitude belt increased by 20% for two years
when the albedo was 0.3 and the temperature
somewhere above in the atmosphere was 255 K.
Determine the change in temperature for this time
period.
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8.6.1 Describe some possible models of global
warming.
8.6.2 State what is meant by the enhanced
greenhouse eect.
8.6.3 Identify the increased combustion of
fossil fuels as the likely major cause of the
enhanced greenhouse eect.
8.6.4 Describe the evidence that links global
warming to increased levels of greenhouse
gases.
8.6.5 Outline some of the mechanisms that may
increase the rate of global warming.
8.6.6 Dene coecient of volume expansion.
IBO 2007
8.6.1 REASONS FOR GLOBAL
WARMING
A range of reasons has been suggested to explain global
warming. Tese include:
changes in the composition of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere
increased solar fare activity
cyclical changes in the Earths orbit
volcanic activity
continental drif afecting the ocean currents and
winds.
Greenhouse gas emissions from the burning of fossil fuels
has increased the concentration of carbon dioxide, nitrous
oxides and aerosols in the atmosphere, and the melting
of permafrost regions in the world and deforestation
have increased the concentrations of methane. Tese
greenhouse gases capture the infra-red radiation and
cause resonance at the natural frequency of oscillation of
the greenhouse gases. Tis energy is then re-radiated to
the Earth causing climate changes.
Te Sun, being a variable star, has a major infuence on the
long-term and short-term changes in climate of the solar
system.Te centre of mass of the solar system varies in
an eleven year Sunspot cycle and this causes variations in
the centre of mass of the nucleus of the Sun that leads to a
8.6 GLOBAL WARMING
TOK Is global warming real?
A word of caution is ofered to the reader before
beginning this section concerning global warming.
Very few scientists who specialise in this subject would
disagree with the fact that human activity is responsible
for an enhancement of greenhouse gas emissions and
that this may contribute to global warming. However,
the scientifc community is in serious debate as to
whether nature can deal with the enhanced greenhouse
efect. In the 1970s, some science teachers taught
students through various curriculums that there was
a serious energy crisis and that most of the crude oil
would be used up by the beginning of the 21
st
century,
that an ice age was imminent and the world population
was increasing exponentially. We know that these
predictions did not happen.
As individuals we are questioning the real meaning
of truth as we witness the sad cause of events that are
occuring in the world as portrayed in the media. Tere
is a split in the science community concerning the pros
and cons of global warming and any such polarisation
tends to create disharmony and self-doubt.
Global warming is big business and many individuals
and organisations are making hefy profts from nature
documentaries and climate modelling projects, and
governments are collecting taxes to fund research and
conventions on this subject. Take the time to do a web
search on global warming, climate models and the
greenhouse efect and it will become evident.
As much as there is evidence that ocean and sea levels
are rising and that the ice caps are melting, there is
the counter-evidence that sea levels have not risen or
have in fact fallen in some geographical areas and that
there is an actual increase in the Arctic ice cap and the
Antarctic sea ice cover. During December 2006, New
York had one of its highest temperatures for a winter
while Melbourne had snow in the hinterlands during
summer.
As students it is up to you to gather the evidence and
come to your own conclusions.
19 april 09 Physics Ch 8 final.i242 242 22/05/2009 11:55:21 AM
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variation in the Suns speed of rotation. More importantly,
this variation causes solar fares and eruptions to occur.
During the periods of high solar activity, the Sun
radiates more energy which causes the Earth to heat up.
Furthermore, high solar activity reduces cosmic radiation
and a corresponding reduction in cloud formation reduces
rain precipitation.
Te Earths precession (the Earth wobbles like a spinning
top or gyroscope), obliquity (the Earth is tilted on its
axis by 23.5) and eccentricity (the Earths orbit around
the Sun is not circular but rather elliptical) afect its orbit
every 100 000 and 400 000 years which in term leads to
climate change.
Volcanic emission cycles are known to cause climate
change. Te explosion of Mt. Krakatau (Krakatoa) in
Indonesia in 1883 caused rds of a 45 km
2
island to be
blown away and caused a tsunami that reached a height
of 40 metres. Te Sun was blue and green as fne ash and
aerosols circled the equator in 13 days. Tis dust lowered
global temperatures by as much as 1.2 C in the year
afer the eruption and temperatures did not return to
normal until 1888. Today, there are more than 60 active
volcanoes.
Continental drif is also believed to afect the climate
because of fuctuating ocean currents and winds.
8.6.2 THE ENHANCED GREENHOUSE
EFFECT
Te syllabus asks students to be aware that enhancement
of the greenhouse efect is caused by human activities. Tese
activities have been frequently mentioned throughout this
chapter.
8.6.3 INCREASED COMBUSTION OF
FOSSIL FUELS
Students should be aware that, although debatable, the
generally accepted view of most scientists is that human
activities, mainly related to burning of fossil fuels, has
released extra carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
IBO 2007
8.6.4 EVIDENCE FOR GLOBAL
WARMING DUE TO ENHANCED
GREENHOUSE GASES
A long-term international collaboration between the United
States of America, France and the Russian Federation at
the Russian Vostok ice core research station in Eastern
Antarctica has produced evidence of atmospheric
composition and mean global temperatures. Ice core
samples were drilled to a depth of 3623 m and drilling
was stopped about 120 m above a sub-glacial lake. Tese
ice cores have been used to gather data on deuterium and
dust content, and entrapped carbon dioxide and methane
over the past 420 000 years. Researchers found a good
correlation between greenhouse gas concentrations and air
temperature for the various ice ages and warming periods
that last around a 100 000 year cycle. However, they found
that present-day concentrations of carbon dioxide and
methane were well above the levels expected.
Tree rings can provide evidence of the seasons and
water precipitation levels during the growth of a tree. By
examining the carbon-14 content of carbon samples taken
from the tree rings, a continuous record of levels of the
changing intensities of solar radiation and the respective
climate changes can be established.
Sedimentary records in lake beds can be used to identify
the seasonal fuctuations in water levels of lakes. Core
samples taken from the sea bed of oceans can establish a
continuous and accurate record of historical surface sea-
temperatures.
8.6.5 MECHANISMS FOR THE INCREASE
IN RATE OF GLOBAL WARMING
Tere are a number of mechanisms that could contribute to
the rate of global warming such as changes in temperature,
changes in ice and snow cover and changes in vegetation of
the Earths land and waters.
Temperature plays a major role in the rate of reaction and the
solubility of gases in water. With an increase in temperature,
the solubility of CO
2
in the waters of the Earth would be
reduced and gaseous carbon dioxide concentrations in the
atmosphere would increase. Radiation absorbed by this
greenhouse gas would then be re-radiated to the Earths land
surface causing global warming.
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If global warming increased, the ice and snow cover of the
Earth would decrease. Ice and snow have a high albedo which
means the ratio between the incoming radiation and the
amount refected is high. However, the land which would be
exposed or the water that would be formed has a low albedo
and as a result, more radiation would be captured resulting
in an increase in the rate of heat absorption of the Earth.
Deforestation reduces carbon fxation in the carbon cycle.
By the process of photosynthesis, plants take carbon
dioxide from the air to make sugars and cellulose thus
locking up or fxing the carbon dioxide. With increased
deforestation, there is less plants to carry out this process
and CO
2
concentrations would increase.
8.6.6 COEFFICIENT OF VOLUME
EXPANSION
All liquids and gases expand when they are heated but
to diferent degrees. Each liquid and gas will then have
a diferent coefcient of expansion. Te coefcient of
volume or cubical expansion is the fractional change in
volume per degree change in temperature and is given by
the relation:
V = V
0
T
where V
0
is the original volume, V is the volume change,
T is the temperature change and is the coefcient of
volume expansion. Water has a coefcient of volume
expansion equal to 210 10
-6
K
-1
and air and most other
atmospheric gases have a value of 3 400 10
-6
K
-1
8.6.7 State that one possible eect of the enhanced
greenhouse eect is a rise in mean sea-level.
8.6.8 Outline possible reasons for a predicted rise
in mean sea-level.
8.6.9 Identify climate change as an outcome of
the enhanced greenhouse eect.
8.6.10 Solve problems related to the enhanced
greenhouse eect.
8.6.11 Identify some possible solutions to reduce
the enhanced greenhouse eect.
8.6.12 Discuss international eorts to reduce the
enhanced greenhouse eect.
IBO 2007
8.6.7,8 RISE IN THE MEAN SEA-LEVEL
Tere can be little doubt that one possible efect of the
enhanced greenhouse efect would be the rise in the mean
sea-level. An increase in the Earths temperature could
cause more ice and snow to melt resulting in increased
volume in the oceans and seas, and we have just learnt that
expansion of water increases with temperature.
Using climate models, predictions are that the increase in
mean surface temperature will be between 1.5-4.5 C and
that there will be an increase in sea level between 50-65 cm
between present time and the year 2100. However, precise
predictions are difcult to make because of many factors
including the irregular expansion of water in diferent
temperate zones, diferent evaporation rates between
warm seas and cold oceans, and the diferent efects of ice
melting in sea water compared to ice melting on land.
8.6.9 CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE
ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Climate change is an outcome of the enhanced greenhouse
efect. Te extent to which mankind has contributed to
this cannot be denied. Te combustion of fossil fuels is by
far the biggest enhancer to greenhouse gases and the
inefciency of the systems that we use for power
production, transportation, heating and cooling and
leisure need to be re-examined. A reduction in greenhouse
emissions may not be necessary if natural processes can
deal with the problem. However, with cities choking with
polluted air and increased respiratory infections afecting
the young and old, it makes common sense that mankind
should do whatever is possible to reduce greenhouse
emissions.
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8.6.10 SOLVING PROBLEMS AND THE
ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Example
(a) Calculate the total energy needed to convert 10
tonnes of ice at -40 C to water at 16 C.
(b) If the ice has an area of 100 m
2
, estimate the depth
of the ice.
(c) Now suppose this volume of water was increased
in temperature by 4 C, estimate the increase in
volume of the water.
Solution
(a) Specifc heat of ice = 2.1 10
3
Jkg
-1
K
-1

Latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.34 10
5
Jkg
-1

Specifc heat capacity of water = 4180 Jkg
-1
K
-1

Using Q = mcT
ICE
+ mL
f
+ mcT
WATER

= m [L
V
+ cT
WATER
+ L
f
+ cT
ICE
]
= 1 10
4
kg [(2.1 10
3
Jkg
-1
K
-1
40
0
K) + 3.34 10
5
Jkg
-1

+ (4180 Jkg
-1
K
-1
16
0
K) ]
= 4.84 10
9
J

= 5 10
9
J
(b) 10 tonnes = 10 000 kg. If we assume that 1 kg of
water has a volume of 1 dm
3
then the total volume
would be 10 000 dm
3
or 100 m
3
. Terefore, the
depth of the ice would be 1 m because 100 m
2
1 m
= 100 m
3
.
(c) V = V
0
T = 210 10
-6
K
-1
100 m
3
2 K =
4.2 x 10
-2
m
3
= 4.2 L.
Example
(a) If the Sun supplied 1 kW m
-2
to the ice in the
previous question and the ice had an albedo of
0.90, estimate the time it would take for the ice to
melt and reach 16 C.
(b) What assumptions have been made in this
estimate?
Solution
(a) Energy required = 4.84 10
9
J and the Sun supplies
1000 Js
-1
m
-2
.
Te albedo is 0.90 so 90% of the radiation is
refected.
Energy supplied by the Sun = 100 Js
-1
m
-2
.
If this energy goes to heating the ice, then it will take:
4.85 10
9
J / 100 Js
-1
m
-2
= 4.85 10
7
s = 1.54 years
(b) We have assumed that no heat was lost to the
surroundings and that the ice is not 1 m thick but
rather infnitely thin.
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8.6.11 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO
REDUCE THE ENHANCED
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Tere are a number of ways that we can use to reduce
enhanced greenhouse efect. Tese include:
greater efciency of power production
replacing the use of coal and oil with natural gas
use of combined heating and power systems (CHP)
increased use of renewable energy sources and
nuclear power
carbon dioxide capture and storage
use of hybrid vehicles.
As already mentioned, energy is lost to the surroundings at
many stages in a fossil fuel power plant and the efciency
of coal and oil-fred power plants can be as low as 40%. Te
majority of the useful energy is lost to water in the cooling
towers as heat is evolved in the condensation component
of the heat exchanger cycle.
However, a natural gas-fred power station is more efcient
as they use combined cycle gas turbines (CCGT). A jet
engine is used in place of the turbine to turn the generator.
Natural gas is used to power the jet engine and the exhaust
fumes from the jet engine are used to produce steam which
turns the generator. Tese power stations can be up to
55% efcient. Te highest efciencies are being obtained
in combined cycle plants such as the cogeneration or CHP
(combined heat and power) plants. In a combined cycle
plant, surplus heat from a gas turbine is used to produce
steam which in turn drives a steam turbine. Te combined
cycle plants are designed in a variety of confgurations
composed of the number of gas turbines followed by
the steam turbine. For example, a 3-1 combined cycle
facility has three gas turbines tied to one steam turbine.
Efciencies of over 50% can be achieved. Furthermore, if
the plants waste heat is utilized for the heating of house or
an industrial process, efciencies of 80% are achievable.
A number of advanced technologies are being developed
including PFBC (pressurized fuidized bed combustion),
IGCC (integrated gas combined cycle) and IDGCC
(Integrated Drying Gasifcation Combined Cycle) Tese
technologies generate electricity at a higher efciency.
China is presently buiding coal-fred power stations at
the rate of one per day. Surely it would be better to use
renewable energy resources that are cleaner and less
polluting. However, China has coal resources and the
demand for energy is unprecedented in this country.
Nuclear power is back and some countries believe that it is
the best alternative to fossil fuels because it is clean and 1kg
of uranium can produce as much energy as 2 000 000 kg
of coal.
Revegetation of large areas of land has been proposed in
the Kyoto Protocol that came into force on 16 February
2005. Countries can trade their emission quotas by being
given carbon points for reforestation. Tis will store and
capture carbon and reduce the amount of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere.
Hybrid vehicles will play a big part in the reduction of
carbon dioxide emissions. Many taxis and other vehicles
have converted from gasoline to LPG gas over the past 20
years. Many local government vehicles are battery driven.
Although many people talk about the hydrogen vehicle,
the tank would have to be very heavy and the tanks would
have to flled-up more ofen than conventional vehicles.
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8.6.12 INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS
TO REDUCE THE ENHANCED
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
A number of international eforts have emerged since the
1980s to examine the enhanced greenhouse efect and
ways to reduce the gases that have been increasing in the
atmosphere. Tere has been policies proposed but it has
been difcult to get governments to fully agree on the
most cost-efective means to implement the reductions.
Tree important symposiums have been:
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC)
Kyoto Protocol
Asia-Pacifc Partnership on Clean Development
and Climate (APPCDC).
In the 1980s, the United Nations Environment Programme
in conjunction with the World Meteorological Organization
set up a panel of government representatives and scientists
to determine the factors that may contribute to climate
change. Te panel was known as the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Tis body has
published many extensive reports that formed the basis
for many discussions and decision-making about the
enhanced greenhouse efect.
In 1992, the Earth Summit 1 was held in Rio de Janeiro.
Some 150 other countries signed the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change. Te stated objective of
the Framework Convention is to achieve:
...stabilisation of the greenhouse gas concentrations in
the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Such
a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufcient
to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change,
to ensure that food production is not threatened and to
enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable
manner.
Each country agreed to report its greenhouse gas emissions
and the strategies and measures it has adopted to reduce
them.
Te parties then met in Berlin in 1995 in what became
known as the frst meeting of the Conference of the
Parties (COP1). Although most agreed to cooperating
internationally on the enhanced greenhouse efect, there
was little agreement on what measures could be taken
to address the issue. But the parties began work on a
protocol.
In 1996 a meeting was held in Geneva where the parties
agreed to accelerate talks on a need to reduce enhanced
grenhouse gas emissions. Te following year they met in
New York, Earth Summit II reviewed the work done in the
previous 5 years. However, some countries could not agree
on the proposed legally binding targets for the reduction
of greenhouse gas emissions.
In 1997, the parties met in Kyoto and produced an
agreement known as the Kyoto Protocol. Te agreement
required industrialized countries to reduce their emissions
by 2012 to an average of 5 percent below 1990 levels. A
system was developed to allow countries who had met this
target to sell or trade their extra quota to countries having
difculty meeting their reduction deadlines. Over 130
countries have ratifed the protocol but Russia, Australia
and the United States failed to ratify the protocol (as of
December 2007). Russia has since ratifed the protocol.
Te Kyoto Protocol came into force on 16 February 2005.
An alternative strategy mainly driven by the USA and
Australia who did not ratify the Kyoto protocol was
unveiled. Called the Asia-Pacifc Partnership for Clean
Development and Climate (APPCDC), it proposed that
rather than imposing compulsory emission cuts, it would
work in partnership to complement the Kyoto protocol.
Te six countries involved were Australia, China, India,
Japan, South Korea and the USA. Tese countries have
a combined population of over 2.5 billion and together
produce 50% of the worlds greenhouse gas emissions.
Tey have agreed to develop and share clean technology
for improved emissions of fossil fuel plants together
with rewards for the enhancement of renewable energy
resources in their countries. Tey argued that the Kyoto
agreement would slow their economic growth and that the
5 percent target to be met was unrealistic.
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Exercise 8.6
1. Defne the following terms
(a) energy
(b) energy density
(c) efciency of an energy conversion
(d) albedo
(e) resonance
(f) emissivity
(g) surface heat capacity
(h) the coefcient of volume expansion.
2. Describe the meaning of the following terms and
give an example of each
(a) a thermodynamic cycle
(b) energy degradation
(c) a fossil fuel
(d) a renewable energy source
(e) a pump storage system
(f) a combined cycle gas turbine
(g) an oscillating water column
(h) blackbody radiation
3. Outline the fndings of the following international
bodies
(a) IPPC
(b) Te Kyoto Protocol
(c) APPCDC
4. Outline the process of the natural greenhouse efect.
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MOTION IN FIELDS
9.1 Projectile motion
9.2 Gravitational eld, potential and energy
9.3 Electric eld, potential and energy
9
9.1.1 State the independence of the vertical and
the horizontal components of velocity for a
projectile in a uniform eld.
9.1.2 Describe and sketch the trajectory of
projectile motion as parabolic in the
absence of air resistance.
9.1.3 Describe qualitatively the eect of air
resistance on the trajectory of a projectile.
9.1.4 Solve problems on projectile motion.
IBO 2007
9.1.19.1.3 PROJECTILE MOTION
Projectile launched horizontally
I
n this section we shall look at the motion of a projectile
that is launched horizontally from a point above the
surface of the Earth.
In the Figure 901 a projectile is fred horizontally from a
clif of height h with an initial horizontal velocity v
h

Our problem is efectively to fnd where it will land, with
what velocity and the time of fight. We shall assume that
we can ignore air resistance and that the acceleration due
to gravity g is constant.
v
h
g m s
2
clif
h
d
Figure 901 The path of a horizontal projectile
Since there is no force acting in the horizontal direction
the horizontal velocity will remain unchanged throughout
the fight of the particle. However, the vertical acceleration
of the projectile will be equal to g.
We can fnd the time of fight t by fnding the time it takes
the particle to fall a height h.
To start with, we consider only the vertical motion of the
object:
u =0
s = h
t = ?
h
a = g
v v
v
=
Figure 902 The vertical motion of the object
9.1 PROJECTILE MOTION
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Time of ight
Tis is calculated from the defnition of acceleration
i.e., using v = u + at, we have that
v
v
0 g t t +
v
v
g
----- = =
where v
v
is the vertical velocity with which the object
strikes the ground.
To fnd v
v
we use the equation v
2
u
2
2as + = , so that
as the initial vertical velocity (u) is zero, the acceleration
a =g and s = h.
Ten
v
v
2
0
2
2g h v
v
+ 2gh = =
From which we have that
a
t
2gh
g
-------------
2h
g
------ = =
nd so, the time of fight is given by
t
2h
g
------ =
Since the horizontal velocity is constant, the horizontal
distance d that the particle travels before striking the
ground is v
h
t. (i.e., using s = ut + at
2
= ut, where
in the horizontal direction we have that a = 0 and
u = v
h
= constant)
Tis gives
d v
v
2h
g
------ =
Tis is the general solution to the problem and it is not
expected that you should remember the formula for this
general result. You should always work from frst principles
with such problems.
An interesting point to note is that, since there is no
horizontal acceleration, then if you were to drop a
projectile from the top of the clif vertically down, at the
moment that the other projectile is fred horizontally,
then both would reach the ground at the same time. Tis
is illustrated by the copy of a multifash photograph, as
shown in Figure 903.
Figure 903 Using multi-ash photography
Tis is irrespective of the speed with which the particle
is fred horizontally. Te greater the horizontal speed, the
further this projectile will travel from the base of the clif.
It is also possible to show that the path of the particle is
parabolic.
To fnd the velocity with which the particle strikes the
ground we must remember that velocity is a vector
quantity. So, using Pythagoras theorem at the point of
impact (to take into account both the vertical component
of velocity and the horizontal component of velocity) we
have that the velocity has a magnitude of
v
v
v
h
V

V v
v
2
v
h
2
+ =
and the direction will be given by fnding
arc
v
v
v
h
----



tan =
where the angle is quoted relative to the horizontal. If the
angle is to be given relative to the vertical then we evaluate
(90 )
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or
Notice that at impact the velocity vector is tangential to
the path of motion. Te velocity vector is always tangential
to the path of motion and is made up of the horizontal and
vertical components of the velocities of the object.
Projectiles launched at an angle
to the horizontal
Consider the problem of a projectile that is launched from
the surface of the Earth and at an angle to the surface of the
Earth. Ignore air resistance and assume that g is constant.
In Figure 905 the particle is launched with velocity v at
angle to the surface.
v

v
v
v
h
Range
maximum height (H)
v
v
0 a , g = =
+ ve
T
2v
v
g
-------- =
g
time to impact
y
x
Figure 905 Projectile launched at an angle
Te vertical component of the velocity, v
v
, is
v
v
v sin =
Te horizontal component of the velocity, v
h
, is
v
h
v cos =
As in the case of the projectile launched horizontally,
there is no acceleration in the horizontal direction and the
acceleration in the vertical direction is g.
If we refer the motion of the projectile to a Cartesian co-
ordinate system, then afer a time t, the horizontal distance
travelled will be given by
x v
h
t v cos ( )t = =
and the vertical distance can be found by using the
equation
s ut
1
2
---at
2
+ =
so that
arc
v
h
v
v
-----



tan = arc
v
h
v
v
-----



tan =
y v
v
t
1
2
-- - g ( )t
2
+ = y v sin ( )t
1
2
---g t
2
=
If we now substitute for
t
x
v cos
--------------- =
into this equation we get
y v sin ( )
x
v cos
-------------- -
1
2
---g
x
v cos
---------------


2
=
x
sin
cos
------------
1
2
-- -g
x
v
--


2
1
cos
------------


2
=
x
1
2
---g
x
v
--


2

2
sec tan =
Tis is the general equation of the motion of the projectile
that relates the vertical and horizontal distances. Tis
equation is plotted below for a projectile that is launched
with an initial speed of 20 m s
1
at 60 to the horizontal.
Te path followed by the projectile is a parabola.
60
20
20
20 60 17.32 sin
20 60 cos 10 =
10
10
10
10
17.32
v
v
0 =
y
x
Figure 906 The parabolic path
Te maximum height H that the projectile reaches can be
found from the equation
v
2
u
2
2as + =
where u is the initial vertical component of the velocity
and v the fnal (vertical component) of the velocity at the
highest point, where at this point, the vertical component
is zero. So that,
0
2
v sin ( )
2
2 g H + =

H
v
2

2
sin
2g
------------------- =
If we use the fgures in the example above (v = 20 m s
1
, = 60)

with g = 10 m s
2
then we see that H
20 60 sin ( )
2
2 10
------------------------------ 15 = =
i.e., the object reaches a maximum height of 15 m.
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Te time T to reach the maximum height is found using
v = u + a t, such v = 0,
u = v sin and a = g, to give
0 = v sin g T g T = v sin
Hence,
T
v sin
g
-------------- =
For the example above the value of T is 1.73 s. Tis means
(using symmetry) that the projectile will strike the ground
3.46 s afer the launch. Te horizontal range R is given by
R = (vcos ) 2 T which for the example gives R = 34.6 m.
(We could also fnd the time for the projectile to strike the
ground by putting y = 0 in the equation
y v sin ( )t
1
2
---gt
2
=
Although we have established a general solution, when
solving projectile problems, remember that the horizontal
velocity does not change and that when using the equations
of uniform motion you must use the component values
of the respective velocities. Do not try to remember the
formulae.
The eect of air resistance on
projectile motion
We have seen that in the absence of air resistance, the path
followed by a projectile is a parabola and that the path
depends only on the initial speed and angle of projection.
Of course, in the real world all projectiles are subject to air
resistance. Fig 907 shows the free body force diagram for a
projectile subject to air resistance.
vertical drag
horizontal drag
weight
Figure 907 The eect of air resistance
Experiment shows that both the horizontal and vertical
drag forces depend on the speed of the projectile. Te
efect of the horizontal drag will be to foreshorten the
range of the projectile and the efect of the vertical drag
will be to reduce the maximum height reached by the
projectile. However, the presence or air resistance also
means that the mass of the projectile will now afect
the path followed by the projectile. In the absence of
air resistance there is no acceleration in the horizontal
direction and the acceleration in the vertical direction is g,
the acceleration of free fall. With air resistance present, to
fnd the horizontal (a
H
)and vertical (a
V
) accelerations we
have to apply Newtons second law to both the directions.
If we let the horizontal drag equal kv
H
and the vertical
drag equal Kv
V
where k and K are constants and v
H
and v
V

are the horizontal and vertical speeds respectively at any
instant, then we can write
H H
kv ma = and
V V
mg Kv ma =
From this we can now see why the mass afects the path
since both a
H
and a
V
depend on height. (For those of you
doing HL maths, you will realise that the above equations
can be written as diferential equations but fnding their
solution is no easy matter.) We have here, another example
of the Newton method for solving the general mechanics
problemknow the forces acting at a particular instant
and you can in principle predict the future behaviour of
the system.
9.1.4 SOLVE PROJECTILE PROBLEMS
Notice that at impact the velocity vector is tangential to
the path of motion. As a matter of fact, the velocity vector
is always tangential to the path of motion and is made up
of the horizontal and vertical components of the velocities
of the object.
Example
A particle is fred horizontally with a speed of 25 ms
-1
from
the top of a vertical clif of height 80 m. Determine
(a) the time of fight
(b) Te distance from the base of the clif where it
strikes the ground
(c) the velocity with which it strikes the ground
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Solution
cliff
+ve
Vertical: u = 0
a = g
Horizontal: u = 25 m s
-1
a = 0
80 m
(a) Te vertical velocity with which it strikes the ground
can be found using the equation equation
v
2
u
2
2as + = , with u = 0, a = g and s = 80 (= h).
Tis then gives v
v
2gh 2 10 80 = =
= 40
Tat is, the vertical velocity at impact is 40 m s
1
.
Te time to strike the ground can be found using
v = u + at, with u = 0, a = g and v = v and v = v
v
. So that,
t
v
v
g
-----
40
10
----- - = = = 4.
Tat is, 4 seconds.
(b) Te distance travelled from the base of the clif using
s ut
1
2
---at
2
+ = , with u = 25,
a = 0 and t = 4 is given by
s 25 4 = = 100.
Tat is, the range is 100 m.
(c) Te velocity with which it strikes the ground is
given by the resultant of the vertical and horizontal
velocities as shown.
40
Ground l evel
v
v
=
v
h
25 =
V

Te magnitude of this velocity is

40
2
25
2
+ 47 = m s
1
and it makes an angle to the horizontal of
arc
40
25
------


tan =
= 58 (or to the vertical of 32).
Conservation of energy and
projectile problems
In some situations the use of conservation of energy can
be a much simpler method than using the kinematics
equations. Solving projectile motion problems makes
use of the fact that E
k
E
p
+ constant = at every point
in the objects fight (assuming no loss of energy due to
friction).
In Figure 909, using the conservation of energy principle
we have that the
Total energy at A = Total energy at B = Total energy at C
i.e.,
--mv
A
2 1
2
---mv
B
2
mg H +
1
2
---mv
C
2
mg h + = =
Notice that at A, the potential energy is set at zero (h = 0).
v
A

v
v
v
h
H
1
2
---mv
B
2
mg H +
v
B
h
1
2
---mv
C
2
mg h +
A
B
C
v
C
1
2
---mv
A
2
0 +
Figure 909 Energy problem
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Example
A ball is projected at 50 ms
-1
at an angle of 40
o
above the
horizontal. Te ball is released 2.00 m above ground level.
Taking g = 10 m s
-2
, determine
(a) the maximum height reached by the ball
(b) the speed of the ball as it hits the ground
Solution
2 m
A
B
C
H
R = range
50
40
a. Te total energy at A is given by
E
k
E
p
+
1
2
-- -m 50.0 ( )
2
mg 2.00 + =
1250m 20m + =
1270m 1300 m =
Next, to fnd the total energy at B we need to frst determine
the speed at B, which is given by the horizontal component
of the speed at A.
Horizontal component: 50.0 40 cos 38.3 = m s
1
.
Terefore, we have that
E
k
E
p
+
1
2
---m 38.3 ( )
2
mg H + =
y 15t 5t
2
=
733.53 m 10 mH + =
Equating, we have
1270 m 733.53 m 10 mH + =
1270 733.53 10H + =
H 53.6 =
Tat is, the maximum height reached is 53.6 m.
b. At C, the total energy is given by
E
k
E
p
+
1
2
---mv
C
2
mg 0 +
1
2
---mv
C
2
= =
Using the total energy at A, E
k
E
p
+ 1270 m =
Equating, we have that
1270m
1
2
---mv
C
2
v
C
2
2540 = =
v
C
2540 50.4 = =
Tat is, the ball hits the ground with a speed of 50.4 m s
1
.
Exercise 9.1
1. A projectile is fred from the edge of a vertical clif
with a speed of 30 m s
1
at an angle of 30 to the
horizontal. Te height of the clif above the surface
of the sea is 100 m.
(a) If g = 10 m s
2
and air resistance is ignored
show that at any time t afer the launch the
vertical displacement y of the projectile as
measured from the top of the clif is given
by:
y = 15t - 5t
2

Hence show that the projectile will hit the surface
of the sea about 6 s afer it is launched.
(b) Suggest the signifcance of the negative
value of t that can be obtained in solving
the equation.
(c) Determine the maximum height reached by
the projectile and the horizontal distance to
where it strikes the sea as measured from
the base of the clif.
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9.2.1 Dene gravitational potential and
gravitational potential energy.
9.2.2 State and apply the expression for
gravitational potential due to a point
mass.
9.2.3 State and apply the formula relating
gravitational eld strength to
gravitational potential gradient.
IBO 2007
9.2.1 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
We have seen that if we lif an object of mass m to a height h
above the surface of the Earth then its gain in gravitational
potential energy is mgh. However, this is by no means the
full story. For a start we now know that g varies with h and
also the expression really gives a diference in potential
energy between the value that the object has at the Earths
surface and the value that it has at height h. So what we
really need is a zero point. Can we fnd a point where the
potential energy is zero and use this point from which to
measure changes in potential energy?
Te point that is chosen is in fact infnity. At infnity the
gravitational feld strength of any object will be zero. So
let us see if we can deduce an expression for the gain in
potential energy of an object when it is lifed from the
surface of the Earth to infnity. Tis in efect means fnding
the work necessary to perform this task.
r
r
r r +
r =
m
g
A
B
M
e
Figure 911 Gravitational forces
In the diagram we consider the work necessary to move
the particle of mass m a distance r in the gravitational
feld of the Earth.
Te force on the particle at A is F
GM
e
m
r
2
---------------- =
If the particle is moved to B, then since r is very small,
we can assume that the feld remains constant over the
distance AB. Te work W done against the gravitational
feld of the Earth in moving the distance AB is
W
GM
e
m
r
2
----------------r =
(remember that work done against a force is negative)
To fnd the total work done, W, in going from the surface
of the Earth to infnity we have to add all these little bits
of work. Tis is done mathematically by using integral
calculus.
W
GM
e
m
r
2
----------------



r d
R

GM
e
m
1
r
2
---- - r d
R

GM
e
m
1
r
---
R

= = =
GM
e
m 0
1
R
---


=
GM
e
m
R
---------------- =
Hence we have, where R is the radius of the Earth, that the
work done by the gravitational feld in moving an object of
mass m from R (surface of the Earth) to infnity, is given by
W
GM
e
m
R
---------------- =
We can generalise the result by calculating the work
necessary per unit mass to take a small mass from the
surface of the Earth to infnity. Tis we call the gravitational
potential, V, i.e.,
J
m
-----
We would get exactly the same result if we calculated the
work done by the feld to bring the point mass from infnity
to the surface of Earth. In this respect the formal defnition
of gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational feld
is therefore defned as the work done per unit mass in
bringing a point mass from infnity to that point.
Clearly then, the gravitational potential at any point in
the Earths feld distance r from the centre of the Earth
(providing r > R) is
V
GM
e
r
------------ =
9.2 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD, POTENTIAL AND
ENERGY
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Te potential is therefore a measure of the amount of work
that has to be done to move particles between points in a
gravitational feld and its unit is the J kg
1
. We also note
that the potential is negative so that the potential energy
as we move away from the Earths surface increases until it
reaches the value of zero at infnity.
If the gravitational feld is due to a point mass of mass m,
then we have the same expression as above except that M
e

is replaced by m and must also exclude the value of the
potential at the point mass itself i.e. at r = 0.
We can express the gravitational potential due to the Earth
(or due to any spherical mass) in terms of the gravitational
feld strength at its surface.
At the surface of the Earth we have
g
0
R
e
GM
R
e
--------- =
e
So that,
g
0
R
e
2
GM =
e
Hence at a distance r from the centre of the Earth the
gravitational potential V can be written as
V
GM
e
r
------------
g
0
R
e
2
r
------------ = =
Te potential at the surface of the Earth
(r = R
e
) is therefore - is therefore -g
0
R
e
It is interesting to see how the expression for the
gravitational potential ties in with the expression mgh.
Te potential at the surface of the Earth is -g
0
R
e
(see the
example above) and at a height h will be -g
0
R
e
h + ( ) if we
assume that g
0
does not change over the distance h. Te
diference in potential between the surface and the height
h is therefore g
0
h. So the work needed to raise an object
of mass m to a height h is mgh , i.e., m diference in
gravitational potential
Tis we have referred to as the gain in gravitational
potential energy (see 2.3.5).
However, this expression can be extended to any two
points in any gravitational feld such that if an object of
mass m moves between two points whose potentials are
V
1
and V
2
respectively, then the change in gravitational
potential energy of the object is m(V
1
V
2
).
9.2.3 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
GRADIENT
Let us consider now a region in space where the
gravitational feld is constant. In Figure 912 the two points
A and B are separated by the distance x.
A B
direction of uniform gravitational
field of strength I
x
Figure 912 The gravitational potential gradient
Te gravitational feld is of strength I and is in the direction
shown. Te gravitational potential at A is V and at B is V + V.
Te work done is taking a point mass m from A to B is
Fx = mIx.
However, by defnition this work is also equal to -mV.
Terefore mIx = -mV
or
V
I
x

Efectively this says that the magnitude of the gravitational

feld strength is equal to the negative gradient of the
potential. If I is constant then V is a linear function of x
and I is equal to the negative gradient of the straight line
graph formed by plotting V against x. If I is not constant
(as usually the case), then the magnitude of I at any point
in the feld can be found by fnd the gradient of the V-x
graph at that point. An example of such a calculation can
be found in Section 9.2.9.
For those of you who do HL maths the relationship between
feld and potential is seen to follow from the expression for
the potential of a point mass viz:
m
V G
r
=
2
d
d
V m
G I
r r
= + =
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9.2.4 Determine the potential due to one or
more point masses.
9.2.5 Describe and sketch the pattern of
equipotential surfaces due to one and two
point masses.
9.2.6 State the relation between equipotential
surfaces and gravitational eld lines.

9.2.7 Explain the concept of escape speed from a
planet.
9.2.8 Derive an expression for the escape speed
of an object from the surface of a planet.
IBO 2007
9.2.4 POTENTIAL DUE TO ONE OR
MORE POINT MASSES
Gravitational potential is a scalar quantity so calculating
the potential due to more than one point mass is a matter
of simple addition. So for example, the potential V due
to the Moon and Earth and a distance x from the centre
of Earth, on a straight line between them, is given by the
expression
E M
M M
V G
x r x

= +

where M
E
= mass of Earth, M
M
= mass of Moon and r =
distance between centre of Earth and Moon.
9.2.5-6 EQUIPOTENTIALS AND FIELD
LINES
If the gravitational potential has the same value at all points
on a surface, the surface is said to be an equipotential
surface. So for example, if we imagine a spherical shell
about Earth whose centre coincides with the centre of
Earth, this shell will be an equipotential surface. Clearly,
if we represent the gravitational feld strength by feld
lines, since the lines radiate out from the centre of Earth,
then these lines will be at right angles to the surface If the
feld lines were not normal to the equipotential surface
then there would be a component of the feld parallel to
the surface. Tis would mean that points on the surface
would be at diferent potentials and so it would no longer
be an equipotential surface. Tis of course holds true for
any equipotential surface.
Figure 913 shows the feld lines and equipotentials for two
point masses m.
m m
Figure 913 Equipotentials for two point masses
It is worth noting that we would get exactly the same
pattern if we were to replace the point masses with two
equal point charges. (See 9.3.5)
9.2.7-8 ESCAPE SPEED
Te potential at the surface of Earth is
M
G
R
-
which
means that the energy required to take a particle of mass
m from the surface to infnity is equal to
Mm
G
R
-
But what does it actually mean to take something to
infnity? When the particle is on the surface of the Earth
we can think of it as sitting at the bottom of a potential
well as in fgure 914.
particle
surface of Earth
infinity
GM
R
---------
FIgure 914 A potential well
Te depth of the well is
R
---------
and if the particle gains an
amount of kinetic energy equal to
R
--------------
where m is its
mass then it will have just enough energy to lif it out of
the well.
In reality it doesnt actually go to infnity it just means that
the particle is efectively free of the gravitational attraction
of the Earth. We say that it has escaped the Earths
gravitational pull. We meet this idea in connection with
molecular forces. Two molecules in a solid will sit at their
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equilibrium position, the separation where the repulsive
force is equal to the attractive force. If we supply just enough
energy to increase the separation of the molecules such
that they are an infnite distance apart then the molecules
are no longer afected by intermolecular forces and the
solid will have become a liquid. Tere is no increase in the
kinetic energy of the molecules and so the solid melts at
constant temperature.
We can calculate the escape speed of an object very easily
by equating the kinetic energy to the potential energy such
that
1
2
---mv
es c ape
2
GM
e
m
R
e
---------------- =
v
es c ape

2GM
e
R
e
--------------- 2g
0
R
e
= =
Substituting for g
0
and R
e
gives a value for v
escape
of about
11 km s
1
from the surface of the Earth.
You will note that the escape speed does not depend on the
mass of the object since both kinetic energy and potential
energy are proportional to the mass.
In theory, if you want to get a rocket to the moon it can
be done without reaching the escape speed. However, this
would necessitate an enormous amount of fuel and it is
likely that the rocket plus fuel would be so heavy that it
would never get of the ground. It is much more practical
to accelerate the rocket to the escape speed from Earth
orbit and then, in theory, just launch it to the Moon.
9.2.9 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
AND GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
Example
Use the following data to determine the potential at the
surface of Mars and the magnitude of the acceleration of
free fall
mass of Mars = 6.4 10
23
kg
radius of Mars = 3.4 10
6
m
Determine also the gravitational feld strength at a distance
of 6.8 10
6
m above the surface of Mars.
Solution
= = =
23
11 7
6
6.4 10
6.7 10 1.3 10
3.4 10
M
V G
R

N kg
-1
But V = -g
0
R
Terefore
7
0 6
1.3 10
3.8
3.4 10
V
g
R

= = =

m s
-2
To determine the feld strength g
h
at 6.8 10
6
m above the
surface, we use the fact that
0 2
M
g G
R
= such that GM = g
0
R
2
Terefore
2 2
0
h 2 2 2
h h
3.8 (3.4)
0.42
(10.2)
g R GM
g
R R

= = = = m s
-2
(the distance from the centre is 3.4 10
6
+ 6.8 10
6
= 10.2 10
6
m)

Exercise 9.2
1. Te graph below shows how the gravitational
potential outside of the Earth varies with distance
from the centre.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
r /m 10
6
V
/
J
k
g

1
0
7
(a) Use the graph to determine the gain in
gravitational potential energy of a satellite
of mass 200 kg as it moves from the surface
of the Earth to a height of 3.0 10
7
m above
the Earths surface.
(b) Calculate the energy required to take it to
infnity?
(c) Determine the slope of the graph at the
surface of the Earth, m? Comment on your
answer.
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9.3 ELECTRIC FIELD,
POTENTIAL AND
ENERGY
9.3.1 Dene electric potential and electric
potential energy.
9.3.2 State and apply the expression for electric
potential due to a point charge.
9.3.3 State and apply the formula relating
electric eld strength to electrical potential
gradient.
9.3.4 Determine the potential due to one or
more point charges.
9.3.5 Describe and sketch the pattern of
equipotential surfaces due to one and two
point charges.
9.3.6 State the relation between equipotential
surfaces and electric eld lines.
9.3.7 Solve problems involving electric potential
energy and electric potential.
IBO 2007
9.3.1 DEFINING ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
& ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
Electric potential energy
Te concept of electric potential energy was developed
with gravitational potential energy in mind. Just as an
object near the surface of the Earth has potential energy
because of its gravitational interaction with the Earth,
so too there is electrical potential energy associated with
interacting charges.
Let us frst look at a case of two positive point charges each
of 1C that are initially bound together by a thread in a
vacuum in space with a distance between them of 10 cm
as shown in Figure 916. When the thread is cut, the point
charges, initially at rest would move in opposite directions,
moving with velocities v
1
and v
2
along the direction of the
electrostatic force of repulsion.
BEFORE AFTER
v v
2 1
Figure 916 Interaction of two positive particles
Te electric potential energy between two point charges
can be found by simply adding up the energy associated
with each pair of point charges. For a pair of interacting
charges, the electric potential energy is given by:
U = E
p
+

E
k
= W = F
r
=
kqQ

____

r
2
r =
kqQ

____

r

Because no external force is acting on the system, the
energy and momentum must be conserved. Initially,
E
k
= 0 and E
p
= k qQ / r = 9 10
9
1 10
-12
/ 0.1 m = 0.09 J.
When they are a great distance from each other, E
p
will
be negligible. Te fnal energy will be equal to mv
1
2
+
mv
2
2
= 0.09 J. Momentum is also conserved and the
velocities would be the same magnitude but in opposite
directions.
Electric potential energy is more ofen defned in terms of
a point charge moving in an electric feld as:
the electric potential energy between any two points in
an electric feld is defned as negative of the work done by
an electric feld in moving a point electric charge between
two locations in the electric feld.
U = Ep = -W = -Fd = qEx
where x is the distance moved along (or opposite to) the
direction of the electric feld.
Electric potential energy is measured in joule (J). Just as
work is a scalar quantity, so too electrical potential energy
is a scalar quantity. Te negative of the work done by an
electric feld in moving a unit electric charge between
two points is independent of the path taken. In physics,
we say the electric feld is a conservative feld.
Suppose an external force such as your hand moves a small
positive point test charge in the direction of a uniform
electric feld. As it is moving it must be gaining kinetic
energy. If this occurs, then the electric potential energy of
the unit charge is changing.
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In Figure 917 a point charge +q is moved between points
A and B through a distance x in a uniform electric feld.
B
A
x
+q
Figure 917 Movement of a
positive point charge in a uniform eld
In order to move a positive point charge from point A to
point B, an external force must be applied to the charge
equal to qE (F = qE).
Since the force is applied through a distance x, then
negative work has to be done to move the charge because
energy is gained, meaning there is an increase electric
potential energy between the two points. Remember
that the work done is equivalent to the energy gained or
lost in moving the charge through the electric feld. Te
concept of electric potential energy is only meaningful as
the electric feld which generates the force in question is
conservative.
W F x Eq x = =

xcos
x
Figure 918 Charge moved at an angle to the eld
If a charge moves at an angle to an electric feld, the
component of the displacement parallel to the electric
feld is used as shown in Figure 918
W Fx Eq x cos = =
Te electric potential energy is stored in the electric feld,
and the electric feld will return the energy to the point
charge when required so as not to violate the Law of
conservation of energy.
Electric potential
Te electric potential at a point in an electric feld
is defned as being the work done per unit charge in
bringing a small positive point charge from infnity to
that point.
V = V

V
f
=
W

___

q

If we designate the potential energy to be zero at infnity
then it follows that electric potential must also be zero at
infnity and the electric potential at any point in an electric
feld will be:
V =
W

___

q

Now suppose we apply an external force to a small positive
test charge as it is moved towards an isolated positive
charge. Te external force must do work on the positive
test charge to move it towards the isolated positive charge
and the work must be positive while the work done by the
electric feld must therefore be negative. So the electric
potential at that point must be positive according to the
above equation. If a negative isolated charge is used, the
electric potential at a point on the positive test charge
would be negative. Positive point charges of their own
accord, move from a place of high electric potential to
a place of low electric potential. Negative point charges
move the other way, from low potential to high potential.
In moving from point A to point B in the diagram, the
positive charge +q is moving from a low electric potential
to a high electric potential.
In the defnition given, the term work per unit charge
has signifcance. If the test charge is +1.6 10
-19
C where
the charge has a potential energy of 3.2 10
-17
J, then the
potential would be 3.2 10
-17
J / +1.6 10
-19
C = 200 JC
-1
.
Now if the charge was doubled, the potential would become
6.4 10
-17
J. However, the potential per unit charge would
be the same.
Electric potential is a scalar quantity and it has units JC
-1

or volts where 1 volt equals one joule per coloumb. Te
volt allows us to adopt a unit for the electric feld in terms
of the volt.
Previously, the unit for the electric feld was NC
1
.
W = qV and F = qE, so
W

___

V
=
F

__

E

E =
FV

___

W
=
FV

___

Fm
V m
1
.
Tat is, the units of the electric feld, E, can also be
expressed as V m
1
.
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Te work done per unit charge in moving a point
charge between two points in an electric feld is again
independent of the path taken.
9.3.2 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A
POINT CHARGE
Let us take a point r metres from a charged object.
Te potential at this point can be calculated using the
following:
W = Fr = qV and F =
q
1
q
2

_____

4
0
r
2

Terefore,
W =
q
1
q
2

_____

4
0
r
2
r =
q
1
q
2

_____

4
0
r
= q
1

q
2

_____

4
0
r
= q
1
V
Tat is
V
q
4
0
r
-------------- - =
Or, simply
V
kq
r
------ =
Example
Determine how much work is done by the electric feld of
point charge 15.0 C when a charge of 2.00 C is moved
from infnity to a point 0.400 m from the point charge.
(Assume no acceleration of the charges).
Solution
The work done by the electric feld is W = -qV
= -1/4
0
q (Q /r

- Q / r
0.400
)
W = (- 2.00 10
-6
C 9.00 10
9
NmC
-2
15.0 10
-6
C)
0.400 m = - 0.675 J
An external force would have to do +0.675 J of work.
9.3.3 ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH AND
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL GRADIENT
Let us look back at Figure 917. Suppose again that the
charge +q is moved a small distance by a force F from A to B
so that the force can be considered constant. Te work done
is given by:
W F x =
Te force F and the electric feld E are oppositely directed,
and we know that:
F = -qE and W = q V
Terefore, the work done can be given as:
q V = -q E x
Terefore
E
V
x
------ - =
Te rate of change of potential V at a point with respect to
distance x in the direction in which the change is maximum
is called the potential gradient. We say that the electric feld
= - the potential gradient and the units are Vm
-1
. From the
equation we can see that in a graph of electric potential
versus distance, the gradient of the straight line equals the
electric feld strength.
In reality, if a charged particle enters a uniform electric feld,
it will be accelerated uniformly by the feld and its kinetic
energy will increase. Tis is why we had to assume no
acceleration in the last worked example.
E
k

1
2
---mv
2
q E x q
V
x
--- x q V = = = =
Example
Determine how far apart two parallel plates must be
situated so that a potential diference of 1.50 10
2
V
produces an electric feld strength of 1.00 10
3
NC
-1
.
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Solution
Using E
V
x
------- x
V
E
-------
1.5 10
2
V
1.00 10
3
N C
1

------------------------------------------ = = =
= 1.50 10
-1
Te plates are 1.50 10
-1
m apart.
Te electric feld and the electric potential at a point due
to an evenly distributed charge +q on a sphere can be
represented graphically as in Figure 919.
r
r
V
E
0
r
0
r
0
over surface
E
1
4
0
------------
Q
r
2
----- r r
0
> , =
V
1
4
0
------------
Q
r
---- r r
0
> , =
Charge of +Q evenly distributed
r
Figure 919 Electric eld and
potential due to a charged sphere
When the sphere becomes charged, we know that the
charge distributes itself evenly over the surface. Terefore
every part of the material of the conductor is at the same
potential. As the electric potential at a point is defned as
being numerically equal to the work done in bringing a unit
positive charge from infnity to that point, it has a constant
value in every part of the material of the conductor.
Since the potential is the same at all points on the conducting
surface, then V / x is zero. But E = V / x. Terefore,
the electric feld inside the conductor is zero. Tere is no
electric feld inside the conductor.
Some further observations of the graphs in Figure 915 are:
Outside the sphere, the graphs obey the
relationships given as E 1 / r
2
and V 1 / r
At the surface, r = r
0
. Terefore, the electric feld
and potential have the minimum value for r at
this point and this infers a maximum feld and
potential.
Inside the sphere, the electric feld is zero.
Inside the sphere, no work is done to move
a charge from a point inside to the surface.
Terefore, there is no potential diference and the
potential is the same as it is when r = r
0
.
Similar graphs can be drawn for the electric feld intensity
and the electric potential as a function of distance from
conducting parallel plates and surfaces, and these are
given in Figure 920.
Potential plot E feld plot E feld:
+
+
+
+

x
x x
+
x x

x x
+
x
x
+ +
x
x
Figure 920 Electric eld and electric
potential at a distance from a charged surface
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9.3.4 POTENTIAL DUE TO ONE OR
MORE POINT CHARGES
Te potential due to one point charge can be determined
by using the equation formula
V = kq / r.
Example
Determine the electric potential at a point 2.0 10
-1
m
from the centre of an isolated conducting sphere with a
point charge of 4.0 pC in air.
Solution
Using the formula
V = kq / r , we have
V
9.0 10
9
( ) 4.0 10
12
( )
2.0 10
1
( )
------------------------------------------------------------------ 0.18 V = =
the potential at the point is 1.80 10
-1
V.
Te potential due to a number of point charges can be
determined by adding up the potentials due to individual
point charges because the electric potential at any point
outside a conducting sphere will be the same as if all the
charge was concentrated at its centre.
Example
Tree point charges of are placed at the vertices of a right-
angled triangle as shown in the diagram below. Determine
the absolute potential at the + 2.0 C charge, due to the two
other charges.
- 6C
+3C +2C
4 m
3 m
Solution
Te electric potential of the +2 C charge due to the
6 C charge is:
V = (9 10
9
Nm
2
C
-2
-6 10
-6
C) ( 3
2
+ 4
2
) m =
- 1.08 10
4
V
Te electric potential of the +2 C charge due to the
+3 C charge is:
V = (9 10
9
Nm
2
C
-2
3 10
-6
C) 3m = 9 10
3
V
Te net absolute potential is the sum of the 2 potentials
- 1.08 10
4
V + 9 10
3
V =
- 1.8 10
3
V
Te absolute potential at the point is - 1.8 10
3
V.
9.3.5 EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
Regions in space where the electric potential of a charge
distribution has a constant value are called equipotentials.
Te places where the potential is constant in three
dimensions are called equipotential surfaces, and where
they are constant in two dimensions they are called
equipotential lines.
Tey are in some ways analogous to the contour lines on
topographic maps. In this case, the gravitational potential
energy is constant as a mass moves around the contour
lines because the mass remains at the same elevation above
the Earths surface. Te gravitational feld strength acts in
a direction perpendicular to a contour line.
Similarly, because the electric potential on an equipotential
line has the same value, no work can be done by an electric
force when a test charge moves on an equipotential. Terefore,
the electric feld cannot have a component along an
equipotential, and thus it must be everywhere perpendicular
to the equipotential surface or equipotential line. Tis fact
makes it easy to plot equipotentials if the lines of force or lines
of electric fux of an electric feld are known.
For example, there are a series of equipotential lines
between two parallel plate conductors that are
perpendicular to the electric feld. Tere will be a series of
concentric circles (each circle further apart than the
previous one) that map out the equipotentials around an
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isolated positive sphere. Te lines of force and some
equipotential lines for an isolated positive sphere are
shown in Figure 922.
Lines of
equipotential
Figure 922 Equipotentials around
an isolated positive sphere
In summary, we can conclude that
No work is done to move a charge along an
equipotential.
Equipotentials are always perpendicular to the
electric lines of force.
Figure 923 and 924 show some equipotential lines for
two oppositely charged and identically positive spheres
separated by a distance.
+ve
ve
equipotential lines
Figure 923 Equipotential lines
between two opposite charges
equipotential lines
Figure 924 Equipotential lines between
two charges which are the same
+

+ + +
40 V
30 V
20 V
10 V
50 V
Figure 925 Equipotential lines between charged
parallel plates gravitational elds and electric elds gravitational elds and electric elds
Troughout this chapter the similarities and diferences
between gravitational felds and electric felds have
been discussed. Te relationships that exists between
gravitational and electric quantities and the efects of point
masses and charges is summarised in Table 926
Gravitational quantity Electrical quantity
Q
u
a
n
t
i
t
i
e
s
J
m
---- - J
q
-----
g
m
---- E
q
---
g
V
x
------- = E
V
x
------- =
P
o
i
n
t

m
a
s
s
e
s

a
n
d

c
h
a
r
g
e
s
V G
m
r
---- =
V
1
4
0
------------
q
r
--- =
g G
m
r
2
---- - = E
1
4
0
------------
q
r
2
----- =
F G
m
1
m
2
r
2
-------------- = F
1
4
0
------------
q
1
q
2
r
2
----------- =
Figure 926 Formulas
9.3.7 SOLVING PROBLEMS
Tere are a number of worked examples that have been
given in section 9.3. Here are two more examples.
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Example
Deduce the electric potential on the surface of a gold
nucleus that has a radius of 6.2 fm.
Solution
Using the formula
V = kq / r , and knowing the atomic number of gold is 79.
We will assume the nucleus is spherical and it behaves as if it
were a point charge at its centre (relative to outside points).
V = 9.0 10
9
Nm
2
C
-2
79 1.6 10
-19
C 6.2 10
-15
m
= 1.8 10
7
V
Te potential at the point is 18 MV.
Example
Deduce the ionisation energy in electron-volts of the
electron in the hydrogen atom if the electron is in its
ground state and it is in a circular orbit at a distance of
5.3 10
-11
m from the proton.
Solution
Tis problem is an energy, coulombic, circular motion
question based on Bohrs model of the atom (not the accepted
quantum mechanics model). Te ionisation energy is the
energy required to remove the electron from the ground
state to infnity. Te electron travels in a circular orbit and
therefore has a centripetal acceleration. Te ionisation energy
will counteract the coulombic force and the movement of the
electron will be in the opposite direction to the centripetal
force.
Total energy = E
k
electron + E
p
due to the proton-electron
interaction
F = kqQ / r
2
= mv
2
/ r and as such mv
2
= = kqQ / r.
Terefore, E
k
electron = kqQ / r.
E
p
due to the proton-electron interaction = - kqQ / r.
Total energy = kqQ / r + - kqQ / r = - kqQ / r
= - 9.0 10
9
Nm
2
C
-2
(1.6 10
-19
C)
2
5.3 10
-11
m =
-2.17 10
-18
J
= -2.17 10
-18
J 1.6 10
-19
= -13.6 eV.
Te ionisation energy is 13.6 eV.
Exercise 9.3
1. A point charge P is placed midway between two
identical negative charges. Which one of the
following is correct with regards to electric feld
and electric potential at point P?
Electric feld Electric potential
A non-zero zero
B zero non-zero
C non-zero non-zero
D zero zero
2. Two positive charged spheres are tied together in
a vacuum somewhere in space where there are no
external forces. A has a mass of 25 g and a charge
of 2.0 C and B has a mass of 15 g and a charge of
3.0 C. Te distance between them is 4.0 cm. Tey
are then released as shown in the diagram.
BEFORE AFTER
v
1
v
2
A B
(a) Determine their initial electric potential
energy in the before situation.
(b) Determine the speed of sphere B afer
release.
3. Te diagram below represents two equipotential
lines in separated by a distance of 5 cm in a
uniform electric feld.
+ + + + + + + +

40 V
20 V
5 cm
Determine the strength of the electric feld.
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4. Tis question is about the electric feld due to a
charged sphere and the motion of electrons in that
feld. Te diagram below shows an isolated, metal
sphere in a vacuum that carries a negative electric
charge of 6.0 C.

(a) On the diagram draw the conventional way

to represent the electric feld pattern due to
the charged sphere and lines to represent
three equipotential surfaces in the region
outside the sphere.
(b) Explain how the lines representing the
equipotential surfaces that you have
sketched indicate that the strength of the
electric feld is decreasing with distance
from the centre of the sphere.
(c) Te electric feld strength at the surface of Te electric feld strength at the surface of
the sphere and at points outside the sphere
can be determined by assuming that the
sphere acts as a point charge of magnitude
6.0 C at its centre. Te radius of the sphere
is 2.5 10
2
m. Deduce that the magnitude
of the feld strength at the surface of the
sphere is 8.6 10
7
Vm
1
.
An electron is initially at rest on the surface of the
sphere.
(d) (i) Describe the path followed by the
electron as it leaves the surface of the
sphere.
(ii) Calculate the initial acceleration of
the electron.
5. Determine the amount of work that is done in
moving a charge of 10.0 nC through a potential
diference of 1.50 10
2
V.
6. Tree identical 2.0 C conducting spheres are
placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of
sides 25 cm. Te triangle has one apex C pointing
up the page and 2 base angles A and B. Determine
the absolute potential at B .
7. Determine how far apart two parallel plates
must be situated so that a potential diference of
2.50 10
2
V produces an electric feld strength of
2.00 10
3
NC
-1
.
8. Te gap between two parallel plates is 1.0 10
-3
m,
and there is a potential diference of 1.0 10
4
V
between the plates. Calculate
i. the work done by an electron in moving
from one plate to the other
ii. the speed with which the electron reaches
the second plate if released from rest.
iii. the electric feld intensity between the
plates.
9. An electron gun in a picture tube is accelerated
by a potential 2.5 10
3
V. Determine the kinetic
energy gained by the electron in electron-volts.
10. Determine the electric potential 2.0 10
-2
m from
a charge of -1.0 10
-5
C.
11. Determine the electric potential at a point mid-
way between a charge of 20 pC and another
of + 5 pC on the line joining their centres if the
charges are 10 cm apart.
12. During a thunderstorm the electric potential
diference between a cloud and the ground is
1.0 10
9
V. Determine the magnitude of the
change in electric potential energy of an electron
that moves between these points in electron-volts.
13. A charge of 1.5 C is placed in a uniform electric
feld of two oppositely charged parallel plates with
a magnitude of 1.4 10
3
NC
-1
.
(a) Determine the work that must be done
against the feld to move the point charge a
distance of 5.5 cm.
(b) Calculate the potential diference between
the fnal and initial positions of the charge.
(c) Determine the potential diference between
the plates if their separation distance is 15 cm.
14. During a fash of lightning, the potential diference
between a cloud and the ground was 1.2 10
9
V
and the amount of transferred charge was 32 C.
(a) Determine the change in energy of the
transferred charge.
(b) If the energy released was all used to
accelerate a 1 tonne car, deduce its fnal
speed.
(c) If the energy released could be used to melt
ice at 0 C, deduce the amount of ice that
could be melted.
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15. Suppose that when an electron moved from A to B
in the diagram along an electric feld line that the
electric feld does 3.6 10
-19
J of work on it.
Determine the diferences in electric potential:
(a) V
B
V
A
(b) V
C
V
A
(c) V
C
V
B
16. Determine the potential at point P that is located
at the centre of the square as shown in the diagram
below.
- 6C
+3C +2C
1m
1m
5C
P
9.4 ORBITAL MOTION
Although orbital motion may be circular, elliptical or
parabolic, this sub-topic only deals with circular orbits.
Tis sub-topic is not fundamentally new physics, but
an application that synthesizes ideas from gravitation,
circular motion, dynamics and energy.
9.4.1 State that gravitation provides the
centripetal force for circular orbital motion.
9.4.2 Derive Keplers third law.
9.4.3 Derive expressions for the kinetic energy,
potential energy and total energy of an
orbiting satellite.
9.4.4 Sketch graphs showing the variation
with orbital radius of the kinetic energy,
gravitational potential energy and total
energy of a satellite.
9.4.5 Discuss the concept of weightlessness
in orbital motion, in free fall and in deep
space.
9.4.6 Solve problems involving orbital motion.
IBO 2007
9.4.1 SATELLITES
Te Moon orbits the Earth and in this sense it is ofen
referred to as a satellite of the Earth. Before 1957 it was the
only Earth satellite. However, in 1957 the Russians launched
the frst man made satellite, Sputnik 1. Since this date many
more satellites have been launched and there are now
literally thousands of them orbiting the Earth. Some are
used to monitor the weather, some used to enable people
to fnd accurately their position on the surface of the Earth,
many are used in communications, and no doubt some are
used to spy on other countries. Figure 932 shows how, in
principle, a satellite can be put into orbit.
Te person (whose size is greatly exaggerated with respect
to Earth) standing on the surface on the Earth throws
some stones. Te greater the speed with which a stone
is thrown the further it will land from her. Te paths
followed by the thrown stones are parabolas. By a stretch
of the imagination we can visualise a situation in which
a stone is thrown with such a speed that, because of the
curvature of the Earth, it will not land on the surface of the
Earth but go into orbit. (Path 4 on Figure 932).
A
B
C
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1
2
3
4
Earth
Figure 932 Throwing a stone into orbit
Te force that causes the stones to follow a parabolic path
and to fall to Earth is gravity and similarly the force that
keeps the stone in orbit is gravity. For circular motion
to occur we have seen that a force must act at right
angles to the velocity of an object, that is there must be a
centripetal force. Hence in the situation we describe here
the centripetal force for circular orbital motion about the
Earth is provided by gravitational attraction of the Earth.
We can calculate the speed with which a stone must be
thrown in order to put it into orbit just above the surface
of the Earth.
If the stone has mass m and speed v then we have from
Newtons 2nd law
mv
2
R
E
---------- G
M
E
m
R
E
2
------------ =
where R
E
is the radius of the Earth and M
E
is the mass of
the Earth.
Bearing in mind that
g
0
G
M
E
R
E
2
-------- =
, then
v gR
E
10 6.4 10
6
8 10
3
= = = .
Tat is, the stone must be thrown at 8 10
3
m s
1
.
Clearly we are not going to get a satellite into orbit so
close to the surface of the Earth. Moving at this speed the
friction due to air resistance would melt the satellite before
it had travelled a couple of kilometres. In reality therefore
a satellite is put into orbit about the Earth by sending it,
attached to a rocket, beyond the Earths atmosphere and
then giving it a component of velocity perpendicular to a
radial vector from the Earth. See Figure 933.
Earth
Satellite carried by rocket to here
Satellite orbit
Tangential component of velocity
Figure 933 Getting a satellite into orbit
9.4.2 KEPLERS THIRD LAW
(Tis work of Kepler and Newtons synthesis of the work is
an excellent example of the scientifc method and makes for
a good TOK discussion)
In 1627 Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) published his laws
of planetary motion. Te laws are empirical in nature
and were deduced from the observations of the Danish
astronomer Tycho de Brahe (1546-1601). Te third law
gives a relationship between the radius of orbit R of a
planet and its period T of revolution about the Sun. Te
law is expressed mathematically as
2
3
constant
T
R
=
We shall now use Newtons Law of Gravitation to show
how it is that the planets move in accordance with Keplers
third law.
In essence Newton was able to use his law of gravity to
predict the motion of the planets since all he had to do
was factor the F given by this law into his second law,
F = ma, to fnd their accelerations and hence their future
positions.
In Figure 934 the Earth is shown orbiting the Sun and the
distance between their centres is R.
R
Sun
Earth
F
es
F
se
Figure 934 Planets move according to Keplers third law
F
es
is the force that the Earth exerts on the Sun and F
se
is the
force that the Sun exerts on the Earth. Te forces are equal
and opposite and the Sun and the Earth will actually orbit
about a common centre. However since the Sun is so very
much more massive than the Earth this common centre
will be close to the centre of the Sun and so we can regard
the Earth as orbiting about the centre of the Sun. Te other
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thing that we shall assume is that we can ignore the forces
that the other planets exert on the Earth. (Tis would not
be a wise thing to do if you were planning to send a space
ship to the Moon for example.). We shall also assume that
we have followed Newtons example and indeed proved
that a sphere will act as a point mass situated at the centre
of the sphere.
Kepler had postulated that the orbits of the planets are
elliptical but since the eccentricity of the Earths orbit is
small we shall assume a circular orbit.
Te acceleration of the Earth towards the Sun is a = R
2
where
2
T
------ =
Hence,
a R
2
T
------

2
4
2
R
T
2
------------- = =
But the acceleration is given by Newtons Second Law,
F = ma, where F is now given by the Law of Gravitation.
So in this situation
F ma
GM
s
M
e
R
2
------------------- = =
, but, we also have that
a
4
2
R
T
2
------------- = and m = M
e
so that
GM
s
M
e
R
2
------------------- M
e
4
2
R
T
2
-------------
GM
s
4
2
-----------
R
3
T
2
------ = =
But the quantity
s
4
2
-----------
is a constant that has the same value for each of the planets
so we have for all the planets, not just Earth, that
R
3
T
2
------ k =
where k is a constant. Which is of course Keplers third
law.
Tis is indeed an amazing breakthrough. It is difcult
to refute the idea that all particles attract each other in
accordance with the Law of Gravitation when the law is
able to account for the observed motion of the planets
about the Sun.
Te gravitational efects of the planets upon each other
should produce perturbations in their orbits. Such is the
predictive power of the Universal Gravitational Law that
it enabled physicists to compute these perturbations. Te
telescope had been invented in 1608 and by the middle of
the 18th Century had reached a degree of perfection in
design that enabled astronomers to actually measure the
orbital perturbations of the planets. Teir measurements
were always in agreement with the predictions made by
Newtons law. However, in 1781 a new planet, Uranus was
discovered and the orbit of this planet did not ft with
the orbit predicted by Universal Gravitation. Such was
the physicists faith in the Newtonian method that they
suspected that the discrepancy was due to the presence of
a yet undetected planet. Using the Law of Gravitation the
French astronomer J.Leverrier and the English astronomer.
J. C. Adams were able to calculate just how massive this
new planet must be and also where it should be. In 1846
the planet Neptune was discovered just where they had
predicted. In a similar way, discrepancies in the orbit of
Neptune led to the prediction and subsequent discovery
in 1930 of the planet Pluto. Newtons Law of Gravitation
had passed the ultimate test of any theory; it is not only
able to explain existing data but also to make predictions.
9.4.3-4 SATELLITE ENERGY
When a satellite is in orbit about a planet it will have both
kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy. Suppose
we consider a satellite of mass m that is in an orbit of radius
r about a planet of mass M.
Te gravitational potential due to the planet at distance r
from its centre is

e
r
----------- -
.
Te gravitational potential energy of the satellite V
sat

is therefore
GM
e
m
r
----------------
.
Tat is, V
sat
GM
e
m
r
---------------- = .
Te gravitational feld strength at the surface of the planet
is given by
g
0
GM
e
R
e
2
------------ =
Hence we can write
V
sat
g
0
R
e
2
r
=
m
Te kinetic energy of the satellite K
sat
is equal to mv
2
,
where v is its orbital speed.
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By equating the gravitational force acting on the satellite
to its centripetal acceleration we have
GM
e
m
r
2
----------------
mv
2
r
---------- mv
2

GM
e
m
r
---------------- = = .
From which
1
2
---mv
2
1
2
---
GM
e
m
r
---------------- =
=
0 e
2
g R
r
2
m
Which is actually quite interesting since it shows that,
irrespective of the orbital radius the KE is numerically
equal to half the PE, Also the total energy E
tot
of the
satellite is always negative since
E
tot
K
sat
V
sat
+
1
2
-- -
GM
e
m
r
----------------
GM
e
m
r
----------------


+
1
2
---
GM
e
m
r
---------------- = = =
Te energies of an orbiting satellite as a function of radial
distance from the centre of a planet are shown plotted in
Figure 935.
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
2 4 6 8 10 12
e
n
e
r
g
y
/
a
r
b
i
t
a
r
y

u
n
i
t
s
distance / R
kinetic energy
total energy
potential energy
Figure 935 Energy of an orbiting satellite as
a function of distance from the centre of a planet
9.4.5 WEIGHTLESSNESS
Suppose that you are in an elevator (lif) which is
descending at constant speed and you let go of a book that
you are holding in your hand. Te book will fall to the
foor with acceleration equal to the acceleration due to
gravity. If the cable that supports the elevator were to snap
(a situation that I trust will never happen to any of you)
and you now let go the book that you are holding in your
other hand, this book will not fall to the foor - it will stay
exactly in line with your hand. Tis is because the book is
now falling with the same acceleration as the elevator and
as such the book cannot catch up with the foor of the
elevator. Furthermore, if you happened to be standing on
a set of bathroom scales, the scales would now read zero
- you would be apparently weightless. It is this idea of free
fall that explains the apparent weightlessness of astronauts
in an orbiting satellite. Tese astronauts are in free fall in
the sense that they are accelerating towards the centre of
the Earth.
It is actually possible to defne the weight of a body in
several diferent ways. We can defne it for example as
the gravitational force exerted on the body by a specifed
object such as the Earth. Tis we have seen that we do
in lots of situations where we defne the weight as being
equal to mg. If we use this defnition, then an object in
free fall cannot by defnition be weightless since it is still
in a gravitational feld. However, if we defne the weight
of an object in terms of a weighing process such as
the reading on a set of bathroom scales, which in efect
measures the contact force between the object and the
scales, then clearly objects in free fall are weightless. One
now has to ask the question whether or not it is possible.
For example, to measure the gravitational force acting on
an astronaut in orbit about the Earth. We shall return to
this idea of bodies in free fall when we look at Einsteins
General Teory of Relativity in Chapter 19
We can also defne weight in terms of the net gravitational
force acting on a body due to several diferent objects. For
example for an object out in space, its weight could be
defned in terms of the resultant of the forces exerted on it
by the Sun, the Moon, the Earth and all the other planets
in the Solar System. If this resultant is zero at a particular
point then the body is weightless at this point.
In view of the various defnitions of weight that are
available to us it is important that when we use the word
weight we are aware of the context in which it is being
used.
9.4.6 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
ORBITAL MOTION
Example
Calculate the height above the surface of the Earth at
which a geo-stationary satellite orbits.
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Solution
A geo-stationary satellite is one that orbits the Earth in such
a way that it is stationary with respect to a point on the
surface of the Earth. Tis means that its orbital period must
be the same as the time for the Earth to spin once on its axis
i.e. 24 hours.
From Keplers third law we have
GM
s
4
2
-----------
R
3
T
2
------ =
.
Tat is,
R
M
e
m
h
using the fact that the force of attraction between the satellite
and the Earth is given by
F
GM
e
m
R
2
---------------- =

and that F = ma
where m is the mass of the satellite and a
4
2
R
T
2
------------- =
we have,
GM
e
m
R
2
---------------- m
4
2
R
T
2
-------------
GM
e
4
2
------------
R
3
T
2
------ = =
Now, the mass of the Earth is 6.0 10
24
kg and the period, T,
measured in seconds is given by T = 86,400 s.
So substitution gives R = 42 10
6
m
Te radius of the Earth is 6.4 10
6
m so that the orbital
height, h, is about 3.6 10
7
m.
Example
Calculate the minimum energy required to put a satellite
of mass 500 kg into an orbit that is as a height equal to the
Earths radius above the surface of the Earth.
Solution
We have seen that when dealing with gravitational felds
and potential it is useful to remember that
g
0
GM
R
e
2
--------- = or, g
0
R
e
2
GM =
Te gravitational potential at the surface of the Earth is
g
0
R
e
GM
R
e
--------- = .
Te gravitational potential at a distance R
from the centre of the Earth is
R
---------
=
g
0
R
e
R
------------
2
Te diference in potential between the surface of the Earth
and a point distance R from the centre is therefore
V g
0
R
e
1
R
e
R
------


=
If R 2R
e
= then V
g
0
R
e
2
------------ =
Tis means that the work required to lif the satellite into
orbit is g
0
Rm where m is the mass of the satellite. Tis is
equal to
10 3.2 10
6
500 = 16000 MJ.
However, the satellite must also have kinetic energy in order
to orbit Earth. Tis will be equal to
g
0
mR
e
2
2R
-----------------
g
0
mR
e
2
4
---------------- - 8000MJ = =
Te minimum energy required is therefore
24000 MJ.
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Exercises 9.4
1. Te speed needed to put a satellite in orbit does
not depend on
A. the radius of the orbit.
B. the shape of the orbit.
C. the value of g at the orbit.
D. the mass of the satellite.
2. Estimate the speed of an Earth satellite whose
orbit is 400 km above the Earths surface. Also
determine the period of the orbit.
3. Calculate the speed of a 200 kg satellite, orbiting
the Earth at a height of 7.0 10
6
m.
Assume that g = 8.2 m s
2
for this orbit.
4. Te radii of two satellites, X and Y, orbiting
the Earth are 2r and 8r where r is the radius of
the Earth. Calculate the ratio of the periods of
revolution of X to Y.
5. A satellite of mass m kg is sent from Earths surface
into an orbit of radius 5R, where R is the radius of
the Earth.Write down an expression for
(a) the potential energy of the satellite in orbit.
(b) the kinetic energy of the satellite in orbit.
(c) the minimum work required to send the
satellite from rest at the Earths surface into
its orbit.
6. A satellite in an orbit of 10r, falls back to Earth
(radius r) afer a malfunction. Determine the
speed with which it will hit the Earths surface?
7. Te radius of the moon is that of the Earth that of the Earth
Assuming Earth and the Moon to have the same
density, compare the accelerations of free fall at
the surface of Earth to that at the surface of the
Moon.
8. Use the following data to determine the
gravitational feld strength at the surface of the
Moon and hence determine the escape speed from
the surface of the Moon.
Mass of the Moon = 7.3 10
22
kg,
Radius of the Moon = 1.7 10
6
m
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10
10.1.1 State the equation of state for an ideal gas.
10.1.2 Describe the dierence between an ideal
gas and a real gas.
10.1.3 Describe the concept of the absolute zero
of temperature and the Kelvin scale of
temperature.
10.1.4 Solve problems using the equation of state
of an ideal gas.
IBO 2007
10.1.1 THE IDEAL GAS EQUATION
A
n ideal gas is a theoretical gas that obeys the equation
of state of an ideal gas exactly. Tey obey the equation obey the equation
PV = nRT when there are no forces between molecules at
all pressures, volumes and temperatures.
Remember from Avogadros hypothesis that one mole
of any gas contains the Avogadro number of particles N
A

equal to 6.02 10
23
particles. It also occupies 22.4 dm
3
at
0 C and 101.3 kPa pressure (STP).
Te internal energy of an ideal gas would be entirely kinetic
energy as there would be no intermolecular forces between
the gaseous atoms. As temperature is related to the average
kinetic energy of the atoms, the kinetic energy of the atoms
would depend only on the temperature of the ideal gas.
From the combined gas laws, we determined that:

PV

___

T
= k or PV = kT
If the value of the universal gas constant is compared for
diferent masses of diferent gases, it can be demonstrated
that the constant depends not on the size of the atoms but
rather on the number of particles present (the number of
moles). Tus for n moles of any ideal gas:

PV

___

nT
= R
or PV = nRT
Tis is called the equation of state of an ideal gas, where R
is the universal gas constant and is equal to 8.31 J mol
-1
K
-1
.
Te equation of state of an ideal gas is determined from
the gas laws and Avogadros law.
10.1.2 REAL AND IDEAL GASES
An ideal gas is a theoretical gas that obeys the ideal gas
equation exactly. Real gases conform to the gas laws under
certain limited conditions but they can condense to liquids,
then solidify if the temperature is lowered. Furthermore,
there are relatively small forces of attraction between
particles of a real gas, and even this is not allowable for
an ideal gas.
A real gas obeys the gas laws at low pressure and at high
temperature (above the temperature at which they liquefy),
and we refer to such a gas as an ideal gas.
10.1 Thermodynamics
10.2 Processes
10.3 The second law of thermodynamics and entropy
10.1 THERMODYNAMICS
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Most gases, at temperatures well above their boiling points
and pressures that are not too high, behave like an ideal gas.
In other words, real gases vary from ideal gas behaviour at
high pressures and low temperatures.
10.1.3 ABSOLUTE ZERO OF
TEMPERATURE
When the variation in volume as a function temperature
is plotted for an ideal gas, a graph similar to Figure 1001
is obtained.
273 T C 100
V
o
l
u
m
e

/

V

m
3
0 273 373 K
0
Figure 1001 Variation of volume with temperature
Note that from the extrapolation of the straight line that the
volume of gases would be theoretically zero at 273.15 C
called absolute zero. Te scale chosen is called the Kelvin
scale K and this is the fundamental unit of thermodynamic
temperature.
Te Charles (Gay-Lussac) Law of gases states that:
Te volume of a fxed mass of gas at constant pressure
is directly proportional to its absolute (Kelvin)
temperature.
Tis can also be stated as:
Te volume of a fxed mass of gas increases by 1 / 273.15
of its volume at 0 C for every degree Celsius rise in
temperature provided the pressure is constant.
When the variation in pressure as a function temperature
is plotted for an ideal gas, a graph similar to Figure 1002
is obtained.
273 T C 100
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

/

P

k
P
a

0 273 373 K
0
Figure 1002 Variation of pressure with temperature
Te Pressure (Admonton) Law of Gases states that:
Te pressure of a fxed mass of gas at constant volume is
directly proportional to its its temperature.
P T P kT
P
1
T
1
------ k = =
Terefore,
P
1
T
1
------
P
2
T
2
------ =
When a pressure versus volume graph is drawn for the
collected data, a hyperbola shape is obtained, and when
pressure is plotted against the reciprocal of volume a
straight line is obtained. See Figure 1003.
P
V
volume, V / cm
3 1
V
/cm
3 P
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,
P

/

m
m

H
g


p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,
P

/

m
m

H
g


Figure 1003 Pressure-volume graphs
Boyles Law for gases states that the pressure of a fxed
mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume at
constant temperature.
P
1
V
--- PV constant =
When the conditions are changed, with the temperature
still constant
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P
1
V
1
P
2
V
2
=
Although the pressure and the reciprocal of volume have
a directly proportional linear plot, it is the frst volume-
temperature graph that is used to defne absolute zero.
Although diferent samples of an ideal gas have diferent
straight-line variations, they still extrapolate back to
absolute zero.
10.1.4 USING THE EQUATION OF STATE
OF AN IDEAL GAS
Example
A weather balloon of volume 1.0 m
3
contains helium at a
pressure of 1.01 10
5
N m
-2
and a temperature of 35 C.
What is the mass of the helium in the balloon if one mole
of helium has a mass of 4.003 10
-3
kg?
Solution
Use the equation, PV = nRT, we have
(1.01 10
5
Nm
-1
) (1.0 m
3
) = n (8.31 J mol
-1
K
-1
) (35 + 273 K)
So that, n = 39.46 mol
Ten, the mass of helium = (39.46 mol) (4.003 10
-3
kg mol
-1
)
= 0.158 kg.
Te mass of helium in the balloon is 0.16 kg.
Example
An ideal gas has a density of 1.25 kg m
-3
at STP. Determine
the molar mass of the ideal gas.
Solution
Use the equation, PV = nRT, with V = molar mass/density.
For I mole
(1.01 10
5
Nm
-1
) (molar mass / 1.25 kg m
-3
) =
1 (8.31 J mol
-1
K
-1
) (0 + 273 K)
Molar mass =
1 8.31 J mol
1
K
1
273 K 1.25 kg m
3

_________________________________

1.01 10
5
Nm
1

n = 39.46 mol
= 28 10
-3
kg mol
-1
Te ideal gas is helium with a molar mas of 2.8 10
-2
kg mol
-1
.
Exercise 10.1
1. If the average translational kinetic energy E
K
at a
temperature T of helium (molar mass 4 g mol
-1
),
then the average translational kinetic energy
of neon (molar mass 20 g mol
-1
) at the same
temperature would be:
A. 1/5 E
K
B. 5 E
K
C. 5 E
K
D. E
K
2. A sample of gas is contained in a vessel at 20 C
at a pressure P. If the pressure of the gas is to be
doubled and the volume remain constant, the gas
has to be heated to:
A. 40 C
B. 293 C
C. 586 C
D. 313 C
3. Real gases behave most like ideal gases at
A. low temperatures and high pressures
B. high temperatures and low pressures
C. low temperatures and low pressures
D. high temperatures and high pressures
4. Te Kelvin temperature of an ideal gas is a
measure of:
A. the average potential energy of the gas
molecules
B. the average speed of the gas molecules
C. the average pressure of the gas molecules
D. the average kinetic energy of the gas
molecules
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5. Two identical containers A and B contain an ideal
gas under the diferent conditions as shown below.
CONTAINER A
N moles
Temperature T
Pressure P
A
CONTAINER B
3N moles
Temperature T / 3
Pressure P
B
Te ratio P
A
: P
B
would be:
A. 3
B. 2
C. 1
D. 2 3
6. Te internal volume of a gas cylinder is
3.0 10
-2

m
3
. An ideal gas is pumped into
the cylinder until the pressure is 15 MPa at a
temperature of 25 C.
(a) Determine the number of moles of the gas
in the cylinder
(b) Determine the number of gas atoms in the
cylinder
(c) Determine the average volume occupied by
one atom of the gas
(d) Estimate the average separation of the gas
atoms
7. A cylinder of an ideal gas with a volume of 0.2 m
3

and a temperature of 25 C contains 1.202 10
24

molecules. Determine the pressure in the cylinder.
8. (a) State what is meant by the term ideal gas.
(b) In terms of the kinetic theory of gases, state
what is meant by an ideal gas.
(c) Explain why the internal energy of an ideal
gas is kinetic energy only.
10.2 PROCESSES
10.2.1 Deduce an expression for the work involved
in a volume change of a gas at constant
pressure.
10.2.2 State the rst law of thermodynamics.
10.2.3 Identify the rst law of thermodynamics
as a statement of the principle of energy
conservation.
10.2.4 Describe the isochoric (isovolumetric),
isobaric, isothermal and adiabatic changes
of state of an ideal gas.
10.2.5 Draw and annotate thermodynamic
processes and cycles on PV diagrams.

10.2.6 Calculate from a PV diagram the work
done in a thermodynamic cycle.
10.2.7 Solve problems involving state changes of a
gas.
IBO 2007
10.2.1 WORK DONE IN VOLUME
CHANGE
Consider a mass of gas with pressure p enclosed in
a cylinder by a piston of cross-sectional area A as in
Figure 1005.
F
l
pressure, p
surface area, A
cylinder
Figure 1005 Expansion of a gas at constant pressure
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Te pressure, p, on the piston = force per unit area
So that,
p
F
A
--- =
Terefore, the force on the piston, F, is given by
F pA =
Suppose the piston is moved a distance l when the gas
expands. Normally, if the gas expands, the volume
increases and the pressure decreases, as was determined
from Boyles Law for ideal gases in the previous section.
However, if the distance l is a small l, then the pressure
can be considered constant. If the pressure is constant then
the force F will be constant. Te work done by the gas is:
W = F l = pA l since pressure p = Force F / Area A
= pV since volume V = A l
Tat is, (work done / J) = (pressure / Nm
-2
) (volume change / m
3
)
So that,
W p V p V
2
V
1
( ) = =
Te sign of the work done by the gas depends on whether
volume change is positive or negative. When a gas expands,
as is the case for Figure 1005, then work is done by the
gas, and the volume increases. As V is positive, then W is
positive.
Tis equation is also valid if the gas is compressed. In the
compression, work is done on the gas and the volume is
decreased. Terefore, V is negative which means that W
will be negative. From the frst law of thermodynamics
this means that positive work is done on the gas.
10.2.2 AND 10.2.3 FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
Termodynamics is the name given to the study of
processes in which thermal energy is transferred as
heat and as work. It had its foundations with engineers
in the 19th century who wanted to know what were the
limitations of the Laws of Physics with regard to the
operation of steam engines and other machines that
generate mechanical energy. Termodynamics treats
thermal energy from the macroscopic point of view in that
it deals with the thermodynamic variables of pressure,
volume, temperature and change in internal energy in
determining the state of a system.
Heat can be transferred between a system and its
environment because of a temperature diference. Another
way of transferring energy between a system and its
environment is to do work on the system or allow work to
be done by the system on the surroundings.
In order to distinguish between thermal energy (heat) and
work in thermodynamic processes
If a system and its surroundings are at diferent
temperatures and the system undergoes a process,
the energy transferred by non-mchanical means is
referred to as thermal energy (heat).
Work is defned as the process in which
thermal energy is transferred by means that are
independent of a temperature diference.
In thermodynamics the word system is used ofen.
A system is any object or set of objects that is being
investigated. Te surroundings will then be everything in
the Universe apart from the system. For example, when a
volume of gas in a cylinder is compressed with a piston,
then the system is the cylinder-gas-piston apparatus and
the surroundings is everything else in the Universe. A
closed system is one in which no mass enters or leaves the
system. It is an isolated system if no energy of any kind
enters or leaves the system. Most systems are open systems
because of the natural dynamic processes that occur in the
Universe.
In Chapter 3, internal energy U was defned as the sum
total of the potential energy and kinetic energy of the
particles making up the system. From a microscopic
viewpoint, the internal energy of an ideal gas is due to
the kinetic energy of the thermal motion of its molecules.
Tere are no intermolecular forces and thus there cannot
be any increase in potential energy. Terefore a change in
the temperature of the gas will change the internal energy
of the gas.
From the macroscopic point of view of thermodynamics,
one would expect that the internal energy of the system
would be changed if:
work is done on the system
work is done by the system
thermal energy is added to the system
thermal energy is removed from the system
Internal energy is a property of the system that depends on
the state of the system. In thermodynamics, a change of
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state of an ideal gas occurs if some macroscopic property
of the system has changed eg. phase, temperature,
pressure, volume, mass, internal energy.
Heat and work can change the state of the system but they
are not properties of the system. Tey are not characteristic
of the state itself but rather they are involved in the
thermodynamic process that can change the system from
one state to another.
Te absolute value for internal energy is not known. Tis
does not cause a problem as one is mainly concerned
with changes in internal energy, denoted by U, in
thermodynamic processes.
Te frst law of thermodynamics is a statement of the Law
of Conservation of Energy in which the equivalence of
work and thermal energy transfer is taken into account. It
can be stated as:
the heat added to a closed system equals the change in
the internal energy of the system plus the work done by
the system.
Tat is,
Q U W + U p V + = =
or,
U Q W =
where +Q is the thermal energy added to the system and
+W is the work done by the system.
If thermal energy leaves the system, then Q is negative. If
work is done on the system, then W is negative.
For an isolated system, then W = Q = 0 and U = 0.
10.2.4 CHANGES OF STATE OF AN
IDEAL GAS
Isobaric processes
A graph of pressure as a function of volume change when
the pressure is kept constant is shown in Figure 1006. Such
a process is said to be isobaric. Note that the work done by
the gas is equal to the area under the curve.
p
V
p
V
V
1
V
2
p
const
Area = Work done
p V
2
V
1
( ) =
isobaric
(i. e., same pressure process)
Figure 1006 Work done by a gas
expanding at constant pressure
An isobaric transformation requires a volume change at
constant pressure, and for this to occur, the temperature
needs to change to keep the pressure constant.
p = constant, or V / T = constant.
For an isobaric expansion, work is done by the system
so W is positive. Termal energy is added to cause the
expansion so Q is positive. Tis means that U must be
positive. For an isobaric compression, all terms would be
negative.
Isochoric (isovolumetric) processes
A graph of pressure as a function of volume change when
the volume is kept constant is shown in Figure 1007. Such
a process is said to be isochoric. When the volume is
kept fxed, the line of the transformation is said to be an
isochore.
p
V
isochoric
(i. e., same volume process)
Figure 1007 A Constant volume transformation
Note that the work done by the gas is equal to zero as
V = 0. Tere is zero area under the curve on a pV
diagram. However, the temperature and pressure can both
change and so such a transformation will be accompanied
by a thermal energy change.
V = constant, or p / T = constant.
For an isochoric process, no work is done by the system
so W is zero. Termal energy leaves the system so Q is
negative. Tis means that U must be negative. For an
isobaric process, W is zero, and Q and U are positive.
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Isothermal processes
A thermodynamic process in which the pressure and the
volume are varied while the temperature is kept constant
is called an isothermal process. In other words, when an
ideal gas expands or is compressed at constant temperature,
then the gas is said to undergo an isothermal expansion or
compression.
Figure 1008 shows three isotherms for an ideal gas at
diferent temperatures where
T
1
< T
2
< T
3
.
p
V
T1 T2 T3
isothermal process
A
B
Figure 1008 Isotherms for an ideal gas
Te curve of an isothermal process represents a Boyles
Law relation
T = constant, or pV = constant = nRT
Te moles of gas n, the molar gas constant R, and the
absolute temperature T are constant.
For an isothermal expansion, temperature is constant so
U is zero. Work is done by the system so W is positive.
Tis means that U must be positive.
In order to keep the temperature constant during an
isothermal process
the gas is assumed to be held in a thin container
with a high thermal conductivity that is in contact
with a heat reservoir an ideal body of large mass
whose temperature remains constant when heat
is exchanged with it. eg. a constanttemperature
water bath.
the expansion or compression should be done
slowly so that no eddies are produced to create hot
spots that would disrupt the energy equilibrium of
the gas.
Consider an ideal gas enclosed in a thin conducting vessel
that is in contact with a heat reservoir, and is ftted with a
light, frictionless, movable piston. If an amount of heat Q
is added to the system which is at point A of Figure 1008,
then the system will move to another point on the graph, B.
Te heat taken in will cause the gas to expand isothermally
and will be equivalent to the mechanical work done by
the gas. Because the temperature is constant, there is no
change in internal energy of the gas.
Tat is,
T 0 and U 0 Q W = = =
If the gas expands isothermally from A to B and then
returns from B to A following exactly the same path
during compression, then the isothermal change is said
to be reversible. Te conditions described above would
follow this criterion.
Adiabatic processes
An adiabatic expansion or contraction is one in which no
heat Q is allowed to fow into or out of the system. For the
entire adiabatic process, Q = 0.
To ensure that no heat enters or leaves the system during
an adiabatic process it is important to
make sure that the system is extremely well
insulated.
carry out the process rapidly so that the heat does
not have the time to leave the system.
Te compression stroke of an automobile engine is
essentially an adiabatic compression of the air-fuel mixture.
Te compression occurs too rapidly for appreciable heat
transfer to take place.
In an adiabatic compression the work done on the gas will
lead to an increase in the internal energy resulting in an
increase in temperature.
U Q W but Q 0 U W = = =
In an adiabatic expansion the work done by the gas will
lead to a decrease in the internal energy resulting in a
decrease in temperature.
Figure 1009 shows the relationship that exists between an
adiabatic and three isothermals. Note that the adiabatic
curve is steeper than the isotherm AB because the adiabatic
process has to occur rapidly so that the heat does not have
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time to leave the system. Te gas expands isothermally
from point A to point B, and then it is compressed
adiabatically from B to C. Te temperature increases as a
result of the adiabatic process from T
1
to T
3
. If the gas is
then compressed at constant pressure from the point C to
A, the net amount of work done on the gas will equal the
area enclosed by ABC.
p
V
T1 T2 T3
isothermal
process
A
B
adiabatic
process
C
isobaric
process
Figure 1009 An isothermal and adiabatic process
For an adiabatic compression, no heat enters or leaves
the system so Q is zero. Work is done on the system so
W is negative. Tis means that U must be negative. For
an adiabatic expansion, Q is zero, and W and U are
positive.
In Figure 1010 the area ABDE = work done by the gas
during isothermal expansion.
Te area ACDE = work done by the gas during an adiabatic
expansion.
isothermal
adiabatic
A
B
C
D E V
p
Figure 1010 Work done during expansion of a gas
Te work done by a gas and the work done on a gas can
be seen using the following graphical representation of a
pressurevolume diagram (Figure 1011).
(a) (b) (c)
p
V
p
V
p
V
Work done by gas Work done on gas Net work done
by gas in expanding as it is compressed
Figure 1011 Pressure volume diagrams
10.2.5 AND 10.2.6 WORK AND THE
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE
A thermodynamic engine is a device that transforms
thermal energy to mechanical energy (work) or mechanical
energy to thermal energy such as in refrigeration and air-
conditioning systems. Cars, steam trains, jets and rockets
have engines that transform fuel energy (chemical energy)
into the kinetic energy of their motion. In all presently
manufactured engines, the conversion is accompanied
by the emission of exhaust gases that waste some of the
thermal energy. Consequently, these engines are not very
efcient as only part of the thermal energy is converted to
mechanical energy. An engine has two crucial features:
It must work in cycles to be useful.
Te cyclic engine must have more than one heat
reservoir.
A thermodynamic cycle is a process in which the system
is returned to the same state from which it started. Tat is,
the initial and fnal states are the same in the cyclic process.
A cycle for a simple engine was shown in Figure1009. Te
net work done in the cycle is equal to the area enclosed by
the cycle.
Suppose a piston was placed on a heat reservoir, such as
the hot plate of a stove. Termal energy is supplied by
the thermal reservoir, and work is done by the gas inside
the piston as it expands. But this is not an engine as it
only operates in one direction. Te gas cannot expand
indefnitely, because as the volume of the piston increases,
the pressure decreases (Boyles Law). Some point will be
reached when the expanding gas will not be able to move
the piston. For this simple engine to function, the piston
must eventually be compressed to restore the system to its
original position ready to do work.
For a cycle to do net work, thermal contact with the original
heat reservoir must be broken, and temperatures other
than that of the original heat reservoir must play a part in
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the process. In the above example, if the piston is returned
to its original position while in contact with the hot plate,
then all the work that the gas did in the expansion will
have to be used in the compression. On a p V diagram,
one would draw an isotherm for the expansion and an
isotherm for the compression lying on top of the expansion
isotherm but in the opposite direction. Terefore, the area
enclosed by the cycle would be zero. However, if the gas is
compressed at a lower temperature the internal pressure
of the system will be lower than during the expansion.
Less work will be needed for the compression than was
produced in the expansion, and there will be net work
available for transformation to mechanical energy.
Heat engines and heat pumps
A heat engine is any device that converts thermal energy
into work. Examples include petrol and diesel engines,
fossil-fuelled (coal, oil and natural gas) and nuclear power
plants that use heat exchangers to drive the blades in
turbines, and jet aircraf engines.
Although we cannot convert all the random motion
associated with the internal energy into useful work,
we can at least extract some useful work from internal
energy using a heat engine. To make a heat engine, we
need a source of heat such as coal, petrol (gasoline),
diesel fuel, aviation fuel or liquefed petroleum gas (LPG)
and a working fuid. A working fuid is a substance that
undergoes a thermodynamic change of state and in
the process does work on the surroundings. Common
working fuids are water that is heated and converted to
steam as used in power stations and petrol-air mixtures as
used in car engines.
Most heat engines contain either pistons with intake and
exhaust valves that work in thermodynamic cycles as in
a car engine, or rotating turbines used in heat exchanger
systems in power stations.
Te purpose of a heat engine is to convert as much of
the heat input Q
H
from a high temperature reservoir into
work. Figure 1012 shows an energy fow diagram of a
typical heat engine.
Hot reservoir at T
H
Cold reservoir at T
L
ENGINE
Fluidenters carryingenergy,
Q
H
, at temperature T
H
.
Fluidleaves carryingenergy,
Q
L
= Q
H
W,
at temperature T
L
.
Engine does useful
work, W.
Q
H
Q
L
W
Figure 1012 Energy ow diagram of a heat engine
Te heat input Q
H
is represented as coming from the
high temperature reservoir T
H
which is maintained at a
constant temperature. Termal energy Q
L
is taken from
the hot reservoir. Tis thermal energy is used to do work
in the heat engine. Ten thermal energy can be given to
the low temperature reservoir T
L
without increasing its
temperature. If a perfect engine completed a cycle, the
change in internal energy U would be zero because all
the heat would be converted to work. However, there is no
perfect heat engine and the fow diagram in Figure 1012
is more the reality. At this stage, we will assume that the
change in internal energy is zero. From the First Law of
Termodynamics
U 0 Q W so that W , Q = = =
Tat is,
Q
H
Q
L
W =
Tus for a cycle, the heat added to the system equals the
work done by the system plus the heat that fows out at
lower temperature.
An ideal gas can be used as a heat engine as in the simple
cycle in Figure 1013.
p(kPa)
V (m
3
)
4 10
6
2
B
C D
A
Figure 1013 Behaviour of an ideal gas
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From A to B, the gas is compressed (volume decreases)
while the pressure is kept constant an isobaric
compression. Te amount of work done by the gas is given
by the area under the 2 kPa isobar.
Using the fact that W = pV , we have that
W = 2 kPa (4 10) m
3

= 1.2 10
4
J
From B to C, the volume is kept constant as the pressure
increases an isochoric increase in pressure. Tis can be
achieved by heating the gas. Since V = 0, then no work is
done by the gas, W = 0.
From C to D, the gas expands (volume increases) while
the pressure is kept constant an isobaric expansion. Te
amount of work done by the gas is given by the area under
the 6 kPa isobar.
Now, we have that W = pV , so that
W = 6 kPa (10 4) m
3
= 3.6 10
4
J
From D to A, the gas is cooled to keep the volume constant
as the pressure is decreased an isochoric decrease in
pressure. Again V = 0 and no work is done by the gas,
W = 0.
Tat is, the net work done by the gas is therefore
3.6 10
4
J 1.2 10
4
J = 2.4 10
4
J.
The internal combustion engine
Figure 1014 shows a series of schematic diagrams for the
cycle of an internal combustion engine as used in most
automobiles.
With the exhaust valve closed, a mixture of petrol
vapour and air from the carburettor is sucked into
the combustion chamber through the inlet valve as
the piston moves down during the intake stroke.
Both valves are closed and the piston moves up
to squeeze the mixture of petrol vapour and air
to about 1/8 th its original volume during the
compression stroke.
With both valves closed, the mixture is ignited by a
spark from the spark plug.
Te mixture burns rapidly and the hot gases then
expand against the piston in the power stroke.
Te exhaust valve is opened as the piston moves
upwards during the exhaust stroke, and the cycle
begins again.
intake valve
closed
exhaust
closed
compression stroke
crankshaft
Gas vapor
and
intake valve
open
exhaust
closed
intake stroke
crankshaft
piston
intake valve
closed
exhaust
closed
ignition
intake valve
closed
exhaust
closed
power stroke
intake valve
closed
exhaust
open
exhaust
spent fuel
gases
Figure 1014 Four-stroke internal combustion engine
Motor cars usually have four or six pistons but fve and eight
cylinders are also common. Te pistons are connected by
a crankshaf to a fywheel which keeps the engine turning
over during the power stroke. Automobiles are about 25%
efcient.
Any device that can pump heat from a low-temperature
reservoir to a high-temperature reservoir is called a heat
pump. Examples of heat pumps include the refrigerator
and reverse cycle air-conditioning devices used for
space heating and cooling. In the summer component
of Figure 1015, the evaporator heat exchanger on the
inside extracts heat from the surroundings. In the winter
component, the evaporator heat exchanger is outside
the room, and it exhausts heat to the inside air. In both
cases, thermal energy is pumped from a low-temperature
reservoir to a high- temperature reservoir.
condenser evaporator
T
H
T
L
WINTER
room
evaporator condenser
T
L
T
H
SUMMER
room
Figure 1015 A reverse cycle heat pump
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Figure 1016 shows the energy fow that occurs in a heat
pump cycle. By doing work on the system, heat Q
L
is added
from the low temperature T
L
reservoir, being the inside of
the refrigerator. A greater amount of heat Q
H
is exhausted
to the high temperature T
H
reservoir.
High temperature reservoir at T
H
Low temperature reservoir at T
L
Q
H
Q
L
W
Figure 1016 Energy ow diagram for a heat pump
An ideal gas can be used as a heat pump as in the simple
cycle in Figure 1017.
p(kPa)
V (m
3
)
B C
Figure 1017 An ideal gas as a heat pump
Because the cycle is traced in an anticlockwise direction,
the net work done on the surroundings is negative.
The refrigerator a heat pump
A refrigerator is a device operating in a cycle that is
designed to extract heat from its interior to achieve or
maintain a lower temperature inside. Te heat is exhausted
to the surroundings normally at a higher temperature. A
typical refrigerator is represented in Figure 1018.
A motor driving a compressor pump provides the means
by which a net amount of work can be done on the system
for a cycle. Even though refrigerator cabinets are well
insulated, heat from the surroundings leaks back inside.
Te compressor motor can be heard to switch on and of
as it pumps this heat out again.
A volatile liquid called HFC (tetrafuoroethane) is
circulated in a closed system of pipes by the compressor
pump, and, by the process of evaporative cooling, the
vaporised HFC is used to remove heat. Evaporative cooling
was discussed in Chapter 3.
Te compressor maintains a high-pressure diference
across a throttling valve. Evaporation of the HFC occurs
in several loops called the evaporator pipes that are
usually inside the coldest part of the fridge. As the liquid
evaporates on the low-pressure, low-temperature side,
heat is added to the system. In order to turn from a liquid
to a gas, the HFC requires thermal energy equal to the
latent heat of vaporisation. Tis energy is obtained from
the contents of the fridge.
HEAT IN
heat in
cold food
freezer
compartment
throttling valve
insulation
evaporative pipes
condenser
pipes
HEAT OUT
vapour at very high
temperature
HFC gas
cooling ns
compressor
pump
liquid
Figure 1018 The typical small refrigerator
On the high-pressure, high-temperature side of the
throttling valve, thermal energy is removed from the
system. Te vaporised HFC in the compressor pipes is
compressed by the compressor pump, and gives up its
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latent heat of vaporisation to the air surrounding the
compressor pipes. Te heat fns act as a heat sink to radiate
the thermal energy to the surroundings at a faster rate.
Te fns are painted black and they have a relatively large
surface area for their size.
The Carnot engine
Before the First Law of Termodynamics was even
established, Nicolas Lonard Sadi Carnot (1796-1832),
a young engineer, was able to establish the theoretical
maximum efciency that was possible for an engine
working between two heat reservoirs. In 1824, he
formulated that:
No engine working between two heat reservoirs can be
more efcient than a reversible engine between those
reservoirs.
Carnot argued that if thermal energy does fow from a cold
body to a hot body then work must be done. Terefore, no
engine can be more efcient than an ideal reversible one
and that all such engines have the same efciency. Tis
means that if all engines have the same efciency then
only a simple engine was needed to calculate the efciency
of any engine.
Consider an ideal perfectly insulated, frictionless
engine that can work backwards as well as forwards.
Te pV diagram would have the form of that shown in
Figure 1019.
A
B
C
D
maximum temperature
minimum temperature
V
1
V
2
p
V
adiabatic expansion
adiabatic
compression
isothermal
compression
isothermal expansion
Q
H
T
H
V
A
V
B Volume
expansion
Q= 0
V
A
V
B Volume
expansion
V
C
V
A
V
D
Volume
compression
V
C
Q
L
T
C
V
A
V
D
Volume
compression
V
C
Q= 0
Figure 1019 The Carnot engine
Te nett work is the area enclosed by ABCDA. In the case
given, the Carnot engine is working in a clockwise cycle
ABCDA. Termal energy is absorbed by the system at the
high temperature reservoir T
H
and is expelled at the low
temperature reservoir T
L
. Work is done by the system as
it expands along the top isotherm from A to B, and along
the adiabat from B to C. Work is then done on the system
to compress it along the bottom isotherm from C to D and
along the lef adiabat from D to A.
Te efciency of the Carnot cycle depends only on the
absolute temperatures of the high and low temperature
reservoirs. Te greater the temperature diference, the
greater the efciency will be.
As a result of the Carnot efciency, many scientists list a
Tird Law of Termodynamics which states:
It is impossible to reach the absolute zero of temperature,
0 K.
Te efciency of the Carnot cycle would be 100% if the
low temperature reservoir was at absolute zero. Terefore
absolute zero is unattainable.
10.2.7 SOLVING PROBLEMS ON STATE
CHANGES OF A GAS
Example
If 22 J of work is done on a system and 3.4 10
2
J of heat
is added, determine the change internal energy of the
system.
Solution
Using the formula, Q = U + W , we have that 340 J = U
+ (-22) J
340 J = U + (22) J
so that U = 340 J + 22 J
= 362 J
Tat is, the change in internal energy of the system is
3.6 10
2
J.
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Example
6.0 dm
3
of an ideal gas is at a pressure of 202.6 kPa. It is
heated so that it expands at constant pressure until its
volume is 12 dm
3
. Determine the work done by the gas.
Solution
Using the formula W = p V, we have that
W = 202.6 kPa (12 6.0) dm
3

= 202.6 10
3
Pa (12 6.0) 10
-3
m
3

= 1.216 10
3
J
Tat is, the work done by the gas in the expansion is
1.2 10
3
J.
Example
A thermal system containing a gas is taken around a cycle
of a heat engine as shown in the Figure below.
(a) Starting at point A, describe the cycle.
(b) Label the diagram fully showing the maximum
and minimum temperature reservoirs.
(c) Estimate the amount of work done in each cycle.
A
B
C
D
Q
Q
100 300
p x 10
5
Pa
V (cm
3
)
4
8
Solution
(a) Te fuel-air mixture enters the piston at point A.
Te compression AB is carried out rapidly with no
heat exchange making it an adiabatic compression.
Te ignition and combustion of the gases introduces
a heat input Q
H
that raises the temperature at
constant volume from B to C. Te power stroke is an
adiabatic expansion from C to D. Termal energy
Q
L
leaves the system during the exhaust stroke, and
cooling occurs at constant volume from D to A.
(b) Te Figure Below shows the changes that occur for
each process in the cycle.
A
C
D
maximum temperature
minimum temperature
Q
H
Q
L
V
1
V
2
p
V
adiabatic expansion
adiabatic
compression
constant
volume (V
1
)
constant
pressure
(c) Te net work is represented by the enclosed area
ABCD. If we assume that the area is approximately
a rectangle with sides of 4 10
5
Pa and 200 cm
3
, we
have:
4 10
5
Nm
-2
200 10
-6
m
3
= 80 J.
Example
For the compression stroke of an experimental diesel
engine, the air is rapidly decreased in volume by a factor
of 15, the compression ratio. Te work done on the air-fuel
mixture for this compression is measured to be 550 J.
(a) What type of thermodynamic process is likely to
have occurred?
(b) What is the change in internal energy of the air-
fuel mixture?
(c) Is the temperature likely to increase or decrease?
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Solution
(a) Because the compression occurs rapidly appreciable
heat transfer does not take place, and the process can
be considered to be adiabatic, Q = 0.
(b) U = Q W = 0 (550) J
Terefore, the change in internal energy is 550J.
(c) Te temperature rise will be very large resulting in
the spontaneous ignition of the air-fuel mixture.
Exercise 10.2
1. An ideal gas was slowly compressed at constant
temperature to one quarter of its original volume.
In the process, 1.5 10
3
J of heat was given of.
Te change in internal energy of the gas was
A. 1.5 10
3
J
B. 0 J
C. 1.5 10
3
J
D. 6.0 10
3
J
2. When an ideal gas in a cylinder is compressed at
constant temperature by a piston, the pressure
of the gas increases. Which of the following
statement(s) best explain the reason for the
pressure increase?
I. the mean speed of the molecules increases
II. the molecules collide with each other more
frequently
III. the rate of collision with the sides of the
cylinder increases.
A. II only
B. III only
C. I and II only
D. II and III only
3. An ideal gas in a thermally insulated cylinder is
compressed rapidly. Te change in state would be:
A. isochoric
B. isothermal
C. adiabatic
D. isobaric
4. Te Figure below shows the variation of pressure
p with volume V during one complete cycle of a
simple heat engine.
Y
X
p
V
A
B C
0
0
Te total work done is represented by the area:
A. X + Y
B. X Y
C. X
D. Y

5. Te Figure below shows the variation of the
pressure p with volume V of a gas during one cycle
of the Otto engine.
V
1
V
2
p
V
A
C
D
Q
During which process does the gas do external work?
A. AB
B. CD
C. BC and CD
D. AB and CD
6. A system absorbs 100 J of thermal energy and
in the process does 40 J of work. Te change in
internal energy is:
A. 60 J
B. 40 J
C. 100 J
D. 140 J
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7. Work is done when the volume of an ideal gas
increases. During which of the following state
processes would the work done be the greatest?
A. isochoric
B. isothermal
C. isobaric
D. adiabatic
8. How much heat energy must be added at
atmospheric pressure to 0.50 kg of ice at 0 C to
convert it to steam at 100 C?
9. If 1.68 10
5
J of heat is added to a gas that
expands and does 8.1 10
5
J of work, what is the
change in internal energy of the gas?
10. 6.0 m
3
of an ideal gas is cooled at constant normal
atmospheric pressure until its volume is 1/6 th
its original volume. It is then allowed to expand
isothermally back to its original volume. Draw the
thermodynamic process on a pV diagram.
11. A system consists of 3.0 kg of water at 75 C.
Stirring the system with a paddlewheel does
2.5 10
4
J of work on it while 6.3 10
4
J of heat is
removed. Calculate the change in internal energy
of the system, and the fnal temperature of the
system.
12. A gas is allowed to expand adiabatically to four
times its original volume. In doing so the gas does
1750 J of work.
(a) How much heat fowed into the gas?
(b) Will the temperature rise or fall?
(c) What is the change in internal energy of the
gas?
13. For each of the processes listed in the following
table, supply the symbol +, , or 0 for each
missing entry.
Process Q W U
Isobaric compression of an ideal gas +
Isothermal compression of an ideal gas
Adiabatic expansion
Isochoric pressure drop
Free expansion of a gas
14. Helium gas at 312 K is contained in a cylinder
ftted with a movable piston. Te gas is initially
at 2 atmospheres pressure and occupies a volume
of 48.8 L. Te gas expands isothermally until
the volume is 106 L. Ten the gas is compressed
isobarically at that fnal pressure back to the
original volume of 48.8L. It then isochorically
returns back to its original pressure. Assuming
that the helium gas behaves like an ideal gas
(a) Calculate the number of moles of helium
gas in the system.
(b) Determine the pressure afer the isothermal
expansion.
(c) Draw a diagram of the thermodynamic
cycle.
(d) Assuming that the isotherm is a diagonal
line rather than a curve, estimate the work
done during the isothermal expansion.
(e) Determine the work done during the
isobaric compression.
(f) Determine the work done during the
isochoric part of the cycle.
(g) Calculate the net work done by the gas.
(h) Calculate the fnal temperature of the
helium.
15. (a) Distinguish between an isothermal process
and an adiabatic process as applied to an
ideal gas.
(b) A fxed mass of an ideal gas is held in a
cylinder by a moveable piston and thermal
energy is supplied to the gas causing
it to expand at a constant pressure of
1.5 10
2
kPa as shown in the Figure below.
piston thermal energy
Te initial volume of the gas in the container is
0.040 m
3
and afer expansion the volume is 0.10
m
3
. Te total energy supplied to the gas during the
process is 7.0 kJ.
(i) State whether this process is isothermal,
adiabatic or neither of these processes.
(ii) Determine the work done by the gas.
(iii) Calculate the change in internal energy of
the gas.
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16. Tis question is about a diesel engine cycle as
shown in the Figure below. Mark on the diagram
each of the state changes that occur at AB, BC, CD
and DA. Identify the maximum and minimum
temperature reservoirs and label Q
H
and Q
L
.
A
B C
D
Q
Q
V
1
V
2
p
V
10.3 THE SECOND
LAW OF
THERMO
DYNAMICS AND
ENTROPY
10.3.1 State that the second law of
thermodynamics implies that thermal
energy cannot spontaneously transfer from
a region of low temperature to a region of
high temperature.
10.3.2 State that entropy is a system property that
expresses the degree of disorder in the
system.
10.3.3 State the second law of thermodynamics in
terms of entropy changes.
10.3.4 Discuss examples of natural processes in
terms of entropy changes.
IBO 2007
Introduction
We are always told to conserve energy. But according to
the First Law of Termodynamics, in a closed system,
energy is conserved, and the total amount of energy in the
Universe does not change no matter what we do. Although
the First Law of Termodynamics is correct, it does not
tell the whole story.
How ofen have you seen a videotape played in reverse
sequence. Views of water fowing uphill, demolished
buildings rising from the rubble, people walking
backwards. In none of the natural Laws of Physics studied
so far have we encountered time reversal. If all of these
Laws are obeyed, why then does the time-reversed
sequence seem improbable? To explain this reversal
paradox, scientists in the latter half of the nineteenth
century came to formulate a new principle called the
Second Law of Termodynamics. Tis Law allows us to
determine which processes will occur in nature, and which
will not.
Tere are many diferent but equivalent ways of stating the
Second Law of Termodynamics. Much of the language
used for the defnitions had its origins with the physicists
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who formulated the Law, and their desire to improve
the efciency of steam engines. Tese statements of the
Second Law of Termodynamics will be developed within
this section.
10.3.1 THE SECOND LAW OF THERMO-
DYNAMICS AND TEMPERATURE
Te second law of thermodynamics implies that thermal
energy cannot spontaneously transfer from a region of low
temperature to a region of high temperature.
The Kelvin Planck statement
of the second law of
thermodynamics
All attempts to construct a heat engine that is 100%
efcient have failed. Te Kelvin Planck statement of the
Second Law of Termodynamics is a qualitative statement
of the impossibility of certain types of processes.
It is impossible for an engine working in a cycle to
transform a given amount of heat from a reservoir
completely into work.
or
Not all the thermal energy in a thermal system is
available to do work.
It is possible to convert heat into work in a non-cyclic
process. An ideal gas undergoing an isothermal expansion
does just that. But afer the expansion, the gas is not in
its original state. In order to bring the gas back to its
original state, an amount of work will have to be done
on the gas and some thermal energy will be exhausted.
Te Kelvin Planck statement formulates that if energy
is to be extracted from a reservoir to do work, a colder
reservoir must be available in which to exhaust a part of
the energy.
The Clausius statement of the
second law of thermodynamics
Just as there is no cyclic device that can convert a given
amount of heat completely into work, it follows that
the reverse statement is also not possible. Te Clausius
statement of the Second Law of Termodynamics can be
stated as:
It is impossible to make a cyclic engine whose only
efect is to transfer thermal energy from a colder
body to a hotter body.
Tere is no perfect refrigerator and no perpetual motion
machine.
10.3.2 ENTROPY
Recall that in thermodynamics, a system in an equilibrium
state is characterised by its state variables (p, V, T, U, n ).
Te change in a state variable for a complete cycle is zero.
In contrast, the net thermal energy and net work factors
for a cycle are not equal to zero.
In the latter half of the nineteenth century, Rudolf Clausius
proposed a general statement of the Second Law in terms
of a quantity called entropy. Entropy is a thermodynamic
function of the state of the system and can be interpreted
as the amount of order or disorder of a system. As with
internal energy, it is the change in entropy that is important
and not its absolute value.
10.3.3 CHANGE IN ENTROPY
Te change in entropy S of a system when an amount
of thermal energy Q is added to a system by a reversible
process at constant absolute temperature T is given by
S
Q
T
---- =
Te units of the change in entropy are J K
1
.
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Example
A heat engine removes 100 J each cycle from a heat
reservoir at 400 K and exhausts 85 J of thermal energy to
a reservoir at 300 K. Compute the change in entropy for
each reservoir.
Solution
Since the hot reservoir loses heat, we have that
S
Q
T
----
100 J
400 K
--------------- 0.25 J K
1
= = =
For the cold reservoir we have
S
Q
T
----
85 J
300 K
--------------- 0.283 J K
1
= = =
Te change in entropy of the hot reservoir is 0.25 J K
-1
and
the change in entropy of the cold reservoir is 0.28 J K
-1
.
Te change in entropy of the cold reservoir is greater than
the decrease for the hot reservoir. Te total change in
entropy of the whole system equals 0.033 J K
-1
.
Tat is,
S S
H
S
L
+ 0.25 0.283 + 0.033 J K
1
= = =
So that the net change in entropy is positive.
In this example and all other cases, it has been found
that the total entropy increases. (For an ideal Carnot
reversible cycle it can equal zero. Te Carnot cycle was
discussed earlier). Tis infers that total entropy increases
in all natural systems. Te entropy of a given system can
increase or decrease but the change in entropy of the
system Ss plus the change in entropy of the environment
Senv must be greater than or equal to zero.
i.e.,
S S
S
S
env
0 + =
In terms of entropy, the Second Law of Termodynamics
can be stated as
Te total entropy of any system plus that of its
environment increases as a result of all natural
processes.
or
Te entropy of the Universe increases.
or
Natural processes tend to move toward a state of
greater disorder.
10.3.4 NATURAL PROCESSES AND
CHANGE IN ENTROPY
Although the local entropy may decrease, any process will
increase the total entropy of the system and surroundings,
that is, the universe. Take for example a chicken growing
inside an egg. Te entropy of the egg and its contents Te entropy of the egg and its contents
decreases because the inside of the egg is becoming more
ordered. However, the entropy of surroundings increases
by a greater factor because the process gives of thermal
energy. So the total energy of the Universe is increasing.
In the beginning of Section 10.3, irreversible processes
were discussed. A block of ice can slide down an incline
plane if the frictional force is overcome, but the ice cannot
spontaneously move up the incline of its own accord. Te
conversion of mechanical energy to thermal energy by
friction as it slides is irreversible. If the thermal energy
could be converted completely to mechanical energy,
the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second Law would be
violated. In terms of entropy, the system tends to greater
disorder, and the entropy increases.
In another case, the conduction of thermal energy from
a hot body to a cold body is irreversible. Flow of thermal
energy completely from a cold body to a hot body violates
the Clausius statement of the Second Law. In terms of
entropy, a hot body causes greater disorder of the cold
body and the entropy increases. If thermal energy was
given by a cold body to a hot body there would be greater
order in the hot body, and the entropy would decrease.
Tis is not allowed by the Second Law.
Irreversibility can also occur if there is turbulence or an
explosion causing a non-equilibrium state of the gaseous
system. Te degree of disorder increases and the entropy
increases.
Entropy indicates the direction in which processes occur.
Hence entropy is ofen called the arrow of time.
A statistical approach to the defnition of entropy was frst
applied by Ludwig Boltzmann. Boltzmann (1844 1906),
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an Austrian physicist, was also concerned with the heat
death of the Universe and irreversibilty. He concluded
that the tendency toward dissipation of heat is not an
absolute Law of Physics but rather a Statistical Law.
Consider 10
22
air molecules in a container. At any one
instant, there would be a large number of possibilities for
the position and velocity of each molecule its microstate
and the molecules would be disordered. Even if there is
some momentary order in a group of molecules due to
chance, the order would become less afer collision with
other molecules. Boltzmann argued that probability is
directly related to disorder and hence to entropy. In terms
of the Second Law of Termodynamics, probability does
not forbid a decrease in entropy but rather its probability
of occurring is extremely low.
If a coin is fipped 100 times, it is not impossible for
the one hundred coins to land heads up, but it is highly
improbable. Te probability of rolling 100 sixes from 100
dice is even smaller.
A small sample of a gas contains billions of molecules
and the molecules have many possible microstates. It
is impossible to know the position and velocity of each
molecule at a given point in time. Te probability of
these microstates suddenly coming together into some
improbable arrangement is infnitesimal. In reality, the
macrostate is the only measurable part of the system.
Te Second Law in terms of probability does not infer that
a decrease in entropy is not allowed but it suggests that the
probability of this occurring is low.
A fnal consequence of the Second Law is the heat
degradation of the Universe. It can be reasoned that in any
natural process, some energy becomes unavailable to do
useful work. An outcome of this suggests that the Universe
will eventually reach a state of maximum disorder. An
equilibrium temperature will be reached and no work
will be able to be done. All change of state will cease as all
the energy in the Universe becomes degraded to thermal
energy. Tis point in time is ofen referred to as the heat
death of the Universe.
Exercise 10.3
1. Te efciency of a heat engine is the ratio of
A. the thermal energy input to the thermal
energy output
B. the thermal energy output to the thermal
energy input
C. the work output to the thermal energy
input
D. the work output to the thermal energy
output
2. A heat engine is most efcient when it works
between objects that have a
A. large volume
B. large temperature diference
C. large surface area
D. small temperature diference
3. Te four-stroke engine is ofen said to consist
of the suck, squeeze, bang and blow strokes.
Describe what these terms relate to.
4. Explain the diference between internal and
external combustion engines, and give an example
of each.
5. A car engine operates with an efciency of
34% and it does 8.00 10
3
J of work each cycle.
Calculate
(a) the amount of thermal energy absorbed per
cycle at the high-temperature reservoir.
(b) the amount of exhaust thermal energy
supplied to the surroundings during each
cycle.
6. On a hot day, a person closed all the doors and
windows of the kitchen and decided to leave the
door of the refrigerator open to cool the kitchen
down. What will happen to the temperature of the
room over a period of several hours. Give a full
qualitative answer.
7. Modern coal-fred power plants operate at a
temperature of 520 C while nuclear reactors
operate at a temperature of 320 C. If the waste
heat of the two plants is delivered to a cooling
reservoir at 21 C, calculate the Carnot efciency
of each type of plant. (optional question)
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8. It takes 7.80 10
5
J of thermal energy to melt a
given sample of a solid. In the process, the entropy
of the system increases by 1740 J K
-1
. Find the
melting point of the solid in C.
9. If 2.00 kg of pure water at 100 C is poured into
2.00 kg of water at 0 C in a perfectly insulated
calorimeter, what is the net change in entropy.
(Assume there is 4.00 kg of water at a fnal
temperature of 50 C).
10. Use the concepts of entropy and the arrow of time
to explain the biological growth of an organism.
11. You are given six coins which you shake and then
throw onto a table. Construct a table showing the
number of microstates for each macrostate.
12. Describe the concept of energy degradation in
terms of entropy.
13. Using an example, explain the meaning of the
term reversal paradox.
14. What is meant by the heat death of the universe?
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11
11.1.1 Describe the nature of standing (stationary)
waves.
11.1.2 Explain the formation of one-dimensional
standing waves.
11.1.3 Discuss the modes of vibration of strings
and air in open and in closed pipes.
11.1.4 Compare standing waves and travelling
waves.
11.1.5 Solve problems involving standing waves.
IBO 2007
11.1.1 (A.2.1) THE NATURE OF
STANDING WAVES
A
very interesting situation arises when considering
a travelling wave that is refected and the refected
wave interferes with the forward moving wave. It can be
demonstrated either with a rubber tube, stretched string
or a slinky spring attached to a rigid support. In the
diagram the tube is attached at A and you set up a wave
by moving your hand back and forth at B. If you get the
frequency of your hand movement just right then the tube
appears to take the shape as shown in Figure 1101. When
you move your hand faster you can get the tube to take the
shape shown in Figure 1102. All points other than A and
B on the tube are of course oscillating but the wave is not
moving forward. You can actually get the wave to appear
to stand still by illuminating it with a strobe light that
fashes at the same frequency of vibration as your hand.
Te fact that the wave is not progressing is the reason why
such waves are called standing or stationary waves.
A B A B
L L
diagram1 diagram 2
Figures 1101 and 1102
Tere are several things to note about standing waves. Te
fact the wave is not moving forward means that no energy
is being propagated. If you increase the amplitude with
which you shake your hand, this increase in energy input
to the wave will result in a greater maximum displacement
of the tube.
It can also be seen that points along the wave oscillate with
diferent amplitudes. In this respect, the amplitude of a
standing wave clearly varies along its length.
To illustrate this, Figure 1103 shows a standing wave set
up in a string of length 30 cm at a particular instant in
time. Figure 1104 shows the variation with time t of the
amplitude x
0
of the string at a point 13 cm along the
string.
11.1 SL OPTION A.2 STANDING STATIONARY WAVES
11.1 (SL Option A2) Standing (Stationary) Waves
11.2 (SL Option A3) Doppler Eect
11.3 (SL Option A4) Diraction
11.4 (SL Option A5) Resolution
11.5 (SL Option A6) Polarization
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displacement d of string vs distance x along string
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
x /cm
d
/
c
m
Figure 1103 A standing wave
amplitude x
0 vs time t
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
t /s
x
0
/
m
Figure 1104 Variation of amplitude with time
Since energy is not propagated by a standing wave, it
doesnt really make a lot of sense to talk about the speed of
a standing wave.
Tis speed is the speed of a travelling wave in the string. As
we have seen, the speed of a travelling wave is determined
by the nature and properties of the material through
which it travels. For the string therefore, the speed of the
travelling wave in the string determines the frequency
with which you have to oscillate the string to produce
the standing wave. (From Figure 1104 we see that for
this situation the frequency of oscillation of the string is
f = 1/T = 1/0.25 = 4.0 Hz)
Also, since at any one time all the particles in a standing
wave are either moving up or moving down, it follows
that all the particles are either in phase or in anti-phase
with each other.
11.1.2 (A.2.2)THE FORMATION OF
STANDING WAVES
A standing wave arises from the interference of two waves
moving in opposite directions. To understand this, let us
look at the situation of a standing wave in a string or tube
as described above. Initially when you start moving the
free end of the tube up and down, a wave travels along the
tube. When it reaches the fxed end, it is refected and, as
described in Topic 4, the refected wave is out of phase
with the forward (incident) wave. Te forward wave and
refected wave interfere and the resultant displacement of
the tube is found from the principle of superposition. Tis
is illustrated in Figure 1105 which shows, at a particular
incident of time, the displacement of the tube due to the
incident wave, the displacement of the tube due to the
refected wave and the resultant displacement due to the
interference of the two waves.
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
0
10 20 30 d

/

c
m
forward wave
refected wave
standing wave
N
N
A
A
x / cm
Figure 1105 Nodes and anti-nodes
If at the fxed end, due to the incident wave, the tube is
moving upwards, then due to the refected wave it will
be moving downwards such that the net displacement is
always zero. Similarly, at the mid-point of the string, the
displacements of the tube due to each wave are always
in anti-phase. Hence the net displacement at this point
is always zero. Points on a standing wave at which the
displacement is always zero, are called nodes or nodal
points. Tese are labelled N in Figure 1105.
Te points at which a standing wave reach maximum
displacement are called antinodes. In Figure 1105, the
antinodes are at points one quarter and three-quarters the
length of the tube (7.5 cm and 22.5 cm) and are labelled A.
Te amplitude of the forward wave and the refected wave
is 10 cm, hence the maximum displacement at an antinode
in the tube is 20 cm. Te maximum displacement at the
antinodes will occur at the times when the forward and
refected waves are in phase.
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Figure 1106 shows an instance in time when the
interference of the forward and refected wave produce an
the overall displacement of zero in the standing wave.
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
forward wave
refected wave
standing wave
d

/

c
m
x / cm
Figure 1106 Forward and reected waves
Exercise 11.1 (a)
Sketch the shape of the forward and refected wave in a
string at an instant in time that results in the antinodes of
the standing wave having maximum displacement.
11.1.3 (A.2.3) STANDING WAVES IN
STRINGS AND PIPES
If you take a wire and stretch it between two points and
pluck it then you will actually set up standing waves in the
wire as described above. Te number of standing waves
that you set up will actually be infnite.
Fundamental
(1st harmonic)
2nd harmonic
3rd harmonic
4th harmonic
Figure 1107 The rst four modes of vibration
Figure 1107 shows the frst four modes of vibration
i.e.standing waves in the string Te modes of vibration
are called harmonics.Te frst harmonic is called the
fundamental. Tis is the dominant vibration and will in
fact be the one that the ear will hear above all the others.
Tis is what enables you to sing in tune with the note
emitted by the plucked string.
If we were to vibrate the stretched string at a frequency
equal to the fundamental or to one of its harmonics rather
than just pluck it, then we set up a standing wave as earlier
described. We have used the phenomenon of resonance to
produce a single standing wave. In the case of the stretched
string it has an infnite number of natural frequencies
of oscillations, each corresponding to a standing wave.
Hence, when plucked, we obtain an infnite number of
harmonics.
Figure 1107 shows part of what is called a harmonic series.
Diferent fundamentals can be obtained by pinching the
string along its length and then plucking it or by altering
its tension. In a violin for example the four strings are
of the same length, but under diferent tensions so that
each produces a diferent fundamental. Te notes of the
harmonic series associated with each fundamental are
obtained by holding the string down at diferent places
and then bowing it.
Te harmonics essentially efect the quality of the note that
you hear. Te presence of harmonics is one reason why
diferent types of musical instruments sounding a note of
the same frequency actually sound diferent. It is not the
only reason that musical instruments have diferent sound
qualities. An A string on a guitar sounds diferent from
the A string of a violin, because they are also produced
in diferent ways and the sound box of each instrument
is very diferent in construction. Te actual construction
of the violin for example distinguishes the quality of the
notes produced by a Stradivarius from those produced by
a plastic replica.
Figure 1107 enables us to derive a relationship between
the wavelengths of the harmonics and length of the
string. If the length of the string is L then clearly, the
wavelength of the fundamental (frst harmonic) is 2L = ,
for the second harmonic = L and for the third harmonic
2
3
L
= . From this sequence, we see that the wavelength
n

of the n
th
harmonic is given by
n
2L
n
=
Resonance and standing waves also play their part in the
production of sound from pipes. If you take a pipe that is
open at one end and blow across the top it will produce
a sound. By blowing faster you can produce a diferent
sound. In this situation you have used resonance to set up
a standing wave in the pipe. It is now the air molecules
inside the pipe that are set vibrating. Te sound wave that
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you create at the open-end travels to the bottom of the
pipe, is refected back and then again refected when it
reaches the open end. Te waves interfere to produce a
standing wave. However, when waves are refected from
an open boundary they do not undergo a phase change
so that there is always an antinode at the open end.
Te fundamental and the frst three harmonics for a pipe
open at one end are shown Figure 1108.
(Fundamental)
1st harmonic 3rd harmonic 5th harmonic
A
N
A
N
N
N
N
N
A
Figure 1108 The harmonics of a pipe open at one end
A pipe that is open at both ends and that has the same
dimensions, as the previous pipe, will produce a diferent
fundamental note and a diferent harmonic series. Tis is
shown in Figure 1109
(Fundamental)
1st harmonic 2nd harmonic 3rd harmonic
A
N
A
A
N
N
A
A
A
N
N
N
Figure 1109 The harmonics of a pipe open at both ends
We see that, whereas a pipe open at both ends produces all
the odd and even harmonics of the fundamental = 2L,
(
n
2L
n
= ), a pipe closed at one end can produce only the
odd harmonics of the fundamental = 4L. With open and
close pipes we are essentially looking at the way in which
organs, brass instruments and woodwind instruments
produce musical sounds.
11.1.4 (A.2.4) COMPARISON OF
TRAVELLING AND STANDING
WAVES
Te Figure 1110 summarises the diferences between
travelling and standing waves.
Property Travelling wave Standing wave
Energy
propagation
Propagated Not propagated
Amplitude Single amplitude Variable amplitude
Phase
diference
All phase diferences
between 0 and 2
Only 0, 2 and
phase diference
Figure 1110 Comparing travelling
and standing waves
Since travelling waves have a single amplitude, it follows
that there are no nodal or anti-nodal points in a travelling
wave.
11.1.5 (A.2.5) PROBLEMS INVOLVING
STANDING WAVES
Example
Te speed v of a wave travelling in a string is given by the
expression
T
v

=
where T is the tension in the string and is the mass per
unit length of the string.
(a) Deduce an expression for the frequency f of the
fundamental in a string of length L.
(b) Use your answer to (a) to estimate the tension in
the A string of a violin (frequency = 440 Hz).
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Solution
(a) Te wavelength of the fundamental is 2L
Using
v
f

=
we have
1
2
T
f
L
=
(b) As this is an estimate, we are not looking for an
exact value but we do need to make some sensible
estimates of L and .
L = 0.5 m say and = 2.0 10
-3
kg m
-1
i.e. about 2 g per
metre.
From
1
2
T
f
L
= we have that
2 2
4 T L f = =
4 0.25 2.0 10
-3
(440)
2
400 N
Exercise 11.1 (b)
1. An organ pipe is closed at one end and produces a
fundamental note of frequency 128 Hz.
(a) Calculate
(i) the frequencies of the next two
harmonics in the harmonic series of
the pipe.
(ii) the frequencies of the corresponding
harmonics for an open pipe whose
fundamental is 128 Hz
(iii) the ratio of the length of the closed
pipe to that of the open pipe.
(b) Suggest why organ pipes that emit notes at
the lower end of the organs frequency range
are usually open pipes.
11.2 SL OPTION A.3
DOPPLER EFFECT
11.2.1 Describe what is meant by the Doppler
eect.
11.2.2 Explain the Doppler eect by reference to
wavefront diagrams for moving-detector
and moving-source situations.
11.2.3 Apply the Doppler eect equations for
sound.
11.2.4 Solve problems on the Doppler eect
for sound. Problems will not include
situations where both source and detector
are moving
11.2.5 Solve problems on the Doppler eect
for electromagnetic waves using the
approximation
v
f f
c
=
11.2.6 Outline an example in which the Doppler
eect is used to measure speed.
IBO 2007
11.2.1 (A.3.1) THE DOPPLER EFFECT
Consider two observers A and B at rest with respect to
a sound source that emits a sound of constant frequency
f. Clearly both observers will hear a sound of the same
frequency. However, suppose that the source now moves
at constant speed towards A. A will now hear a sound of
frequency f
A
that is greater than f and B will hear a sound
of frequency f
B
that is less than f. Tis phenomenon is
known as the Doppler Efect or Doppler Principle afer
C. J. Doppler (1803-1853).
Te same efect arises for an observer who is either moving
towards or away from a stationary source.
11.2.2 (A.3.2) EXPLAINING THE
DOPPLER EFFECT
Figure 1111 shows the waves spreading out from a
stationary source that emits a sound of constant frequency
f. Te observers A and B hear a sound of the same
frequency.
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A B
wavefront
S
Figure 1111 Sound waves from a stationary source
Suppose now that the source moves towards A with
constant speed v. Figure 1112 (a) shows a snapshot of the
new wave pattern.
source
A B
smaller
wavelength
larger
wavelength
Figure 1112 (a) Sound waves from a moving source
Te wavefronts are now crowded together in the direction
of travel of the source and stretched out in the opposite
direction. Tis is why now the two observers will now hear
notes of diferent frequencies. How much the waves bunch
together and how much they stretch out will depend on
the speed v. Essentially, A
A
c
f

=
and B
B
c
f

=
where
A
<
B
and v is the speed of sound.
If the source is stationary and A is moving towards it, then
the waves from the source incident on A will be bunched
up. If A is moving away from the stationary source then the
waves from the source incident on A will be stretched out.
Christian Doppler (18031853) actually applied the
principle (incorrectly as it happens) to try and explain the
colour of stars. However, the Doppler efect does apply to
light as well as to sound. If a light source emits a light of
frequency f then if it is moving away from an observer the
observer will measure the light emitted as having a lower
frequency than f. Since the sensation of colour vision is
related to the frequency of light (blue light is of a higher
frequency than red light), light emitted by objects moving
way from an observer is ofen referred to as being red-
shifed whereas if the object is moving toward the observer
it is referred to as blue-shifed. Tis idea is used in Option E
(Chapter 16).
We do not need to consider here the situations where either
the source or the observer are accelerating. In a situation
for example where an accelerating source is approaching
a stationary observer, then the observer will hear a sound
of ever increasing frequency. Tis sometimes leads to
confusion in describing what is heard when a source
approaches, passes and then recedes from a stationary
observer. Suppose for example that you are standing
on a station platform and a train sounding its whistle is
approaching at constant speed. What will you hear as the
train approaches and then passes through the station? As
the train approaches you will hear a sound of constant
pitch but increasing loudness. Te pitch of the sound will
be greater than if the train were stationary. As the train
passes through the station you will hear the pitch change
at the moment the train passes you, to a sound, again of
constant pitch. Te pitch of this sound will be lower than
the sound of the approaching train and its intensity will
decrease as the train recedes from you. What you do not
hear is a sound of increasing pitch and then decreasing
pitch.
11.2.3 (A.3.3) THE DOPPLER
EQUATIONS FOR SOUND
Although you will not be expected in an IB examination
to derive the equations associated with aspects of the
Doppler efect, you will be expected to apply them. For
completeness therefore, the derivation of the equations
associated with the Doppler efect as outlined above is
given here.
S S O
v
s
Figure 1112 (b)
In Figure 1112 (b) the observer O is at rest with respect
to a source of sound S is moving with constant speed v
s

directly towards O. Te source is emitting a note of constant
frequency f and the speed of the emitted sound is v.
S
/
shows the position of the source t later. When the
source is at rest, then in a time t the observer will receive
ft waves and these waves will occupy a distance vt . i.e
v
f
=
ft
vt
=
(Because of the motion of the source this number of
waves will now occupy a distance (vt v
s
t). Te new
wavelength is therefore
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v v
s
f
=
ft
vt v
s
t
=
If f
/
is the frequency heard by O then
/
/
v
f

=
or
/
/
v
f
= =
s
v v
f

From which
/
s
v
f f
v v
=

Dividing through by v gives

/
1
1
s
f f
v
v
=

Equation 11.1
If the source is moving away from the observer then we have
/
s
v
f f
v v
=

1
1
s
f
v
v
=
+
Equation 11.2

We now consider the case where the source is stationary
and the observer is moving towards the source with
speed v
0
. In this situation the speed of the sound waves
as measured by the observer will be v
0
+ v . We therefore
have that
v
0
+ v =
f

=
/
v
f

From which
/ o
1
v
f f
v

= +


Equation 11.3
If the observer is moving away from the source then
/ o
1
v
f f
v

=


From equation (11.3), we have that
/ o o
1
v v
f f f f f f
v v

= = + =


Equation 11.4
Te velocities that we refer to in the above equations are the
velocities with respect to the medium in which the waves
from the source travel. However, when we are dealing with
a light source it is the relative velocity between the source
and the observer that we must consider. Te reason for
this is that light is unique in the respect that the speed
of the light waves does not depend on the speed of the
source. All observers irrespective of their speed or the
speed of the source will measure the same velocity for the
speed of light. Tis is one of the cornerstones of the Special
Teory of Relativity which is discussed in more detail in
Option H (Chapter18).When applying the Doppler efect
to light we are mainly concerned with the motion of the
source. We look here only at the situation where the speed
of the source v is much smaller than the speed of light c
in free space. (v << c). Under these circumstances, when
the source is moving towards the observer, equation 11.1
becomes
/
v
f f f f
c
= =
Equation 11.5
and when the source is moving away from the observer,
equation 11.2 becomes
/
v
f f f f
c
= =
Provided that v << c, these same equations apply for a
stationary source and moving observer
11.2.4 (A.3.4) SOLVE DOPPLER
EFFECT PROBLEMS FOR SOUND
We look at the following example and exercise.
Example
A source emits a sound of frequency 440 Hz. It moves in a
straight line towards a stationary observer with a speed of
30 m s
-1
. Te observer hears a sound of frequency 484 Hz.
Calculate the speed of sound in air.
Solution
We use equation 11.1 and substitute f
/
= 484 Hz, f = 440 Hz
and v
s
= 30 m s
-1
.
therefore
1
484 440 30
1
v
=

such that
30 440
1
484 v
= to
give v = 330 m s
-1
.
Exercise 11.2 (a)
Judy is standing on the platform of a station. A high
speed train is approaching the station in a straight line at
constant speed and is sounding its whistle. As the train
passes by Judy, the frequency of the sound emitted by the
whistle as heard by Judy, changes from 640 Hz to 430 Hz.
Determine
(a) the speed of the train
(b) the frequency of the sound emitted by the
whistle as heard by a person on the train.
(Speed of sound = 330 m s
-1
)
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11.2.5 (A.3.5) SOLVING DOPPLER
EFFECT PROBLEMS FOR LIGHT
(Tis links with Option E Chapter 16)
Example
A particular radio signal from a galaxy is measured as
having a frequency of 1.39 10
9
Hz. Te same signal from
a source in a laboratory has a frequency of 1.42 10
9
Hz.
Suggest why the galaxy is moving away from Earth and
calculate its recession speed (i.e. the speed with which it is
moving away from Earth).
Solution
Te fact that the frequency from the moving source is less
than that when it is stationary indicates that it is moving
away from the stationary observer i.e. Earth.
Using
v
f f
c
=
we have
8 9
6
9
3 10 (1.42 1.39) 10
6.34 10
1.42 10
c f
v
f

= = =

m s
-1
It is usual when dealing with the Doppler efect of light to
express speeds as a fraction of c. So in this instance we have
v = 0.021 c
Exercise 11.2 (b)
A galaxy is moving away from Earth with a speed of
0.0500c. Te wavelength of a particular spectral line
in light emitted by atomic hydrogen in a laboratory is
6.56 10
-7
m. Calculate the value of the wavelength of this
line, measured in the laboratory, in light emitted from a
source of atomic hydrogen in the galaxy.
11.2.6 (A.3.6) USING THE DOPPLER
EFFECT
We have seen in the above example and exercise how
the Doppler efect may be used to measure the recession
speed of distant galaxies. Te efect is also used to measure
speed in other situations. Here we will look at the general
principle involved in using the Doppler efect to measure
speed. Figure 1113 shows a source (the transmitter) that
emits either sound or em waves of constant frequency
f. Te waves from the source are incident on a refector
that is moving towards the transmitter with speed v.
Te refected waves are detected by the receiver placed
alongside the transmitter.
refector
v
transmitter
receiver
f f
/
f
//
f
/
Figure 1113 Using the Doppler eect to measure speed
We shall consider the situation where v << c where c is the
speed of the waves from the transmitter.
For the refector receiving waves from the transmitter,
it is efectively an observer moving towards a stationary
source. From equation (11.4), it therefore receives waves
that have been Doppler shifed by an amount
/
v
f f f
c
=
Equation 11.6
For the receiver receiving waves from the refector, it is
efectively a stationary observer receiving waves from a
moving source. From equation (11.5), it therefore receives
waves that have been Doppler shifed by an amount
// / /
v
f f f
c
=
Equation 11.7
If we add equations (11.6) and (11.7) we get that the total
Doppler shif at the receiver f is
// /
v v
f f f f f
c c
= = +
But
/
1
v
f f
c

= +


hence
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1
v v v
f f f
c c c

= + +


But since v << c, we can ignore the term
2
2
v
c
when we
expand the bracket in the above equation.
Terefore we have
2v
f f
c
=
Equation 11.8
If v c then we must use the full Doppler equations.
However, for em radiation we will always only consider
situations in which v << c.
Example
Te speed of sound in blood is 1.500 10
3
m s
-1
. Ultrasound
of frequency 1.00 MHz is refected from blood fowing in
an artery. Te frequency of the refected waves received
back at the transmitter is 1.05 MHz. Estimate the speed of
the blood fow in the artery.
Solution
Using equation (11.8) we have
6 6
3
2
0.05 10 10
1.5 10
v
=

to give v 36 m s
-1
. (We have assumed that the ultrasound
is incident at right angles to the blood fow.)
11.3 SL OPTION A.4
DIFFRACTION
Diraction at a single slit
11.3.1 Sketch the variation with angle of
diraction of the relative intensity of light
diracted at a single slit.
11.3.2 Derive the formula =
b

for the position of the rst minimum of the
diraction pattern produced at a single slit.
11.3.3 Solve problems involving single-slit diraction.
IBO 2007
11.3.1 (A.4.1) SINGLE SLIT
DIFFRACTION INTENSITY
DISTRIBUTION
When plane wavefronts pass through a small aperture
they spread out as discussed in Topics 4.5.3 and 4.5.4. Tis
is an example of the phenomenon called difraction. Light
waves are no exception to this and ways for observing
the difraction of light have also been discussed in the
aforementioned topics. However, when we look at the
difraction pattern produced by light we observe a fringe
pattern, that is, on the screen there is a bright central
maximum with secondary maxima either side of it.
Tere are also regions where there is no illumination and
these minima separate the maxima. If we were to actually
plot how the intensity of illumination varies along the
screen then we would obtain a graph similar to that as in
Figure 1114.
intensity
distance along screen
Figure 1114 Intensity distribution for single-slit diraction
We would get the same intensity distribution if we were
to plot the intensity against the angle of difraction . (See
next section).
Tis intensity pattern arises from the fact that each point
on the slit acts, in accordance with Huygens principle, as
a source of secondary wavefronts. It is the interference
between these secondary wavefronts that produces the
typical difraction pattern.
11.3.2 (A.4.2) THE DIFFRACTION
FORMULA
Obtaining an expression for the intensity distribution is
mathematically a little tricky and it is not something that
we are going to attempt here. However, we can deduce
a useful relationship from a simple argument. In this
argument we deal with a phenomenon called Fraunhofer
difraction, that is the light source and the screen are an
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infnite distance away form the slit. Tis can be achieved
with the set up shown in Figure 1115.
lens 1 lens 2
single slit
source
screen
Figure 1115 Apparatus for viewing Fraunhofer diraction
Te source is placed at the principal focus of lens 1 and
the screen is placed at the principal focus of lens 2. Lens 1
ensures that parallel wavefronts fall on the single slit and
lens 2 ensures that the parallel rays are brought to a focus
on the screen. Te same efect can be achieved using a
laser and placing the screen some distance from the slit.
If the light and screen are not an infnite distance from
the slit then we are dealing with a phenomenon called
Fresnel difraction and such difraction is very difcult to
analyse mathematically. To obtain a good idea of how the
single slit pattern comes about we consider the diagram
Figure 1116.
X

2
Y

d
P
b
f
screen

1
Figure 1116 Single slit diraction
In particular we consider the light from one edge of the
slit to the point P where this point is just one wavelength
further from the lower edge of the slit than it is from the
upper edge. Te secondary wavefront from the upper
edge will travel a distance /2 further than a secondary
wavefront from a point at the centre of the slit. Hence
when these wavefronts arrive at P they will be out of phase
and will interfere destructively. Te wavefronts from the
next point below the upper edge will similarly interfere
destructively with the wavefront from the next point
below the centre of the slit. In this way we can pair the
sources across the whole width of the slit. If the screen is
a long way from the slit then the angles
1
and
2
become
nearly equal. (If the screen is at infnity then they are equal
and the two lines PX and XY are at right angles to each
other). From Figure 1116 we see therefore that there will
be a minimum at P if

b
1
sin =

where b is the width of the slit.
However, both angles are very small, equal to say, where
is the angle of difraction.
So it can be written

b
--- =
Tis actually gives us the half-angular width of the central
maximum. We can calculate the actual width of the
maximum along the screen if we know the focal length of
the lens focussing the light onto the screen. If this is f then
we have that

d
f
--- =
Such that
d
f
b
----- =
To obtain the position of the next maximum in the pattern
we note that the path diference is
3
2
---. We therefore divide
the slit into three equal parts, two of which will produce
wavefronts that will cancel and the other producing
wavefronts that reinforce. Te intensity of the second
maximum is therefore much less than the intensity of the
central maximum. (Much less than one third in fact since
the wavefronts that reinforce will have difering phases).
We can also see now how difraction efects become more
and more noticeable the narrower the slit becomes. If light
of wavelength 430 nm was to pass through a slit of width
say 10 cm and fall on a screen 3.0 m away, then the half
angular width of the central maximum would be 0.13 m.
Tere will be lots of maxima of nearly the same intensity
and the maxima will be packed very closely together.
(Te frst minimum occurs at a distance of 0.12 m from
the centre of the central maximum and the next occurs
efectively at a distance of 0.24 m). We efectively observe
the geometric pattern. Refer to Example 1.
We also see now how for difraction efects to be noticeable
the wavelength must be of the order of the slit width.
Te width of the pattern increases in proportion to the
wavelength and decreases inversely with the width of the
slit. If the slit width is much greater than the wavelength
then the width of the central maxima is very small.
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Our discussion this far has been for rectangular slits.
What is the half-angular width of the central maximum
of the difraction formed by a circular aperture? Tis
is not easy to calculate since it involves some advanced
mathematics. Te problem was frst solved by the English
Astronomer Royal, George Airey, in 1835 who showed that
for circular apertures
1.22
b
-------------- = where b is the diameter of
the aperture.
11.3.3 (A.4.3) SOLVING SINGLE SLIT
DIFFRACTION PROBLEMS
Example
Light from a laser is used to form a single slit difraction
pattern. Te width of the slit is 0.10 mm and the screen
is placed 3.0 m from the slit. Te width of the central
maximum is measured as 2.6 cm. Calculate the wavelength
of the laser light?
Solution
Since the screen is a long way from the slit we can use the
small angle approximation such that the f is equal to 3.0 m.
Te half-width of the central maximum is 1.3 cm so we have

1.3 10
2
( ) 1.0 10
4
( )
3.0
------------------------------------------------------------------ =
To give = 430 nm.
Tis example demonstrates why the image of a point source
formed by a thin converging lens will always have a fnite
width.
Example
In the following diagram, parallel light from a distant point
source (such as a star) is brought to focus on the screen S by
a converging lens (the lens is show as a vertical arrow).
Te focal length (distance from lens to screen) is 25 cm
and the diameter of the lens is 3.0 cm. Te wavelength of
the light from the star is 560 nm. Calculate the diameter of
the diameter of the image on the screen.
25 cm
lens S
Solution
Te lens actually acts as a circular aperture of diameter
3.0 cm. Te half angular width of central maximum of the
difraction pattern that it forms on the screen is
7
5
2
1.22 1.22 5.6 10
2.3 10
3.0 10 b

= = =

rad
Te diameter of the central maxima is therefore
25 10
-2
2.3 10
-5

= 5.7 10
-6
m.
Although this is small, it is still fnite and is efectively the
image of the star as the intensity of the secondary maxima
are small compared to that of the central maximum.
Exercise 11.3
1. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 500 nm is
incident on a slit of width 0.25 mm. Te light is
brought to focus on a screen placed 1.50 m from
the slit. Calculate the angular width and the linear
width of the central difraction maximum.
2. Light from a laser is used to form a single slit
difraction pattern on a screen. Te width of the
slit is 0.10 mm and the screen is 3.0 m from the
slit. Te width of the central difraction maximum
is 2.6 cm. Calculate the wavelength of the laser
light.
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11.4.1 Sketch the variation with angle of
diraction of the relative intensity of light
emitted by two point sources that has been
diracted at a single slit.
11.4.2 State the Rayleigh criterion for images of
two sources to be just resolved. (Students
should know that the criterion for a circular
aperture is 1.22
b

= ).
11.4.3 Describe the signicance of resolution in
the development of devices such as CDs
and DVDs, the electron microscope and
radio telescopes.
11.4.4 Solve problems involving resolution.
Problems could involve the human eye and
optical instruments.
IBO 2007
11.4.1 (A.5.1) DIFFRACTION
PATTERN OF TWO SLITS
Te astronomers tell us that many of the stars that we
observe with the naked eye are in fact binary stars. Tat
is, what we see as a single star actually consists of two
stars in orbit about a common centre. Furthermore the
astronomers tell us that if we use a good telescope then
we will actually see the two stars, we will resolve the single
point source into its two component parts. So what is it
that determines whether or not we see the two stars as a
single point source i.e. what determines whether or not two
sources can be resolved? It cant just be that the telescope
magnifes the stars since if they are acting as point sources
magnifying them is not going to make a great deal of
diference. (We will return to this point later).
In each of our eyes there is an aperture, the pupil, through
which the light enters. Tis light is then focussed by the eye
lens onto the retina. But we have seen that when light passes
through an aperture it is difracted and so whenwe look at
a point source, a difraction pattern will be formed on the
retina. If we look at two point sources then two difraction
patterns will be formed on the retina and these patterns
will overlap. Te width of our pupil and the wavelength of
the light emitted by the sources will determine the amount
by which they overlap. But the degree of overlap will also
depend on the angular separation of the two point sources.
We can see this from Figures 1117.
pupil
retina
S
1
S
2
P
2
P
1

Figure 1117
Light from the source S
1
enters the eye and is difracted by
the pupil such that the central maximum of the difraction
pattern is formed on the retina at P
1
. Similarly, light from
S
2
produces a maximum at P
2
. If the two central maxima
are well separated then there is a fair chance that we will
see the two sources as separate sources. If they overlap
then we will not be able to distinguish one source from
another. From the diagram we see as the sources are
moved closer to the eye, then the angle increases and so
does the separation of the central maxima.
Figures 1118, 1119, 1120 and 1121 shows the diferent
difraction patterns and the intensity distribution, that
might result on the retina as a result of light from two
point sources
.
S1 S2
1. Well resolved
Figure 1118 Very well resolved
S1 S2
2. Well resolved
Figure 1119 Well resolved
11.4 SL OPTION A.5 RESOLUTION
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S1 S2
3. Just resolved
Rayleigh criterion
Minimum of S
2
coincides with
maximum peak of
S
1
Figure 1120 Just resolved
4. Not resolved
Figure 1121 Not resolved
11.4.2 (A.5.2) THE RAYLEIGH
CRITERION
We have suggested that if the central maxima of the two
difraction patterns are reasonably separated then we
should be able to resolve two point sources. In the late
19th century Lord Rayleigh suggested by how much they
should be separated in order for the two sources to be
just resolved. If the central maximum of one difraction
pattern coincides with the frst minima of the other
difraction pattern then the two sources will just be
resolved. Tis is known as the Rayleigh Criterion.
Figure 1120 shows just this situation. Te two sources are
just resolved according to the Rayleigh criterion since the
peak of the central maximum of one difraction pattern
coincides with the frst minimum of the other difraction
pattern. Tis means that the angular separation of the
peaks of the two central maxima formed by each source is
just the half angular width of one central maximum i.e.

b
--- =
where b is the width of the slit through which the light
from the sources passes. However, we see from Figure 1117
that is the angle that the two sources subtend at the slit.
Hence we conclude that two sources will be resolved by a
slit if the angle that they subtend at the slit is greater than
or equal to

b
So far we have been assuming that the eye is a rectangular
slit whereas clearly it is a circular aperture and so we must
use the formula

1.22
b
-------------- =
As mentioned above the angle is sometimes called the
resolving power but should more accurately be called the
minimum angle of resolution
min
( )
Clearly the smaller the greater the resolving power.
11.4.3 (A.5.3) RESOLVING POWER
AND TECHNOLOGY
It has been seen that difraction efectively limits the
resolving power of optical systems. Tis includes such
systems as the eye, telescopes and microscopes. Te
resolving power of these systems is dealt with in the next
section. Tis section looks at links between technology
and resolving power when looking at the very distant and
when looking at the very small.
Radio telescopes
Te average diameter of the pupil of the human eye
is about 2.5 mm. Tis means that two point sources
emitting light of wavelength 500 nm will just be resolved
by the eye if their angular separation at the eye is

7
4
3
5.0 10
1.22 2.4 10
2.5 10

= =

rad
If the eye were to be able to detect radio waves of
wavelength 0.15 m, then to have the same resolving power
the pupil would have to have a diameter of about 600 m.
Clearly this is nonsense, but it does illustrate a problem
facing astronomers who wish to view very distant objects
such as quasars and galaxies (see Option E) that emit
radio waves. Conventional radio telescopes consist of a
large dish, typically 25 m in diameter. Even with such a
large diameter, the radio wavelength resolving power of
the telescope is much less than the optical resolving power
of the human eye. Let us look at an example.
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Example
Te Galaxy Cygnus A can be resolved optically as an
elliptically shaped galaxy. However, it is also a strong
emitter of radio waves of wavelength 0.15 m. Te Galaxy
is estimated to be 5.0 10
24
m from Earth. Use of a radio
telescope shows that the radio emission is from two sources
separated by a distance of 3.0 10
21
m. Estimate the
diameter of the dish required to just resolve the sources.
Solution
Te angle that the sources resolve at the telescope is
given by

21
4
24
3.0 10
6.0 10
5.0 10

= =

rad
and
4
1.22 1.22 0.15
3000
6.0 10
d

= = =

m = 3.0 km.
A radio telescope dish of this size would be impossible
to make, let alone support. Tis shows that a single dish
type radio telescope cannot be used to resolve the sources
and yet they were resolved. To get round the problem,
astronomers use two radio telescopes separated by a
large distance. Te telescopes view the same objects at
the same time and the signals that each receive from the
objects are simultaneously superimposed. Te result of the
superposition of the two signals is a two-slit interference
pattern (see section 4.5.6). Te pattern has much narrower
fringe spacing than that of the difraction pattern produced
by either telescope on its own, hence producing a much
higher resolving power. When telescopes are used like
this, they are called a stellar interferometer.
In Socorro in New Mexico there is a stellar interferometer
that consists of 27 parabolic dishes each of diameter
25 m, arranged in a Y-shape that covers an area of
570 km
2
. Tis is a so-called Very Large Array (VLA). Even
higher resolution can be obtained by using an array of
radio telescopes in observatories thousands of kilometres
apart. A system that uses this so-called technique of
very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) is known as
a very-long-baseline array (VLBA). With VLBA, a radio
wavelength resolving power can be achieved that is 100
times greater than the best optical telescopes. Even higher
resolving power can be achieved by using a telescope
that is in a satellite orbiting Earth. Such a system was
launched in February 1997 by Japans Institute of Space
and Astronautical Science (ISAS). Tis project is backed
by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, the
National Science Foundations National Radio Astronomy
Observatory (NRAO); the Canadian Space Agency; the
Australia Telescope National Facility; the European VLBI
Network and the Joint Institute for Very Long Baseline
Interferometry in Europe. Tis project is a very good
example of how Internationalism can operate in Physics.
Exercise 11.4 (a)
It is suggested that using the ISAS, VLBA, it would be
possible to see a grain of rice at a distance of 5000 km.
Estimate the resolving power of the VLBA.
Electron microscope
Telescopes are used to look at very distant objects that are
very large but, because of their distance from us, appear
very small. Microscopes on the other hand, are used to
look at objects that are close to us but are physically very
small. As we have seen, just magnifying objects, that is
making them appear larger, is not sufcient on its own to
gain detail about the object; for detail, high resolution is
needed.
Figure 1122 is a schematic of how an optical microscope
is used to view an object and Figure 1123 is a schematic of
a transmission electron microscope (TEM).
Optical lens
system
bright light
source
glass slide containing
specimen (object)
eye
Figure 1122 The principle of a light microscope
magnetic lens
system
electron
source
thin wafer of
material
Screen/CCD
Figure 1123 The principle of an electron microscope
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In the optical microscope, the resolving power is
determined by the particular lens system employed and
the wavelength of the light used. For example, two
points in the sample separated by a distance d will just be
resolved if
2
d
m

=
where m is a property of the lens system know as the
numerical aperture. In practice the largest value of m
obtainable is about 1.6. Hence, if the microscope slide
is illuminated with light of wavelength 480 nm, a good illuminated with light of wavelength 480 nm, a good
microscope will resolve two points separated by a distance
d 1.5 10
-7
m 0.15 m. Points closer together than
this will not be resolved. However, this is good enough to
distinguish some viruses such as the Ebola virus.
Clearly, the smaller the higher the resolving power and
this is where the electron microscope comes to the fore.
Te electron microscope makes use of the wave nature of
electrons (see 13.1.5). In the TEM, electrons pass through
a wafer thin sample and are then focussed by a magnetic
feld onto a fuorescent screen or CCD (charge coupled
device see 14.2). Electrons used in an electron microscope
have wavelengths typically of about 5 10
-12
m. However,
the numerical aperture of electron microscopes is
considerably smaller than that of an optical microscope,
typically about 0.02. Nonetheless, this means that a TEM
can resolve two points that are about 0.25 nm apart. Tis
resolving power is certainly high enough to make out the
shape of large molecules.
Another type of electron microscope uses a technique
by which electrons are scattered from the surface of the
sample. Te scattered electrons and then focussed as
in the TEM to form an image of the surface. Tese so-
called scanning electron microscopes (SEM) have a lower
resolving power than TEMs but give very good three
dimensional images.
11.4.4 (A.5.4) SOLVE PROBLEMS
INVOLVING RESOLUTION
The eye
We saw in the last section that the resolving power of the
human eye is about 2 10
-4
rad. Suppose that you are
looking at car headlights on a dark night and the car is a
distance D away. If the separation of the headlight is say
1.5 m then the headlights will subtend an angle
1.5
D
=

at
you eye. Assuming an average wavelength of 500 nm, your
eye will resolve the headlights into two separate sources
if this angle equals 2 10
-4
rad. Tis gives D = 7.5 km. In
other words if the car is approaching you on a straight road
then you will be able to distinguish the two headlights as
separate sources when the car is 7.5 km away from you.
Actually because of the structure of the retina and optical
defects the resolving power of the average eye is about
6 10
-4
rad. Tis means that the car is more likely to be
2.5 km away before you resolve the headlights.
Exercise 11/4 (b)
Te distance from the eye lens to the retina is 20 mm. Te
light receptors in the central part of the retina are about
5 10
-6
apart. Determine whether the spacing of the
receptors will allow for the eye to resolve the headlights in
the above discussion when they are 2.5 km from the eye.
Astronomical telescope
Let us return to the example of the binary stars discussed
at the beginning of this section on resolution. Te stars
Kruger A and B form a binary system. Te average
separation of the stars is 1.4 10
12
m and their average
distance from Earth is 1.2 10
17
m. When viewed through
a telescope on Earth, the system will therefore subtend an
angle.
12
17
1.4 10
1.2 10

= 1.2 10
-5
rad at the objective lens of the telescope.
Assuming that the average wavelength of the light emitted
by the stars is 500 nm, then if the telescope is to resolve the
system into two separate images it must have a minimum
diameter D where 1.2 10
-5
=
7
1.22 5.00 10
D

.
Tis gives D = 0.050m, which is about 5 cm. So this
particular system is easily resolved with a small
astronomical telescope.
Exercise 11.4 (c)
Te diameter of Pluto is 2.3 10
6
m and its average distance
from Earth is 6.0 10
12
m. Estimate the minimum diameter
of the objective of a telescope that will enable Pluto to be
seen as a disc as opposed to a point source.
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11.5.1 Describe what is meant by polarized light.
11.5.2 Describe polarization by reection.
11.5.3 State and apply Brewsters law.
11.5.4 Explain the terms polarizer and analyser.
11.5.5 Calculate the intensity of a transmitted
beam of polarized light using Malus law.
11.5.6 Describe what is meant by an optically
active substance.
11.5.7 Describe the use of polarization in the
determination of the concentration of
certain solutions.
11.5.8 Outline qualitatively how polarization may
be used in stress analysis.
11.5.9 Outline qualitatively the action of liquid-
crystal displays (LCDs).
11.5.10 Solve problems involving the polarization
of light.
IBO 2007
11.5.1 (A.6.1) WHAT IS POLARIZED LIGHT?
Tis section will specifcally address the polarization
of light. However, the discussion is equally valid for all
electromagnetic waves.
As discussed previously (4.4.9), electromagnetic waves
consist of oscillating electric and magnetic felds. Te
electric feld vector is perpendicular to the magnetic feld
vector. Since em waves are transverse, the oscillations of
the felds are confned to the plane of the wavefront. If we
consider just the electric feld a vector, then the angle of
vector within this plane can take any value between zero
and 360. In general, this angle is continually changing as
the wave advances. However, we can simplify the situation
by resolving the vector into a horizontal component and a
vertical component. In Figure 1124, the direction of travel
of the em wave is out of the paper and the electric feld
vector is shown resolved into the components E
V
and E
H
.
E
H
E
V
Figure 1124 The electric eld components of light
Light in which the plane of vibration of the electric vector
is continually changing is said to be unpolarized.
When light passes through natural crystals of tourmaline
and of calcite, and through certain synthetic materials, only
the E
V
or E
H
(depending on ones viewpoint) is transmitted,
a process called preferential absorption. Because of this,
the emergent light is said to be plane polarized.
x
y
z
unpolarised light
polarised light
horizontal vibrations
are absorbed by the
polaroid
Figure 1125 Polarization by preferential absorption
Figure 1125 shows how unpolarized light upon entering
and leaving a sheet of a synthetic material called a polaroid
is polarized. Trough the process of preferential absorption,
the vibrations that are parallel to the transmission plane
of the polaroid (the E
H
components) are removed and
the light emerges polarized in the vertical plane. If the
polaroid is rotated through 90 the E
V
components of the
unpolarized light are removed and the E
H
components are
transmitted.
11.5.2,3 (A.6.2,3)
POLARIZATION BY REFLECTION
AND BREWSTERS LAW
Apart from light being partially or totally polarized
by transmission through certain materials, it can also
be partially or totally polarized by refection. In 1808,
E.L. Malus (1775-1812) showed that light refected from
a horizontal sheet of glass is polarized. Tis is the reason
11.5 SL OPTION A.6 POLARIZATION
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that polarized sunglasses cut down glare from the surface
of water.
Figure 1126 shows a ray of unpolarized light being
refected and transmitted (refracted) at the surface of
water. Te components of the electric feld vector are
shown by the dots and arrows.
air
water
unpolarized light partially polarized
(reected)
key: motion perpendicular to plane of page:
motion parallel to plane of page:
refracted light
Figure 1126 Partial polarization of
reected light at the surface of water
air
water
i r
completely plane
polarized unpolarized light
Here we have
that i = p
refracted light
Figure 1127 Complete polarization
of reected light at the surface of water
In Figure 1126 the unpolarized beam strikes the water at
a certain angle of incidence and is partially polarized on
refection (the refracted beam is also partially polarized but
to a much lesser extent than the refected light).
In Figure 1127, at a particular angle where the refected
ray is perpendicular to the refracted ray, the refected ray
is completely plane-polarized. Te angle to the normal
at which this occurs is called the Brewster angle or the
polarising angle afer its discoverer David Brewster, a
Scottish physicist (1781-1868).
f
r
i
Figure 1128 Illustrating Brewsters angle
In Figure 1128 the light is incident at the Brewster angle
. From the diagram we see that the refracted angle
r = (90 - ) such that sin r = sin (90 - ) = cos . Te
incident angle i =
From the defnition of refractive index n there is
therefore
sin sin
sin cos
i
n
r

= =
or n = tan
Tis is known as Brewsters law.
For water of refractive index 1.3, the Brewster angle
= tan
-1
(1.3) = 52. Tis means if you look at the surface
of water at an angle of 38 to the surface, the light refected
from the surface to your eyes will be plane polarized. If
you are wearing Polaroid sunglasses then the only light
entering your eyes will be light originating from below the
surface of the water. Tis phenomenon is put to good use
by anglers.
We have assumed in deriving Brewsters law that the
incident light is in air. If the incident light is in a medium
of refractive index n
1
and is incident on the surface of
a medium if refractive index n
2
, then Brewsters Law
becomes
1
2
tan
n
n
=
Since the refractive index is diferent for diferent
wavelengths (Topic G.1.3), the Brewster angle will vary
with wavelength. However for substances such as glass
and water, the angle does not change very much over the
visible spectrum as the example below shows.
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Example
Te refractive index for crown glass for red light of
wavelength 660 nm is 1.52 and for violet light of wavelength
480 nm is 1.54. Calculate the diference in the Brewster
angle for these two wavelengths.
Solution

red
= tan
-1
(1.52) = 56.7

blue
= tan
-1
(1.54) = 57.0
therefore = 0.30
When light is incident on a surface, the electric feld
vector of the light sets the electrons in the surface into
oscillation. Te radiation from these oscillating electrons
is the origin of the refected light. If the refected light is
observed at 90 to the refracted light, only the vibrations of
the electric feld vector that are perpendicular to the plane
of incidence will be in the refected beam. Tis is because
the components of electric feld in the plane of incidence
cannot have a component at 90 to this plane. Hence at
the Brewster angle, the refected light is plane polarized.
Clearly, longitudinal waves cannot be polarized. However,
remember that all other electromagnetic waves such as
radio and microwaves can be polarized.
11.5.4,5 (A.6.4,5)
POLARIZERS, ANALYSERS AND
MALUS LAW
Polarizers and analysers
In Figure 1129 unpolarized light is incident on a polaroid
sheet (called the polarizer) and afer transmission, is
incident on another polaroid (called the analyser) whose
axis is at 90

to the polarizer.
Afer passing through the polarizer, the intensity of light
incident on this ideal polarizer is halved by preferential
absorption and afer passing through the analyser, is
reduced to zero.
polariser
analyser
I I
0
=
(initial intensity
of unpolarised light)
I = 0
I
1
2
--- I
0
=
Figure 1129 Crossed polaroids
Te analyser can be rotated from 0 to 90 to reduce the
emerging light intensity from a maximum to zero. When
the intensity is zero the polarizer and analyser are said to
be crossed.
Polaroid is a material composed of sheets of nitro-cellulose
containing crystals of iodosulfate arranged as long
molecules. Tese long molecules refect and preferentially
absorb electric vector components along their length. As
mentioned above, this material is used in sunglasses to
reduce glare.
Malus law
In the situation shown in Figure 1129, the intensity of the own in Figure 1129, the intensity of the
light is incident on the polarizer is I
0
and on the analyser is
I
0
. Te intensity of the light afer transmission through
the analyser is zero. Let us now consider the case where the
transmission axis of the analyser is inclined at an ang1e
to the direction of the feld vector of the light incident on
the analyser. Te electric feld vector of the light incident
on the analyser may be resolved into a component parallel
to the transmission plane of the polarizer and one at right
angles to it as shown in Figure 1130. In this Figure the
amplitude of the light is considered to be proportional to
the amplitude of the electric feld.
incident light
of amplitude A0
transmission
plane of
analyser
plane of analyser
when polaroids
are crossed

Figure 1130
Clearly the component that is at right angles to the
transmission plane of the analyser will not be transmitted.
Te amplitude A
1
of the component parallel to the
transmission plane is given by
A
1
= A
0
cos
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But the intensity of the light is proportional the square of
the amplitude, therefore we can write that
I = A
0
2
cos
2
= I
0
cos
2

where I
0
is the intensity of the polarized light (which is half
the intensity of the unpolarized light) and I the intensity of
the transmitted polarized light. We have then that
I = I
0
cos
2

Tis is Malus law named afer Etienne Malus (1775-1812) who

discovered, by accident, polarization of light by refection.
Exercise 11.5 (a)
Plane polarized light is incident on a polaroid at right
angles to the plane of the polaroid. Te transmission axis
of the Polaroid is parallel to the plane of polarization of the
incident light. Sketch a graph to show the variation with
angle of the intensity of the transmitted light as the plane
of the polaroid is rotated through 360.
11.5.6-9 (A.6.6-9)
USES OF POLARIZED LIGHT
Optically active substances
Substances that are able to rotate the plane of polarization of
light are said to be optically active. Such substances include
solutions of so-called chiral molecules such as sucrose
(sugar). Chiral molecules of a substance may be identical in all
respects except that some of the molecules lef-handed and
some are right-handed. By this we mean that a right-handed
molecule cannot be superimposed on the mirror image of a
lef-handed molecule, just as your own right hand and the
mirror image of your lef hand cannot be superimposed. All
amino acids, the building blocks of life occur in both lef-
handed and right handed forms. However, all life on Earth
is made exclusively of lef-handed amino acids and no one
knows why. Substances whose molecules rotate the plane of
polarisation exclusively clockwise usually have their name
prefxed by dextro and those whose molecules rotate the
plane exclusively anticlockwise, with the prefx levto.
Solids with rotated crystal planes such as quartz and
calcite also rotate the plane of polarization of light. In the
Figure 1131 a solution of sugar is contained in an instrument
called a polarimeter. A polarimeter is essentially a tube that
is bounded at either end with a polaroid.
polaroid
monochromatic
light
transmitted light
A B
sugar solution
Figure 1131 The principle of a polarimeter
Monochromatic light is polarized by the polaroid A and
afer passing through the sugar solution, the plane of
polarization has been rotated by the sugar molecules. Te
degree of rotation is determined by the number of sugar
molecules present and the length of the path traversed
by the polarized light. Te polaroids A and B are initially
crossed such when no solution is present, no light is
transmitted by B. When a solution of sugar is added, light
will now be transmitted by polaroid B since the solution
has rotated the plane of polarization. Te polaroid B may
be rotated and is also provided with an angular scale.
By rotating B until no light is transmitted, the degree of
rotation of the plane of polarisation can be measured. If a
polarimeter of length l with a concentration of the sugar
solution C produces an angle of rotation , then we can
defne a specifc angle of rotation
S
from
S
lC

=
Te angle
S
is ofen referred to as the optical activity.
Because it also depends on the temperature of the solution
and wavelength of light, measurements of optical activity are
usually standardised at 20 C and 589 nm ( the wavelength
of the D-line in the line emission spectrum of sodium). Te
phenomenon of optical activity is used in the sugar industry
to measure the concentrations of syrups and it is also being
developed to measure blood sugar levels in people with
diabetes. Chemists also use it to identify the presence of
certain substances present in solutions.
Optical activity and stress
Many kinds of glass and transparent plastics become
optically active when put under stress. Te efect of the
stress is to alter the speed of the two components of
polarized light. A strain viewer consists of two polaroids
with a material under strain placed between them as
shown in Figure 1132.
unpolarised
light
polariser analyser
stressed
sample
polaroid crossed polaroid
plane-polarised
light
Figure 1132 Stress and polarization
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When the stress is increased, the concentration of the
optical activity increases. A series of light and dark
coloured bands are seen that can be analysed. Plastic
models of objects are made to determine any places that
might cause mechanical breakdown.
Liquid crystal displays (LCD)
Te molecules of solids keep a fxed orientation and a
fxed position whereas molecules of a liquid continually whereas molecules of a liquid continually
change their orientation and position. Liquid crystals are
substances that are not quite solid and not quite liquid
in the respect that, although the molecules keep a fxed
orientation, the molecules do change their positions. Te
molecules of one particular type of LC called a nematic
liquid crystal, essentially have the shape of a twisted
helix and as such, can rotate the plane of polarization of
polarized light. If an electric feld is applied across the
crystal, then the amount of twist of the crystal is altered
and hence the degree of polarization of incident will also
be altered.
A liquid crystal display consists essentially of two crossed
polaroids between which is placed a LC. Without the
LC, light polarized by the polarizer will be blocked by
the analyser. However, with the LC present, the plane of
polarisation is rotated and light will now be transmitted by
the analyser. Tis light can again be blocked by applying
an electric feld to the LC.
Figure 1133, shows the basic set-up of the diferent layers
necessary to produce a liquid crystal display.
P1 E LC G P2 M
light
Figure 1133 The principle of a liquid crystal display (LCD)
Incident light is polarized by the polarizer P1. E is an
indium-tin oxide electrode and G is a piece of glass upon
which there is another electrode in the shape of the fnal
display (e.g. a letter or a number). P2 is the analyser and
M is a mirror. In the absence of an electric feld, the LC
rotates the plane of polarization such that the light is
transmitted by P2 and refected back to the observer by
the mirror M. When a potential diference is applied to the
electrodes, the resulting feld untwists the nematic crystal
such that the plane of polarization of the light is no longer
rotated. However, only those parts of the LC outlined by
the shape on the electrode will be afected such that the
feld of view will now contain a black area corresponding
to the shape of the electrode on G. By varying the strength
of the applied feld and hence the degree of twist of the LC,
the displayed shape can be varied from diferent shades of
grey through to black.
Whole pictures can be displayed by breaking the picture
down into small areas called picture elements or pixels
and using a LC for each pixel.
11.5.10 (A.6.10) SOLVE PROBLEMS
INVOLVING THE POLARIZATION
OF LIGHT
Example
Unpolarized light of intensity 6.0 W m
-2
is incident on a
polarizer. Te light transmitted by the polarizer is then
incident on an analyser. Te angle between the transmission
axes of the polarizer and analyser is 60. Calculate the
intensity of the light transmitted by the analyser.
Solution
Using the formula for intensity,
we have I I
0
2
cos =
I 3.0 Wm
2
( ) 60
2
cos = = 0.75 W m
-2

Exercise 11.5 (b)
1. Light refected from the surface of a material in
air at an angle of 56.5 to the normal is completely
polarized. Calculate the angle of refraction of the
glass.
2. Outline how the concentration of sugar solutions
may be determined using polarized light.
3. Describe qualitatively, the operation of a liquid
crystal display and suggest one reason why there
has been such a world-wide proliferation of LCDs.
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ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
12
I
n the chapter on electrostatics, and in this chapter on
electromagnetism, mention is made of Michael Faraday.
Te laws of electricity and magnetism owe more perhaps to
the experimental work of Faraday than any other person.
Tere were great theoreticians like Ampre and Maxwell
but Faraday was a real experimenter. He invented the frst
dynamo, electric motor and transformer. It was Faraday
who originated the use of electric felds lines that he called
lines of force even before the concept of the electric
feld was clearly understood. He along with Joseph Henry
discovered electromagnetic induction, and this concept will
be expanded on in this chapter. Electromagnetic induction
has revolutionised the way we live. Tis phenomenon has
had a huge impact on society and it has become the basis
for the generation of electric power that we so ofen take for
granted in our everyday life.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867), the son of a blacksmith,
was born in Newington, Surrey. He had little formal
education as a child and at the age of 14, he took up an
apprenticeship as a bookbinder. While rebinding a copy
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, he happened to read an
article on electricity, and to his own admission, this article
gave him a lifelong fascination with science.
He started to attend lectures given by Sir Humphry Davy,
a famous electrochemist and publicist. Faraday became
interested in electrolysis and he prepared a set of lecture
notes that greatly impressed Davy. By good fortune or
misfortune, when Davy was temporarily blinded in a
laboratory accident at the Royal Institution in 1812,
he needed a laboratory assistant and he requested that
Faraday be given the position. During this time, Faraday
discovered and described the organic compound benzene
as well as some other chloro-carbon compounds. He did
research on steel, optical glass and the liquefaction of
gases. Faradays work was impressive, and he eventually
became director of the Royal Institution.
Faraday had a great talent for explaining his ideas to both
children and adults. He gave many wizz-bang lectures
to the young, and his book addressed at their level called
Te Chemical History of the Candle is still in print.
He introduced the Friday Evening Discourses and the
Christmas lectures for children at the Royal Institution,
and these lectures still continue to this day. In 1865, he
retired from the Royal Institution afer 50 years service.
In the 1830s, Faraday became interested in electrochemistry
and he was the frst to use the term electrolysis in
1832. Furthermore, he introduced the use of the terms
electrolyte, cell, electrodes and electrochemical reaction
so commonly used in the subject of electrochemistry.
He subjected electrolysis to the frst quantitative
experimentation and in 1834 was able to establish that
the amount of chemical compound decomposed at the
electrodes was proportional to the amount of electricity
used Faradays First and Second Law of Electrolysis.
He devised the terminology, ions, for the part of the
compound discharged at the electrodes.
Once Oersted had discovered that a current fowing in a
conductor produced a magnetic feld in 1819, scientists
were convinced that a moving magnetic feld should be able
to produce a current in the conductor. It took eleven years
before, in 1831, the American, Joseph Henry (1797-1878),
12.1 Induced electromotive force (emf )
12.2 Alternating current
12.3 Transmission of electric power
TOK Introduction
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and the Englishman, Michael Faraday (1791-1867), while
working independently, explained the cause and efect of
an induced current/emf being produced by a changing
magnetic feld. Henry is credited with the discovery but
Faraday was the frst to publish, introducing the concept
of line of magnetic fux in his explanations.
In his notebooks in the early 1830s, Faraday described
how he placed wires near magnets looking for current
in the wire but without success. However, as he moved
the apparatus he noticed a brief pulse of current but the
current immediately fell back to zero. Perhaps the missing
ingredient was motion.
Te solution came in 1831 when he set up an apparatus
similar to that in Figure 1201 that he called an induction
ring. Te apparatus may look familiar to us with its battery,
coils and galvanometer (a meter to detect current). We
also know that a sof iron core increases the strength of a
magnetic feld.
switch
soft iron torus
G
Figure 1201 Faradays induction ring
To his initial disappointment, when he closed the switch to
allow steady current to fow, only a slight twitch was observed
in the galvanometer before the needle fell back to zero.
Tis twitch could have been due to mechanical vibration.
However, using his intuition, he noticed that when he slowly
opened and closed the switch, a current was produced in
one direction, then fell to zero, then a current was produced
in the opposite direction. He called the current produced by
a changing magnetic fux an induced current, and he called
the general phenomenon electromagnetic induction. He
assumed that the magnetic fux must be changing, but how?
Was the iron ring really necessary to produce induction or
did it merely strengthen an efect? Was it necessary to have
two coils or could an induced current be produced simply
by moving a magnet in and out of a single coil of wire?
Remembering back to his earlier experiment where he
considered that motion could be a factor, he quickly set
up experiments using a coil and a magnet, and proved
that the iron ring was not essential, and that motion inside
one coil could produce an induced current. Furthermore,
he found that a rotating copper disc inserted between
the poles of a magnet could be used (instead of a coil) to
produce an induced current. It didnt matter whether the
magnet was in motion or the coil (or disc) was in motion,
an induced current was produced provided there was a
change in magnetic fux. Faraday presented his fndings
to the Royal Society in November 1831 and January 1832
in his Experimental researches into electricity in which he
gave his Law which governs the evolution of electricity by
magneto-electric induction a change in magnetic fux
through any surface bounded by closed lines causes an
.m.f around the lines.
Within no time, the dynamo, the generator and the
transformer were invented by this brilliant experimental
scientist. We will expand on the principles of electro-
magnetic induction in the remainder of this chapter.
12.1 INDUCED
ELECTROMOTIVE
FORCE emf
12.1.1 Describe the inducing of an emf by relative
motion between a conductor and a
magnetic eld.
12.1.2 Derive the formula for the emf induced in
a straight conductor moving in a magnetic
eld.
12.1.3 Dene magnetic ux and magnetic ux
linkage.
12.1.4 Describe the production of an induced emf
by a time-changing magnetic ux.
12.1.5 State Faradays law and Lenzs law.
12.1.6 Solve electromagnetic induction problems.
IBO 2007
12.1.1 INDUCED EMF BETWEEN A
CONDUCTOR AND A MAGNETIC
FIELD
Faraday used an apparatus shown simply in Figure 1202.
If a conductor is held stationary in a magnetic feld of
a U-shaped magnet that is connected in series with a
very sensitive, zero-centred galvanometer, no reading
is observed. However, if the conductor is moved across
the magnetic feld, then a defection occurs in the needle
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of the galvanometer in one direction. Afer a very short
period of time, the needle returns to zero on the scale.
S N
sensitive
galvanometer
motion
Figure 1202 Producing an induced current
Te current produced is called an induced current.
As work is done in moving the current from one end of the
conductor to the other, an electrical potential diference
exists, and an induced emf is produced.
If the conductor is then moved in the opposite direction,
the needle of the galvanometer defects in the opposite
direction before then falling to zero again. If the conductor
is moved in the same direction as the magnetic feld then
no defection occurs.
Te direction of the induced current can be obtained by
using the lef-hand palm rule (refer to the palm rules
discussed for the motor efect in Chapter 6). Using the
magnetic feld and direction of movement of the wire, if
the palm of your lef hand points in the direction of motion
of the conductor, and your fngers point in the direction of
the magnetic feld, then the thumb gives the direction of
the induced current. In this case, the current is in an anti-
clockwise direction.
Alternatively, you can continue to use the right-hand
palm rule BUT your palm points in the opposite direction
to the applied force. Flemings right-hand rule can also
be used. Te right-hand palm rule for the direction of an
induced current and Flemings right-hand rule are shown
in Figures 1203 (a) and (b) respectively.
Thumb points in direction
of induced current
Fingers points in direction
of magnetic feld
Palm points in direction
of opposing force
(a) (b)
Thumb points in
direction of movement
First fnger points in
direction of feld
Second fnger points in
direction of current
Figure 1203 (a) & (b) Palm rules for electromagnetic induction
Te simple apparatus in Figure 1202 can detect the
induced current, but the readings on the galvanometer are
small (a zero-centred micro-ammeter is better). Faraday
improved the apparatus by moving diferent magnetic
fux densities into and out of diferent sized solenoids at
diferent speeds. He found that the strength of the induced
emf was dependent on
1. Te speed of the movement
2. Te strength of the magnetic fux density
3. Te number of turns on the coil
4. Te area of the coil
Faraday realised that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f
was not proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic
feld B but rather proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic fux for a straight conductor or fux linkage N.
Tis will be discussed further in section 12.1.4.
Example
Determine the direction of the induced current for each
situation given below.
a. b. c. d.
Solution
Using a hand rule, the direction of the induced current for
each situation is indicated by the arrows as shown in the
diagram below:
a. b. c. d.
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12.1.2 DERIVATION OF AN INDUCED
EMF IN A CONDUCTOR
Consider a conductor of length l that moves with velocity
v perpendicular to a magnetic fux density or induction B
as shown in Figure 1206.
v
l
B into page
Figure 1206 Cause of an induced emf.
When the wire conductor moves in the magnetic feld, the
free electrons experience a force because they are caused to
move with velocity v as the conductor moves in the feld.
F e v B =
Tis force causes the electrons to drif from one end of the
conductor to the other, and one end builds-up an excess of
electrons and the other a defciency of electrons. Tis means
that there is a potential diference or emf between the ends.
Eventually, the emf becomes large enough to balance the
magnetic force and thus stop electrons from moving.
ev B e E E B v = =
If the potential diference (emf) between the ends of the
conductor is then
E l =
By substitution, we have,
B l v =
If the conducting wire was a tightly wound coil of N turns
of wire the equation becomes:
NB l v =
12.1.3 DEFINE MAGNETIC FLUX AND
MAGNETIC FLUX LINKAGE
Consider a small planar coil of a conductor for simplicity
as shown in Figure 1208 (it could be any small shape).
Now imagine it is cut by magnetic lines of fux. It would
be reasonable to deduce that the number of lines per
unit cross-sectional area is equal to the magnitude of the
magnetic fux density B the cross-sectional area A. Tis
product is the magnetic fux .
B
A

B
A
B
c
o
s
B
s
i
n

Figure 1208 (a) and (b) Flux through a small, plane surface
Te magnetic fux through a small plane surface is the
product of the fux density normal to the surface and the
area of the surface.
B A =
Te unit of magnetic fux is the weber Wb.
Rearranging this equation it can be seen that:
B = / A which helps us understand why B can be called
the fux density. So the unit for fux density can be the tesla T,
or the weber per square metre Wbm
-2
. So, 1T = 1 Wbm
-2
.
If the normal shown by the dotted line in Figure 1208 (b)
to the area makes an angle with B, the the magnetic fux
is given by:
B A cos =
where A is the area of the region and is the angle of
movement between the magnetic feld and a line drawn
perpendicular to the area swept out. (Be careful that you
choose the correct vector component and angle because
questions on past IB examinations give the correct answers
of BA sin or BA cos depending on components supplied
in the diagrams).
If is the fux density through a cross-sectional area of a
conductor with N coils, the total fux density will be given
by:
N B A cos =
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Tis is called the fux linkage.
So it should now be obvious that we can increase the
magnetic fux by:
Increasing the conductor area
Increasing the magnetic fux density B
Keeping the fux density normal to the surface of
the conductor
12.1.4 INDUCED EMF IN A TIME-
CHANGING MAGNETIC FLUX
Now examine Figure 1209 that shows the shaded area of
the magnetic fux density swept out in one second by a
conductor of length l moving from the top to the bottom
of the fgure through a distance d.
v
l
B into page
initial position of wire
position of wire 1 second later
area swept out by wire in one
second
Figure 1209 Rate of area swept out.
We have already derived that = B l v
Te area swept out in a given time is given by (l d) / t.
But v = d / t. So that the area swept out = lv / t.
Tat is,

BA
t
- - - =
where A is the area in m
2
.
For a single conductor in the magnetic fux density, it can
be seen that:

t
--------

t
-------- =
where the constant equals 1. Te negative sign will be
explained in the next section.
If there are N number of coils, then:
N

t
-------- =
12.1.5 FARADAYS LAW AND LENZS
LAW
Faradays Law can therefore be stated as:
Te magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is directly
proportional to rate of change of magnetic fux or fux-
linkage.
Figure 1210 shows some relative movements of a bar
magnet at various positions relative to a coil with many
turns.
S N
magnet moving inwards
current fow
S N
no current fow
no movement
S N
magnet moving outwards
current fow
Figure 1210 Lenzs Law applied to a solenoid.
When the north pole is moved toward the core of the
solenoid, an induced current fows in the external circuit
as indicated by a zero-centred galvanometer or a micro-
ammeter. Te pointer moves to the right meaning that the
conventional induced current is fowing anti-clockwise at
the end of the solenoid nearest the magnet. Tis end is
acting like a north pole.When the magnet is stationary the
meter reads zero. Tis suggests that the induced current is
dependent on the speed of the movement. When the bar
magnet is removed from the solenoid, the induced current
fows in the opposite direction, and a south pole is created
in the end that was previously a north pole.
In 1834, a Russian physicist Heinrich Lenz (1804-1865)
applied the Law of Conservation of Energy to determine the
direction of the induced emf for all types of conductors. It
is known as the Second Law of Electromagnetic Induction
and it can be stated as:
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Te direction of the induced emf is such that the current
it causes to fow opposes the change producing it.
In the above case, the current induced in the coil creates
a north pole to oppose the incoming north pole of the
magnet. Similarly, when the magnet is withdrawn its
north pole creates a south pole in the solenoid to oppose
the change.
It can be reasoned that the Law of Conservation of Energy
must apply. If the solenoid in Figure 1211 had an induced
south pole when the north pole of the magnet was moved
towards it, the magnet would accelerate as it would
experience a force of attraction. More induced current
would be produced creating more acceleration. Te
kinetic energy would increase indefnitely energy would
be created. As this is impossible, it makes sense that the
induced current must oppose the change producing it.
Lenzs Law can be applied to straight conductors as well as
solenoids. Figure 1211 shows the magnetic lines of force
for a bar magnet and a current-carrying wire directed
into the page before and during interaction. Suppose the
conductor is carrying an induced current initially.
force due to hand
pushing down
magnetic feld interaction
produces an opposing force
interaction of the two
magnetic felds causes
tension on lower side
N S N S
Before interaction
magnetic feld
due to conductor
After interaction
Figure 1211 Lenzs Law in a straight conductor.
Te straight conductor is then pushed downwards say with
your hand. Your energy source induces the current but
the combined magnetic felds tend to push the conductor
upwards (a force is applied in the direction from the region
of most fux density to the region of least fux density).
Terefore, the induced current will be in such a direction
that tries to stop the conductor through the feld.
If we now combine Faradays and Lenzs Laws of
electromagnetic induction into the equation, we can now
understand the signifcance of the negative sign.
N

t
-------- =
12.1.6 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
PROBLEMS
Example
A metal conductor 2.5 m long moves at right angles to a
magnetic feld of 4.0 10
3
T with a velocity of 35 m s
1
.
Calculate the emf of the conductor.
Solution
Using the formula, = B l v, we have,
4.0 10
3
T ( ) 2.5 m ( ) 35 ms
1
( ) =
0.35 V =
Te potential diference between the ends of the conductor
is 0.35 V.
Example
A square solenoid with 120 turns and sides of 5.0 cm is
placed in air with each turn perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic fux density of 0.60 T. Calculate the induced emf
if the feld decreases to zero in 3.0 s.
Solution
Tis time we need to use the formula, = A B, so that
0.05 m ( )
2
0.60 T ( ) =
1.5 10
3
Wb =

Next, we make use of the formula,
N

t
-------- 120
0 1.5 10
3
Wb ( )
3.0 s
------------------------------------------- = =
= 0.060 V
Te induced emf is 6.0 10
-2
V.
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Example
(a) A coil with 20 turns has an area of 2.0 10
-1
m
2
.
It is placed in a uniform magnetic feld of fux
density 1.0 10
-1
T so that the fux links the turns
normally. Calculate the average induced emf in the
coil if it is removed from the feld in 0.75 s.
(b) Te same coil is turned from its normal position
through an angle of 30 in 0.3 s in the feld.
Calculate the average induced emf.
Solution
(a) Tis time we need to use the formula, = NB A, so
that
= 20 turns 2.0 10
1
m
2
1.0 10
1
T = 4.0 10
1
Wb
Next, we make use of the formula,
emf =

___

t
=
4.0 10
1
Wb

___________

0.75 s

= 0.533 V
Te induced emf is 0.53 V.
(b) Te fux change through the coil = NBA NBAcos
= 4.0 10
1
Wb 4.0 10
1
Wb cos 30 = 0.054 Wb
Average induced emf =
0.54 Wb

_______

0.3 s
= 0.179 V
Te induced emf is 0.18 V.
Exercise 12.1
1. Consider a coil of length l, cross-sectional area A,
number of turns n, in which a current I is fowing.
Te magnetic fux density of the coil depends on
A. I, l, n but not A
B. I, n, A but not l
C. I, A, l but not n
D. A, l, n but not I
2. Te magnetic fux Te magnetic fux through a coil having 200
turns varies with time t as shown below.
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
/ 10 Wb
2
2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
t / 10 s
Te magnitude of the emf induced in the coil is:
A. 0.5 V
B. 2 V
C. 100 V
D. 400 V
3. A metal ring falls over a bar magnet as shown
S
N
Te induced current is directed
A. always opposite to the direction of the
arrow.
B. always in the same direction as the arrow.
C. frst in the opposite direction to the arrow,
then as shown by the arrow.
D. frst as shown by the arrow, then in the
opposite direction to the arrow.
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4. Te magnitude of an induced emf produced by the
relative motion between a solenoid and a magnetic
feld is dependent upon:
A. the strength of the magnetic fux density
B. the number of turns on the coil
C. the area of the coil
D. all of the above
5. Which of the following is a suitable unit to
measure magnetic fux density?
A. A m N
-1
B. Kg A
-1
s
-2
C. A N
-1
m
-1
D. T m
-1
6. Faradays law of electromagnetic induction states Faradays law of electromagnetic induction states
that the induced emf is
A. equal to the change in magnetic fux
B. equal to the change in magnetic fux linkage
C. proportional to the change in magnetic fux
linkage
D. proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic fux linkage
7. A uniformmagnetic feld of strength A uniform magnetic feld of strength B completely
links a coil of area A. Te feld makes an angle to
the plane of the coil.

area A
B

Te magnetic fux linking the coil is

A. BAcos
B. BA
C. BAsin
D. BAtan
8. What factors determine the magnitude of an
induced emf?
9. Refer to Figure 1204. Use Lenzs Law to explain
what would happen if the solenoid was moved
rather than the magnet.
10. What efect would the following have on the
magnitude of the induced emf in a conductor
moving perpendicular to a magnetic feld?
(a) Doubling the velocity of movement of the
conductor.
(b) Halving the magnetic fux density and
velocity.
(c) Changing the conductor from copper to
iron.
11. Explain in detail the diference between magnetic
fux density and magnetic fux.
12. Te magnetic fux through a coil of wire
containing 5 loops changes from 25 Wb to
+ 15 Wb in 0.12 s. What is the induced emf in the
coil?
13. Te wing of a Jumbo jet is 9.8 m long. It is fying
at 840 km h
1
. If it is fying in a region where the
earths magnetic feld has a vertical component
of 7.2 10
4
T, what potential diference could be
produced across the wing?
14. Find the total fux through an area of 0.04 m
2

perpendicular to a uniform magnetic fux density
of 1.25 T.
15. If the total fux threading an area of 25 cm
2
is
1.74 10
2
Wb, what would be the magnetic fux
density?
16. A coil of area 5 cm
2
is in a uniform magnetic feld
of fux density 0.2 T. Determine the magnetic fux
in the coil when:
(a) Te coil is normal to the magnetic feld
(b) Te coil is parallel to the magnetic feld
(c) Te normal to the coil and the feld have an
angle of 60
17. A metal conductor 2.5 m long moves at right
angles to a magnetic feld of 4.0 10
-3
T with
a velocity of 35 m s
-1
. Calculate the emf of the
conductor.
18. A square solenoid with 120 turns and sides of A square solenoid with 120 turns and sides of
5.0 cm is placed in air with each turn
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic fux density
of 0.60 T. Calculate the induced emf if the feld
decreases to zero in 3.0 s.
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19. A coil with 1500 turns and a mean area of 45 cm
2

is placed in air with each turn perpendicular to
a uniform magnetic feld of 0.65 T. Calculate the
induced emf if the feld decreases to zero in 5.0 s.
20. Te radius of the copper ring is 0.15 mand Te radius of the copper ring is 0.15 m and
its resistance is 2.0 10
2
. A magnetic feld
strength is increasing at rate of 1.8 10
3
T s
1
.
Calculate the value of the induced current in the
copper ring.
12.2 ALTERNATING
CURRENT
12.2.1 Describe the emf induced in a coil rotating
within a uniform magnetic eld.
12.2.2 Explain the operation of a basic alternating
current (ac) generator.
12.2.3 Describe the eect on the induced emf of
changing the generator frequency.
12.2.4 Discuss what is meant by the root mean
squared (rms) value of an alternating
current or voltage.
12.2.5 State the relation between peak and rms
values for sinusoidal currents and voltages.
12.2.6 Solve problems using peak and rms values.
12.2.7 Solve ac circuit problems for ohmic
resistors.
12.2.8 Describe the operation of an ideal
transformer.
12.2.9 Solve problems on the operation of ideal
transformers.
IBO 2007
12.2.1 EMF IN A COIL ROTATED WITHIN
A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD
Te induced emf in a coil rotated within a uniform
magnetic feld is sinusoidal if the rotation is at constant
speed.
Te most important practical application of the Laws of
Electromagnetic Induction was the development of the
electric generator or dynamo.
Te frequency of the generator cycle used in power
stations can be investigated with the use of a cathode ray
oscilloscope (CRO). A CRO can be used to measure the
voltage output of an ac source. If a low safe ac voltage (9V)
from a power pack is connected to the CRO then its source
is the power stations of your community supplier. If the
time-base is adjusted to obtain a sine curve trace on the
screen, the mains supply frequency can be determined.
Example
In Figure 1215, if the potentiometer is set on 2 V/division
and the time base is set a 5 ms/cm, what is the voltage and
frequency of the ac generator?
Solution
Te amplitude of the wave is 3 divisions and each division is
2 V. Terefore, the emf would be 6 V.
Figure 1215 CRO trace
Between the two dots there are 6 divisions. Terefore, the
wavelength is equivalent to 12 divisions. Now there are
5 milliseconds/ cm. So the period of the wave is 60 ms, that
is, T = 60 ms.
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Terefore, the frequency of the source is given by,
f
1
T
---
1
60 10
3

-------------------- 16.67 Hz = = =
Te frequency of the source is 17 Hz.
12.2.2 OPERATION OF A BASIC AC
GENERATOR
A generator is essentially a device for producing electrical
energy from mechanical energy. (Remember that an electric
motor did the opposite energy conversion). Generators
use mechanical rotational energy to provide the force to
turn a coil of wire, called an armature, in a magnetic feld
(the magnet can also be turned while the coil remains
stationary). As the armature cuts the magnetic fux
density, emfs are induced in the coil. As the sides of the
coil reverse direction every half turn, the emf alternates in
polarity. If there is a complete circuit, alternating current
ac is produced.
Te induced currents are conducted in and out by way of
the slip-rings and the carbon brushes.
Turbines driven by steam or water are the commonest
devices used for the generation of electricity in modern
day society.
Figure 1216 shows a simple generator in which a coil is
rotating clockwise. Te circuit is completed with a lamp
acting as the load.
N S
I
I
F
F
N
I
brush contacts
slip rings
S
Figure 1216 AC generator
To determine the direction of the induced current
produced as the coil rotates, we must apply Lenzs Law.
As the lef hand side of the coil (nearest the north-pole of
the magnet) moves upward, a downward magnetic force
must be exerted to oppose the rotation. By applying the
right-hand palm rule for electromagnetic induction, you
can determine the direction of the induced current on that
side of the coil. Te direction of the current in the right-
side of the coil can also be determined.
Te magnitude of the emf and current varies with time
as shown in Figure 1217. Consider a coil ABCD rotating
clockwise initially in the horizontal position. From
the graph of current versus time, you can see that the
current reaches a maximum when the coil is horizontal
and a minimum when the coil is vertical. If more lines of
magnetic fux are being cut, then the induced current will
be greater. Tis occurs to the greatest extent when the coil
is moving at right angles to the magnetic feld. When the
coil moves parallel to the feld, no current fows.
current
time
A
B C
D
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
zero current is produced when nowires are cutting magnetic ux line
maximumcurrent is produced when wire cut magnetic ux lines at 90
Figure 1217 The changes of current with time
Each complete cycle of the sinusoidal graph corresponds
to one complete revolution of the generator.
12.2.3 CHANGING FREQUENCY OF THE
GENERATOR
Te emf of a rotating coil can be calculated at a given time.
If a coil of N turns has an area A, and its normal makes an
angle with the magnetic feld B, then the fux-linkage
is given by:
N A B cos =
Te emf varies sinusoidally (sin and cos graphs have the
same shape) with time and can be calculated using

t
-------- N A B
cos
t
--------------- = =
Using calculus and diferentiating cos , this relationship
becomes
N A B

t
------ sin =
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Remember from your knowledge of rotational motion that
t = the angular velocity in rad s
-1
= 2 f
Also
t 2ft = =
so that
N A B t ( ) sin =
So that,
2f N A B 2 f ( ) sin =
When the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic
feld, sin t will have its maximum value as t = 90, so
sin t = 1. Tis maximum value for the emf
0
is called the
peak voltage, and is given by:

0
= NBA
Terefore:
=
0
sin t
Te frequency of rotation in North America is 60 Hz but
the main frequency used by many other countries is 50 Hz.
Note that if the speed of the coil is doubled then the
frequency and the magnitude of the emf will both increase
as shown in Figures 1218 and 1219 respectively.

/
V
0 t /ms
4
Figure 1218 Normal frequency

/
V
0 t /ms
8
Figure 1219 Doubled frequency
Example
Calculate the peak voltage of a simple generator if the
square armature has sides of 5.40 cm and it contains 120
loops. It rotates in a magnetic feld of 0.80 T at the rate of
110 revolutions per second.
Solution
Making use of the formula above, that is,
N A B t ( ) sin =
2f N A B 2ft ( ) sin =
We can see that the maximum emf will occur when sin
t = 1, so that,
max
NAB =
But, = 2 f, so that

0
= (2) (110.0 Hz) (120 turns) (5.4 10
-4
m
2
) (0.80 T)
= 35.8 V
Tat is, the output voltage is 36 V.
Example
Suppose a coil with 1200 turns has an area of 2.0 10
-2
m
2

and is rotating at 50 revolutions per second in a magnetic
feld of magnitude 0.50 T. Draw graphs to show how
the magnetic fux, the emf and the current change as a
function of time. (Assume the current fows in a circuit
with a resistance of 25 ).
Solution
Te magnetic fux in the coil changes over time as shown
in Figure 1220.
= NBA = 1200 turns 0.5 T 2 10
-2
m
2
= 12 Wb
50 revolutions per second would have 1 revolution in 0.02
seconds = 20 ms.
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12
-12

/
W
b
0
10 20 30 40
t / ms
Figure 1220 Changing ux linkage over time
We can see that the maximum emf will occur when
sin t = 1, so that,

max
NAB =
But, = 2 f, so that

0
= (2) (50 Hz) (1200 turns) (2 10
-2
m
2
) (0.50 T)
= 75.4V = 75V
Te appropriate graph is shown in Figure 1221.
75
-75

/
V
0
10 20 30 40
t / ms
Figure 1221 Induced emf over time
Te current fows in a circuit with a resistance of 25 .
I =

__

R
=

0
sin t

_______

R
= I
0
sin t
where I
0
=
75.4 V

______

25
= 3.0 A
Te appropriate graph is shown in Figure 1222.
-3
3
I
/
A
0
10 20 30 40
t / ms
Figure 1222 Induced current over time
12.2.4-12.2.5
PEAK AND RMS VOLTAGE
An alternating current varies sinusoidally and can be
represented by the equation:
I = I
0
sin(t)
where I
0
is the maximum current called the peak current
as shown in Figure 1223 for a 50 Hz mains supply.
I
0
I
/
A
0
10 20 30 40
t / ms
Figure 1223 Peak current and current over time
In commercial practice, alternating currents are expressed
in terms of their root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value.
Consider 2 identical resistors each of resistance R, one
carrying d.c. and the other a.c. in an external circuit.
Suppose they are both dissipating the same power as
thermal energy.
Te r.m.s. value of the alternating current that produces
the power is equal to the d.c. value of the direct current.
For the maximum value in a.c., the power dissipated is
given by
P V
0
t ( ) I
0
t ( ) sin sin V
0
I
0
t ( )
2
sin = =
Tis means that the power supplied to the resistor in time
by an alternating current is equal to the average value of
I
2
R multiplied by time.
P =I
2
ave
R = I
0
2
R sin
2
t
Because the current is squared the, the value for the power
dissipated is always positive as shown in Figure 1224.
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I
0
2
R
Power
I
0
2
R
10 20 30 40 50 t / ms
Figure 1224 Power delivered to a resistor in an
alternating current circuit.
Te value of sin
2
t will therefore vary between 0 and 1.
Terefore its average value =
(0 + 1)

______

2
= .
Terefore the average power that dissipates in the resistor
equals:
P
ave
= I
0
2
R =
I
0

___

2

I
0

___

2
R
or
P
ave
= v
0
2
/R =

V
0

__

2

V
0

__

2


______

R
.
So the current dissipated in a resistor in an a.c. circuit that
varies between I
0
and I
0
would be equal to a current
I
0

__

2

dissipated in a d.c circuit. Tis d.c current is known as
r.m.s. equivalent current to the alternating current.
It can be shown that
I
r.m.s.
=
I
0

___

__
2
and V
r.m.s.
=
V
0

___

__
2
Provided a circuit with alternating current only contains
resistance components, it can be treated like a direct
current circuit.
12.2.6 SOLVING PROBLEMS USING
RMS AND PEAK VALUES
Example
In the USA, the r.m.s value of the standard line voltage
is 110 V and in some parts of Europe, it is 230 V. Calculate
the peak voltage for each region.
Solution
V
0
= 2 V
rms
In the USA = 1.414 110 V = 170 V
In Europe = 1.414 230 V = 325 V.
Example
Te domestic standard line voltage in Australia is 240 V.
Calculate the current and resistance in a 1200 W electric
jug and compare these values with the same electric jug
used in the USA.
Solution
I
rms
=
P
ave

____

V
rms
and R =
V
rms

____

I
rms

In Australia:
I =
1200 W

_______

240 V
= 5.0 A and R =
240 V

_____

5.0 A
= 48
In the USA:
I =
1200 W

_______

110 V
= 11 A and R =
110 V

______

10.9 A
= 10
Te current would have a greater heating efect in the USA
than Australia but the element in the electric jug would need
to be made of a conductor with a a greater cross-sectional
area.
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12.2.7 SOLVING AC CIRCUIT PROBLEMS
FOR OHMIC RESISTORS
Example
Te V
0
value for a circuit containing a 35 resistor is 45 V.
Calculate the current and the power dissipated in the power dissipated in the
resistor.
Solution
V
rms
= V
0
/ 2 = 45 / 1.414 = 31.82 V.
I
rms
= V
rms
/ R = 31.82 / 35 = 0.91 A.
P
ave
= I
2

rms
R = 0.91
2
35 = 29 W.
12.2.8 OPERATION OF AN IDEAL
TRANSFORMER
A useful device that makes use of electromagnetic
induction is the ac transformer as it can be used for
increasing or decreasing ac voltages and currents.
It consists of two coils of wire known as the primary and
secondary coils. Each coil has a laminated (thin sheets
fastened together) sof iron core to reduce eddy currents
(currents that reduce the efciency of transformers). Te
coils are then enclosed with top and bottom sof iron bars
that increase the strength of the magnetic feld. Figure
1225 shows a typical circuit for a simple transformer
together with the recommended circuit symbol.
a.c. output
a.c. input
primary coil secondary coil
circuit symbol for
simple transformer
Figure 1225 A simple transformer
When an ac voltage is applied to the primary coil, an ac
voltage of the same frequency is induced in the secondary
coil. Tis frequency in most countries is 50 Hz.
When a current fows in the primary coil, a magnetic feld
is produced around the coil. It grows quickly and cuts the
secondary coil to induce a current and thus to induce a
magnetic feld also. When the current falls in the primary
coil due to the alternating current, the magnetic feld
collapses in the primary coil and cuts the secondary coil
producing an induced current in the opposite direction.
Te size of the voltage input/output depends on the
number of turns on each coil. It is found that
V
p
V
s
------
N
p
N
s
-------
I
s
I
p
---- = =
Where N = the number of turns on a designated coil and I
is the current in each coil.
It can be seen that if Ns is greater than Np then the
transformer is a step-up transformer. If the reverse
occurs and Ns is less than Np it will be a step-down
transformer.
If a transformer was 100% efcient, the power produced
in the secondary coil should equal to the power input of
the primary coil. In practice the efciency is closer to 98%
because of eddy currents.
V
p
I
p
V
s
I
s
V
p
V
s
------
I
s
I
p
---- = =
Tis means that if the voltage is stepped-up by a certain
ratio, the current in the secondary coil is stepped-down
by the same ratio.
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12.2.9 SOLVING PROBLEMS ON
THE OPERATION OF IDEAL
TRANSFORMERS
Example
Te fgure below shows a step-down transformer that is
used to light a flament globe of resistance 4.0 under
operating conditions.
Calculate
(a) the reading on the voltmeter with S open
(b) the current in the secondary coil with an
efective resistance of 0.2 with S closed
(c) the power dissipated in the lamp
(d) the power taken from the supply if the
primary current is 150 mA
(e) the efciency of the transformer.
Solution
V
4.0
S
50 turns 1000 turns
240 V ac
(a) Using the formula, V
P
/ V
S
= N
p
/ N
s
, with V
p
=
240 V, N
p
= 1000 turns and N
s
= 50 turns we have,
240
V
s
-------- -
1000
50
------------ V
s
240
50
1000
------------ 12 = = =
Tat is,
V
s
12 V =
(b) Total resistance = 0.2 + 4 = 4.2 .
From the formula, I = V / R , we have
I
4.2
2.86 A = =
12 V
(c) From the formula, P = VI = (IR) I = I
2
R, we have
that
P 2.86
2
4.0 32.7 W = =
(d) Using, P = VI, we have,
P 240 150 10
3
36 W = =
(e) Efciency
=
32.7 1.6 +
36
------------------------ 100% 95% =
12.3 TRANSMISSION
OF ELECTRIC
POWER
12.3.1 Outline the reasons for power losses in
transmission lines and real transformers.
12.3.2 Explain the use of high-voltage step-up and
step-down transformers in the transmission
of electric power.
12.3.3 Solve problems on the operation of real
transformers and power transmission.
12.3.4 Suggest how extra-low-frequency
electromagnetic elds, such as those
created by electrical appliances and power
lines, induce currents within a human body.
12.3.5 Discuss some of the possible risks involved
in living and working near high-voltage
power lines.
IBO 2007
12.3.1 POWER LOSSES IN TRANSMISSION
LINES AND REAL TRANSFORMERS
Tere are a number of reasons for power losses in
transmission lines such as:
Heating efect of a current
Resistance of the metal used
Dielectric losses
Self-inductance
Te main heat loss is due to the heating efect of a current.
By keeping the current as low as possible, the heating efect
can be reduced. Te resistance in a wire due to the fow of
electrons over long distances also has a heating efect. If
the thickness of the copper wire used in the core of the
transmission line is increased, then the resistance can be
decreased. However, there are practical considerations
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such as weight and the mechanical and tensional strength
that have to be taken into account. Te copper wire is
usually braided (lots of copper wires wound together)
and these individual wires are insulated. Te insulation
material has a dielectric value which can cause some power
loss. Finally, the changing electric and magnetic felds of
the electrons can encircle other electrons and retard their
movement on the outer surface of the wire through self-
inductance. Tis is known as the skin efect. Te size of the
power loss depends on the magnitude of the transmission
voltage, and power losses of the order of magnitude of
10
5
watts per kilometre are common.
Power losses in real transformers are due to factors such as:
Eddy currents
Resistance of the wire used for the windings
Hysteresis
Flux leakage
Physical vibration and noise of the core and
windings
Electromagnetic radiation
Dielectric loss in materials used to insulate the core
and windings.
As already mentioned, any conductor that moves in a
magnetic feld has emf induced in it, and as such current,
called eddy currents, will also be induced in the conductor.
Tis current has a heating efect in the sof iron core of the
transformer which causes a power loss termed an iron loss.
Tere is also a magnetic efect in that the created magnetic
felds will oppose the fux change that produces them
according to Lenzs Law. Tis means that eddy currents
will move in the opposite direction to the induced current
causing a braking efect. Eddy currents are considerably
reduced by alloying the iron with 3% silicon that increases
the resistivity of the core. To reduce the heating efect due
to eddy currents, the sof-iron core is made of sheets of
iron called laminations that are insulated from each other
by an oxide layer on each lamination. Tis insulation
prevents currents from moving from one lamination to
the next.
Copper wire is used as the windings on the sof-iron
core because of its low resistivity and good electrical
conductivity. Real transformers used for power
transmission reach temperatures well above room
temperature and are cooled down by transformer oil.
Tis oil circulates through the transformer and serves
not only as a cooling fuid but also as a cleaning and anti-
corrosive agent. However, power is lost due resistance and
temperature commonly referred to as copper loss.
Hysteresis is derived from the Greek word that means
lagging behind and it becomes an important factor in
the changes in fux density as a magnetic feld changes
in ferromagnetic materials. Transformer coils are subject
to many changes in fux density. As the magnetic feld
strength increases in the positive direction, the fux
density increases. If the feld strength is reduced to zero,
the iron remains strongly magnetised due to the retained
fux density. When the magnetic feld is reversed the fux
density is reduced to zero. So in one cycle the magnetisation
lags behind the magnetising feld and we have another
iron loss that produces heat. Hysteresis is reduced again by
using silicon iron cores.
Te capacity for the primary coil to carry current is limited
by the insulation and air gaps between the turnings of the
copper wire and this leads to fux leakage. Tis can be
up to 50% of the total space in some cases. Because the
power is being delivered to the transformer at 50Hz, you
can ofen hear them making a humming noise. Minimal
energy is lost in the physical vibration and noise of the
core and windings.
Modern transformers are up to 99% efcient.
Long-distance AC alternating current transmission
is afected by a transmission lines reactive power that
is actually 90 degrees out of phase with the fow of real
current to a load at the other end of the line. For short
transmission lines, the efect is not as signifcant. Direct
current transmission does not have reactive power once
the voltage has been raised to the normal level. Te power
losses are considerably less than alternating current.
TOK The dangers of EM radiation
Students should be aware that current experimental
evidence suggests that low-frequency elds do not
harm genetic material. Students should appreciate
that the risks attached to the inducing of current in
the body are not fully understood. These risks are
likely to be dependent on current (density), frequency
and length of exposure.
The use of risk assessment in making scientic
decisions can be discussed here. The issues of
correlation and cause, and the limitations of data, are
also relevant here.
IBO 2007
TOK The dangers of EM radiation
Students should be aware that current experimental
evidence suggests that low-frequency elds do not
harm genetic material. Students should appreciate
that the risks attached to the inducing of current in
the body are not fully understood. These risks are
likely to be dependent on current (density), frequency
and length of exposure.
The use of risk assessment in making scientic
decisions can be discussed here. The issues of
correlation and cause, and the limitations of data, are
also relevant here.
IBO 2007
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12.3.2 POWER TRANSMISSION
For economic reasons, there is no ideal value of voltage
for electrical transmission. Electric power is generated
at approximately 11 000 V and then it is stepped-up to
the highest possible voltage for transmission. Alternating
current transmission of up to 765 kV are quite common.
For voltages higher than this, direct current transmission
at up to 880 kV is used. A.c. can be converted to d.c.
using rectifers and this is what is done in electric train
and tram operations. D.c. can be converted to a.c. using
inverters. Tere a number of d.c. transmision lines such
as the underground cross-channel link between the UK
and France. Te New Zealand high-voltage direct current Te New Zealand high-voltage direct current
scheme has around 610 km of overhead and submarine
transmission lines.
Tere are 3 conductors on a transmission line to maximize
the amount of power that can be generated. Each high
voltage circuit has three phases. Te generators at the
power station supplying the power system have their coils
connected through terminals at 120 to each other.
When each generator at the power station rotates through
a full rotation, the voltages and the currents rise and fall in
each terminal in a synchronized manner.
Once the voltage has been stepped-up, it is transmitted
into a national supergrid system from a range of power
stations. As it nears a city or town it is stepped-down into a
smaller grid. As it approaches heavy industry, it is stepped
down to around 33 132 kV in the UK, and when it arrives
at light industry it is stepped-down to 11-33 kV. Finally,
cities and farms use a range of values down to 240V from
a range of power stations.
When the current fows in the cables, some energy is lost
to the surroundings as heat. Even good conductors such
as copper still have a substantial resistance because of the
signifcant length of wire needed for the distribution of
power via the transmission cables. To minimise energy
losses the current must be kept low.
12.3.3 SOLVING PROBLEMS ON POWER
TRANSMISSION
Example
An average of 120 kW of power is delivered to a suburb
from a power plant 10 km away. Te transmission lines
have a total resistance of 0.40 . Calculate the power loss
if the transmission voltage is
(a) 240 V
(b) 24 000 V
Solution
(a) From the formula, P = VI, we have that
I
P
V
---
1.2 10
5
W
240 V
------------------------------ 500 A = = =
So that
P I
2
R 500 A ( )
2
0.40 ( ) 100 kW = = =
(b) Again, using P = VI, we have,
I
P
V
---
1.2 10
5
W
2.4 10
4
V
------------------------------ 5.0 A = = =
So that,
P I
2
R 5.0 A ( )
2
0.40 ( ) 10 W = = =
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12.3.4 EXTRA-LOW-FREQUENCY
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
We have all seen though the media patients being given
shock treatment through 2 electrodes to try and get the
heart beat at its natural frequency. Te human body is a
conducting medium so any alternating magnetic feld any alternating magnetic feld
produced at the extra-low frequency will induce an electric
feld which in turn produces a very small induced current
in the body. Using a model calculation in a human of body
radius 0.2 m and a conductivity of 0.2 Sm
-1
(sieverts per
metre), it has been shown that a magnetic feld of 160 T
can induce a body surface current density of 1 mA m
-2
.
It is currently recommended that current densities to the
head, neck and body trunk should not be greater than
10 mA m
-2
.
12.3.5 POSSIBLE RISKS OF HIGH-
VOLTAGE POWER LINES
Current experimental evidence suggests that low-frequency
felds do not harm genetic material in adults but there is
some evidence that there could be a link to infant cancer
rates due to low-frequency felds. Te risks attached to the
inducing of current in the body are not fully understood.
It is likely that these risks are dependent on current
(density), frequency and length of exposure.
Exercise 12.3
1. Which of the following could correctly describe a
step-up transformer?
power
supply
Core
primary
coil
secondary
coil
A. dc Steel 10 turns 100 turns
B. dc Iron 100 turns 10 turns
C. ac Steel 10 turns 100 turns
D. ac Iron 100 turns 10 turns
2. An alternating current with a root-mean-square
value of 2 A is compared with the direct current I
fowing through a given resistor. If both currents
generate heat at the same rate, the value of I would be
A. 4 A
B. 2 2 A
C. 2 A
D. 2 A
3. An ideal transformer has a primary coil of 5000
turns and a secondary coil of 250 turns. Te
primary voltage produced is 240 V. If a 24 W lamp
connected to the secondary coil operates at this
power rating, the current in the primary coil is:
A. 0.05 A
B. 0.1 A
C. 12 A
D. 20 A
4. If an alternating e.m.f has a peak value of
12 V then the root-mean-square value of this
alternating e.m.f would be:
A. 0 V
B. 6 V
C. 3.5 V
D. 62 V
5. Te fgure below below shows the variation with fgure below below shows the variation with
time t of the emf generated in a coil rotating in a
uniform magnetic feld.
0
- 0
/ V
0 T / 2 T
t
What is the root-mean-square value
rms
of the emf
and also the frequency f of rotation of the coil?

rms
f
A.
0
T
2
B.
0
T
1
C.
0
/ 2
T
2
D.
0
/ 2
T
1
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6. A load resistor is connected in series with an
alternating current supply of negligible internal
resistance. If the peak value of the supply voltage is
V
o
and the peak value of the current in the resistor
is I
0
, the average power dissipation in the resistor
would be:
A.
2
0 0
I V
B.
2
0 0
I V
C. 2
0 0
I V
D.
0 0
I V
7. Explain why a sof-iron core is used in the
construction of a transformer.
8. Explain why a transformer will not work with
direct current.
9. If there are 1200 turns in the primary coil of an
ac transformer with a primary voltage of 240 V,
calculate the secondary voltage if the secondary
coil has
(a) 300 turns
(b) 900 turns
(c) 1800 turns
10. Te armature of a 30 Hz a.c. generator contains
120 loops. Te area of each loop is 2.0 10
-2
m
2
.
It produces a peak output voltage of 120 V when it
rotates in a magnetic feld. Calculate the strength
of the magnetic feld.
11. Calculate the r.m.s value of the following currents:
2A, 4A, 6A, 3A, -5A, 1A, 6A, 8A, -9A and 10A.
12. Calculate the peak current in a 2.4 10
3
resistor
connected to a 230 V domestic a.c source.
13. Tis question deals with the production and
transmission of electric power, electricity costs
and efciency, and fuse systems.
(a) Is it feasible to transmit power from a
power station over long distances using
direct current rather than alternating
current? Justify your answer.
(b) An aluminum transmission cable has a
resistance of 5.0 when 10 kW of power
is transmitted in the cable. Justify why it is
better to transmit the power at 100 000V
rather than 1000 V by comparing the power
that would be wasted in the transmission at
both of these voltages.
(c) Many step-up and step-down transformers
are used in the electricity transmission from
the power station to the home. In order to
increase the efciency of the transformers,
eddy currents have to minimised. Describe
how this achieved in the transformer
design.
(d) If the fuse controlling the maximum power
for lighting in your house is rated at 8 A,
calculate the maximum number of 60 W
light bulbs that can be operated in parallel
with a 110 V power supply so as not to blow
the fuse?
(e) A stainless steel calorimeter with a mass of
720 g was used to heat 2.5 kg of water. If
the current / voltage in a heating element
supplying the power was 30.2 A / 110V,
and it took 2.5 minutes to heat the water
from 25 C to 98 C, determine the specifc
heat capacity of the steel. (Assume no heat
loss to the surroundings. Te specifc heat
capacity of water is 4.18 10
3
J kg
-1
K
-1
).
(f) How much does it cost to run the following
appliances at the same time for one hour if
electricity costs 10.5 cent per kilowatt-hour:
a 6 kW oven, two 300 W colour televisions
and fve 100 W light globes?
14. Name four factors that afect the magnitude of an
induced emf in a generator.
15. If there are 4 laminations in a transformer core,
what fraction of the fux is in each lamination and
what fraction of the power is dissipated in each?
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AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
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13
The quantum nature of radiation
13.1.1 Describe the photoelectric eect.
13.1.2 Describe the concept of the photon, and
use it to explain the photoelectric eect.
13.1.3 Describe and explain an experiment to test
the Einstein model.
13.1.4 Solve problems involving the photoelectric
eect.
IBO 2007
13.1.1 (B.1.1) THE PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT
I
n 1888, Heinrich Hertz carried out an experiment to
verify Maxwells electromagnetic theory of radiation.
Whilst performing the experiment Hertz noted that a spark
was more easily produced if the electrodes of the spark gap
were illuminated with ultra-violet light. Hertz paid this fact
little heed, and it was lef to one of his pupils, Hallswach, to
investigate the efect more thoroughly. Hallswach noticed
that metal surfaces became charged when illuminated with
ultra-violet light and that the surface was always positively
charged. He concluded therefore that the ultra-violet light
caused negative charge to be ejected from the surface in
some manner. In 1899 Lenard showed that the negative
charge involved in the photo-electric efect consisted of
particles identical in every respect to those isolated by
J. J. Tomson two years previously, namely, electrons.
Figure 1301 (a) shows schematically the sort of arrangement
that might be used to investigate the photo-electric efect
in more detail. Te tube B is highly evacuated, and a
potential diference of about 10 V is applied between
anode and cathode. Te cathode consists of a small zinc
plate, and a quartz window is arranged in the side of the
tube such that the cathode may be illuminated with ultra-
violet light. Te current measured by the micro-ammeter
gives a direct measure of the number of electrons emitted
at the cathode.
When the tube is dark no electrons are emitted at the
cathode and therefore no current is recorded. When ultra-
violet light is allowed to fall on the cathode electrons are
ejected and traverse the tube to the anode, under the
infuence of the anode-cathode potential. A small current
is recorded by the micro-ammeter. Figure 1301 (b) shows
a plot of photoelectric current against light intensity
for a constant anode-cathode potential. As you would
13.1 (SL Option B1) Quantum physics
13.2 (SL Option B2) Nuclear physics
13.1 SL OPTION B.1 QUANTUM PHYSICS
TOK Introduction
Tis topic raises fundamental philosophical problems relating to the nature of observation and measurement.
Te concept of a paradigm shif can be discussed here and in particular how this paradigm shif led to the downfall of
Newtonian Determinism.
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expect, the graph is a a straight line and doubling the light
intensity doubles the number of electrons ejected at the
cathode. Te graph of photoelectric current against light
frequency, Figure 1301 (c) is not quite so obvious. Te
graph shows clearly that there is a frequency of light below
which no electrons are emitted. Tis frequency is called
the threshold frequency. Further experiment shows that
the value of the threshold frequency is independent of the
intensity of the light and also that its value depends on the
nature of the material of the cathode.
U.V. source
P. E. current
Cathode Anode
B
A
10 V
Figure 1301 (a) Apparatus to investigate the
photo-electric eect
P
.
E
.

c
u
r
r
e
n
t
light intensity
Figure 1301 (b)
P
.
E
.

c
u
r
r
e
n
t
f
0
frequency
Figure 1301 (c)
In terms of wave theory we would expect photo-emission
to occur for light of any frequency. For example: consider
a very small portion of the cathode, so small in fact that
it contains only one electron for photo-emission. If the
incident light is a wave motion, the energy absorbed by
this small portion of the cathode and consequently by the
electron will increase uniformly with time. Te amount
of energy absorbed in a given time will depend on the
intensity of the incident light and not on the frequency.
If the light of a given frequency is made very very feeble
there should be an appreciable time lag during which the
electron absorbs sufcient energy to escape from within
the metal. No time lag is ever observed.
13.1.2 (B.1.2) EINSTEIN AND THE
PHOTON
Te existence of a threshold frequency and spontaneous
emission even for light of a very low intensity cannot
be explained in terms of a wave theory of light. In 1905
Einstein proposed a daring solution to the problem. Planck
had shown that radiation is emitted in pulses, each pulse
having an energy hf where h is a constant known as the
Planck constant and f is the frequency of the radiation.
Why, argued Einstein, should these pulses spread out
as waves? Perhaps each pulse of radiation maintains a
separate identity throughout the time of propagation of
the radiation. Instead of light consisting of a train of waves
we should think of it as consisting of a hail of discrete
energy bundles. On this basis the signifcance of light
frequency is not so much the frequency of a pulsating
electromagnetic feld, but a measure of the energy of each
bundle or particle of light. Te name given to these tiny
bundles of energy is photon or quantum of radiation.
Einsteins interpretation of a threshold frequency is that
a photon below this frequency has insufcient energy to
remove an electron from the metal. Te minimum energy
required to remove an electron from the surface of a metal
is called the work-function of the metal. Te electrons in
the metal surface will have varying kinetic energy and so
at a frequency above the threshold frequency the ejected
electrons will also have widely varying energies. However,
according to Einsteins theory there will be a defnite upper
limit to the energy that a photo-electron can have. Suppose
we have an electron in the metal surface that needs just
units of energy to be ejected, where is the work function
of the metal. A photon of energy hf strikes this electron
and so the electron absorbs hf units of energy. If hf the
electron will be ejected from the metal, and if energy is to
be conserved it will gain an amount of kinetic energy E
K

given by
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E
K
= hf -
Since is the minimum amount of energy required to
eject an electron from the surface, it follows that the above
electron will have the maximum possible kinetic energy.
We can therefore write that
E
K
max
= hf -
Or
E
K
max
= hf hf
0
Where f
0
is the threshold frequency. Either of the above
equations is referred to as the Einstein Photoelectric
Equation.
It is worth noting that Einstein received the Nobel prize
for Physics in 1921 for his contributions to mathematical
physics and especially for his discovery of the law of the
photoelectric efect.
13.1.3 (B.1.3) MILLIKANS
VERIFICATION OF EINSTEINS
PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION
In 1916 Robert Millikan verifed the Einstein photoelectric
equation using apparatus similar to that shown in
Figure 1301 (a). Millikan reversed the potential diference
between the anode and cathode such that the anode was
now negatively charged. Electrons emitted by light shone
onto the cathode now face a potential barrier and will only
reach the anode if they have a certain amount of energy.
Te situation is analogous to a car freewheeling along the
fat and meeting a hill. Te car will reach the top of the
hill only if its kinetic energy is greater than or equal to its
potential energy at the top of the hill. For the electron, if
the potential diference between cathode and anode is V
s

(stopping potential) then it will reach the anode only if
its kinetic energy is equal to or greater than V
s
e where e is
the electron charge.
In this situation, the Einstein equation becomes
V
s
e = hf hf
0
Millikan recorded values of the stopping potential for
diferent frequencies of the light incident on the cathode.
For Einsteins theory of the photoelectric efect to be
correct, a plot of stopping potential against frequency
should produce a straight line whose gradient equals
h
e
.
A value for the Planck constant had been previously
determined using measurements from the spectra
associated with hot objects. Te results of Millikans
experiment yielded the same value and the photoelectric
efect is regarded as the method by which the value of the
Planck constant is measured. Te modern accepted value
is 6.62660693 10
-34
J s. Te intercept on the frequency
axis is the threshold frequency and intercept of the V
s
axis
is numerically equal to the work function measured in
electron-volt.
Figure 1302 shows the typical results of Millikans
experiment which shows the variation with frequency f of
the maximum kinetic energy E
k
.
It is lef to you as an exercise, using data from this graph, to
determine the Planck constant, and the threshold frequency
and work function of the metal used for the cathode.
(Ans 6.6 10
-34
J s, 4.5 eV)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
f /10
15
Hz
Ek /eV
Figure 1302 The results of Millikans experiment
In summary, Figure 1303 shows the observations associated
with the photoelectric efect and why the Classical theory,
that is the wave theory, of electromagnetic radiation is
unable to explain the observations i.e. makes predictions
inconsistent with the observations.
Observation Classical theory predictions
Emission of
electrons is
instantaneous
no matter
what the
intensity of
the incident
radiation.
Energy should be absorbed by the
electron continuously until it has
sufcient energy to break free from the
metal surface. Te less the intensity of
the incident radiation, the less energy
incident of the surface per unit time,
so the longer it takes the electron to be
ejected.
Te existence
of a threshold
frequency.
Te intensity of the radiation is
independent of frequency. Emission of
electrons should occur for all frequencies.
Figure 1303 Observations associated with the
photoelectric eect
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Te fact that the photoelectric efect gives convincing
evidence for the particle nature of light, raises the question
as to whether light consists of waves or particles. If
particulate in nature, how do we explain such phenomena
as interference and difraction?. Tis is an interesting area
of discussion for TOK and it is worth bearing in mind that
Newton wrote in his introduction to his book Optics It
seems to me that the nature of light be particulate.
13.1.4 (B.1.4) SOLVE PROBLEMS ON
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Example
Calculate the energy of a photon in light of wavelength
120 nm.
Solution
8
7
3.0 10
1.2 10
c
f

= =

= 2.5 10
15
Hz
E hf =
= 6.6 10
-34
2.5 10
15
= 1.7 10
-18
J
Example
Te photoelectric work function of potassium is 2.0 eV.
Calculate the threshold frequency of potassium.
Solution
19
0 34
2.0 1.6 10
6.6 10
f
h

= =

= 4.8 10
14
Hz
Exercise 13.1 (a)
1. Use data from example 2 to calculate the
maximum kinetic energy in electron-volts of
electrons emitted from the surface of potassium
when illuminated with light of wavelength
120 nm.
2. State and explain two observations associated with
the photoelectric efect that cannot be explained
by the Classical theory of electromagnetic
radiation.
3. In an experiment to measure the Planck constant,
light of diferent frequencies f was shone on to the
surface of silver and the stopping potential V
s
for
the emitted electrons was measured.
Te results are shown below. Uncertainties in the
data are not shown.
Vs/V f / 1014 Hz
0.33 6.0
0.79 7.1
1.2 8.0
1.49 8.8
1.82 9.7
Plot a graph to show the variation of V
s
with f.
Draw a line of best-ft for the data points.
Use the graph to determine
(i) a value of the Planck constant
(ii) the work function of silver in electron-volt.
The wave nature of matter
13.1.5 Describe the de Broglie hypothesis and the
concept of matter waves.
13.1.6 Outline an experiment to verify the
de Broglie hypothesis.
13.1.7 Solve problems involving matter waves.
IBO 2007
13.1.5 (B.1.5) THE DE BROGLIE
HYPOTHESIS AND MATTER WAVES
In 1923 Louis de Broglie suggested that since Nature should
be symmetrical, that just as waves could exhibit particle
properties, then what are considered to be particles should
exhibit wave properties.
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We have seen (Section 7.3.4) that as a consequence of
Special relativity the total mass-energy of a particle is
given by
E = mc
2
We can use this expression to fnd the momentum of a
photon by combining it with the Planck equation E = hf
such that
2
hc
E hf mc

= = =
from which
h
mc

=
But mc is the momentum p of the photon, so that
h
p

=
Based on this result, the de Broglie hypothesis is that any
particle will have an associated wavelength given by
h
p

=

Te waves to which the wavelength relates are called
matter waves.
For a person of 70 kg running with a speed of 5 m s
-1
, the
wavelength associated with the person is given by
34
6.6 10
70 5
h
p

= =

2 10
-36
m
Tis wavelength is minute to say the least. However,
consider an electron moving with speed of 10
7
m s
-1
, then
its associated wavelength is
34
31 7
6.6 10
9.1 10 10
h
p

= =

7 10
-11
m
Although small this is measurable.
13.1.6 (B.1.6) EXPERIMENTAL
VERIFICATION OF THE
DE BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS
In 1927 Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer who both
worked at the Bell Laboratory in New Jersey, USA, were
studying the scattering of electrons by a nickel crystal.
A schematic diagram of their apparatus is shown in
Figure 1305.
accelerated
electron beam
scattered
electrons
nickel
crystal
electron detector
Figure 1305 The scattering of electrons by a nickel crystal
Teir vacuum system broke down and the crystal oxidized.
To remove the oxidization, Davisson and Germer heated
the crystal to a high temperature. On continuing the
experiment they found that the intensity of the scattered
electrons went through a series of maxima and minima-
the electrons were being difracted. Te heating of the
nickel crystal had changed it into a single crystal and the
electrons were now behaving just as scattered X-rays do.
(See Chapter 18 Topic G.6). Efectively, that lattice ions of
the crystal act as a difraction grating whose slit width is
equal to the spacing of the lattice ions.
Davisson and Germer were able to calculate the de Broglie
wavelength of the electrons from the potential diference
V through which they had been accelerated.
Using the relationship between kinetic energy and
momentum, we have
2
k
2
p
E Ve
m
= =
Terefore
2 p mVe =
Using the de Broglie hypothesis
h
p

= , we have
2
h
mVe
=
Tey knew the spacing of the lattice ions from X-ray
measurements and so were able to calculate the predicted
difraction angles for a wavelength equal to the de Broglie
wavelength of the electrons. Te predicted angles were
in close agreement with the measured angles and the
de Broglie hypothesis was verifed particles behave as
waves.
Of course we now have a real dilemma; waves behave
like particles and particles behave like waves. How can
this be? Tis so-called wave-particle duality paradox was
not resolved until the advent of Quantum Mechanics in
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1926-27. Tere are plenty of physicists today who argue
that it has still not really been resolved. To paraphrase
what the late Richard Feynman once said, If someone tells
you that they understand Quantum Mechanics, they are
fooling themselves.
13.1.7 (B.1.7) SOLVE PROBLEMS
INVOLVING MATTER WAVES
Example
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron afer
acceleration through a potential diference of 75 V.
Solution
Use
2
h
mVe
=

34
31 19
6.6 10
2 9.1 10 75 1.6 10

=

= 0.14 nm.
Exercise 13.1 (b)
1. Repeat the example above but for a proton.
2. Determine the ratio of the de Broglie wavelength
of an electron to that of a proton accelerated
through the same magnitude of potential
diference.
Atomic spectra and atomic
energy states
13.1.8 Outline a laboratory procedure for
producing and observing atomic spectra.
13.1.9 Explain how atomic spectra provide
evidence for the quantization of energy in
atoms.
13.1.10 Calculate wavelengths of spectral lines
from energy level dierences and vice
versa.
13.1.11 Explain the origin of atomic energy levels
in terms of the electron in a box model.
13.1.12 Outline the Schrdinger model of the
hydrogen atom.
13.1.13 Outline the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle with regard to position
momentum and timeenergy.
IBO 2007
13.1.8-10 (B.1.8-10) OBSERVING
ATOMIC SPECTRA
Tese topics are discussed in Topic 7.1.4. Te following
example will serve as a reminder and also reinforce the
concept of the photon.
Example
Te diagram below shows some of the energy levels of the
hydrogen atom.
A
-0.85 eV
-1.50 eV
-3.4 eV
B
Calculate the frequency associated with the photon
emitted in each of the electron transitions A and B.
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Solution
A
E = 3.4 0.85 = 2.6 eV = 2.6 1.6 10
-19
J = 4.2 10
-19
J
= hf to give
19
34
4.2 10
6.6 10
f

= 6.4 10
14
Hz
B
19
34
0.65 1.6 10
6.6 10
f

= 1.6 10
14
Hz
Te corresponding wavelengths are A = 470 nm and
B = 1900 nm
Transition A gives rise the blue line in the visible spectrum
of atomic hydrogen and B to a line in the infrared region of
the spectrum.
13.3.11 (B.1.11) THE ORIGIN OF THE
ENERGY LEVELS
Te electron is bound to the nucleus by the Coulomb force
and this force will essentially determine the energy of the
electron. If we were to regard the hydrogen atom for instance
as a miniature Earth-Moon system, the electrons energy
would fall of with inverse of distance from the nucleus
and could take any value. However we can understand
the origin of the existence of discrete energy levels within
the atom if we consider the wave nature of the electron.
To simplify matters, we shall consider the electron to be
confned by a one dimensional box rather than a three
dimensional box whose ends follow a
1

_

r
shape.
In classical wave theory, a wave that is confned is a
standing wave. If our electron box is of length L then the
allowed wavelengths
n
are give by (see Topic 11.1)

n
2
=
L
n
where n = 1, 2 , 3
However from the de Broglie hypothesis we have that
n
n
2
h nh
p
L
= =
Using E
k
=
p
2

___

2m
we have therefore that the energy of the
electron E
n
with wavelength
n
E
n
=
n
2
h
2

_____

8m
e
L
2

Hence we see that the energy of the electron is quantized.
13.3.12 (B.1.12) THE SCHRDINGER
MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
In 1926 Erwin Schrdinger proposed a model of the
hydrogen atom based on the wave nature of the electron
and hence the de Broglie hypothesis. Tis was actually the
birth of Quantum Mechanics. Quantum mechanics and
General Relativity are now regarded as the two principal
theories of physics
Te mathematics of Schrdingers so-called wave-
mechanics is somewhat complicated so at this level, the
best that can be done is to outline his theory. Essentially,
he proposed that the electron in the hydrogen atom
is described by a wave function. Tis wave function is
described by an equation known as the Schrdinger wave
equation, the solution of which give the values that the
wave function can have. If the equation is set up for the
electron in the hydrogen atom, it is found that the equation
will only have solutions for which the energy E of the
electron is given by E = (n + )hf. Hence the concept of
quantization of energy is built into the equation. Of course
we do need to know what the wave function is actually
describing. In fact the square of the amplitude of the wave
function measures the probability of locating the electron
in a specifed region of space.
Te solution of the equation predicts exactly the line
spectra of the hydrogen atom. If the relativistic motion
of the electron is taken into account, the solution even
predicts the fne structure of some of the spectral lines.
(For example, the red line on closer examination, is found
to consist of seven lines close together.)
Te Schrdinger equation is not an easy equation to solve
and to get exact solutions for atoms other than hydrogen
or singly ionised helium, is well-nigh impossible.
Nonetheless, Schrdingers theory changed completely
the direction of physics and opened whole new vistas and
posed a whole load of new philosophical problems.
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13.3.13 (B.1.13) THE HEISENBERG
UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
In 1927 Werner Heisenberg proposed a principle that went
along way to understanding the interpretation of the
Schrdinger wave function. Suppose the uncertainty in
our knowledge of the position of a particle is x and the
uncertainty in the momentum is p, then the Uncertainty
Principle states that the product xp is at least the order of
h, the Planck constant. A more rigorous analysis shows that
4
h
x p
To understand how this links in with the de Broglie
hypothesis and wave functions, consider a situation in
which the momentum of a particle is known precisely.
In this situation, the wavelength is given by
h
p
=
and
is completely defned. But for a wave to have a single
wavelength it must be infnite in time and space. For
example if you switch on a sine-wave signal generator and
observe the waveform produced on an oscilloscope, you
will indeed see a single frequency/wavelength looking
wave. However, when you switch of the generator, the
wave amplitude decays to zero and in this decay there
will be lots of other wavelengths present. So if you want
a pure sine wave, dont ever switch the generator of and,
conversely, never switch it on. For our particle what this
TOK What is quantum mechanics?
Te advent of quantum mechanics meant that the determinism of classical physics was a thing of the past. In classical
physics, it was believed that if the initial state of a system is known precisely, then the future behaviour of the system
could be predicted for all time. However, according to quantum mechanics, because of the inability to defne the initial
data with absolute precision, such predictions can no longer be made. In classical physics it was thought that the only
thing that limited knowing the initial state of the system with sufcient precision was determined basically by precision
of the measuring tool. Te Uncertainty principle put paid to this idea uncertainty is an inherent part of Nature.
Tere have been many attempts to understand what quantum mechanics is really all about. On a pragmatic level, many
physicists accept that it works and get on with their job. Others worry about the many paradoxes to which it leads.
One of the true mysteries (apart from the ever famous Schrdinger cat) is the double slit experiment and its interpretation.
Fire electrons at a double slit and just like light waves, an observable interference pattern can be obtained. However, if
you observe through which slit each electron passes, the interference pattern disappears and the electrons behave like
particles. If you can interpret this then you can understand what quantum mechanics is all about. However, remember
what Richard Feynman had to say on this topic.
Finally, if quantum mechanics is the correct physics, why do we in this course spend so much time learning classical
physics? An example might sufce to answer this question.
If you apply Newtonian mechanics to the motion of a projectile, you get the right answer, if you apply it to the motion
of electrons, you get the wrong answer. However, if you apply quantum mechanics to each of these motions, in each
case you will get the right answer. Te only problem is, that using quantum mechanics to solve a projectile problem is like
using the proverbial sledge-hammer to crack a walnut. We must move on.
means is that if its momentum is defned precisely, then
its associated probability wave is infnite in extent and we
have no idea where it is. Efectively, the more precisely we
know the momentum of a particle, the less precisely we
know its position and vice versa.
From the argument above, we see that in the real world
waves are always made up of a range of wavelengths and
form what is called a wave group. If this group is of length
x, then classical wave theory predicts that the wavelength
spread in the group is given by
1
1 x

If we consider the wave group to be associated with a
particle i.e. a measure of the particle momentum, then
1 p
h

=


that is
p
x
h

1
or
p x h
We have in fact used the classical idea of a wave but
we have interpreted the term
1

as a measure of the
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uncertainty in the momentum of a particle and this leads
to the idea of the Uncertainty Principle. You will not be
expected to produce this argument in an IB examination
and is presented here only as a matter of interest.
Te Principle also applies to energy and time. If E is the
uncertainty in a particles energy and t is the uncertainty
in the time for which the particle is observed is t, then
4
h
E t =
Tis is the reason why spectral lines have fnite width.
For a spectral line to have a single wavelength, there must
be no uncertainty in the diference of energy between
the associated energy levels. Tis would imply that the
electron must make the transition between the levels in
zero time.
13.2 SL OPTION B.2
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
13.2.1 Explain how the radii of nuclei may be
estimated from charged particle scattering
experiments.
13.2.2 Describe how the masses of nuclei may
be determined using a Bainbridge mass
spectrometer.
13.2.3 Describe one piece of evidence for the
existence of nuclear energy levels.
IBO 2007
13.2.1 (B.2.1) NUCLEI RADII
In 7.1.2 we outlined how the Geiger-Marsden experiment,
in which -particles were scattered by gold atoms,
provided evidence for the nuclear model of the atom.
Te experiment also enabled an estimate of the nuclear
diameter to be made.
Figure 1307 shows an -particle that is on a collision
course with a gold nucleus and its subsequent path. Since
the gold nucleus is much more massive than the -particle
we can ignore any recoil of the gold nucleus.
region
occupied by
gold nucleus
path of incoming
path of defected -particle
-particle
d = distance of
closest approach
Figure 1307 An -particle colliding with a gold nucleus
Te kinetic energy of the -particle when it is a long way
from the nucleus is E
k
. As it approaches the nucleus, due
to the Coulomb force, its kinetic energy is converted into
electrostatic potential energy. At the distance of closest
approach all the kinetic energy will have become potential
energy and the -particle will be momentarily at rest.
Hence we have that
2
k
0 0
2
4 2
Ze e Ze
E
d d

= =
Where Z is the proton number of gold such that the charge
of the nucleus is Ze . Te charge of the -particle is 2e.
For an -particle with kinetic energy 4.0 MeV we have that
d =
Ze
2

______

2
0
E
k
=
79 1.6 10
19

___________________________

2 3.14 8.85 10
12
4.0 10
6

= 5.6 10
14

Te distance of closest approach will of course depend on
the initial kinetic energy of the -particle. However, as
the energy is increased a point is reached where Coulomb
scattering no longer take place. Te above calculation is
therefore only an estimate. It is has been demonstrated at
separations of the order of 10
15
m, the Coulomb force is
overtaken by the strong nuclear force.
13.2.2 (B.2.2) MEASURING NUCLEAR
MASSES
Te measurement of nuclear (isotope) masses is achieved
using a mass spectrometer. A form of mass spectrometer
is shown in Figure 1308.
Positive ions of the element under study are produced in a
high voltage discharge tube (not shown) and pass through
a slit (S
1
) in the cathode of the discharge tube. Te beam of
ions is further collimated by passing through slit S
2
which
provides an entry to the spectrometer. In the region X, the
ions move in crossed electric and magnetic felds.
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Plate
S
1
S
2
X
S
3
P
1
P
2
B
Y
Figure 1308 Measuring nuclear masses
Te electric feld is produced by the plates P 1 and P 2
and the magnetic feld by a Helmholtz coil arrangement.
Te region X acts as a velocity selector. If the magnitude
of the electric feld strength in this region is E and that
of the magnetic feld strength is B (and the magnitude of
the charge on an ion is e) only those ions which have a v
velocity given the expression Ee = Bev will pass through the
slit S
3
and so enter the main body, Y, of the instrument.
A uniform magnetic feld, B, exists in this region and in
such a direction as to make the ions describe circular orbits.
From Sections 2.4 and 6.3 we see that for a particular ion
the radius r of the orbit is given by,
r =
Be
mv
= Bev
mv
2
r
that is
Since all the ions have very nearly the same velocity, ions
of diferent masses will describe orbits of diferent radii,
the variations in value depending only on the mass of the
ion. A number of lines will therefore be obtained on the
photographic plate P, each line corresponding to a diferent
isotopic mass of the element. Te position of a line on the
plate will enable r to be determined and as

B, e and v are
known, m can be determined.
13.2.3 (B.2.3) NUCLEAR ENERGY LEVELS
Te -particles emitted in the radioactive decay of a
particular nuclide do not necessarily have the same energy.
For example, the energies of the -particles emitted in the
decay of nuclei of the isotope thorium-C have six distinct
energies, 6.086 MeV being the greatest value and 5.481
MeV being the smallest value. To understand this we
introduce the idea of nuclear energy levels. For example, if
a nucleus of thorium emits an -particle with energy 6.086
MeV, the resultant daughter nucleus will be in its ground
state. However, if the emitted -particle has energy 5.481
MeV, the daughter will be in an excited energy state and will
reach its ground state by emitting a gamma photon of energy
0.605 MeV. Remember that the energy of photons emitted by
electron transitions in the hydrogen atom which are only of
the order of several eV.
Te existence of nuclear energy levels receives complete
experimental verifcation from the fact that -rays from
radioactive decay have discrete energies consistent with
the energies of the -particles emitted by the parent
nucleus. Not all radioactive transformations give rise to
-emission and in this case the emitted -particles all have
the same energies.
Radioactive decay
13.2.4 Describe
+
decay, including the existence
of the neutrino.
13.2.5 State the radioactive decay law as an
exponential function and dene the decay
constant.
13.2.6 Derive the relationship between decay
constant and half-life.
13.2.7 Outline methods for measuring the half-life
of an isotope.
13.2.8 Solve problems involving radioactive half-
life.
IBO 2007
13.2.4 (B.2.4)
-
DECAY
We say in 7.2.2 that
-
decay results from the decay of a
neutron into a proton and that
+
decay results from the
decay of a proton in a nucleus into a neutron viz,
1 1 0
0 1 1
n p e

+ +

and

1

1
p
1

0
n +
0

1
e +
It is found that the energy spectrum of the -particles is
continuous whereas that of any -rays involved is discrete.
Tis was one of the reasons that the existence of the
neutrino was postulated otherwise there is a problem with
the conservation of energy. -decay clearly indicates the
existence of nuclear energy levels so something in -decay
has to account for any energy diference between the
maximum -particle energy and the sum of the -ray plus
intermediate -particle energies. We can illustrate how
the neutrino accounts for this discrepancy by referring
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to Figure 1309 that show the energy levels of a fctitious
daughter nucleus and possible decay routes of the parent
nucleus undergoing
+
decay.
parent nucleus
excited level of
daughter nucleus
ground state of
daughter nucleus

+


Figure 1309 Neutrinos and the conservation of energy
Te fgure shows how the neutrino accounts for the
continuous spectrum without sacrifcing the conser-
vation of energy. An equivalent diagram can of course be
drawn for
-
decay with the neutrino being replaced by an
anti-neutrino.
13.2.5 (B.2.5) THE RADIOACTIVE
DECAY LAW
We have seen in 7.2.6 that radioactive decay is a random
process. However, we are able to say that the activity of a
sample element at a particular instant is proportional to
the number of atoms of the element in the sample at that
instant. If this number is N we can write that
N
N
t

where is the constant of proportionality called the decay

constant and is defned as the probability of decay of a
nucleus per unit time.
Te above equation should be written as a diferential
equation i.e.
d
d
N
N
t
=
Tis equation is solved by separating the variables and
integrating viz,
d
d
N
t
N
=
such that
lnN = t + constant
It is then said that at time t = 0 the number of atoms is N
0

such that
0
ln = constant N
therefore
0
ln ln N N t =
or
0
t
N N e

=
Tis is the radioactive decay law and verifes mathemat-
ically the exponential nature of radioactive decay that we
introduced in 7.2.6.
13.2.6 (B.2.6) HALF-LIFE
Te radioactive decay law enables us to determine a
relation between the half-life of a radioactive element and
the decay constant.
If a sample of a radioactive element initially contains N
0

atoms, afer an interval of one half-life the sample will
contain
0
2
N
atoms. If the half-life of the element is T

from
the decay law we can write that
1
2 0
0
2
T
N
N e

=
or
e
- T

=
1
2
that is
T

=
ln 2

13.2.7 (B.2.7) MEASURING

RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE
Te method used to measure the half-life of an element
depends on whether the half-life is relatively long or
relatively short. If the activity of a sample stays constant
over a few hours it is safe to conclude that it has a
relatively long half-life. On the other had if its activity
drops rapidly to zero it is clear it has a very short half-life.
Elements with long half-lives
Essentially the method is to measure the activity of a
known mass of a sample of the element. Te activity can
be measured by a Geiger counter and the decay equation
in its diferential form is used to fnd the decay constant.
An example will help understand the method.
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A sample of the isotope uranium-234 has a mass of 2.0
g. Its activity is measured as 3.0 10
3
Bq. Te number of
atoms in the sample is
6 6
23
2.0 10 2.0 10
6.0 10
A
N


=

3.3 10
-16
Using
N
N
t

we have
3
16
3.0 10
3.3 10
N
t
N

= =

= 9.0 10
-14
s
-1
Using the relation between half-life and decay constant we
have
T

=
ln 2

=
14
0.69
9.0 10

= 7.6 10
12
s 2.4 10
5
years
Elements with short half-lives
For elements that have half-lives of the order of hours,
the activity can be measured by measuring the number of
decays over a short period of time (minutes) at diferent
time intervals. A graph of activity against time is plotted
and the half-life read straight from the graph. Better is
to plot the logarithm of activity against time to yield a
straight line graph whose gradient is equal to the negative
value of the decay constant.
For elements with half-lives of the order of seconds, the
ionisation properties of the radiations can be used. If the
sample is placed in a tube across which an electric feld is
applied, the radiation from the source will ionise the air
in the tube and thereby give rise to an ionisation current.
With a suitable arrangement, the decay of the ionisation
current can be displayed on an oscilloscope.
Te above is just an outline of the methods available for
measuring half-lives and is sufcient for the HL course.
Clearly in some cases the actual measurement can be very
tricky. For example, many radioactive isotopes decay into
isotopes that themselves are radioactive and these in turn
decay into other radioactive isotopes. So, although one
may start with a sample that contains only one radioactive
isotope, some time later the sample could contain several
radioactive isotopes.
13.2.8 (B.2.8) SOLVE PROBLEMS
INVOLVING RADIOACTIVE
HALF-LIFE
Example
1. Te isotope radium-223 has a half-life of 11.2 days.
Determine
(i) the decay constant for radium-223
(ii) the fraction of a given sample that will have
decayed afer 3 days.
Solution
(i) 0.0616 day
-1

(ii) 0.169
Exercise 13.2
1. Te isotope technetium-99 has a half-life of
6.02 hours. A freshly prepared sample of the
isotope has an activity of 640 Bq. Calculate the
activity of the sample afer 8.00 hours.
2. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 18 days.
Calculate the time it takes for
2
5

of the atoms in a
sample of the isotope to decay.
3. A nucleus of potassium-40 decays to a stable
nucleus of argon-40. Te half-life of potassium-40
is 1.3 10
9
yr.
In a certain lump of rock, the amount of
potassium-40 is 2.1 g and the amount of trapped
argon-40 is 1.7 g. Estimate the age of the rocks.
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14
14.1.1 Solve problems involving the conversion
between binary numbers and decimal
numbers.
14.1.2 Describe dierent means of storage of
information in both analogue and digital
forms.
14.1.3 Explain how interference of light is used to
recover information stored on a CD.
14.1.4 Calculate an appropriate depth for a pit
from the wavelength of the laser light.
IBO 2007
14.1.1 (C.1.1) BINARY AND DECIMAL
When we write down a number such as 236, we are actually
using a short hand notation and also assuming that the
number is to the base 10. In base 10, the short hand 236
actually means 2 10
2
+ 3 10
1
+ 6 10
0
i.e. 200 + 30 +
6. If the number were to the base 7, then 236 would mean
2 7
2
+ 3 7
1
+ 6 7
0
= 98 + 21 + 6 = 125 in decimal.
So, numbers can be to any base, the simplest, and perhaps
the most important, being base 2, or the binary system as
it is ofen called. Te reason why it is so important is that it
forms the basis of all modern information technology. And
why? Because the simplest electronic device is a switch
and a switch is either OFF (binary 0) or ON (binary 1).
In efect, the central processing chip of your computer
consists of millions of transistors acting as electronic
switches.
So if computers work with binary numbers and we work
with decimal numbers, we need to be able to convert
decimal to binary and vice versa.
Converting from decimal to binary is a little tedious.
Essentially, you have to fnd the largest power of 2 that is
less than the decimal number and then subtract and keep
repeating this until you reach 2
0
, putting a 1 for the frst
zero value reached then zeros for the powers of 2 that are
lef. We can see how this works for the number 236 by
looking at Table 1401.
power of 2 2
7
2
6
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
subtractions 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
denary number lef 108 44 12 12 4 1 0 0
binary 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
Figure 1401 Converting from binary to decimal
Te conversion therefore gives 236 in binary as 11101000
= 1 2
7
+1 2
6
+ 1 2
5
+ 0 2
4
+ 1 2
3
+ 1 2
2
+ 0 2
1
+ 0 2
0
= 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 = 236.
14.1 SL OPTION C.1 ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
14.1 (SL Option C.1) Analogue and digital signals
14.2 (SL Option C.2) Data capture; digital imaging using CCDs
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Clearly, as seen from this example, converting binary into
denary is a lot simpler. To emphasise the point the binary
number 10011 = 1 2
4
+ 0 2
3
+ 0 2
2
+ 1 2
1
+ 1 2
0
= 16 + 2 + 1 = 19.
NB. In the IB examination problems will be limited to 5
digit binary numbers.
Exercise 14.1 (a)
1. Convert the decimal numbers 15 and 62 to binary.
2. Convert 1000011 to decimal.
Least signicant bit (LSB) and
most signicant bit (MSB)
In any binary number the last digit on the right of the
number is referred to as the least signifcant bit (LSB) and
essentially determines whether the decimal number is odd
or even.
Te most signifcant bit (MSB) on the other hand is the
frst digit on the lef of a binary number.
For example, if we consider the binary number 11010, the
LSB is 0 and the MSB is 1. Te number is therefore a 5-bit
binary number of value 26.
Te least signifcant bits have the useful property of
changing rapidly if the number changes even slightly. For
example, if 2 (binary 00000010 ) is added to 3 (binary
00000011), the result will be 5 (binary 00000101) and
three of the least signifcant bits will change (010 to 101).
By contrast, the three most signifcant bits stay unchanged
(000 to 000).
A word of warning. In some literature the abbreviations
LSB and MSB stand for least signifcant byte and most
signifcant byte respectively. For bits, the abbreviations
are lsb and msb. A byte is just an 8-bit binary number so,
for example LSB would refer to the least signifcant 8-bit
number in an array of numbers.
14.1.2 (C.1.2) INFORMATION STORAGE
Essentially information may be represented in two forms,
analogue and digital.
Analogue information varies continuously and can have
an infnite number of values. For example, the length of
the mercury column in a mercury-in-glass thermometer
varies continuously and although you might read the
temperature as 18 C, it could be 18.324556791 C. On
the other hand, the information conveyed by a two colour
trafc signal is digital, that is, the signal is either red or
green.
If information is to be stored, then it can also be stored
in analogue or digital form. For example, personal
information such as name, address, age might be stored
as written information on a card index (analogue) or as
a series of punched holes on a paper tape (digital). Such
information can also be stored electronically on magnetic
tape (analogue) or on a digital versatile (video) disc,
DVD, (digital). Music or speech is stored on a long-
playing record (LP) in analogue form and on a compact
disc (CD) in digital form. Clearly, in the world of today,
most information is stored electronically and in digital
form and it this that this topic looks at in more detail.
We can understand how an analogue voltage signal can
be encoded as a digital signal by looking at the following
example.
Suppose the amplitude of the analogue voltage is 6.0 V.
Our digital storage device has a clock reference system as
shown in Figure 1402. Te 6.0 V voltage is then encoded
as the binary pulse 0110.
0 1 1 0
reference
pulse
binary voltage pulse
Figure 1402 A binary pulse
If a microphone is attached to an oscilloscope and you
sing into the microphone then the sound of your voice
is converted into an analogue voltage signal that will be
shown displayed on the screen of the oscilloscope. We can
now see from Figure 1402, the principle behind converting
your voice into a digital signal.
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14.1.3,4 (C.1.3,4) THE CD
Te essential structure of a CD is shown in Figure 1403 (a).
label
acrylic protection
aluminium
plastic
Figure 1403 (a) CD structure
0.5 m
1.6 m
depth 150 nm
Figure 1403 (b) CD micro-structure
Information is encoded onto the surface of the aluminium
as a series of bumps and fats. Te bumps represent a
binary zero and the fats a binary 1. Te dimensions of the
bumps and fats are very small indeed, about 0.5 m wide,
0.83 m long and about 150 nm deep. Te bumps and fats
are arranged along tracks which are separated by about 1.6
m as is shown in Figure 1403 (b). It is this that enables
such a great deal of data to be stored in such a relatively
small area. To read the data, light from a laser is shone
onto the aluminium. Te bumps appear as pits on the
aluminium side, but on the side that the laser reads, they
are indeed bumps. For this reason you will ofen come
across the term pit with reference to CDs and DVDs.
Te laser light refected from the fat will be read as a
binary one. However, if the depth of the bumps and the
wavelength of the light is just right, light refected from the
edge of the bump and the fat will interfere destructively
and the absence of refected light will be read as a zero. We
can illustrate this by means of the following example.
Example
Laser light of wavelength 780 nm is used to read the data
stored on a CD. Calculate the minimum height of the
bumps (depth of the pits) that must be etched onto the
CD in order that the stored data can be read.
Solution
Te light refected from the fat, that is the bottom of the
pit created by the bumps, travels a distance 2d further to
the receiver than the light refected from the bump (see
Figure 1404).
For destructive interference the path diference between
the light equals
2

.
Hence
780
4 4
d

= = = 195 nm.
d
receiver and emitter
Figure 1404 How a laser reads a CD
Te essential diference between a CD and a DVD is in
terms of the amount of data that they can store. Typically
a CD can store 650 MB and a DVD 4.7 GB. Te reason for
this is that in a DVD the pits are 0.44 m in diameter and
the tracks are only 0.74 m apart.
Te laser light used to read data from a CD or DVD is
focussed by a lens onto the pits and fats. Te lens acts
as a circular aperture and produces a difraction pattern
on the disk. If more than one pit falls inside the central
maximum of the difraction pattern, the pits cannot be
resolved and information is lost. Te Raleigh criterion
(see 11.4) gives the condition for resolution namely
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1.22
b

=
where b is the diameter of the lens.
If d is the distance of the focussing lens from the CD
surface and r is the radius of the principal maximum of
the difraction pattern formed on the surface, then
1.22
r
d b

=
Since, for a DVD, r is smaller than that for a CD, the above
equation shows that the wavelength of the laser light used
to read the data must be less than that used for a CD.
(Provided all other quantities remain constant).
14.1.5 Solve problems on CDs and DVDs related to
data storage capacity.
14.1.6 Discuss the advantage of the storage of
information in digital rather than analogue
form.
14.1.7 Discuss the implications for society of ever-
increasing capability of data storage.
IBO 2007
14.1.5 (C.1.5) SOLVE PROBLEMS ON
CDS AND DVDS RELATED TO
DATA STORAGE CAPACITY
Exercise 14.1 (b)
1. A typical wavelength of light used to read data
from a CD is 780 nm and from a DVD is 640nm.
Assuming that the physical dimensions of the
read-out mechanism for a CD and DVD are
approximately the same, estimate the ratio of the
depth of pit on CD compared to the depth of pit
on DVD.
2 Te wavelength used to read data from a DVD in
a particular DVD player is 635 nm. Estimate the
depth of the pits on the DVD.
14.1.6 (C.1.6) THE ADVANTAGES OF
THE STORAGE OF INFORMATION
IN DIGITAL RATHER THAN
ANALOGUE FORM
Te advantages of storing data in digital form as opposed
to analogue form can be summarised as follows:
quality and corruption
reproducibility (accuracy)
portability and high capacity
manipulation
Quality and corruption
Digital data is far less likely to be corrupted than analogue
data. For example, if speech or music is stored on magnetic
tape in analogue form, over time the magnetic feld
strength of the magnetised areas of the tape will decrease
and the information will become blurred and indistinct.
However, if the data is stored as regions of no magnetic
feld (0) and regions of magnetic feld (1), even when the
feld reduces in strength, the distinction between 0 and 1
will still be readable.
Reproducibility (accuracy)
When data is stored we ofen need to know where it stored
in the storage device. Digital data enables an address to be
given to each part of the storage system. Also, numeric data
can be stored to a much higher degree of accuracy than
analogue data (think about the thermometer mentioned
in 14.1.2). We have also seen that the same data can be
retrieved over and over again without it being corrupted.
Storing alphabetic data in analogue form is fraught with
problems not least in reproducing the data accurately.
With digital storage, each letter of the alphabet and
each punctuation symbol can be assigned a specifc
binary number. Te digital code used is called the ASCII
code - A(merican) S(tandard) C(ode for) I(nformation)
I(nterchange).
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Portability and high capacity
As we have seen above, an enormous amount of
information can be stored on CDs and DVDs. In
computing, foppy discs that can store about 1 MB have
been replaced with memory sticks that can store up to
8 GB (at the time of publication). All of these devices can
be easily slipped into a pocket or handbag.
Emerging technologies such as Blu-ray and HD DVD
have the capacity to store between 17-51 GB.
Manipulation
Te fact that numeric information can be stored accurately
in a digital form in elctronic calculators, for example,
means not only that it is much easier to manipulate and
process the data but the results of calculations should be
less prone to error.
Also the fact that alphabetic data is easily stored in
digital form means that the data can readily sorted and
manipulated as in a database.
14.1.7 (C.1.7) THE IMPLICATIONS FOR
SOCIETY OF EVER-INCREASING
CAPABILITY OF DATA STORAGE
Clearly there are issues arising from the ever increasing
amount of data that can be stored, and these issues are lef
for your teacher to raise during the teaching of this topic.
However, one issue in particular that your teacher might
like to consider is the moral and ethical implications of
the collection of personal data by Government and also by
commercial organisations. Do the benefts (e.g. tracking
down nefarious individuals and providing better consumer
choice) outweigh the risks (e.g. loss of individual rights
and the loss of privacy)?
In respect of commercial enterprises, the efect on the
environment of the increased paper output through
advertising, as well as the loss of privacy, should also be
considered. Te scope for discussion is indeed wide.
14.2 SL OPTION C.2
DATA CAPTURE;
DIGITAL IMAGING
USING CCDs
14.2.1 Dene capacitance.
14.2.2 Describe the structure of a charge-coupled
device (CCD).
14.2.3 Explain how incident light causes charge to
build up within a pixel.
14.2.4 Outline how the image on a CCD is digitized.
IBO 2007
14.2.1 AND C.2.1 CAPACITANCE
In Topic 9.3 we learnt that the potential V of a sphere of
radius r is which has a charge Q is given by the expression
0
4
Q
V
r
=
From this we see that the ratio
Q
V

is equal to
0
4 r . Tis in
efect means that the quantity of charge that can be stored
per unit of potential of the sphere depends only on its
geometry. Tis is in fact true for any system that can store
electric charge and we call this property of the system
capacitance. It is given the symbol C and is defned as
Q
C
V
=
Te SI unit of capacitance C V
-1
is called the farad (F). A
device that is manufactured to have a specifc capacitance
is called a capacitor. A farad is an enormous unit and
typical values of capacitance of commercial capacitors
range from pF to several F. To show just how large a unit
the farad is, the capacitance of Earth is only about 10
3
F
(4 8.85 10
12
6.4 10
6
).
14.2.2 (C.2.2) THE STRUCTURE OF A
CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICE (CCD)
A charge-coupled device (CCD) is a type of complimentary
metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) device. Te principle
of operation of the CCD is similar to the operation of a
photodiode in which an electric potential diference is
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generated by light liberating electrons from the valence
band of a semiconductor (Topic 8.1.12). Figure 1405
shows the basic structure of a CCD.
silicon pixels
- + - + - + - + -
silicon
oxide
electrodes
Figure 1405 The basic structure of a CCD
A layer of silicon dioxide about 5 m thick is placed on
the surface of silicon substrate about 500 m thick. Te
silicon dioxide is divided into regions called pixels. Each
pixel contains three electrodes. Each pixel essentially acts
as a capacitor.
14.2.3,4 (C.2.3,4) PRINCIPLE OF
OPERATION OF A CCD
What follows is just an outline of the operation of a CCD
since the actual operation is quite complicated and requires
a knowledge of solid-state physics that is beyond the level
of the IB course.
When light is focussed on to the surface of the CCD,
electron-hole pairs are produced in each pixel. Each photon
of the incident light will produce one electron-hole pair such
that the number of pairs produced will be proportional to
the intensity of the light incident on the pixel. Te electron
pairs will migrate to the relevant electrodes resulting in a
change in potential across the pixel.
It is this potential that is converted into a digital signal. At
the same time, the position of each pixel is also recorded
as a digital signal. In this way an intensity map of the
surface of the CCD is built up. Tis intensity map is in
efect an image of the source of the light focussed on
to the CCD. Te CCD is therefore acting like a piece of
photographic flm except of course that, in flm, the data is
encoded in an analogue form.
An example will help to illustrate the principle of operation
of the CCD.
Example
Suppose that a pixel has a capacitance of 40 pF and as the
result of light incident on the pixel for a period of 30 ms, the
change in potential across the pixel is 0.24 mV. Calculate
the rate at which photons are incident on the pixel.
Solution
From
Q
C
V
=
we have Q = CV = 0.24 10
-3
4.0 10
-11

= 9.6 10
-15
C
Number of photons = number of electrons produced
=
-15
-19
9.6 10
1.6 10

= 6.0 10
4
Terefore number of photons per second
=
4
2
6.0 10
3.0 10

= 2.0 10
6
s
-1
.
14.2.5 Dene quantum eciency of a pixel.
14.2.6 Dene magnication.
14.2.7 State that two points on an object may be
just resolved on a CCD if the images of the
points are at least two pixels apart.
14.2.8 Discuss the eects of quantum eciency,
magnication and resolution on the quality
of the processed image.
14.2.9 Describe a range of practical uses of a CCD,
and list some advantages compared with
the use of lm.
14.2.10 Outline how the image stored in a CCD is
retrieved.
14.2.11 Solve problems involving the use of CCDs.
IBO 2007
14.2.5-7 (C.2.5-7) QUANTUM
EFFICIENCY, MAGNIFICATION
AND RESOLUTION
Quantum eciency
In the foregoing example, we assumed that each photon
that is incident on a pixel gives rise to an electron-hole
pair. However, in practice some photons will be scattered
by the surface of the CCD and some might reach the
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silicon substrate without interaction with a valence
electron in the silicon oxide. Te percentage of photons
in the incident light that produce electron-hole pairs is
called the quantum efciency and it is usually in the range
70-80%.
Magnication
Te magnifcation of a CCD is defned as the ratio of the
length of image on the CCD to the length of the object.
Resolution
Te resolution of a CCD refers to the total number of
pixels that there are in the image collecting area of the
CCD. However, usually the resolution is defned in terms
of the pixel array. So for example a CCD might be said
to have a resolution of 1800 1600, that is the width of
the image is collecting area is 1800 pixels wide and 1600
pixels in length. Alternatively it could be said to have a
resolution of 2.88 megapixels (1800 1600).
It is worth mentioning that the human eye collects digital
data and in this respect the retina has a resolution of about
11000 11000 or about 120 megapixels.
Although the number of pixels defnes the resolution of a
CCD, we still need to know how good a particular device
is in actually resolving an image optically. For example if
we use a digital camera to photograph a distant binary star
system, will the CCD be able to resolve the two stars into
separate images? Essentially, the answer is yes, provided
that the separation of the image of each star formed on the
CCD is at least two pixels. If, say, for a particular CCD, the
pixel length is 1.5 10
-5
m then, for the binary star system,
the two images on the CCD will just be resolved if they are
separated by 3.0 10
-5
m.
14.2.8 (C.2.8) QUALITY OF IMAGE
Te greater the magnifcation of a given object, the greater
will be the length of the image on the CCD and hence the
greater the number of pixels that will be activated by the
incident light. Tis means that the image will be more
detailed. Also, the greater the resolution, the more pixels
there will be in a given length so this in turn will produce
a more detailed image.
Te greater the magnifcation and the greater the resolution
then the greater will be the resolving power of the CCD.
A word of warning here. Many digital cameras use what
is called interpolated resolution. What this means is
that sofware is used to add pixels to the fnal image, for
example adding more blue pixels to the parts of the
image that is blue. Although this process increases the
overall fle size, it does not add any further information to
the image. Tis process is similar to that employed by the
many photo-editing programs that are available. However,
remember that the only way that you can get more detail
from a CCD image is to physically increase the number of
pixels on the CCD.
14.2.9 (C.2.9) USES OF CCDS
We have already alluded to one of the main uses of CCDs
above, namely in digital cameras.
However, CCDs are used in a variety of other diferent
imaging devices such as photocopiers, fax machines, mail
sorters, and bar code readers. Tey are also used in closed
circuit television cameras and in video cameras.
Perhaps one of their most dramatic uses has been in
astronomy where there are used to detect very faint objects
and therefore (usually) very distant objects. Tey have in
fact been used in conjunction with the Hubble telescope
to detect objects that are about 10
11
times fainter than the
brightest star (Sirius).
Coupled with the ability of CCDs to detect low levels of
radiation, more recently they have been used to test how
efective certain drugs are in binding to their target and
they are now also used in X-ray imaging.
14.2.10 (C.2.10) IMAGE RETRIEVAL
Te following is a summary of image formation in a CCD
and image retrieval:
light from an object is brought to a focus on the
collection area
the light incident on the collection area varies in
intensity and wavelength
the number of electrons ejected from each pixel
will vary from pixel to pixel
the potential change associated with each pixel
varies from pixel to pixel
the potential changes across the collection area are
a map of the image of the object on the collection
area
each change of pd associated with a given pixel is
converted to a digital signal
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the position of each pixel is recorded digitally
these digital signals are converted to an image on
an LCD screen (see 11.5.9/A.6.9)
In our discussion of CCDs we should bear in mind that
we have not looked in any detail at the other parts of the
imaging device. For example, the device will have
electronics that is used for image retrieval and also an
optical system for focussing light on to the CCD.
Furthermore, the pixels do not produce colour. In digital
cameras, an array of colour flters is used to register the
intensity of a single colour at each pixel. Sofware then
uses the intensities of colours at neighbouring pixels to
estimate the intensity of the colour at a particular pixel.
Finally it has to be mentioned that CCDs are likely to be
soon supplanted by CMOS devices. Te latter are much
cheaper to produce and are also manufactured in much
the same way as the integrated circuits used in modern
microprocessors. However, the basic principles of image
formation and retrieval are the same as that of a CCD.
14.2.11 (C.2.11) SOLVE PROBLEMS
INVOLVING THE USE OF CCDS
Example
Te collection area of a CCD used in a particular digital
camera has an area of 30 mm 30 mm. Each pixel of the
CCD has an area of 2.2 10
-10
m
2
. Estimate the resolution
of the digital camera.
Solution
number of pixels =
2 2
10
(3.0 10 )
2.2 10

= 4.1 10
6

i.e. resolution = 4.1 megapixel.
Example
Light of wavelength 430 nm and intensity 1.4 mW m
-2
is
incident on a pixel of area 2.2 10
-10
for 20 ms. Te
capacitance of the pixel is 25 pF. Calculate the change
in potential diference across the pixel if the quantum
efciency of the CCD is 70%.
Solution
energy of photon
=
34 8
7
6.6 10 3 10
4.3 10
hc

= 4.6 10
-19
J
number of photons per second per unit area
=
3
19
1.4 10
4.6 10

= 3.0 10
15
number incident on pixel in 20 ms
=
15 10
3.0 10 2.2 10

2.0 10
-2
= 1.3 10
4
number of electron-hole pairs produced
= 0.7 1.3 10
4
= 9.4 10
3
charge produced = 9.1 10
3
1.6 10
-19
= 1.5 10
-15
C
using
Q
C
V
= then V =
-15
-11
1.5 10
2.5 10

= 0.060 mV
Exercise 14.2
1. A pixel has a capacitance of 40 pF. When
illuminated for a short period of time, a change of
potential of 0.20 mV is produced across the pixel.
Estimate the number of electrons liberated from
the valence band.
2. A CCD of a digital camera has an image collection
area of 25 mm 25 mm and a resolution of 5.0
megapixels. An object that is photographed by the
camera has an area of 4.6 10
-3
m
2
. Te image area
formed on the CCD is 1.0 10
-4
m
2
.
(a) Calculate the magnifcation.
(b) Estimate the length of a pixel on the CCD.
(c) Two small dots on the object are separated
by a distance of 0.20mm. Discuss whether
the images of the dots will be resolved.
3. Outline why, when the image area of a CCD is
illuminated, the change in potential will vary from
pixel to pixel.
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15
A.1.1 Describe the basic structure of the human
eye.
A.1.2 State and explain the process of depth of
vision and accommodation.
A.1.3 State that the retina contains rods and
cones, and describe the variation in density
across the surface of the retina.
A.1.4 Describe the function of the rods and of the
cones in photopic and scotopic vision.
A.1.5 Describe colour mixing of light by addition
and subtraction.
A.1.6 Discuss the eect of light and dark, and
colour, on the perception of objects.
IBO 2007
A.1.1 BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE EYE
T
he eye operates like a camera. Just as a camera
consists of a lens, an aperture or shutter, and a flm,
the eyeball needs a lens to refract and focus light on the
retina. Tis is where an upside-down image is formed and
the image is converted to electrical impulses that are sent
to the brain via the optic nerve, and translated into the
upright position. Figure 1501 shows the horizontal section
through a human eye.
Figure 1501 Horizontal section through the human eye
Te eyeball lies in a special cavity in the skull that contains
fatty tissue to protect the eye. Te wall of the eye has 3
layers the outer wall consisting of the sclera and cornea,
the middle wall consisting of a choroid, ciliary muscle and
iris, and the inner layer consisting of the retina.
Te white of the eye is moved about by six muscles and
the white fbrous coat at the front of the eye contains
the cornea which acts like a window of the eye. Inside
the white fbrous coat is a black layer that makes the eye
light-tight, and further in to the centre is the color-
pigmented part called the iris which contains muscles that
adjust the amount of light entering the hole in its centre
called the pupil. Behind the pupil is a converging lens
that is connected to the ciliary muscles. Te pupil is very
small in bright light and relatively big in dark light. Te
shape of the lens is controlled by the ciliary muscles, and
the lens becomes rounder and shortens its focal length to
(SL Option A1) The eye and sight
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Cornea
Iris
Pupil
Lens
Blood vessels
Blind spot
Optic nerve
Retina
Sclera
Vitreous humour
Conjunctiva
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view close objects, and, for distant objects it becomes less
round and increases its focal length. In a normal eye, a
real, diminished and inverted image of an object comes
into focus on the retina afer refraction in the lens.
Figure 1502 lists the main similarities of the components
of the eye and the camera that were briefy mentioned in
the beginning of this section.
Component of the Eye Component of the Camera
Cornea Aperture for admitting light
Iris Aperture diaphragm
Pupil Hole in the diaphragm
Lens Camera lens
Retina Film
Choroid Black lining
Sclera Camera case
Figure 1502 Components of the eye and the camera
A.1.2 DEPTH OF VISION AND
ACCOMMODATION
Te size of any image formed on the retina of the eye
depends on the angle subtended by the object at the eye.
Te closer the object is to the eye, the greater will be the
angle and thus the angular magnifcation as shown in
Figure 1503. However, if an object is too close to the eye
then there is difculty focusing the image.
80 80
Visual axis
Figure 1503 Near and far point of the eye
Te range over which an eye can sharply focus an image
is determined by what are known as the near point and
far point of the eye. Te near point is the position of the
closest object that can be brought into focus by the unaided
eye. Te near point varies from person to person but it has
been given an arbitrary value of 25 cm. Te far point is
the position of the furthest object that can be brought into
focus by the unaided eye. Te far point of a normal eye is
at infnity.
Te ability of the eye to focus over this range is called
accommodation and this is controlled by the ciliary
muscles pulling or relaxing in order to change the
focal length of the fexible eye lens. Te eye has most
accommodation for prolonged viewing when viewing at
the far point.
Te apparent size of an object can be increased by using a
converging lens to allow the object to be brought closer to
the eye, thus increasing the size of the image on the retina.
Tis is the basis behind the simple magnifer.
A.1.3 RODS AND CONES
Te retina contains two types of photoreceptors called
rods and cones that have complementary properties. Rods
have fast response rates, and are sensitive at low light
levels but they are insensitive to colour. Tere are around
120 million of them. On the other hand, cones have slow
response rates, and are insensitive at low light levels but
are sensitive to particular wavelengths of light, and give us
our colour vision. Tere are around 6.5 million of them. It
is believed that the cones can be divided into three colour
groups - red cones (64%), green cones (32%), and blue
cones (2%). Te variation in density across the surface of
the retina is shown in Figure 1504.
80
60
40
20
0
20
40
60
80
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
200
150
100
50
0
D
e
n
s
i
t
y

i
n

t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s

p
e
r

s
q
u
a
r
e

m
m
Angular separation from fovea (degrees)
Cone
density
Rod density
Visual axis
Optic nerve Fovea
Blind spot
Figure 1504 Variation of cone and rod density of the iris
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From the fgure it can be seen that cones are concentrated
around the fovea region and then have very low density
in other areas of the retina. Rods are not found around
the fovea but are in high concentrations in other retinal
areas. Both cones and rods are absent at the blind spot.
Red and green responsive cones are concentrated in the
fovea region and blue responsive cones are found outside
the foveal region.
A.1.4 PHOTOPIC AND SCOTOPIC VISION
Rods are responsible for scotopic vision which is the ability
to see at low light levels or vision in the dark or light levels
below 0.034 candela per square metre 0.034 cdm
-2
. Tey
do not mediate colour and are sometimes termed colour
blind. Because they do not mediate colour, they are said
to have low spatial resolution (acuity). Tey are excellent
photoreceptors because of their high sensitivity as shown
in Figure 1505. Teir single absorption maximum is 1700
lumens per watt (unit for luminous fux) at 507 nm. Tis is
in the blue region of visible light and this is the reason why
the rods do not mediate colour, and are more sensitive to
blue in the night.
1500
1000
500
400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm)
L
u
m
e
n
s

p
e
r

w
a
t
t
5
5
5

n
m
5
0
7

n
m
683 lumens
per watt
Photopic vision
(light adapted)
1700 lumens
per watt
Scotopic vision
(dark adapted)
Figure 1505 Absorption maxima for rods and cones
Cones are responsible for photopic vision or high light-
level vision, that is, colour vision under normal light
conditions during the day. Te pigments of the cones are
of three types long wavelength red, medium wavelength
green and short wavelength blue. Te cones are less
sensitive to light than the rods with their single absorption
maximum of 683 lumens per watt (unit for luminous fux)
at 555 nm. Te cone vision can adapt to changing levels
of light more rapidly than the rods and as such they have
high spatial resolution.
Te response curve of Figure 1506 shows that the
pigments of the cones have maximum absorbance values
at the wavelengths of 445 nm (blue), 535 nm (green) and
705 nm (red). Each response curves overlaps to provide
vision within the visible region of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
380 420 460 500 540 580 620 660 700 740 780
Wavelength (in nm)
A
b
s
o
r
b
a
n
c
e

(
i
n

%
)
(445 nm) (575 nm) (705 nm)
Figure 1506 Absorbance values for the 2 types of cones
Colour blindness or colour vision defciency is most
commonly a hereditary condition that can afect up to 12%
of males and about 1% of females. About 99% is red-green
colour blindness although blue-yellow colour defciency
also exists. It cannot be cured at this stage.
It occurs as a result of either a reduction of the pigment
in the cones or if one of the types of cones is completely
missing.
A.1.5 COLOUR MIXING BY ADDITION
AND SUBTRACTION
Te three primary colours are red, green and blue.
All visible colours can be perceived by the mixing
combinations of the primary colours by addition or
subtraction. In additive processes, colour is created by
adding light to a dark background and in subtractive
processes, pigments can be used to selectively block out
white light. Red and blue are mixed to form magenta
(a dark pink), green and blue are mixed to produce cyan
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(a light blue) and red and green are mixed to form yellow.
When the 3 primary colours are mixed, white light is
obtained.
In colour subtraction cyan and magenta are mixed to form
blue, magenta and yellow are mixed to obtain red, and
yellow and cyan are mixed to form green. When all the
secondary colours are mixed, black is obtained.
A.1.6 LIGHT, DARK, COLOUR
- THE PERCEPTION OF OBJECTS

TOK What is perception?
Students should consider architectural eects of
light and shadow (for example, deep shadow gives
the impression of massiveness). Glow can be used
to give an impression of warmth (for example, blue
tints are cold) or to change the perceived size of a
room (for example, light-coloured ceilings heighten
the room).
IBO 2007
Perception is a process of acquiring, interpreting,
selecting and organising sensory information. Te eyes,
with a reaction time of around 190 ms, can be used
in combination to sense aspects of depth, colour and
form.
Depth is important in scenery background and in
architecture. Te further you look into the distance of
scenery such as the Grand Canyon, the more blurred
it becomes due to the scattering of light. Shadows give
objects depth and scope depending on the direction
that the sun is coming from. In architecture, deep
shadow gives the impression of massiveness.
Colour is a way of creating a feeling within an
environment and perceiving what an object looks
like against diferent colours. For example, if the eye
concentrates on the central dot of four coloured dots
set against a diferent coloured matrix, and the three
other dots are made to rotate, the three dots disappear.
Te colour green evokes an impression of calmness
while blue evokes a sense of depression. Red glow can
give an impression of warmth while blue glow gives an
impression of cold.
Size is another way in which the brain operates as to
how we perceive things. For example, light-coloured
ceilings seem to heighten a room whereas sofer colours
tend to make a room smaller.
Exercise 15.1
1. Match the component of the eye that is similar to
the component of the camera in the table below.
Component Of Te Eye Component Of Te Camera
Aperture for admitting light
Aperture diaphragm
Hole in the diaphragm
Camera lens
Film
Black lining
Camera case
2. (a) Describe the properties of an image formed
in the eye.
(b) State the component of the eye where the
image is formed.
(c) Name the coloured part of the eye.
(d) Describe the function of the ciliary muscles.
3. Defne the terms near point and far point and state
the arbitary value of each term.
4. Distinguish the diference between the 2 types of
photoreceptors that are found in the retina.
5. Describe the function of the rods and of the cones
in photopic and scotopic vision.
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16
TOK The science of Astrophysics
Twinkle, twinkle little star, How I wonder what you are.
Our planet, Earth, is an insignifcant object orbiting an insignifcant star, the Sun. Te Sun is situated in one arm of an
insignifcant galaxy, the Milky Way, which contains around 200 billion stars. Te Milky Way measures about 10
5
light years
from one end to the other yet this enormous distance is tiny compared to the whole Universe which is about 10
10
light years
in diameter. A light year is the distance that light travels in a year. Tere are about 3.2 10
7
seconds in a year.
Te Milky Way is one of about 25 galaxies that make up a so-called local cluster. Some 50 million light-years from our
local cluster is another cluster of galaxies, the Virgo cluster, which contains about a thousand galaxies. Tere are other
clusters that can contain as many as ten thousand galaxies. Amazingly, all these diferent clusters are grouped into a so-
called super cluster. Between these superclusters are vast voids of empty space. However, interstellar and intergalactic
space is not completely empty. It actually contains gas and microscopic dust particles although the density is not very
great. Te density of interstellar space is estimated to be about 10
20
kg m
3
and that of inter-galactic space 10
25
kg m
3
.
Astrophysics is the science that tries to make sense of the Universe by providing a description of the Universe (Astronomy)
and by trying to understand its structure and origin (Cosmology). It is a daunting subject for not only does it encompass
the whole historical grandeur of physics but it also embraces all of physics as we understand it today, the microscopic and
the macroscopic. We cannot understand the structure of stars, their birth and their death unless we understand the very
nature of matter itself and the laws that govern its behaviour. It even takes us beyond the realm of physics for, as did our
earliest ancestors, we still look up at the stars and ask who am I and whats it all about?.
Tis Option can but scrape the surface of this truly vast topic.
E.1 (SL and HL) Introduction to the universe
E.2 (SL and HL) Stellar radiation and stellar types
E.3 (SL and HL) Stellar distances
E.4 (SL and HL) Cosmology
E.5 (HL only) Stellar processes and stellar evolution
E.6 (HL only) Galaxies and the expanding universe
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WHAT OBJECTS MAKE UP THE UNIVERSE?
Tis section gives a brief summary of what we know to
date about the various objects that make up the universe.
Galaxies
As mentioned, galaxies are vast collections of stars. Tere
are essentially three types of galaxy and these are discussed
in more detail in the AHL secction.
Quasars
Quasars were frst discovered in 1960 and their exact
nature still remains a mystery. Tey are extremely bright
objects having a luminosity equivalent to that of a 1000
galaxies. Tey are also very distant (Quasar 3C273 is some
3 billion light years away) and they are also much smaller
than any known galaxy.
Nebulae
Nebulae was the name originally given to misty type
patterns in the night sky. Many such patterns are now
recognised as being galaxies. Others are recognised as being
the debris of a supernova such as the famous Crab Nebula
that was frst recorded by the ancient Chinese astronomers.
Other so called dark nebulae such as the Horsehead nebula
contain a large amount of gas and dust particles and are
considered to be the birth places of the stars.
To conclude this introductory section, Figure 1601 shows
the distances as orders of magnitudes from Earth of
various astronomical objects.
Object Distance from Earth / m
Quasar 10
25
Nearest galaxy (Andromeda) 10
22
Centre of the Milky Way 10
20
North Star (Polaris) 10
19
Nearest star (Alpha Centauri) 10
17
Sun 10
11
Moon 10
8
Figure 1601 The distance of various astronomical objects
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The solar system and beyond
E.1.1 Outline the general structure of the solar system.
E.1.2 Distinguish between a stellar cluster and a
constellation.
E.1.3 Dene the light year.
E.1.4 Compare the relative distances between
stars within a galaxy and between galaxies,
in terms of order of magnitude.
E.1.5 Describe the apparent motion of the stars/
constellations over a period of a night and
over a period of a year, and explain these
observations in terms of the rotation and
revolution of the Earth.
IBO 2007
E1.1 OUTLINE THE GENERAL
STRUCTURE OF THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
Te planets of our solar system orbit the Sun in ellipses
with the Sun at one of the foci of the ellipse. Some planets,
like our own Earth, have a moon or moons, which orbit
the planet. As well as the nine planets many smaller lumps
of matter orbit the Sun. Between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter are many millions of lumps of rocks called asteroids.
Te largest of these Ceres, has a diameter of about 900 km
and the smallest are no bigger than about one metre in
diameter. Tis region containing the asteroids is referred
to as the asteroid belt.
Another group of objects that orbit the Sun are the
comets. Comets are basically lumps of ice and dust only
a few kilometres in diameter and their orbits about the
Sun are highly elliptical. Because of their small size they
are difcult to detect. However, as they pass near the Sun
the heat from the Sun starts to vaporise the ice of the
comet liberating dust and gases. Te liberated gases begin
to glow producing a ball of light, the coma, that can be
up to 10
6
km in diameter. Te coma has a long luminous
tail which can be 10
8
km in length. Comets are truly a
wonderful and awe-inspiring sight and were ofen in days
gone by considered to be portents of disaster. Perhaps the
most famous of the Comets is the Halley comet and was
last visible to the naked eye in 1986 and will make another
appearance in 2061 which is considerably sooner than a
comet called Hyakutake that has an orbital period of about
30,000 years. Figure 1602 summarises some of the details
of the planets.
Name
of
planet
Number
of
moons
Average distance
from the Sun /
10
6
km
Equatorial
diameter
/ 10
3
km
Mass
/ 10
23
kg
Mercury None 57.9 4.9 3.3
Venus None 108 12.0 49
Earth 1 150 12.8 60
Mars 2 228 6.8 6.4
Jupiter 16 778 143.0 19000
Saturn 18 1430 120.5 5700
Uranus 15 2900 51.2 866
Neptune 8 4500 49.5 103
Pluto 1 5920 2.3 0.13
Figure 1602 Some details of the planets
E.1.2 DISTINGUISH BETWEEN A
STELLAR CLUSTER AND A
CONSTELLATION
Stellar cluster
Tis is a number of stars that is held together in a group
by gravitational attraction. Te stars in the group were
all created at about the same time and there can be many
thousands of stars in a group.
Constellation
A constellation is a collection of stars that form a
recognisable group as viewed from Earth. For example
there is a constellation called the Andromeda constellation
which contains the galaxy called Andromeda. Te ancient
Greeks named many of the constellations and perhaps
two of the most easily recognisable are the Big Dipper and
the Great Bear. Constellations are useful landmarks for
fnding ones way around the night sky.
E.1 SL AND HL INTRODUCTION TO THE UNIVERSE
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E.1.3 DEFINE THE LIGHT YEAR
Te light year (l.y.) is defned as the distance that light
travels in a year. Tere are about 3.2 10
7
seconds in a
year and the speed of light is very nearly 3.0 10
8
m s
-1

meaning that one light year is equal to about 9.6 10
15
m, a
more precise value being 9.46 10
15
m.
E.1.4 COMPARE THE RELATIVE
DISTANCES BETWEEN STARS
Te stars in a galaxy are not uniformly distributed, however,
their separation on average is of the order of 10
17
m.
In the general introduction we mentioned the vast size of
galaxies and the vast number of stars in a single galaxy. We
also mentioned that galaxies form clusters. Te separation
of the galaxies in clusters is of the order 10
23
m and the
separation of clusters is of the order of 10
24
m. One increase
in the power of ten does not sound a lot but at these values
it means a huge increase in distance.
E.1.5 DESCRIBE THE APPARENT MOTION
OF THE STARS/CONSTELLATIONS
As night falls, the stars appear to rise in the East and as
the night progresses they move across the night sky until
they set in the West. Te Earth seems to be at the centre
of a giant celestial sphere and although each individual
star appears to keep a fxed position, the whole canopy of
the stars appears to rotate in a great circle about an axis
through the North and South poles of the Earth.
Because the stars appear to be fxed to a giant celestial
sphere they are ofen referred to as the fxed stars.
Te position of the Sun relative to the fxed stars varies
slowly over a course of a year. On the frst day of Spring, the
vernal equinox, and the frst day of autumn, the autumnal
equinox, the Sun rises in the East, traverses the sky, sets in
the West and day and night are of equal duration. During
summer in the Northern Hemisphere the Sun rises in the
Northeast and sets in the Northwest. Daylight hours are
longer than the night time hours and the further North
one goes the longer the daylight hours. In fact, north of
the Arctic Circle the Sun never sets. During winter in
the Northern Hemisphere the Sun rises in the Southeast,
moves close to the southern horizon and sets in the
Southwest. Daylight hours are shorter than the night-time
hours and north of the Arctic Circle the Sun never rises
above the horizon. Te Sun takes about a year to make a
journey from West to East around the celestial sphere.
Against the background of the canopy of fxed stars, certain
celestial objects do not move in circles. Tese objects
wander back and forth against the backdrop exhibiting
what is called retrograde motion. Tese are the planets
and the Greek word for wanderer is indeed planet. Te
Moon, like the Sun and the stars, traverses the night sky
from East to West. Te path of the Moon relative to the
fxed stars is close to that followed by the Sun. However, it
takes only about four weeks to complete a journey round
the celestial sphere. Te Moons path around the celestial
sphere varies from month to month but remains within
about 8 either side of the path followed by the Sun. During
the Moons trip around the celestial sphere it exhibits
diferent phases as seen from Earth, waxing from a new
Moon crescent to a full Moon and then waning from the
full Moon to a crescent new Moon.
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E.2.1 State that fusion is the main energy source
of stars.
E.2.2 Explain that, in a stable star (for example,
our Sun), there is an equilibrium between
radiation pressure and gravitational
pressure.
E.2.3 Dene the luminosity of a star.
E.2.4 Dene apparent brightness and state how
it is measured.
E.2.5 Apply the StefanBoltzmann law to
compare the luminosities of dierent stars.
E.2.6 State Wiens (displacement) law and apply
it to explain the connection between the
colour and temperature of stars.
E.2.7 Explain how atomic spectra may be used
to deduce chemical and physical data for
stars.
E.2.8 Describe the overall classication system of
spectral classes.
E.2.9 Describe the dierent types of star.
E.2.10 Discuss the characteristics of
spectroscopic and eclipsing binary stars.
E.2.11 Identify the general regions of star types on
a HertzsprungRussell (HR) diagram.
IBO 2007
E.2.1 STATE THAT FUSION IS THE
MAIN ENERGY SOURCE OF STARS
In Topic 7.3.8 we discussed the topic of nuclear fusion, the
process in which two lighter elements such as hydrogen
can combine to form a heavier element such as helium
and in the process liberate energy. We now know that this
conversion of hydrogen to helium is the main source of
energy for the stars. Very high temperatures (typically
10
7
K ) and pressures are needed for fusion, , in order
for the nuclei to overcome coulomb repulsion and get
close enough to fuse. Stars are formed by interstellar dust
coming together through mutual gravitational attraction.
Te loss in potential energy as this happens can, if the
initial mass of the dust collection is sufcient, produce
the high temperatures necessary for fusion. Te fusion
process produces a radiation pressure that can then stop
any further gravitational collapse.
E.2.2 EXPLAIN THAT, IN A STABLE
STAR, THERE IS AN EQUILIBRIUM
BETWEEN RADIATION PRESSURE
AND GRAVITATIONAL PRESSURE
In a stable star the thermonuclear processes taking place
within the interior of the star do in fact produce a radiation
pressure that just balances the gravitational pressure. If the
initial dust mass is about 80% of the mass of our Sun then
the temperature reached by gravitational collapse is not
high enough for fusion to take place. In this situation a
fully fedged star is not formed and instead we end up with
a hydrogen rich object called a brown dwarf.
E.2.3 DEFINE THE LUMINOSITY OF A STAR
Te energy radiated by a star is emitted uniformly in
all directions as shown in Figure 1603. Te total energy
emitted by the star per unit time (i.e. the power) is called
the Luminosity of the star, L.
For example our sun has a luminosity of 3.90 10
26
W.
(Sometimes written as L

)
E.2 SL AND HL STELLAR RADIATION AND
STELLAR TYPES
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star
Earth
d
L
Figure 1603 The luminosity of a star
E.2.4 DEFINE APPARENT BRIGHTNESS
AND STATE HOW IT IS MEASURED
By the time the energy arrives at the Earth it will be spread
out over a sphere of radius d. Te energy received per
unit time per unit area at the Earth is called the apparent
brightness of the star b where
b
L
4d
2
------------ =
Te apparent brightness of a star can be measured by
attaching a radiation sensitive instrument known as a
bolometer to a telescope. If d can be measured then the
luminosity of the star can be determined. Tis is a very
important property to know as it gives clues to the internal
structure of the star, its age and its future evolution.
If all stars were equally bright, then the further away from
the Earth a star is, the less its apparent brightness would be.
For example, if the distance of a star A is measured by the
parallax method (see below) and found to be is at distance
2d, it would have a quarter of the apparent brightness
of star A. A star that is at a distance 4d would have one
sixteenth the apparent brightness of star A. Te apparent
brightness falls of as the inverse square of distance.
However, stars are not all of the same brightness so unless we
know a stars luminosity we cannot use a measurement of its
apparent brightness to fnd its distance from the Earth.
Exercise 16.2
Te Sun is 1.5 10 1.5 10
11
m from the Earth. Estimate how
much energy falls on a surface area of 1 m
2
in a year? State
any assumptions that you have made.
E.2.5 APPLY THE STEFANBOLTZMANN
LAW TO COMPARE THE
LUMINOSITIES OF DIFFERENT STARS
Topic 8.5.10 introduced the Stefan-Boltzmann law for a
black body. If we regard stars to be black body radiators,
then luminosity L of a star is given by the expression.
2 4
4 L R T =
where R is the radius of the star, T its surface temperature
and is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. If we know the
surface temperature and the radius of two stars then we
can use the above equation to compare their luminosity.
However, in practice we usually use the law to compare
stellar radii as explained below.
E.2.6 STATE WIENS (DISPLACEMENT)
LAW AND APPLY IT TO EXPLAIN THE
CONNECTION BETWEEN THE COLOUR
AND TEMPERATURE OF STARS
Wiens (displacement) law
Wien discovered an empirical relation (which he later
derived) between the maximum value of the wavelength
emitted by a black body and its temperature. Te so-called
Wien Displacement Law is written as

max
T = constant
From measurements of black body spectra the value of the
constant is found to be 2.9 10
-3
m K so that we can write

max
2.9 10
3

T
------------------------ - =
Te spectrum of stars is very similar to the spectrum
emitted by a black body. We can therefore use the Wien
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Law to fnd the temperature of a star from its spectrum. If
we know its temperature and its luminosity then its radius
can be found from the Stefan law. Tis is shown in the
example below.
Example
Te wavelength maximum in the spectrum of Betelgeuse is
9.6 10
-7
m. Te luminosity of Betelgeuse is 10
4
times the
luminosity of the Sun. Estimate the surface temperature
of Betelgeuse and also its radius in terms of the radius of
the Sun.
Solution
Using the Wien law we have T
2.9 10
3

9.6 10
7

------------------------- 3000 = K.
From the Stefan-Boltzmann law L AT
4
4R
2
T
4
= =
From which we can write
L
L
Betel
--------------
R
2
T
4
R
Betel
2
T
Betel
4
----------------------------- =

or
R
Betel
R
--------------
T
2
T
Betel
2
--------------
L
Betel
L
--------------

Given that the surface temperature of the Sun is 5800 K,
substitution gives the radius of Betelgeuse to be 370 times
that of the Sun.
E.2.7 EXPLAIN HOW ATOMIC SPECTRA
MAY BE USED TO DEDUCE CHEMICAL
AND PHYSICAL DATA FOR STARS
Stellar spectra
If a sufciently high potential is applied between the
anode and cathode of a discharge tube that contains a
small amount of mercury vapour, the tube will glow. Tis
is the basis of fuorescent lighting tubes. We can arrange
for the radiation emitted from the tube to pass through a
slit and hence onto a dispersive medium such as a prism
or difraction grating. Te radiation can then be focused
onto a screen. Images of the slit will be formed on the
screen for every wavelength present in the radiation from
the tube. Unlike an incandescent source, the mercury
source produces a discrete line spectrum and a continuous
spectrum in the ultraviolet region. In the visible region,
mercury produces three distinct lines- red, green and blue.
Te wavelength of these lines is unique to mercury. In fact
every element can be identifed by its characteristic line
spectrum. See Figure 1604.
/ v
blue green red
350 400 450
Figure 1604 An example of atomic emission
We can alter the arrangement described above such that we
now shine radiation from an incandescent source through
the tube containing the mercury vapour when there is no
potential diference across the tube. Te radiation that
has passed through the tube is analysed as above. On the
screen we will now observe a continuous spectrum which
has three dark lines crossing it. Each line will correspond
to the blue, red and green emission lines of mercury. Tis
is what is called an absorption spectrum.
Absorption spectra can be used to fnd out the chemical
composition of the atmosphere of a star. Te continuous
spectrum from a star will be found to contain absorption
lines. Tese lines are formed as the radiation from the
surface of the star passes through the cooler, less dense
upper atmosphere of the star. Te absorption lines will
correspond to the emission lines of the elements in the
upper atmosphere of the star. Diferent stars have diferent
spectra. In some stars the lines corresponding to the visible
hydrogen spectrum are prominent. Other stars, like our
sun, have lines corresponding to the emission lines of
elements such as iron, sodium and calcium.
E.2.8 DESCRIBE THE OVERALL
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM OF
SPECTRAL CLASSES
Stars with similar appearing spectra are grouped together
into spectral classes, each class being related to surface
temperature. For historical reasons the classes, are labelled
OBAFGKM. Te stars with the highest temperatures
(< 30000 K) are in the O class and stars with the lowest
temperatures (3000 K) are in the M class. Our Sun with a
surface temperature of 5800 K is in the G class.
Te absorption spectrum of a particular star will depend
on its surface temperature. If the surface temperature for
example is above 10,000 K the photons, leaving the surface
will have sufcient energy to ionise any hydrogen atoms in
the stars atmosphere. Hence the absorption spectrum will
show little evidence of hydrogen being present.
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However, if the temperature is about 9000 K the photons
will cause excitation in the hydrogen atoms rather than
ionisation. Hence, in these stars the spectrum will show
strong hydrogen absorption lines. At temperatures above
30,000 K the photons have sufcient energy to produce
singly ionised helium and the spectrum of singly ionised
helium is diferent from neutral helium. Hence, if a stellar
absorption spectrum has lines corresponding to the
emission lines of single ionised helium, we know that the
star has a surface temperature in excess of 30,000 K. For
every element there is a characteristic temperature range
of the source which produces strong absorption lines.
When the efects of temperature are taken into account
we fnd that the composition of all stars is essentially the
same, about 74% hydrogen, 25% helium and 1% other
elements.
It should also be noted that stellar absorption spectra are
another check as to the value for the surface temperature
of a star which can be deduced from Wiens law. Te
Figure 1605 below summarises the spectral classes.
Spectral
class
Approximate
Temperature
range /K
Colour Main
absorption
lines
Example
O 30000-50000
Blue
violet
Ionised helium Mintaka
B 10000-30000
Blue
white
Neutral helium Rigel
A 7500-10000 White Hydrogen Sirius A
F 6000-7500
Yellow
white
Ionised metals Canopus
G 5000-6000 Yellow Ionised calcium Sun
K 3500-5000 Orange Neutral metals Aldebaran
M 2500-3500
Red
orange
Titanium oxide Betelgeuse
Figure 1605 The spectral classes of stars
E.2.9 DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENT TYPES
OF STAR
Red Giants
Tese are stars that are considerably larger than our Sun
and have a much lower surface temperature than our Sun.
Te super red giant called Betelgeuse has a diameter equal
to that of the distance of Jupiter from the Sun and a surface
temperature of about 3000 K.
White Dwarfs
Tese are stars that are much smaller than the Sun
(typically about the volume of the Earth) and have a much
higher surface temperature. Te white dwarf, Sirius B, has
a surface temperature of 20,000 K.
Neutron stars
Tese are stars which have undergone gravitational
collapse to such an extent that their core is efectively
made up of just neutrons.
Supernovae
When the core of a star can collapse no further, the outer
layers, which are still falling rapidly inwards, will be
refected back causing an enormous shock wave. Tis shock
wave will in turn tear much of the surface of the core away
in a colossal explosion. Te star has become a supernova.
In 1987 the star SK 69202 in the Large Magellanic Cloud
went supernova and for a brief instant of time its brilliance
was greater than that of the whole Universe by a factor of
a 100.
Pulsars
Tese are rotating neutron stars. As they rotate they emit
beams of electromagnetic radiation (usually of radio
frequencies) essentially from the poles of the star. Each
time a pole lines up with the Earth a pulse of radiation will
be detected at the Earth. In 1968 a pulsar was detected in
the Crab nebula which has a pulsing frequency of 33 Hz.
Black Holes
It has been suggested that certain stars that undergo
gravitational collapse will reach a density and radius such
that the gravitational feld at the surface of the star will be
strong enough to prevent electromagnetic radiation from
escaping from the surface. Such stars will not therefore
emit any light and are therefore said to be black holes.
Binary stars
Many stars that appear to the naked eye to be a single
point of light actually turn out to be two stars rotating
about a common centre. Sirius, the brightest star as seen
from Earth is in fact a binary star consisting of Sirius A
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and Sirius B. Sirius A is a main sequence star (see below)
and Sirius B is a white dwarf (see above)
Cepheid variables
Tese are stars whose luminosities vary regularly, generally
with a period of several days.
E.2.10 DISCUSS THE CHARACTERISTICS
OF SPECTROSCOPIC AND
ECLIPSING BINARY STARS
About half the stars visible from Earth actually consist of
two stars orbiting about a common centre. Such systems
are called binary stars. Stars that can actually be observed
as two stars orbiting each other are called visual binaries.
In principle it is a relatively easy matter to measure the
masses of two such stars. Te period of rotation depends
on the sum of the masses of the two stars and the
separation of the stars. (Actually the orbit is usually
elliptical so the separation is in fact the length of the
semi-major axis of one stars orbit about the other). By
measuring the angular separation of the two stars as seen
from Earth and knowing how far they are from Earth, we
can calculate their linear separation. Te period of
revolution can be measured directly (mind you, this might
take more than a lifetime since some visual binaries have
very long orbital periods) and hence the sum of the masses
can be found. Te stars actually orbit about their centre of
mass and the position of the centre of mass depends on
the ratio of the individual star masses. Te centre of mass
can be found by plotting the orbit of each star separately
and so the ratio of the masses can be computed. Knowing
the sum of the masses means that the individual masses
can be found.
Over many years the masses of many stars in binary
systems have been measured. Tis has enabled a very
important relationship to be established between the mass
of main sequence stars and their luminosities. Hence we
can determine the masses of single main sequence stars by
knowing their luminosities.
Eclipsing binaries
Some binary stars cannot be resolved visually as two
separate stars. However, the binary nature of the system
can be deduced from the fact that the stars periodically
eclipse each other. Te orientation of the orbit of the stars
with respect to the Earth is such that as the stars orbit each
other, one will block light from the other. As seen from
Earth the brightness of the system will vary periodically.
Tis variation in brightness yields information as to the
ratio of the surface temperature of the stars and also the
relative size of the stars and the size of their orbit.
Spectroscopic binaries
Te binary nature of a system can, in many cases, be
deduced from its spectrum. Figure 1606 shows the
observed spectrum of a possible binary system taken at
diferent times.
Day 1
Day 12
Day 23
A
B
C
Figure 1606 The spectrum of a binary system
Te two spectra A and C are identical. However,
corresponding to each line in these spectra there are two
lines in spectrum B. One of the lines is of a slightly longer
wavelength than the corresponding line in A and C and
the other is of a slightly shorter wavelength. Tey are red
shifed and blueshifed respectively. We can see how this
comes about by looking at Figure 1607.
Day 1 Day 12 Day 23
X
X
X
Y
Y
Y
Figure 1607 The red- and blue-shift
Te two stars X and Y are orbiting each other as shown.
Te stars are of the same spectral class and have identical
spectra. On day 1 the orbital plane is aligned with respect
to the Earth in such a way that star Y completely blocks
star X and so only the spectrum of star Y is observed. On
day 12 star Y is moving away from the Earth and star X is
moving towards the Earth. Because of the Doppler efect
(see Chapter 6) the light from Y as observed on Earth will
be red-shifed. Similarly because X is moving towards
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the Earth light from this star will be observed to be blue-
shifed. Hence spectrum B above will be observed. On
day 23 star X now completely blocks star Y so only the
spectrum from star X is observed.
Tis is an ideal situation and although it does occur, it is
more the exception than the rule. In many systems the
stars are not of the same spectral class and so the spectra
A and C will not be the same. However, spectrum C will
still show red and blue shif. For example one of the stars
might be so dim that its spectrum cannot be detected on
Earth. However, the single spectrum will shif back and
forth as the two stars orbit each other. Such systems are
called singleline spectroscopic binaries. A spectroscopic
binary might also be an eclipsing binary. Tese systems,
although not common, are very useful since it is possible
to calculate the mass and radius of each star from the
information that such systems give.
E.2.11 IDENTIFY THE GENERAL REGIONS OF
STAR TYPES ON A HERTZSPRUNG
RUSSELL (HR) DIAGRAM
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
In 1911 the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung
noticed that a regular pattern is produced if the absolute
magnitude (see next Section) (or luminosity) of stars
is plotted against their colour (surface temperature).
Two years later the American astronomer Henry Russell
discovered a similar pattern if the luminosity is plotted
against spectral class. (Efectively this is another plot
against temperature). In recognition of the work of these
two men, such diagrams are called Hertzsprung-Russell
diagrams. A typical H-R diagram is shown in Figure 1608.
You should note that neither the absolute magnitude scale
nor the temperature scale is linear, they are in fact both
log scales. For historical reasons the temperature scale is
plotted from high to low.
A
b
s
o
l
u
t
e
m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
-10
-5
0
+5
+10
+15
L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y
r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
t
o
t
h
e
S
u
n
(
3
.
9
1
0
2
6
W
)

100 000
10 000
1 000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
B A F G K M O
50 000 25 000 11 000 7 500 6 000 5 000 3 500
Spectral Class
Surface temperature /K
white dwarfs
giants
supergiants
main sequence
Figure 1608 The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
Te striking feature about this diagram is that the stars are
grouped in several distinct regions with a main diagonal
band that contains the majority of stars. For this reason
stars which lie in this band are called main sequence stars.
Te sequence runs from large luminosity and high surface
temperature (top lef) to small luminosity and low surface
temperature (bottom right hand corner). All stars in the
main sequence derive their energy from hydrogen burning
(fusion) in the core of the star.
Tere is another grouping of stars towards the top right-
hand corner that have a large luminosity and relatively low
surface temperature. To have such a large luminosity at
low surface temperatures means that these stars must be
huge. For this reason they are called giant stars. Cooler
members of this class have a distinctive red appearance
and are therefore called red giants. A few stars at low
surface temperatures have a very large luminosity (we have
already met one such star Betelgeuse in the constellation
of Orion) and these are called supergiants.
Tere is another grouping of stars towards the bottom
lef hand corner that have a low luminosity but very high
surface temperatures. Tis means these stars are relatively
small (typically the size of the Earth) and because of the
low luminosity are called white dwarfs.
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Parallax method
E.3.1 Dene the parsec.
E.3.2 Describe the stellar parallax method of
determining the distance to a star.
E.3.3 Explain why the method of stellar parallax is
limited to measuring stellar distances less
than several hundred parsecs.
E.3.4 Solve problems involving stellar parallax.
IBO 2007
Introduction
Astronomical distances are vast. For example, it was quoted
that the Sun is 25,000 light years (ly) from the centre of
our galaxy. Tis is of the order of 10
20
m. Te distance to
our nearest star is of the order of 10
17
m and the distance
to the quasar 3C273 is of the order of 10
25
m. How are such
vast distances measured? Let us frst of all look at some of
the units that are used in astronomical measurements.
E.3.1 DEFINE THE PARSEC
A useful astronomical distance is that of the average
distance between Earth and the Sun, the astronomical
unit (AU). 1 AU = 1.50 10
11
m.
We defne the parsec in terms of the AU. A line of length
1 AU subtends an angle of 1 arcsecond (one second of arc)
at a distance of one parsec. In Figure 1609 the object P is
1 pc away from the line AB. Since the angle is so small
the lines AP, BP and CP can all be considered to be of the
same length.
1 arcsecond
P
A
B
C
1 AU
1 parsec
Figure 1609 The parsec
Figure 1610 shows the relationship between the units of
distance.
1 AU = 1.496 10
11
m
1 ly = 9.46 10
15
m
1 ly = 63 240 AU
1 pc = 3.086 10
16
m
1 pc = 3.26 ly
1 pc = 206 265 AU
Figure 1610 The relationships bewtween units of distance
Exercise 16.3 (a)
1. Using the value for 1 AU given above and taking
1 year = 3.2 10
7
s, verify the conversions between
parsecs and light years given in the above table.
E.3.2 DESCRIBE THE STELLAR PARALLAX
METHOD OF DETERMINING THE
DISTANCE TO A STAR
Parallax is the apparent shifing of an object against a
distant background when viewed from two diferent
perspectives. Parallax can be easily demonstrated by
closing one eye and holding an index fnger close to your
other eye such that it blocks the view of some object at the
other end of the room. If you move your head, the object
will now come into view.
E.3 SL AND HL STELLAR DISTANCES
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In using the method of parallax to measure stellar
distances we must recognise the fact that the Earth is
moving through space. When you look out of the window
of a moving train or car, objects close to you move past
you very rapidly but it takes a long time for the distant
landscape to change. In the same way, the stars which are
a great distance from the Earth (in astronomical terms)
appear to keep their position whereas the nearer stars (and
the planets) appear to move against this background of the
so called fxed stars as the Earth orbits the Sun. For this
reason, astronomers regard the fxed stars as a reference
point against which to measure the direction of stars that
are closer to the Earth. Te position of these stars relative to
the fxed stars will depend from which point in the Earths
orbit about the Sun that they are observed. (Incidentally, if
we regard the Earth to be fxed in space then the fxed stars
appear to rotate about the Earth). Figure 1611 shows how
we can use the parallax method to measure the distance
from Earth of near stars.
Angle P
Earth (December)
1 AU
Earth (June)
Star
d
P
d
1 AU
Figure 1611 Using the parallax method
Te Earth is shown at two diferent points in its orbit
about the Sun separated by a time period of six months.
Te angular position (p) of the star is measured against the
fxed stars both in December and June.
Clearly we have tan p
c
=
1 AU

_____

d
.
However d is very much larger than 1 AU so the angle p is
very small and therefore tan p
c
p.
Terefore, we have p
1 AU

_____

d
d
1 AU

_____

p
.
E.3.3 EXPLAIN WHY THE METHOD OF
STELLAR PARALLAX IS LIMITED TO
MEASURING STELLAR DISTANCES
Te parallax method is used to measure stellar distances of up
to 100 pc (parallax angle 0.01 arcsec). Beyond this distance
the parallax angle becomes too small to be measured with
sufcient degree of accuracy. Te angle becomes comparable
to the error in measurement produced by distortions caused
by the Earths atmosphere. However, orbiting telescopes such
as the Hubble avoid this distortion and enable slightly larger
stellar distances to be measured by parallax.
E.3.4 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
STELLAR PARALLAX
Example
Te parallax angle for the star Sirius A is 0.37 arcsecond.
Calculate the distance of the star from Earth in
(a) metres
(b) parsecs
(c) astronomical units
(d) light years
Solution
(a) 1 arcsecond =
1

_____

3 600
degrees of arc.
Hence p = 0.37 arcs =
0.37

_____

3 600
= 1.03 10
4

2

___

360
rad.
1 AU = 1.5 10
11
m, hence
d =
1.5 10
11

________

1.8 10
6
= 8.36 10
16
m.
(b) If the parallax angle of a star is 1 arcsecond then it
is said to be at a distance of 1 pc and hence:

1

______________________

p(measured in arc seconds)
=
1

____

0.37
= 2.7 pc.
(c) 1 pc = 2.06 10
5
AU. Terefore
d = 2.7 2.06 10
5
= 5.6 10
5
AU.
(d) 1 pc = 3.26 ly. Terefore d = 2.7 3.26 = 8.8 ly. = 8.8 ly.
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Exercise 16.3 (b)
Our nearest star, Alpha-Centuari, is 4.3 light years from
Earth. Calculate the value of the parallax angle that gives
this distance?
Absolute and apparent magnitudes
E.3.5 Describe the apparent magnitude scale.
E.3.6 Dene absolute magnitude.
E.3.7 Solve problems involving apparent
magnitude, absolute magnitude and distance.
E.3.8 Solve problems involving apparent
brightness and apparent magnitude.
IBO 2007
E.3.5 DESCRIBE THE APPARENT
MAGNITUDE SCALE
An attempt to classify stars by their visual brightness was
made 2000 years ago by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus.
He assigned a magnitude of 1 to the stars that appeared to be
the brightest and to stars that were just visible to the naked
eye, he assigned a magnitude of 6. Values between 1 and 6
were assigned to stars with intermediate brightness. Tis is
an awkward scale but is essentially the one still in use today.
However, measurement shows that a magnitude 1 star has
an apparent brightness 100 times that of a magnitude 6
star. So we now defne the apparent magnitude scale such
that a diference in apparent magnitude of 5 corresponds
to a factor of 100 in brightness. Tis means that 100 stars
of magnitude 6 will produce as much power per unit area
at the surface of the Earth as a single star of apparent
magnitude 1.
To see how the scale works in practice let us work out the
ratio of the brightness of a magnitude 1 star to that of a
magnitude 2 star.
Let this ratio be r. A change from magnitude 6 to
magnitude 1 is a change of 5 magnitudes corresponding
to a change in brightness of 100. Hence the factor r
5
which
gives a change of 5 magnitudes is equal to 100.
i.e., r
5
100 r 2.512 = =
Hence a magnitude 1 star is 2.512 times as bright as a
magnitude 2 star.
Tat is, if the diference between the apparent magnitude of
two stars is 1, the ratio of their apparent brightness is 2.512.
Hence a star that has an apparent magnitude of zero will be
2.512 times as bright as star of apparent magnitude 1.
If the diference between the apparent magnitude is 2 then
the ratio of the apparent brightness will be (2.512)
2
= 6.31
and if the diference between the apparent magnitude is
3 the ratio of the brightness will be (2.512)
3
= 15.85. In
general, therefore, if we have two stars, one of apparent
magnitude m
1
and the other of magnitude m
2
the ratio of
their apparent brightness
b
1
b
2
----- is given by:
m
2
m
1
=
1
log (2.512)
log
b
2
b
1

E.3.6 DEFINE ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE

Apparent magnitude is a measure of the apparent brightness
of a star as viewed from Earth. In order to get a measure
of a stars actual luminosity, astronomers standardise
the idea of apparent magnitude by placing stars (and
galaxies) all at the same distance from the Earth. Tis
distance is chosen to be 10 pc. Te apparent magnitude at
this distance is called the absolute magnitude, M.
E.3.7 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
APPARENT MAGNITUDE, ABSOLUTE
MAGNITUDE AND DISTANCE
Suppose a star has an apparent magnitude m and an
apparent brightness b and it is at a distance d measured
in parsecs from the Earth. Its brightness if it were at a
distance of 10 pc from the Earth would be, by the inverse
square law,
b
d 10 ( )
2
--------------------
. Hence if we use the equation relating
apparent magnitudes and brightness we have
b
1
b
2
-----
100
d
2
--------- 2.521 ( )
M m
= =
Tis equation can only be solved using logarithms. In
logarithmic form the equation actually becomes
M m 2.5
100
d
2
-------- -


log 5 5 d log = =
or m M 5 d 5 log =
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Te nearest star to the Sun is Alpha Centauri at a distance
of 1.3 pc. With an apparent magnitude of 0.1, Alpha
Centauri has an absolute magnitude of 4.5. Tis means
that the Sun and Alpha Centauri have very nearly the
same luminosity.
Betelgeuse on the other hand, at a distance of 130 pc has
an apparent magnitude of +0.50 that gives an absolute
magnitude of 5.14 E. Tis means that if Betelgeuse where
at 10 pc from the Earth its brightness would be (2.512)
9.96

greater than the Sun. (Te diferences in the absolute
magnitudes is 9.96). Tis means that Betelgeuse has
luminosity some 10000 times that of the Sun.
E.3.8 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
APPARENT BRIGHTNESS AND
APPARENT MAGNITUDE
Example
Te apparent magnitude of the Sun is -26.7 and that of
Betelgeuse 0.50. Calculate how much brighter the Sun is
than Betelgeuse.
Solution
We have m
2
for Betelgeuse = 0.50 and m
1
for the Sun = 26.7
to give m
2
m
1
the diference in the apparent magnitudes
equal to 27.2.
We therefore have that the ratio,
b
1
b
2
-----
, of the brightness of that
of the Sun to that of Betelgeuse to equal
2.512
27.2
= 7.6 10
10
.
Tat is the Sun is approximately 80000 million times
brighter than Betelgeuse (if both of them are viewed from
the Earth).
Exercise 16.3 (c)
Te apparent magnitude of the Andromeda galaxy is 4.8
and that of the Crab Nebula is 8.4. Determine which of
these is the brightest and by how much.
Example
Calculate the absolute magnitude of the Sun.
Solution
Te apparent magnitude of the Sun is 26.7
Te distance of the Sun from Earth = 1 AU = 4.9 10
-6
pc
Terefore m M 5 4.9 10
6
( ) 5 log = or
m M = - 26.5 5.
To give M = + 4.8.
Spectroscopic parallax
E.3.9 State that the luminosity of a star may be
estimated from its spectrum.
E.3.10 Explain how stellar distance may be
determined using apparent brightness and
luminosity.
E.3.11 State that the method of spectroscopic
parallax is limited to measuring stellar
distances less than about 10 Mpc.
E.3.12 Solve problems involving stellar distances,
apparent brightness and luminosity.
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E.3.9,10 THE LUMINOSITY AND
STELLAR DISTANCE OF A STAR
We have seen that determining the distance to stars using
the method of parallax is only of use up to distances of
about 100 pc. Beyond this distance the parallax angle is too
small to determine with any degree of accuracy. However,
when we discussed apparent brightness and luminosity we
found that, from the inverse square law, if the luminosity
of a star and its apparent brightness are known, then its
distance from Earth can be determined.
Te apparent brightness can be measured directly but how
do we measure the luminosity? Te key to this is the HR
diagram and the spectral class of the star. Te spectral class
of the star is in fact determined from the absorption line
spectrum of the star. Te surface temperature can also be
determined from its spectrum (Wiens law) and this then
enables us to plot the star on the HR diagram and hence
determine its luminosity.
Tis method of determining the distance to a star from
information gleaned from its spectra is known somewhat
misleadingly as spectroscopic parallax, misleading since
no parallax is involved in the method.
E.3.11 STATE THAT THE METHOD OF
SPECTROSCOPIC PARALLAX IS LIMITED
TO MEASURING STELLAR DISTANCES
LESS THAN ABOUT 10 MPC
In theory there is no limit to the stellar distances that can
be obtained using the method of spectroscopic parallax.
However, in practice beyond 10 Mpc, the error in the
determination of the luminosity becomes too large to
compute the distance to within a sensible degree of
accuracy.
E.3.12 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
STELLAR DISTANCES, APPARENT
BRIGHTNESS AND LUMINOSITY
Example
Te star Regulus in the constellation of Leo has an
apparent brightness of 5.2 10
12
that of the Sun and a
luminosity 140 times that of the Sun. If the distance from
the Earth to the Sun is 4.9 10
6
pc, how far from the
Earth is Regulus?
Solution
From the inverse square law we know:
b =
L

____

4d
2

L
sun ___
L
reg
=
d
sun
2
___
d
reg
2

b
sun ___
b
reg

From which: d
reg

2
=
(

L
reg

___

L
sun

)

(

b
sun

___

b
reg

)
d
sun

2

= 140
(

1

_________

5.2 10
12

)
( 4.9 10
6
)
2

To give, d
reg
= 25pc.
Cepheid variables
E.3.13 Outline the nature of a Cepheid variable.
E.3.14 State the relationship between period and
absolute magnitude for Cepheid variables.
E.3.15 Explain how Cepheid variables may be used
as standard candles.
E.3.16 Determine the distance to a Cepheid
variable using the luminosityperiod
relationship.
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E.3.13 OUTLINE THE NATURE OF A
CEPHEID VARIABLE
Clearly there are problems with measuring stellar distance
beyond 100 pc, the distance limit of the parallax method.
(As mentioned above, the Hubble telescope enables this
limit to be extended somewhat). However, we have seen
that if we can measure the apparent brightness of star and
its luminosity then we can determine its distance from
the relation L = 4d
2
b. In the preceding section we saw
that the method of spectroscopic parallax is a powerful
tool for determining the luminosity of stars and hence
the distance to stars in galaxies beyond the Milky Way.
However, there is another method that enables distances
greater than 10 Mpc (the limit of spectroscopic parallax)
to be determined with great accuracy.
E.3.14 STATE THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN PERIOD AND
ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE FOR
CEPHEID VARIABLES
In 1784 the amateur astronomer John Goodricke noted
that the luminosity of the star Delta Cephei varied
regularly. He recorded the apparent magnitude as reaching
a maximum of 4.4 and then falling to a minimum of 3.5
in four days, rising to the maximum again in the following
1.5 days. We now know that this periodic change in
luminosity is due to the outer layers of the star undergoing
periodic contractions and expansions. Tere are however,
two types of Cepheid imaginatively called Type-I and
Type-II.
Many other variable stars have since been discovered and
they are given the general name Cepheid variables. Te
position of the Cepheids on the HR diagram is shown in
Figure 1612.
main sequence
100,000
10,000
100
1
l
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y

/

L

40 000 , 20,000 10,000 5,000

surface temperature / K
instability strip
Cepheids
Figure 1612 The position of Type II Cepheid
variables on the HR diagram
E.3.15 EXPLAIN HOW CEPHEID
VARIABLES MAY BE USED AS
STANDARD CANDLES
Cepheid variables are extremely important in determining
distances to galaxies. Tis is because they are extremely
luminous (typically 10
4
L

) and therefore relatively easily

located and also because of the so-called period-luminosity
relationship.
Te American astronomer Henrietta Leavitt showed
that there is a actually a linear relationship between the
luminosity and period of Cepheid variables.
Te graph in Figure 1613 shows the period-luminosity
relationship for Type-II Cepheids.
The Period-Luminosity Relation for Cepheids
1 10 100
period / days
l
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y

/

p
o
w
e
r

o
f

1
0
,

S
u
n

=

1
1
2
3
4
5
Figure 1613 The period-luminosity relationship for Cepheids
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When a Cepheid is located then, by measuring the
period, we can determine its luminosity from the period-
luminosity relationship. If the apparent brightness of the
star is measured then its distance can be computed from
the inverse square law.
Cepheid variables act as a sort of standard candle in as
much as they can be used to check distance measurements
made using parallax and/or spectroscopic parallax.
However, beyond about 60 Mpc Cepheids are too faint
and measurement of their period becomes unreliable.
Other techniques have to be used to measure distances
greater than 60 Mpc. A summary is given at the end of
this chapter outlining these techniques.
E.3.16 DETERMINE THE DISTANCE TO
A CEPHEID VARIABLE USING
THE LUMINOSITYPERIOD
RELATIONSHIP
Example
Te star -Cepheid is 300 pc from the Earth (Tis distance
can be determined by parallax from the Hubble telescope).
Another variable star is detected in a distant galaxy that
has the same period as -Cepheid but with an apparent
brightness of 10
9
of that of -Cepheid. How far is the
galaxy from Earth?
Solution
Te two stars have the same luminosity hence
L
star
L

4d
star
2
b
star
4d

2
b

= = =
Hence
d
star
d

----------
b

b
star
---------- 3.2 10
4
= =
Te galaxy is therefore 3.2 10
4
300 pc 10 Mpc from Earth.
Summary
Te two fow charts in Figures 1614 and 1615 summarise
the ideas that we have met so far in this chapter as to how
we gain information about the nature of stars and their
distance from Earth.
distance
measurement
by parallax
apparent
brightness b
spectrum
chemical
composition
of corona
d 1 p =
Luminosity
L 4bd
2
=
Wiens Law
surface
temperature T
Stefan-Boltzmann
L 4R
2
T
4
=
Radius R
Figure 1614 Distance measured by parallax
Apparent
brightness (b)
Spectrum
Luminosity
class
Spectral type
Chemical
composition
Cepheid
variable
Period HR diagram
Surface temperature (T)
Wiens law
Luminosity (L)
Stefan Boltzmann
Distance (d) ( Radius R)
L 4R
2
T
4
=
b
L
4d
2
------------ =
Figure 1615 Distance determined by spectroscopic
parallax - cepheid variables
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Olbers paradox
E.4.1 Describe Newtons model of the universe.
E.4.2 Explain Olbers paradox.
IBO 2007
E.4.1 DESCRIBE NEWTONS MODEL
OF THE UNIVERSE
Newtons view of the Universe was that it is infnite in
extent, contains an infnite number of stars, is static and
exists forever. He argued that if this were not the case
then the force of gravity between a fnite number of stars
in a fnite universe would draw them together such that
eventually the Universe would become a single spherical
lump of matter. In the early 1800s a German amateur
astronomer, Henrich Olber, pointed out that Newtons
view leads to a paradox. If the universe is infnite and
contains an infnite number of stars then no matter in
which direction you looked from the Earth you would see
a star. Te sky should be ablaze with stars. Olbers paradox
is then How come the night sky is black. Or as Kepler put
it 30 years before Newton was born, Why is the sky dark
at night?
E.4.2 EXPLAIN OLBERS PARADOX
A simple mathematical argument shows that an infnite
universe leads to the view that the sky should be equally
bright in all directions to all observers at any place in the
Universe.
In Figure 1616 we suppose that the stars are distributed
evenly with a density . To an observer the number of stars
in a thin shell of thickness d at a distance R away will be
4R
2
d.(If the shell is very thin then the volume of the
shell is 4R
2
d).
observer
R
d
Figure 1616 Olbers paradox
Te volume of such shells therefore increases with R
2
,
which means that the number of stars observed increase as
R
2
. But the luminosity of any shell falls of as
1
R
2
------
. Hence the
Universe should be uniformly bright in any direction since
the luminosity depends only on the density distribution of
the stars.
Clearly the night sky is dark and so therefore we must
conclude that the universe is not infnite nor are there an
infnite number of stars in the universe evenly distributed.
For an explanation as to why the night sky is dark we
must propose a diferent model of the universe to that put
forward by Newton.
The Big Bang model
E.4.3 Suggest that the red-shift of light from
galaxies indicates that the universe is
expanding.
E.4.4 Describe both space and time as
originating with the Big Bang.
E.4.5 Describe the discovery of cosmic
microwave background (CMB) radiation by
Penzias and Wilson.
E.4.6 Explain how cosmic radiation in the
microwave region is consistent with the Big
Bang model.
E.4.7 Suggest how the Big Bang model provides
a resolution to Olbers paradox.
IBO 2007
E.4 SL AND HL COSMOLOGY
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E.4.3 SUGGEST THAT THE RED-SHIFT OF
LIGHT FROM GALAXIES INDICATES
THAT THE UNIVERSE IS EXPANDING
In Topic 11.2 (A.3) we discussed the apparent shif in
frequency of a moving source the so-called Doppler
Efect. Essentially, if a sound source is moving away from
an observer then the observer will measure the source as
emitting a lower frequency (and longer wavelength) than
when the source is stationary. Te same efect arises with
light sources. Suppose for example an observer measured
the visible line spectrum of atomic hydrogen and then
compared the wavelengths of the lines with that of a
spectrum produced by a hydrogen source that is moving
away from him. Te lines in the spectrum of the moving
source will be measured as having a longer wavelength
than those in the spectrum of the stationary source. We say
that the spectrum from the moving source is red-shifed.
Te faster the source is moving away from the observer,
the greater will be the red-shif.
In 1920s Edwin Hubble and Milton Humanson photo-
graphed the spectra of a large number of galaxies and
found that most of the spectra showed a red-shif (Nine
years earlier the astronomer Vesto Slipher had detected the
red-shif in several nebulae. However, at this time it was
not known that the nebulae were galaxies). Tis means
that the galaxies must be moving away from the Earth.
E.4.4 DESCRIBE BOTH SPACE AND TIME AS
ORIGINATING WITH THE BIG BANG
If all the galaxies are rushing away from each other then
it is feasible to assume that in the past they were much
closer together. It is possible to imagine that sometime
long ago all the matter in the Universe was concentrated
into a smaller volume. An explosion then occurred that
threw the matter apart.
Te prevailing view of the creation of the Universe is that
some 10-20 billion years ago all the matter of the Universe
was concentrated into a point of infnite density. Ten
a cataclysmic explosion initiated the expansion of the
Universe. Te explosion is called the Big Bang. However,
we must not think of this like an exploding bomb. When
a bomb explodes the shrapnel fies of into space. When
the Big Bang happened matter did not fy of into space
but space and time itself were created. Before the Big Bang
there was no time and there was no space. As the universe
expands more and more space is created. In this sense it
is wrong to think of the galaxies rushing away from each
other. It is the space in which the galaxies are situated
that is expanding. Tere is simple analogy that helps
understand this and one that you can easily demonstrate
for yourself. Partially infate a toy balloon and then stick
little bits of paper on to it at diferent places. Te surface
of the balloon represents space and the bits of paper
represent galaxies. As you now further infate the balloon
you will see the galaxies move away from each other. Te
galaxies move even though they are fxed in space because
space is expanding.
We must not take the balloon analogy too literally since
the balloon is expanding into space whereas the expanding
Universe is creating space. Tere is no outside of the
Universe into which it expands. So to ask the question
what is outside the Universe? is just as meaningless
as the question what was there before the Big Bang?
However, the analogy does help us appreciate that there is
no centre to the Universe. Any one of the bits of paper can
be chosen as a reference point and all other bits of paper
will be appear to be receding form this reference point.
Tis is exactly the same for the galaxies in our Universe.
Te expanding Universe also helps us understand the
origin of the red-shif observed from distant galaxies.
Strictly speaking this is not due to the Doppler efect
since the galaxies themselves are not receding from us,
it is the space between them that is expanding. When a
photon leaves a galaxy and travels through space as the
space through which it travels expands, the wavelength
associated with the photon will increase in length. Te
longer it spends on its journey through space the more its
wavelength will increase. Hence when the photon reaches
our eyes it will be redshifed and the further from whence
it originated, the greater will be the red-shif.
E.4.5 DESCRIBE THE DISCOVERY OF
COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND
(CMB) RADIATION BY PENZIAS
AND WILSON
We know that about 24% of the Universe is made up of
helium. Calculation shows that the helium produced by
nuclear fusion within stars cannot account for this amount.
In 1960 two physicists, Dicke and Peebles proposed that
sometime during the early history of the Universe it was
at a sufciently high temperature to produce helium by
fusion. In this process many high energy photons would be
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produced. Te photons would have a black body spectrum
corresponding to the then temperature of the Universe. As the
Universe expanded and cooled the photon spectrum would
also change with their maximum wavelength shifing in
accordance with Wiens law. It is estimated that, at the present
time, the photons should have a maximum wavelength
corresponding to a black body spectrum of 3 K.
E.4.6 EXPLAIN HOW COSMIC RADIATION
IN THE MICROWAVE REGION IS
CONSISTENT WITH THE BIG BANG
MODEL
Shortly afer this prediction, Penzias and Wilson were
working with a microwave aerial and they found that, no
matter in what direction they pointed the aerial, it picked
up a steady, continuous background radiation. Tey soon
realised that they had discovered the remnants of the
radiation predicted by Dicke and Peebles. Tis was further
evidence that the Universe started life with a bang.
Te most modern day measurements confrm all space
is flled with radiation corresponding to a black body
spectrum of 2.726 K.
E.4.7 SUGGEST HOW THE BIG BANG
MODEL PROVIDES A RESOLUTION
TO OLBERS PARADOX
Te Big Bang model leads to the idea that space is
expanding and that within this space, the distribution of
the galaxies (and the stars in them) is not uniform. Te
model is therefore completely at odds with Newtons
model of a uniform, static universe, thereby providing a
resolution to Olbers paradox.
The development of the universe
E.4.8 Distinguish between the terms open, at
and closed when used to describe the
development of the universe.
E.4.9 Dene the term critical density by reference
to a at model of the development of the
universe.
E.4.10 Discuss how the density of the universe
determines the development of the
universe.
E.4.11 Discuss problems associated with
determining the density of the universe.
E.4.12 State that current scientic evidence
suggests that the universe is open.
E.4.13 Discuss an example of the international
nature of recent astrophysics research.
E.4.14 Evaluate arguments related to investing
signicant resources into researching the
nature of the universe.
IBO 2007
E.4.8 DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE
TERMS OPEN, FLAT AND CLOSED
WHEN USED TO DESCRIBE THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIVERSE
Te eventual fate of the Universe is determined by the
amount of mass in the Universe.
Te Universe could be closed. Tis means that the density
of the Universe is such that gravity will stop the universe
expanding and then cause it to contract. Eventually the
contraction will result in a Big Crunch afer which the
whole creation process could start again.
Te Universe could be open. Tis means that the density
is such that gravity is too weak to stop the Universe
expanding forever.
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E.4.9 DEFINE THE TERM CRITICAL
DENSITY BY REFERENCE TO A FLAT
MODEL OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF
THE UNIVERSE
Another possible development of the Universe is that it
could be fat. Tis means that the density is at a critical
value whereby the Universe will only start to contract afer
an infnite amount of time.
R
a
d
i
u
s

o
f

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
e

time
now
future past
open
closed
n
o
g
r
a
v
it
y
Figure 1617 The fate of the Universe
E.4.10 DISCUSS HOW THE DENSITY OF
THE UNIVERSE DETERMINES THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIVERSE
Figure 1617 shows the possible development of the
Universe depending on the values of the critical density.
Te straight line shows the development of the Universe
if there were no matter in it i.e. the density equals zero.
Te development of the fat Universe lies somewhere
between this line and the curve for the open Universe. To
summarise, if is the density of the Universe and
C
is the
critical density, then the fate of the Universe will be:
fat if =
C
open if <
C
closed if >
C
E.4.11 DISCUSS PROBLEMS
ASSOCIATED WITH DETERMINING
THE DENSITY OF THE UNIVERSE
Measuring the density of the Universe is no mean feat
and is compounded by the fact that the majority of matter
in the Universe cannot be seen. We know that galaxies
congregate in clusters. However, measurement of the mass
of luminous matter in galaxies shows that this mass is not
sufcient to keep the galaxies in orbit about the cluster
centre. In fact about ten times as much mass is needed.
Astronomers therefore have postulated the existence of
so-called dark matter. Tey are pretty sure that it has to be
there but what it actually consists of is as yet not known.
Several theories have been put forward.
One suggestion is that the dark matter consists of
neutrinos, another that it is made of MACHOs massive
compact halo objects. Tese are thought to be dim stars
or black holes of between 0.01M

and 1 M

. It is thought
that the observed brightening of certain stars over a
period of a few days is due to a Macho passing close to the
star and thereby bending the light from the star. Another
suggestion is that dark matter is made up of particles
called WIMPS - weakly interacting massive particles.
Te existence of these particles is suggested by certain
theories of particle physics but their existence has yet to
be confrmed experimentally.
Even if we could measure the density of the universe to
a reasonable degree of accuracy we would still not know
the fate of the universe since we are still not actually sure
of what value the density needs to be to just make the
universe fat. Our best theoretical calculations are only
accurate to within about 40%.
E.4.12 STATE THAT CURRENT
SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE SUGGESTS
THAT THE UNIVERSE IS OPEN
Some physicists have argued that it must be fat or open
but, if this is the case, then there is about 5000 times more
dark matter in the Universe than there is luminous matter.
Recent measurements suggest that this might indeed be
the case and that the Universe is in fact open.
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E.4.13 DISCUSS AN EXAMPLE OF THE
INTERNATIONAL NATURE OF
RECENT ASTROPHYSICS RESEARCH
Please refer to Topic 11.4 for an example of this in respect
of the development and building of Very Large Telescopes
and Very Large Arrays.
E.4.14 EVALUATE ARGUMENTS RELATED
TO INVESTING SIGNIFICANT
RESOURCES INTO RESEARCHING
THE NATURE OF THE UNIVERSE
Equipment for exploring the Universe is expensive and
raises the issue of whether such expenditure might be
better used elsewhere such as to help eliminate world
poverty. Tis is a good discussion for TOK in respect of
moral and ethical judgements.
E.5 HL ONLY STELLAR
PROCESSES AND
STELLAR
EVOLUTION
E.5.1 Describe the conditions that initiate fusion
in a star.
E.5.2 State the eect of a stars mass on the end
product of nuclear fusion.
E.5.3 Outline the changes that take place in
nucleosynthesis when a star leaves the
main sequence and becomes a red giant.
E.5.4 Apply the massluminosity relation.
E.5.5 Explain how the Chandrasekhar and
OppenheimerVolko limits are used to
predict the fate of stars of dierent masses.
E.5.6 Compare the fate of a red giant and a red
supergiant.
E.5.7 Draw evolutionary paths of stars on an HR
diagram.
E.5.8 Outline the characteristics of pulsars.
IBO 2007
E.5.1 DESCRIBE THE CONDITIONS
THAT INITIATE FUSION IN A STAR
We have briefy looked at the way in which stars are
formed and also seen that the main source of energy in
stars is nuclear fusion. In this section we look at both these
processes in more detail and also trace the evolution of
stars.
If you view the constellation of Orion with binoculars or a
telescope you will see that the middle star of the three stars
that makes up Orions sword is very fuzzy. In fact it is not
a star at all but a gas cloud the Orion nebula. Tis nebula
emits its own light and has a temperature of some 10,000 K.
Radiation from the two stars in the sword excite the
hydrogen ions in the nebula and, when the excited atoms
de-excite, they emit light. Whereas the Orion nebula
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consists mainly of hydrogen gas (and some helium) other
nebulae can be found that contain dust particles. Tese
particles scatter any starlight and so appear dark against
the background of emission nebulae. Te most celebrated
of the dark nebulae is the Horsehead nebula, so-called
because of its distinctive shape. Tis can be seen against
the emission nebula of Orion. (Te nebulae associated
with Orions sword are in fact some 450 pc beyond the
other two stars in the sword). A typical dark nebula has a
temperature of about 100 K and contains between 10
10
and
10
19
particles. Te particles consist of hydrogen (75%) and
helium molecules (24%) and dust (1%). Te dust consists
of atoms and molecules of many diferent elements.
It would seem that the dark nebulae are the birthplaces
of the stars. Teir temperature is low enough and their
density high enough for gravity to pull the individual
particles together. As the particles move together under
their mutual gravitational attraction they lose gravitational
potential energy and gain kinetic energy. In other words the
temperature of the system increases and as the temperature
increases ionisation of the molecules will take place and
the system will acquire its own luminosity. At this point
the so-called protostar is still very large and might have
a surface temperature of some 3000 K and therefore has
considerable luminosity. A protostar of mass equal to the
Sun can have a surface area some 5000 times greater than
the Sun and be 100 times as luminous.
As the gravitational contraction continues the temperature
of the core of the protostar continues to rise until it is at
a sufciently high temperature for all the electrons to be
stripped from the atoms making up the core. Te core has
now become a plasma and nuclear fusion now takes place
in which hydrogen is converted into helium (sometimes
referred to by astronomers as hydrogen burning) and
the protostar has become a main sequence star on the
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. Te nuclear fusion process
will eventually stop any further gravitational contraction
and the star will have reached hydrostatic equilibrium in
which gravitational pressure is balanced by the pressure
created by the nuclear fusion processes.
Whereabouts a protostar lands on the main sequence
is determined by its initial mass. Te greater the initial
mass the higher will be the fnal surface temperature and
the greater will be its luminosity. Tis is illustrated in the
Figure 1618.
15 M
5 M
9 M
3 M
2 M
1 M
0.5 M
main sequence
100,000,000
10,000
100
1
l
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y
40 000 , 20,000 10,000 5,000
surface temperature K
Figure 1618 The relationship of mass and luminosity
Te more massive a protostar (more than about 4M

) the
more quickly its core will reach a temperature at which
fusion takes place. (Protostars with a mass of about 15 M

will reach the main sequence in about 10
4
years whereas
protostars with a mass of about 1 M

will take about 10

7

years). Its luminosity quickly stabilises but its surface
temperature will continue to increase as it further contracts.
For protostars with less than this mass, the outer layers are
relatively opaque (due to the presence of a large number
of negative hydrogen ions) so little energy is lost from the
core by radiation. Energy is actually transferred from the
core to the surface by convection ensuring that the surface
temperature stays reasonably constant. Te luminosity
therefore will decrease as the protostar contracts.
Gravitational collapse puts a lower and upper limit on the
mass of matter that can form a star. As we saw in a previous
section, a protostar with a mass less than about 0.08 M

will not develop the pressure and temperature necessary to
initiate nuclear fusion and will contract to a brown dwarf.
If a protostar has a mass greater than about 100 M

then
the internal pressure created by contraction will overcome
the gravitational pressure and vast amounts of matter will
be ejected from the outer layer of the protostar thereby
disrupting the evolution of the star.
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E.5.2 STATE THE EFFECT OF A STARS
MASS ON THE END PRODUCT OF
NUCLEAR FUSION
At the end of its lifetime as a main sequence star, all the
hydrogen in its core has been used up. How long this takes
and a stars ultimate fate depends upon its initial mass. Our
Sun, for instance, has been converting hydrogen to helium
within its core for some 5 10
9
years and will continue
to do so for at least another 5 10
9
years. On the other
hand a star with a mass of about 25 M

will use up all its
hydrogen in about 10
6
years.
E.5.3 OUTLINE THE CHANGES THAT TAKE
PLACE IN NUCLEOSYNTHESIS WHEN
A STAR LEAVES THE MAIN SEQUENCE
AND BECOMES A RED GIANT
We will take the Sun as an example of the changes that
take place in nucleosynthesis when a star leaves the main
sequence and becomes a red giant. As the Sun ages the
continuous energy fow from the core heats the material
surrounding the core such that, when all the hydrogen in
the core has been used up, hydrogen burning can continue
in the surrounding material. Tere are no fusion processes
in the core to counteract gravitational contraction so the
core will now start to contract. As the core contracts its
temperature will rise and the energy fow from the core
will further heat up the outer layers of the Sun. Hydrogen
burning now extends further and further into the outer
regions and so, as the core contracts, the Sun as a whole
actually expands.
Tis expansion causes the Suns surface temperature to drop
and its luminosity to increase. At a surface temperature
of about 3500 K the surface will take on a reddish hue
(Wiens law) and the Sun will have a diameter of about
1 AU, sufcient to engulf Mercury and nearly reach Venus.
It will also have a luminosity about 2000 times that of its
present day luminosity.
Te helium created by hydrogen burning in the outer
layers of the Sun adds to the mass of the core causing the
core to further contract. Te core temperature will rise
and eventually reach a temperature high enough for the
fusion of helium to take place. Two of the products of the
helium fusion process are carbon-12 and oxygen-16. Most
of the carbon in living tissue originated in the core of stars
like the Sun in their death throes.
When all the helium in the core has been used up, the core
further contracts and its temperature rises such that the
energy radiated from the core will now cause helium
burning in the outer layers. Te Sun has entered a second
red giant phase. When it enters this phase its outer layers
will reach out and engulf Earth, and it will have a lumi-
nosity some 10,000 times that of its present luminosity.
When it enters this phase it undergoes bursts of luminosity
in which a shell of its outer layers is ejected into space. As
the Sun ejects its outer layers its very hot core will be
exposed.
Tis core will have a surface temperature of about
100,000 K and the radiation that it emits will ionise the
outer gas layers causing them to emit visible radiation
producing an, inappropriately named, planetary nebula.
Te radius of the core will be about that of the Earth and
with no fusion reaction taking place within the core it will
just simply cool down. Te Sun has become a white dwarf
star, and as it continues to cool it will eventually fade from
sight.
E.5.4 APPLY THE MASSLUMINOSITY
RELATION
An interesting relationship exists between the luminosity
of a main sequence star and its mass. If the defne the
luminosity L of a star and its mass M in terms of solar
units, then it is found that for all Main Sequence stars
averaged over the whole sequence that
3.5
L M =
However, it must be borne in mind that this is an average
relationship and that the power n to which M is raised is to
some extent mass dependant. Generally n is greater than
3 and less than 4.
For example a star that is 5 times more massive than the
Sun will be 5
3.5
(= 280) times more luminous.
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E.5.5 EXPLAIN HOW THE
CHANDRASEKHAR AND
OPPENHEIMERVOLKOFF LIMITS
ARE USED
Te core of a star like the Sun does not keep contracting
under gravity since there is a high density limit set by a
quantum mechanical efect known as electron degeneracy.
Essentially a point is reached where the electrons cannot
be packed any closer. Te more massive a white dwarf the
greater will be the gravitational force of contraction, hence
electron degeneracy sets an upper limit on the mass of a
white dwarf. Tis is known as the Chandrasekhar limit
afer its discoverer and is equal to 1.4 M

.
Te positions of the red giants and white dwarfs on the H-
R diagram are shown in Figure 1608. It is thought that all
stars of mass less than about 8 M

end up as white dwarfs
ejecting about 60% of their mass as planetary nebulae.
However, even stars with masses equal to, or slightly
greater than, 8M

may end up as white dwarfs should they

eject sufcient mass during their planetary nebula phase.
Stars with masses between 4M

and 8M

are able to
fuse carbon and in this process produce neon, sodium,
magnesium and oxygen during their fnal red giant phase.
A summary of the stages through which stars like our Sun
pass on the way to becoming a white dwarf is shown in
Figure 1619.
core hydrogen
all burnt
core contracts
temperature
rises
outer layer
hydrogen
burning
expansion of
outer layer
luminosity
increases
RED GIANT
heliumadds to
the core
core contracts
heliumburning
in core
helium in core
used up
further contraction
of core and
expansion of
outer layers
heliumburning
in outer layers
ejection of mass
via planetary
nebulae
WHITE DWARF
Figure 1619 The life cycle of a star
Whereas the Chandrasekhar limit applies to main
sequence stars, the so-called OppenheimerVolkof limit
applies to neutron stars.
E.5.6 COMPARE THE FATE OF A RED
GIANT AND A RED SUPERGIANT
Most Stars with a mass of 8M

or more are able to fuse

even more elements than carbon. Afer all the carbon
in the core has been used the core undergoes a further
contraction and its temperature rises to some 10
9
K. At this
temperature the fusion of neon can take place. Te neon is
produced by the fusion of carbon and the fusion of neon
increases the concentration of oxygen and magnesium in
the core.
When all the neon has been fused the core contracts yet
again and a temperature is reached in which oxygen can
be fused. Between each period of thermonuclear fusion
in the core is a period of shell burning in the outer layers
and the star enters a new red giant phase. When only shell
burning is taking place, the radius and luminosity of the
star increases such that the result is a supergiant with a
luminosity and radius very much greater than that of a
lower mass red giant. Some super giants have a radius
several thousand times larger than the Sun and are some
of the brightest visible stars. Betelgeuse and Rigel in the
Orion constellation are example of supergiants.
Eventually a temperature is reached in the core of a
supergiant at which the fusion of silicon can take place.
Te product of silicon burning is iron.
Figure 1620 shows the structure of the core of a supergiant
as it nears the end of its life. Te energy of the star comes
from six concentric burning shells.
iron-stable silicon burning
oxygen burning
neon burning
carbon burning
helium burning
hydrogen burning
Figure 1620 The structure of a supergiant
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Because of a very large coulomb repulsion, elements with
a proton number of 26 or greater cannot undergo fusion.
(Except if there is an enormous energy input). Iron has
a proton number of 26 so when the entire core is iron,
fusion within the core must cease. Te star has reached a
critical state.
When the entire inner core is iron it contracts very
rapidly and reaches an enormously high temperature
( 6 10
9
K). Te high energy gamma photons emitted at
this temperature collide with the iron nuclei breaking the
nuclei into alpha-particles. Tis takes place in a very short
time and in the next fraction of a second the core becomes
so dense that negative electrons combine with positive
protons producing neutrons and a vast fux of neutrinos.
Tis fux of neutrinos carries a large amount of energy
from the core causing it to cool and further contract.
Te rapid contraction produces an outward moving
pressure wave. At this point, because of the contraction
of the inner core, material from the other shells is
collapsing inward, when this material meets the outward
moving pressure wave, it is forced back. Te pressure
wave continues to accelerate as it moves outward until
it is moving faster than the speed of sound and becomes
a colossal shock wave that rips the material of the stars
outer layers apart. Te inner cores are now exposed and
a vast amount of radiation foods out into space. Te star
has become a supernova.
It has been estimated that some 10
46
J of energy is liberated
in such an event and the star loses about 96% of its mass.
Te energy produced when a star becomes a supernova is
sufciently high to produce all the elements with atomic
numbers higher than iron. Te material that is fung out
in to space will eventually form dark nebulae from which
new stars may be formed. And so the process repeats itself.
Te core material that is lef is thought to contract to form
a neutron star or a black hole (see next section).
(On February 23rd, 1987 a supernova was detected in the
Large Magellanic Cloud and was so bright that it could be
seen in the Southern Hemisphere with the naked eye).
Te sequences of the birth and death of stars is summarised
in Figure 1621.
Proto-star formed from
interstellar dust and gas
Main Sequence
Main Sequence
Main Sequence
less than 4M
between 4M but
less than 8M
8M or greater
Red Giant
carbon-oxygen
core
Red Giant
oxygen-neon
core
Super red giant
iron core
Planetary nebula
and white dwarf
Supernova
Neutron star
Neutron star/
Black hole

Figure 1621 The sequences of the birth and death of stars

E.5.7 DRAW EVOLUTIONARY PATHS
OF STARS ON AN HR DIAGRAM
It is lef as an exercise for you to draw appropriate
evolutionary paths on an HR diagram of stars of diferent
masses.
E.5.8 OUTLINE THE CHARACTERISTICS
OF PULSARS
For completions sake, we also include in this section, an
overview of neutron stars, quasar and black holes.
We have seen that electron degeneracy sets a limit to the
maximum mass of a white dwarf. However, as intimated
above, at a sufciently high temperature electrons and
protons will interact to form neutrons and neutrinos.
It is thought that this is what happens to the core of a
supernova, as it contracts to become a neutron star. In
such a star it is now neutron degeneracy which stops
further contraction. If such stars exist they would have a
density of about 4 10
17
kg m kg m
3
and would have a radius
of only some 15 km.
Te OppenheimerVolkof limit suggests that there is an
upper limit to the mass of a neutron star beyond which
it will collapse to a black hole. Tis limit is thought to be
about 2-3 solar masses.
Evidence for the existence of neutron stars came in 1967
when Jocelyn Bell as an undergraduate at Cambridge
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University detected rapidly varying radio pulses from
one particular location in the sky. Since then many more
such sources have been discovered with periods ranging
from about 30 pulses per second to about 1 pulse every
1.5 seconds. Tis is far faster than the pulses from an
eclipsing binary or variable star. Nor could the source be a
rotating white dwarf since, at such speeds of rotation, the
whitedwarf would tear itself apart.
It is now thought that these so-called pulsars are in fact
rotating neutron stars. Neutron stars are by necessity small
and therefore, to conserve angular momentum, they must
rotate rapidly. Also, supergiants have a magnetic feld
and as they shrink to a neutron star the magnetic feld
strength will become very large. As this feld rotates with
the star it will generate radio waves. Strong electric felds
created by the rotating magnetic feld could also create
electron-positron pairs (see Chapter 20 Option J) and the
acceleration of these charges would also be a source of
radio waves.
Te neutron star model is now frmly accepted by
astronomers. Te Crab nebula in the constellation Taurus
has a pulsar close to its centre with a radio frequency of
33 Hz. It is pretty certain that the nebula is the remains of
a supernova.
Quasars
In 1944 Grote Reber, an amateur astronomer, detected
strong radio signals from the constellations Sagittarius,
Cassiopeia and Cygnus. Te frst two of these sources were
found to lie within the Milky Way. However, in 1951 an odd
looking galaxy was found to be the source of the Cygnus
signals. Te galaxy was subsequently called Cygnus A.
One of the extraordinary things about this galaxy is that,
unlike all hitherto known galaxies, it exhibits an emission
spectrum. Furthermore the emission spectrum showed a
very large red-shif indicating that the galaxy was some
220 Mpc from the Earth.
Tis was the furthest known object in the Universe at this
time meaning that Cygnus A must be one of the most
luminous radio sources in the Universe. Because of its
star like appearance and strong radio emission, Cygnus A
was called a quasar (quasi-stellar radio source). To date
about 10,000 quasars have been detected and the most
distant is some 3600 Mpc from the Earth. Not only are
quasars strong radio emitters but they also have enormous
luminosities with the most luminous being some 10000
times more luminous than the Milky Way.
In the 1960s even stranger objects than quasars were
detected which emit strong bursts of gamma radiation. It
would seem that these objects are even more distant and
more luminous than quasars.
Black holes
We have seen that neutron stars have enormous densities
and small radii. Tis means that the gravitational potential
at the surface of such a star will also be enormous. Te
escape velocity from the surface of a planet or star is related
to the gravitational potential at its surface. So what would
happen if the potential was such that the escape velocity
was equal to the speed of light? It would in fact mean that
no electromagnetic radiation could leave the surface of
the star; it would have become a black hole.
Te correct way in which to think of the formation of a
black hole is in terms of the General Teory of Relativity.
(refer to chapter 19 Option H). Tis theory predicts that
space is warped by the presence of mass. Hence the path of
light travelling close to large masses will be curved. Near
to a black hole the space is so severely warped that the
path of any light leaving the surface will be bent back in on
itself. Te General Teory also predicts that time slows in
a gravitational feld. At a point close to a black hole, where
the escape velocity just equals the speed of light, time will
cease. Tis point is known as the event horizon of the black
hole. When a dying star contracts within its event horizon
the entire mass of the star will shrink to a mathematical
point at which its density will be infnite. Such a point is
known as a singularity. A black hole therefore consists of
an event horizon and a singularity.
So do black holes exist? We cannot see a black hole,
however, its existence might be inferred from the efect
that its gravitational feld would have on its surroundings.
Some stellar objects have been detected as sources of X-ray
radiation such as Cygnus X-1. Spectroscopic observations
revealed that close to the location of Cygnus is a supergiant
with a mass of about 30M

. Tis star itself cannot be the

source of X-ray radiation and it has been surmised that the
system Cygnus X-1 is in fact a binary, the companion star
being a black hole. Te intense gravitational feld of the
black hole draws material from the supergiant and as this
material spirals into the black hole it reaches a temperature
at which it emits X-rays. Other potential candidates for
black holes have been found and some theorists think that
there is a black hole at the centre of all galaxies including
our own Milky Way.
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Tere are essentially three types of galaxies.
Spiral galaxies
Tere are many spiral galaxies in the universe and the
Milky Way is one of them.
All such galaxies are characterised by three main
components, a thin disc, a central bulge and a halo. Te
sketches in Figure 1622 shows a side view and plan view
of the Milky Way.
Andromeda is the nearest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way
(about 2.2 million light years away) and is just about visible
to the naked eye. If it is viewed with binoculars then its
spiral shape can be distinguished.
Te halo of the Milky Way contains many globular
clusters of stars each containing up to a million stars and
seemingly very little interstellar dust or very bright stars.
Tis suggests that the halo contains some of the oldest
stars in our galaxy. Teir age as been estimated at between
10 and 15 billion years.
Te bulge at the centre of the Milky Way has the greatest
density of stars and many of these would seem to be
very hot, young stars. However, direct visible evidence is
difcult to collect since the galactic centre contains many
dust clouds. Such evidence that we have comes from
observations made in the infrared and radio regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. See Figure 1622.
Elliptical galaxies
As the name implies, these galaxies have an elliptical cross-
section and no spiral arms. Some are highly elliptical and
some are nearly circular.
Perseus arm
Orion arm
Centaurus arm
Cygnus arm
Sagittarius arm
rotation
Sun
Sun
500
light-years
80 000 light-years
25 000 ly
globular clusters
central bulge
galactic nucleus
disc
halo
Figure 1622 The Milky Way
Irregular galaxies
Tese galaxies seem to have no specifc structure. Our two
nearest galactic neighbours are irregular, the Large and
small Magellanic Clouds. Te large Magellanic Cloud lies at
a distance of about 160,000 light years from the Milky Way.
All galaxies rotate. If they did not, they would collapse
under gravitational attraction. Our Sun is about 25,000
light years from the centre of the Milky Way and Doppler
shif measurements show it to be moving through space
with a speed of 230 km s
1
. You can use these values to
show that the orbital period of rotation of the Milky Way
is about 2.0 10
8
years.
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E.6.1 Describe the distribution of galaxies in the
universe.
E.6.2 Explain the red-shift of light from distant
galaxies.
E.6.3 Solve problems involving red-shift and the
recession speed of galaxies.
E.6.4 State Hubbles law.
E.6.5 Discuss the limitations of Hubbles law.
E.6.6 Explain how the Hubble constant may be
determined.
E.6.7 Explain how the Hubble constant may be
used to estimate the age of the universe.
E.6.8 Solve problems involving Hubbles law.
E.6.9 Explain how the expansion of the universe
made possible the formation of light nuclei
and atoms.
IBO 2007
E.6.1 DESCRIBE THE DISTRIBUTION OF
GALAXIES IN THE UNIVERSE
At the beginning of this chapter we learned that galaxies
are grouped into clusters which in turn are grouped into
super-clusters. We also learned that due to the expansion
of the Universe the light that we receive from galaxies is
redshifed. We now see how we can calculate the recession
speed of galaxies from their red-shif.
E.6.2 EXPLAIN THE RED-SHIFT OF
LIGHT FROM DISTANT GALAXIES
It can be shown that if is the wavelength of a spectral line
emitted from a stationary source and is the wavelength
measured by an observer when the source is moving away
from the observer with speed v then

1
v
c
-- +


1
v
c
--


----------------- =
where c is the free space velocity of light.
Tis expression in parenthesis can be written as
1
v
c
-- +


1
v
c
--


1
v
c
--


2
-----------------------------------
1
v
2
c
2
-----



1
v
c
--


2
------------------- - =
Taking the square root we have,

1
v
2
c
2
-----



1
v
c
--


2
--------------------

1
v
c
--


----------------- 1
v
2
c
2
-----



= =
If we consider the situation when v << c then we can
expand this expression by the binomial theorem and
ignore second order and higher terms to get
1
v
c
-- +


= or

v
c
------ =
such that if the spectral line has been shifed by an amount
= then

------
v
c
-- =
E.6.3 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
RED-SHIFT AND THE RECESSION
SPEED OF GALAXIES
Example
Te wavelength of the blue line in the spectrum of atomic
hydrogen as measured in a laboratory on Earth is 486 nm.
In the spectrum from a distant galaxy the wavelength of
this line is measure as 498 nm. Estimate the recession
speed of the galaxy and its distance from Earth.
E.6 HL ONLY GALAXIES AND THE
EXPANDING UNIVERSE
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Solution
From the red-shif we can calculate the recession speed of
the galaxy.
= 498 486 nm= 12 nm = 498 486 nm = 12 nm
Terefore
12
486
---------
v
3 10
8

----------------- =
= 0.025
Hence v = 7400 km s
1
.
Using Hubbles law (see following section) we have:
d
7400
65
------------ =
= 114 Mpc.
E.6.4 STATE HUBBLES LAW
We have seen that the Doppler red-shif indicates that the
galaxies are moving away from the Earth. By estimating
the distance to a number of galaxies Hubble showed that
the speed with which the galaxies are moving away from
the Earth, the recession speed, is directly proportional to
the distance of the galaxy from the Earth. Remember that
the galaxies are not actually rushing away from Earth, but
that it is actually space that is expanding.
Hubble published his discovery in 1929 and Hubbles law
can be written.
v Hd =
where d is the distance to the galaxy and v is its recession
speed. H is known as Hubbles constant. An accurate value
for Hubbles constant is difcult to measure (as will be
shown) but an average value is about 65 km s
1
Mpc
1
.
For example a galaxy at a distance of 50 Mpc from the
Earth will be rushing away from the Earth with a speed of
3250 km s
1
(about 0.01 the speed of light). Te further
away from the Earth, the greater will be the recession
speed of a galaxy. Te expanding balloon analogy of the
expanding universe fts in with the data that enabled
Hubble to arrive at his law.
If you concentrate on one galaxy you will see that galaxies
that are further away move faster than those nearer to the
galaxy that you have chosen. If the surface of the balloon
is expanding at a constant rate then the speed with which
a galaxy moves relative to another galaxy will be
proportional to how far away it is from the other galaxy.
Te diagram below shows this for a very simple
arrangement of fve beads on an elastic string.
In Figure 1623 (a) the beads are 10 cm apart. In Figure
1623 (b) the string is stretched at a steady rate until the
beads are 15 cm apart. Bead E will now be 60 cm from
bead A instead of 40 cm and if the stretching of the string
took 1 second, the speed of E relative to A will be 20 cm s
-1
.
On the other hand bead C will now be 30 cm from bead
A instead of 20 cm and its speed relative to A will be
10 cm s
-1
. Doubling the separation between any two beads
doubles their relative speed; speed is proportional to
separation which is just Hubbles law.
A
A
B
B
C
C
D
D
E
E
10 cm 10 cm 10 cm 10 cm
15 cm 15 cm 15 cm 15 cm
a ( )
(b)
Figure 1623 (a) and (b) An illustration of Hubbles Law
Hubble was the frst astronomer to settle a long standing
debate as to the nature of galaxies. It had been known since
1845 (thanks to the then most powerful telescope in the
world, built by William Parsons) that some of the nebulae
showed a spiral structure. Parsons himself suggested that
such nebulae could be island universes far beyond the
Milky Way. In the 1920s opinions were still divided as to
their nature with some astronomers of the opinion that
they were relatively small objects scattered about the
Milky Way.
In 1923 Hubble took a photograph of the Andromeda
nebula which on close examination showed a bright
object that he recognised as a Cepheid variable. From
measurements of the variables luminosity he was able to
show that the Andromeda nebula is 900 kpc from the Earth
and that it has a diameter of some 70 kpc, a diameter much
greater than that of the Milky Way. Te debate was settled.
Te universe was far greater in size than had previously
been thought and contained many galaxies, some much
larger than our own Milky Way.
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E.6.5 DISCUSS THE LIMITATIONS OF
HUBBLES LAW
Determining galactic distances is not easy but it is of key
importance. What is needed are standard candles which
are bright enough to be detected within a particular galaxy.
Cepheid variables provide a fairly reliable method for
distances up to about 60 Mpc but beyond this they become
too faint to be relied upon as a standard candle. Beyond
60 Mpc Red and blue super giants can be used to measure
distances of up to about 250 Mpc and the brightest globular
clusters can be used as standards up to about 900 Mpc.
Beyond 900 Mpc astronomers have to hopefully detect a
supernova within the galaxy. To date supernovae have
been detected at distances of up to 1000 Mpc.
E.6.6 EXPLAIN HOW THE HUBBLE
CONSTANT MAY BE DETERMINED
As astronomers attempt to measure greater and greater
galactic distances so the error in their measurements
increases. Tis is because the further away the galaxy,
the fewer the independent measurement checks that are
available. For instance, if a distance can be measured by
parallax it can probably also be checked by using a Cepheid
variable, a super red-giant and spectroscopic parallax. At
distances beyond 900 Mpc the only method available is
to use the luminosity of a supernova. On the other hand
if we have an accurate value of Hubbles constant then we
can use the Hubble law and red-shif to measure large
galactic distances. And theres the rub. Astronomers who
use diferent methods of measuring galactic distances
compute diferent values of the Hubble constant. For
example, measurement by supernovae leads to a value
between 40 and 65 km s
1
Mpc
1
whereas measurement
by spectroscopic parallax places it between 80 and
100 km s
1
Mpc
1
. More recent methods using the
observation of Cepheid variables from the Hubble
telescope yield a value 60 and 90 km s
1
Mpc
1
.
E.6.7 EXPLAIN HOW THE HUBBLE
CONSTANT MAY BE USED TO
ESTIMATE THE AGE OF THE
UNIVERSE
An accurate value of the Hubble constant would also
enable us to calculate the age of the Universe with some
degree of confdence.
Consider, for example, two galaxies separated by a distance
d. How long did they take to get this distance apart? Teir
relative recessional speed is Hd. Hence the time it takes is
distance
speed
-------------------
d
Hd
-------
1
H
---- = =
Tis means that the universe could have an age (could
because we are assuming that the expansion of the
Universe is constant) somewhere between
1
30
------
km
1
s Mpc and
1
45
------
km
1
s Mpc.
Bearing in mind that 1 Mpc = 3 10
19
km and 1 year =
3 10
7
s this gives an age between 10 and 20 billion years.
E.6.8 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
HUBBLES LAW
Exercise 16.6 (a)
Estimate the age of the Universe for a value of the Hubble
constant = 80 km s
-1
Mpc
-1
.
E.6.9 EXPLAIN HOW THE EXPANSION
OF THE UNIVERSE MADE
POSSIBLE THE FORMATION OF
LIGHT NUCLEI AND ATOMS
Te following is a brief overview of the principal events
that took place at diferent times afer the Big Bang.
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At the beginning of this chapter it was mentioned that
astrophysics contains all of physics. Tis is certainly
apparent when trying to understand the beginnings of the
Universe. Attempts to understand the frst few moments
of creation sometimes seem akin to mediaeval mysticism-
how many angels can be put on a pinhead? Nonetheless
attempts are made to understand the origins of the
Universe in terms of the fundamental forces that govern
the behaviour of matter. But much is conjecture and open
to debate. In light of the scientifc method many of the
theories put forward are difcult and sometimes, as yet,
impossible to verify experimentally. We stand, as it were,
on the frontiers of ignorance.
THIS THEN IS AN OUTLINE OF THE FIRST FEW
MOMENTS OF CREATION AS PORTRAYED BY
PHYSICISTS OF TODAY
In the frst 10
43
s afer the Big Bang the four fundamental
interactions, gravity, weak force, electromagnetic force
and strong force were all unifed.
At 10
43
s (the temperature being 10
32
K) gravity appeared
as a separate force and at 10
35
s (temperature 10
27
K)
the strong nuclear interaction separated from the
electromagnetic and weak interaction.
Between 10
35
s and 10
24
s the young Universe underwent
a rapid expansion increasing its size by a factor of 10
50
. Tis
is known as the Infationary Epoch. Tis rapid infation
allowed matter and anti-matter to become sufciently
separated to stop mutual annihilation. During this period
a so-called symmetry breaking took place in which the
number of particles present outnumbered the number of
anti-particles present.
At 10
12
s afer the Big Bang and at a temperature of
10
12
K, the electromagnetic force separated from the weak
interaction.
At 10
6
s the temperature had dropped sufciently (10
13
K)
for individual neutrons and protons to exist. Prior to this
the temperature was too high for even these particles to be
stable, for as soon as they came into existence collisions
would fragment them into quarks.
At about 2 s and a temperature of 10
10
K neutrinos ceased
to interact with protons and neutrons and by 3 minutes
afer the Big Bang all the primordial helium had been
produced.
Afer some 300,000 years the temperature of the Universe
had cooled sufciently such that the energy of photons no
longer caused ionisation and electrons could now combine
with nuclei to form atomic hydrogen and helium. High
energy photons no longer interacted with atoms. Te
Universe had become transparent to photons and it is
these photons which now give rise to the 3 K background
radiation. Tere are no defnitive answers to the question
as to how the galaxies came into existence but it is thought
that their evolution is connected with the emergence of gas
clouds. If the Universe had continued to expand uniformly
afer the Big Bang then all the matter in the universe
would now be distributed uniformly and it is difcult
to see how regions of higher density such as gas clouds
came into existence. Without these gas clouds it is difcult
to see how the galaxies came into existence. During the
early expansion of the Universe some sort of wrinkles in
space must have been formed which provided the nucleus
about which gas clouds could form. Tis is rather like the
way that liquid droplets form along the track of a charged
particle as it moves through a super-cooled liquid.
Measuring Astronomical
distances A summary
We conclude this chapter with a summary of the methods
available for measuring astronomical distances.
Figure 1624 summarises the methods for measuring
astronomical distances.
You should bear in mind that, apart from the parallax
method, all the other methods rely on determining the
luminosity of some object and then measuring its apparent
brightness.
Distance Method
up to 100 pc Parallax and Cepheid variables and
spectroscopic parallax
up to 10 Mpc Cepheid variables and spectroscopic
parallax
up to 60 Mpc Cepheid and spectroscopic parallax
up to 250 Mpc Super red giants and super blue giants
and supernovae
up to 900 Mpc Globular clusters and supernovae
beyond 900 Mpc Supernovae
Figure 1624 Methods for measuring astronomical
distances (table)
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Exercise 16.6 (b)
1. Te star AlphaCentauri B is 1.21 pc from Earth.
Calculate
(a) this distance in AU.
(b) its parallax angle.
2. Two stars A and B are respectively at distances
50 pc and 500 pc from the Earth. Both have equal
brightness. Determine which star is the most
luminous and by how much.
3. Te diagram below shows the Apparent magnitude
scale used by Astronomers.
t h g i r b m i d
+25 +20 +15 +10 +5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Pluto Sirius Sun
Photographic limit
of large diameter
lens telescope
(a) Explain whether the Sun would be visible
if it were at a distance of 10 pc from the
Earth.
(b) Estimate by how much brighter is the Sun
than Sirius A.
(c) Te absolute magnitude of Sirius A is less
than that of the Sun. Explain whether it is
more or less luminous than the Sun. (Sirius
A: m = 0.7, Sun: m = 26.7).
4. Explain the diference between an eclipsing binary
and a spectroscopic binary.
5. Outline the evidence on which the idea of an
expanding Universe is based.
6. A certain line in the spectrum of atomic hydrogen
has a wavelength of 121.6 nm as measured in the
laboratory. Te same line as detected in a distant
galaxy has a wavelength of 147.9 nm. Determine
the recession speed of the galaxy.
7. State the property of a main sequence star that
determines its fnal outcome. Describe the
evolution of a main sequence star to a neutron
star.
General Exercises
1. Calculate the wavelength at which the Sun emits
most of its energy? (T
Sun
= 5800)
2. Stars can be assigned to certain spectral classes.
Te classes are given in the table below.

Spectral class Colour Temperature (K)
M Redorange 2500-3500
K Orange 3500-5000
G Yellow 5000-6000
F Yellowwhite 6000-7500
A White 7500-10,000
B Bluewhite 10,000-28,000
O Bluewhite 28,000-50,000
Te table below gives the spectral class and
absolute magnitude of some well-known stars.
Name of star Spectral
class
Absolute magnitude
(approximate)
Rigel A 7.0
Vega A 0
Sun G 5
Alderbaran K 0
Pollux K + 2
Sirius B B + 12
Procyon B F + 14
Barnards star M + 13
(a) Use this table to place the stars on a
HertzprungRussell diagram in which
absolute magnitude is plotted against
spectral class (temperature).
(b) For each of the stars identify to which
category it could belong.
(c) Identify a star that is hotter and more
luminous than the Sun and a star that is
cooler and less luminous than the Sun.
3. Describe how Olbers paradox is inconsistent with
Newtons model of the Universe.
4. Explain the terms open, fat and closed as applied
to the Universe.
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17
Introduction
Tis topic looks at how information is transmitted over
large distances. For example, how can we hear a live concert
in our home when it is being performed on the other side
of the world or how can we have a telephone conversation
with someone who lives in a diferent country?
We have learnt in Topic 4 that a wave carries energy but it
also carries information about the source that generated
it. If the wave is a sound wave of audible frequency, the
information that it carries is interpreted by the ear as the
pitch of the source. Te source might be a single tuning
fork or it might be a full concert orchestra. However, we
are well aware that sound waves lose energy quite rapidly;
stand a few metres from a sounded tuning fork and you
will not hear the sound it emits. You will have more success
in hearing a full orchestra at some distance away, but
not if you are several kilometres away from it. So sound
information is soon lost if it has to travel any distance.
Clearly, the majority of the information that we wish to
transmit to other people is primarily audio and/or visual
information. To transmit this information, we need some
means by which it can be carried between two points.
If we think of the example of sound waves, information
about the source is encoded in the wave but the wave, as
mentioned above, just does not carry very far. On the other
hand, experience tells us that electromagnetic waves can,
and do travel vast distances. So, without going into the
history of communication theory, it is sufcient to say that
electromagnetic waves (em) are, in the main, the carriers
used in the present day to transmit information. However,
we need to look in some detail as to how information is
actually carried by an em wave and this is what we look at
in the next sections.
Of course, we exclude here, the obvious case where visual
information needs no encoding in the respect that it is
carried directly to the eye by waves whose frequency lie in
the visible region of the em spectrum.
F.1 (SL and HL) Radio communication
F.2 (SL and HL) Digital signals
F3 (SL and HL) Optic bre transmission
F.4 (SL and HL) Channels of communication
F.5 (HL) C.3 (SL) Electronics
F.6 (HL) C.4 (SL) The mobile phone system
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F.1 SL AND HL RADIO
COMMUNICATION
F.1.1 Describe what is meant by the modulation
of a wave.
F.1.2 Distinguish between a carrier wave and a
signal wave.
F.1.3 Describe the nature of amplitude
modulation (AM) and frequency
modulation (FM).
F.1.4 Solve problems based on the modulation
of the carrier wave in order to determine
the frequency and amplitude of the
information signal.
F.1.5 Sketch and analyse graphs of the
power spectrum of a carrier wave that
is amplitude-modulated by a single-
frequency signal.
F.1.6 Dene what is meant by sideband
frequencies and bandwidth.
F.1.7 Solve problems involving sideband
frequencies and bandwidth.
F.1.8 Describe the relative advantages and
disadvantages of AM and FM for radio
transmission and reception.
F.1.9 Describe, by means of a block diagram, an
AM radio receiver.
IBO 2007
F.1.1 DECSRIBE WHAT IS MEANT BY
THE MODULATION OF A WAVE
Figure 1701 shows how the amplitude of a wave of fxed
frequency varies with time at a particular point in space.
-1
0
1
5 10 15 20
time/ ms
a
m
l
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
/
m
m
Figure 1701 Variations in amplitude
Te variation of the amplitude with time and the frequency
of the wave gives us the information about the source.
In this situation, the information stays constant. If the
information changes then the wave must change in some
way. When this happens, the wave is said to be modulated.
For example, suppose that the amplitude now varies with
time as shown in Figure 1702.
-2
0
2
5 10 15 20
time/ ms
a
m
l
i
t
u
d
e
/
m
m
Figure 1702 A modulated wave
Te original wave is still there but it has been modulated
by the superposition of another wave of a diferent
frequency. Te modulation of the original wave gives
information regarding the changes that have taken place
at the source.
F.1.2 DISTINGUISH BETWEEN A CARRIER
WAVE AND A SIGNAL WAVE
In the above discussion of modulation, if we know the
amplitude and frequency of the wave in Figure 1701 we
can use the modulation shown in Figure 1702 to determine
the amplitude and frequency of the wave that has been
superimposed on the original wave. In this respect, we
can regard the original wave as the carrier wave and the
superimposed wave as the signal wave. Essentially all
electronic communication systems involve a carrier and
signal wave and a means of modulating the carrier wave.
Figure 1703 shows a block diagram of a communication
system.
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modulator
modulated carrier
wave
de-modulator
carrier wave
signal wave signal wave
Figure 1703 A schematic communication system
It is no secret that it is the radio wave region of the em
spectrum that is most used for the transmission of
information. Te reason for this is that radio waves may be
produced at accurately maintained frequencies and also
that they travel long distances without attenuation (loss
of energy). Te radio spectrum also covers a wide range
of frequencies varying from about 3 kHz to 300 GHz.
In a radio communication system, the carrier wave in
Figure 1703 would be a radio frequency wave and if audio
data is being transmitted, the signal wave would be an em
wave that is in the audio frequency range (the sound waves
having been converted to an electrical signal).
F.1.3 DESCRIBE THE NATURE OF
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
(AM) AND FREQUENCY
MODULATION (FM)
Tere are several diferent ways in which waves can
be modulated but the principal two are amplitude
modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM).
Amplitude Modulation
In amplitude modulation, the frequency of the carrier
wave is constant and the signal wave is used to vary the
amplitude of the carrier wave. For example, a violinist
can produce a so-called tremolo efect by varying the
amplitude of the vibrating string by suitable movement of
the bow.
We can further illustrate AM with the simple situation
shown in Figure 1704 in which a microphone is used to
vary the amplitude of a direct electric current of constant
value.
V-
V+
microphone
loud speaker
v
o
l
t
a
g
e
time
time
steady dc voltage
AMvoltage
v
o
l
t
a
g
e
Figure 1704 Illustrating amplitude modulation
In the absence of any sound at the microphone, the current
in the circuit is constant resulting in a constant voltage
across the loud speaker. Te constant voltage is the carrier
wave.
If you now, for example, speak into the microphone, the
sound waves that you produce are converted into electrical
signals that produce a variation in the amplitude of the
current in the circuit. Te variations in amplitude of the
current in turn produce a variation of amplitude in the
voltage (the signal wave) across the speaker as shown in
the insert diagrams in Figure 1704. Te speaker converts
these voltage variations into sound waves.
Amplitude modulation is very diferent to the example
we gave F.1.1 in which we just added two sine waves. If
we consider just the time variations of a wave, i.e. how
the displacement of the medium at a particular point
varies with time, then we can write the displacement y as
sin( ) y A t = where = 2f. If we add two waves of the
diferent amplitudes A and M and diferent frequencies f
1

and f
2
respectively, then the resultant displacement Y at
the point is given by
1 2
sin 2 sin 2 Y A f t M f t = +
Tis is just what we have done in the example if F.1.1
Suppose that f
1
= f
c
(the frequency of the carrier wave) and
f
2
= f
s
(the frequency of the signal wave), then for amplitude
modulation, the resultant displacement Y
M
is given by
which is a very diferent expression from just adding the
two waves and gives a very diferent result as is shown in
Figure 1705 in which f
c
= 18 f
s
.
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Spreadsheets can be used to demonstrate amplitude
modulation using the above equation. Tis is why it is
given here even though it will not be required to know
this equation for the IB examination.
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Figure 1705 (a) Signal wave frequency = fs
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Figure 1705 (b) Carrier wave frequency = 18fs
-20
0
20
Figure 1705 (c) Amplitude modulation
In Figure 1705 (c) the dotted curve shows the envelope of
the modulated wave.
Note that there are 18 complete oscillations of the wave
inside one complete period of the envelope.
Frequency Modulation
In frequency modulation the amplitude of the carrier
wave is kept constant and the signal wave is used to vary
the frequency of the carrier wave. With analogue signals
(see below) the carrier wave frequency is varied in direct
proportion to changes in the amplitude of the signal wave.
With digital signals (see below) the carrier wave frequency
is shifed among a set of discrete values of frequencies. To
understand the principles of FM, we will just consider
analogue signals here as shown in Figure 1706.
AB C D EF
A
B
C
D
E
F
Figure 1706 Radio Frequency modulation
Figure 1707 shows what is happening to the amplitude of the
signal wave in the labelled regions and the corresponding
efect on the frequency of the carrier wave.
region amplitude of
signal wave
frequency of carrier wave
A B zero constant
B C increasing increasing with maximum at C
C D decreasing decreasing with minimum at D
D E increasing increasing to constant value at E
E F constant constant
Figure 1707 Variations in frequency and amplitude
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F.1.4 SOLVE PROBLEMS BASED ON
THE MODULATION OF THE
CARRIER WAVE IN ORDER TO
DETERMINE THE FREQUENCY
AND AMPLITUDE OF THE
INFORMATION SIGNAL
Example
A carrier wave is modulated by a single signal wave. As
a result of the modulation, a maximum amplitude of the
carrier wave occurs every 2.3 ms. Between each maximum
there are 2.1 10
5
complete oscillations of the carrier
wave. Determine the frequency of the signal wave and of
the carrier wave.
Solution
For the signal wave
1

__

f
s
= 2.3 10
3

to give f
s
= 435 Hz
for the carrier wave f
c
=
2.1 10
5

________

2.3 10
3
= 9.1 10
7
= 91 MHz
Exercise 17.1 (a)
If the carrier wave in the above example is frequency
modulated by the same signal wave as above, determine
the time interval between an oscillation of the carrier wave
of maximum frequency and one of minimum frequency.
F.1.5 SKETCH AND ANALYSE GRAPHS
OF THE POWER SPECTRUM
OF A CARRIER WAVE THAT IS
AMPLITUDE-MODULATED BY A
SINGLE-FREQUENCY SIGNAL
It is possible to show mathematically that when
a carrier wave of frequency f
c
is modulated by a
signal wave of frequency f
s
then the modulated wave
actually consists of the carrier wave plus two waves,
one of frequency (f
c
- f
s
) and the other of frequency
(f
c
+ f
s
). Te frequencies are called the sideband frequencies
and the frequency range that they cover is called the
bandwidth.
F.1.6 DEFINE WHAT IS MEANT BY
SIDEBAND FREQUENCIES AND
BANDWIDTH
Te concepts of sideband and bandwidth are important
since they essentially determine the carrier wave
frequencies that can be used in broadcasting. If the carrier
wave frequencies are sufciently spaced out, then the
associated sidebands will not overlap and the transmission
from diferent radio broadcasting channels will not
interfere. To further reduce the possibility of interference
between the diferent channels, the range of signal
frequencies is also reduced. Te range of frequencies that
can be heard by the human ear is about 20 Hz to 20 kHz
but in the UK, for instance, the range of transmitted signal
frequencies is limited to 50 Hz to 4.5 kHz. Te range is
perfectly adequate for human speech and some music.
We can calculate the bandwidth for any carrier wave as follows:
the bandwidth is equal to (f
c
- f
s
) + (f
c
+ f
s
) = 2f
c
therefore 2f
c
= 9.0 kHz.
Figure 1708 is a schematic representation of the frequency
spectrum of an AM transmission with a bandwidth of
9.0 kHz.
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f/kHz
f
c
4.5 f
c
0.05 f
c
+ 0.05 f
c
+4.5
f
c
a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Figure 1708 AM amplitude spectrum
However, if the carrier wave is modulated by a single signal
wave of frequency f
s
, the frequency spectrum will look like
that shown in Figure 1709.
f
c
f
c
- f
s
a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
frequency f
c
+ f
s
Figure 1709 Frequency spectrum
of single frequency modulation
Bearing in mind that power is proportional to amplitude
squared, Figure 1709 is translated into a power spectrum translated into a power spectrum
as is shown in Figure 1710 (not to scale).
f
c
f
c
+ f
s
p
o
w
e
r
frequency f
c
- f
s
Figure 1710 Power spectrum
of single frequency modulation
Te transmitted power is concentrated in the carrier
signal, and as this carries no useful information this
means that amplitude modulation is inefcient in terms
of power usage. Te remaining power is split between two
identical sidebands. Since each band contains the same
information only one is actually needed so again there is
wasted power. AM can be made to be more power efcient
by eliminating one of the sidebands (single sideband
transmission) although the electronic circuitry needed
to do this is complicated and adds to the expense of the
transmitter.
F.1.7 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
SIDEBAND FREQUENCIES AND
BANDWIDTH
Exercise 17.1 (b)
1. Te allowed frequency range for broadcasting in the
medium frequency range is 535 kHz to 1615 kHz.
Calculate the number of 9 kHz broadcasting
channels that are available.
2. A carrier wave of frequency 535 kHz is modulated
by frequencies in the range 50 Hz to 5.0 kHz.
Determine the frequencies transmitted and the
bandwidth.
F.1.8 DESCRIBE THE RELATIVE
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF AM AND FM FOR RADIO
TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION
One of the problems with AM transmission is the fact
that the amplitude is not likely to stay constant during
transmission. Tis is because of interference with
other electrical signals (unwanted signals are known as
noise) and also due to energy loss. Because of change of
amplitude during transmission, when the transmitted
signal is decoded, the encoded signals will be distorted.
FM does not sufer from this problem since any change in
amplitude does not afect the encoded signals.
Another problem with AM is the limitation posed by
bandwidth. Te relatively narrow bandwidth does not lead
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to much distortion of speech but the higher harmonics of
musical sounds will not be transmitted and this leads to a
lack of quality in the reproduced sound.
For reasons that are too complex to go into here, audio
frequencies up to 15 kHz can be encoded using FM but
in order to do this successfully a total bandwidth of about
200 kHz is needed. It is for this reason that FM signals
occupy the high frequency end of the radio wave
spectrum.
Historically, there are two main advantages of AM
transmission. Te circuitry involved is cheaper and
simpler but the advent of the silicon chip means that this
is no longer true.
Te range of AM transmission is also much greater than
that of FM transmission. Strictly speaking, to receive FM
you need to be able to see the transmitter; AM on the other
hand is refected by the ionosphere so can be received
efectively anywhere on Earth irrespective of the position
of the transmitter. However, communication satellites now
efectively act as the ionosphere for FM signals, refecting
them to all points on the surface of Earth and, although AM
is still in use, it is soon likely to be a thing of the past. AM is
also much more subject to noise than FM.
F.1.9 DESCRIBE, BY MEANS OF A
BLOCK DIAGRAM, AN AM
RADIO RECEIVER
Te Figure 1703 in F.1.2 shows the basic components of
a radio transmitter. In Figure 1711, we show the basic
components of a radio receiver.
aerial
tuning
circuit
r.f
amplifer
demodulator
a.f.
amplifer
loudspeaker
Figure 1711 The basic radio receiver
A brief description of each component is given below.
Aerial: this detects the transmitted signal by the electric
feld in the transmitted signal oscillating the electrons in
the aerial.
Tuning circuit: this is a circuit that can be tuned to
resonate (see Topic 4) with a particular frequency of a
carrier wave.
r.f (radio frequency) amplifer: this amplifes the selected
modulated carrier wave.
Demodulator: this essentially removes the carrier wave
leaving only the signal waves.
a.f (audio frequency) amplifer: this amplifes the signal
waves.
Loudspeaker: this converts the signal waves into sound waves.
F.2 SL AND HL
DIGITAL SIGNALS
F.2.1 Solve problems involving the conversion
between binary numbers and decimal
numbers.
F.2.2 Distinguish between analogue and digital
signals.
F.2.3 State the advantages of the digital
transmission, as compared to the analogue
transmission, of information.
F.2.4 Describe, using block diagrams, the
principles of the transmission and reception
of digital signals.
F.2.5 Explain the signicance of the number of
bits and the bit-rate on the reproduction of
a transmitted signal.
F.2.6 Describe what is meant by time-division
multiplexing.
F.2.7 Solve problems involving analogue-to-
digital conversion.
F.2.8 Describe the consequences of digital
communication and multiplexing on
worldwide communications.
F.2.9 Discuss the moral, ethical, economic and
environmental issues arising from access to
the Internet.
IBO 2007
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Please refer to Chapter 14 Topics C.1.1.and C.1.2
F.2.3 STATE THE ADVANTAGES OF
THE DIGITAL TRANSMISSION, AS
COMPARED TO THE ANALOGUE
TRANSMISSION, OF INFORMATION
In Topic 14.1.6 (C.1.6) we considered the advantages of
storing data in a digital form as compared to storing it in
analogue form. Some of these advantages clearly appertain
to the transmission of data in digital form, particularly in
respect of quality, accuracy and capacity.
In terms of quality, digital data transmission is much
less subject to noise interference than analogue data
transmission. Tis is because the only variation in
amplitude of digital data is between 0 and 1 whereas in
analogue data the amplitude varies enormously.
Other advantages of digital data transmission are listed
below.
Transmission rate: since digital data is essentially
encoded as numerical data rather than electrically
mimicking the source, the rate at which the
data is transmitted is not dependent on the rate at
which it is recorded.
Source independence: audio and visual data can
be transmitted using the same channel. Tis is
of particular importance in the transmission of
visual data where a bandwidth of about 6 MHz is
required.
Bandwidth and compression: digital data can be
compressed enabling the same bandwidth to be
used by several diferent broadcasting channels;
digital data is ofen compressed for transmission
of audio and visual data. So called MP3, JPEG and
MPEG fles make use of compression, in which
data that is regarded as being non-essential, such
as audio frequencies above 20 kHz, are removed.
F.2.4 DESCRIBE, USING BLOCK
DIAGRAMS, THE PRINCIPLES
OF THE TRANSMISSION AND
RECEPTION OF DIGITAL SIGNALS
Figure 1712 shows the essential components of a digital
data transmitter.
An outline of the function of each component is given
below. However, you should refer to 14.1.2 (C.1.2) for the
principle behind sampling and converting analogue data
into digital data.
Sample and hold
Tis component essentially samples the analogue data and
then holds it. By this we mean that, before moving onto
the next sampling of the data, the result of the previous
sample is held.
Clock
Tis provides the reference pulses.
Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC)
Te sample data is converted into bytes each consisting
of a string of binary digits. (A byte is usually an eight-bit
binary digit). Table 1713 shows how the numbers 0 4 are
encoded in four bit binary number ABCD (a nibble).
sample
and
hold
clock ADC
parallel
to serial
converter
to serial
converter
modulator
carrier
wave
transmission
analogue
data
Figure 1712 A digital data transmitter.
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A B C D
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
Figure 1713 Encoding numbers in 4-bit binary
Parallel to serial converter
Te ADC for example, produces 4-bit bytes that are
encoded as binary pulses in 4 parallel lines, A, B, C and D.
Te parallel to serial converter converts the bytes to pulses
along a single line.
Modulator
Te digital data modulates the carrier wave for
transmission.
Of course digital data transmission does not just occur
in broadcasting (in fact the use here is a relatively new
phenomenon) but in transmission along optical fbres (see
below) and electrical cable in general. An example of the
latter is transmission of data from the hard drive of your
computer to your printer and even computer generated
data to a word processor.
For example in Figure 1714, four bit generated binary
words are converted to a series of binary pulses along a
single cable. Te serial pulses are then converted back to
4-bit words to be used by the word processor.
word generator
parallel to serial
converter
serial to
parallel
converter
Word
processor
Figure 1714 Serial transmission of a
4-bit binary word (nibble)
F.2.5 EXPLAIN THE SIGNIFICANCE OF
THE NUMBER OF BITS AND THE
BIT-RATE ON THE REPRODUCTION
OF A TRANSMITTED SIGNAL
Te greater the sampling rates of an analogue signal the
more accurately will the signal be encoded. A greater
sampling rate means a greater number of bits for each and
therefore means the greater the number of bits that have
to be sent to the receiver every second. Te number of bits
transmitted per second is called the bit rate (or data rate or
data transfer rate) and is defned as
bit rate = number of bits per sample sampling frequency
So, for example, encoding in 8-bit binary and sampling at
a frequency of 16 kHz will result in a bit rate of (8 16)
= 128 kb s
-1
(kilobits per second). Te greater the bit rate,
the higher the quality of the reproduced transmitted
data. Quite ofen, there is a trade of between the total
amount of space that the data takes up and the bit rate as
in MP3 and JPEG fles. In general, though, the sampling
frequency necessary to ensure accurate reproduction
of the signal must be equal to, or greater, than twice the
signal frequency. (Tis is known as the Nyquist Teorem
or the sampling theory).
F.2.6 DESCRIBE WHAT IS MEANT BY
TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
Diferent sets of data, such as telephone converstations,
can be sent apparently simultaneously by using a technique
called multiplexing. Tere are essentially two types of
multiplexing, frequency and time-division multiplexing.
We will look only at time division.
Te principle of time division multiplexing is shown in
Figure 1715.
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control pulse
output
input S
1
input S
2
Figure 1715 A two input multiplexer
When the control pulse is, say, 1, then the switch is in
the position shown and the input signal S
1
will appear at
the output, When the control pulse is 0, then the switch
changes position and S
2
now appears at the output. A four
input multiplexer can be made out of three two input
multiplexers and two controls and so on.
To see how multiplexing works in practice, consider a
situation in which sampling is done at the rate to 16 kHz,
that is one sample every 62.5 s. If each sample takes
8 s to convert to an 8-bit word, then there is a vacant
time slot of length of 54.5 s before the next word is
transmitted. In theory, this slot can be flled by words
from 6 diferent channels (54.5 8). Figure 1716 illustrates
how a multiplexer can be used to transmit data from three
separate channels.
A
B
C
A B C A B C A B C
A
B
C
time division
multiplexer
time division
multiplexer in
reverse
operation
Figure 1716 Transmission of data
from three separate channels
F.2.7 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
ANALOGUE-TO-DIGITAL
CONVERSION
Exercise 17.2
Te graph shows the variation with time of the output of
an electrical signal.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35 37.5 40
time / 100 s
o
u
t
p
u
t
/
V
(a) Te signal is sampled at every 125 s and is
converted into a 3-bit digital signal. Te possible
outputs of the ADC are given below.
Analogue signal/Volts ADC binary output
0 < 1 000
1 < 2 001
2 < 3 010
3 < 4 011
4 < 5 100
5 < 6 101
6 < 7 110
7 < 8 111
Determine:
(i) the sampling rate.
(ii) the digital output of the signal for the 8th
sample.
(iii) the bit rate.
(b) Assuming a binary pulse is produced every 1 s,
calculate the maximum number of channels that
time division multiplexing can produce at this
sampling frequency for sending digital data as two
four bit bytes.
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F.2.8 DESCRIBE THE CONSEQUENCES
OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
AND MULTIPLEXING ON
WORLDWIDE COMMUNICATIONS
Digital communication and the development of
multiplexing have had a tremendous impact on worldwide
communications. Te amount of information and the
speed with which it now can be transmitted across the
world means that news is almost instantaneous. One
only has to compare, for example, how long it took for
news of the Battle of Trafalgar or news of the Boston
Tea Party to reach Europe (and just how sparse the
information was), with how long it took for news of the
2005 tsunami to reach diferent parts of the world. Also,
just think how easy it is now to be in contact with distant
friends and relatives by the use of email as compared to
snail mail. Indeed, digital communication has made the
world a much smaller place.
F.2.9 DISCUSS THE MORAL, ETHICAL,
ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES ARISING FROM ACCESS TO
THE INTERNET
Te development of the Internet is a prime example
of digital communication, the information highway.
However, its use raises many issues that you might like
to discuss with your teacher. Some of the issues might
include the following.
Te use of the internet to spread political or
religious propaganda.
Te use of the internet to sell illegal goods.
Te availability of inappropriate material such as
pornography for minors.
Te advent of internet shopping and its efect
economically and socially.
Te efect on the worlds energy consumption.
F3 SL AND HL
OPTIC FIBRE
TRANSMISSION
F.3.1 Explain what is meant by critical angle and
total internal reection.
F.3.2 Solve problems involving refractive index
and critical angle.
F.3.3 Apply the concept of total internal
reection to the transmission of light along
an optic bre.
F.3.4 Describe the eects of material dispersion
and modal dispersion.
F.3.5 Explain what is meant by attenuation and
solve problems involving attenuation
measured in decibels (dB).
F.3.6 Describe the variation with wavelength of
the attenuation of radiation in the core of a
monomode bre.
F.3.7 State what is meant by noise in an optic
bre.
F.3.8 Describe the role of ampliers and
reshapers in optic bre transmission.
F.3.9 Solve problems involving optic bres.
IBO 2007
F.3.1 EXPLAIN WHAT IS MEANT BY
CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL
INTERNAL REFLECTION
If we consider, for example, light waves incident on the
surface of a glass block in air, then some of the light will
be absorbed at the surface, some refected and some
transmitted. However, let us just concentrate on the
transmitted light. In Figure 1717 (a), the direction of the
incident and transmitted waves are represented by the rays
labelled I and T. Figure 1717(b) shows the waves travelling
from glass to air.
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T
I
normal
air
glass
(a)
i
r
boundary
T
I
normal
air
glass
(b)
boundary
Figure 1717 Refraction: (a) air to glass transmission
(b) glass to air transmission
In Figure 1717(b) the light clearly just follows the same
path as in Figure 1717(a) but in the opposite direction.
However, whereas any angle of incidence between 0 and
90 is possible when the light is travelling from air to glass,
this is not the case when travelling from glass to air. When
angle i = 90 in (a), this will correspond to the maximum
possible angle of refraction when the light is travelling
from glass to air as is shown in Figure 1718.
r
air
= 90
i
glass =

c
air
glass
boundary
Figure 1718 Total internal reection
For light travelling from air to glass, we have from Snells
law (see Topic 4.5.2) that the refractive index of the glass
n is given by
sin
sin
i
n
r
=
Terefore travelling from glass to air, we have
glass
air
sin
1
sin
i
n r
=
For the maximum value of r
air
= 90 therefore
glass
c
sin
1
sin
1
i
n
= =
where
c
is the angle of incidence in the glass that
corresponds to an angle of refraction in air of 90.
Te dotted rays in Figure 1718 show what happens to
light that is incident on the glass-air boundary at angles
greater than
c
; the light is totally internally refected. Te
refection is total since no light is transmitted into the air.
Te angle of incidence at which total refection just occurs
is the angle
c
and for this reason
c
is called the critical
angle.
F.3.2 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
REFRACTIVE INDEX AND
CRITICAL ANGLE
Example
Te critical angle for a certain type of glass is 40.5.
Determine the refractive index of the glass.
Solution
1

__

n
= sin
c
, therefore: n =
1

________

sin 40.5
= 1.54
Exercise 17.3 (a)
Determine the critical angle for light travelling from air to
water of refractive index 1.33.
F.3.3 APPLY THE CONCEPT OF TOTAL
INTERNAL REFLECTION TO THE
TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT ALONG
AN OPTIC FIBRE
Te phenomenon of total internal refection along with
the principles of modulation and analogue to digital
conversion discussed above, form the basis for data
transmission using optic fbres. In optic fbres, the carrier
wave is light. Tere are essentially three types of optic fbres
but we will only concern ourselves with the so-called step-
index fbre. Figure 1719 shows the essential structure of a
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single step fbre and of light transmission along the fbre
by total internal refection.
50 m
125 m
cladding
core
(a)
(b)
Figure 1719 Optical bre (a) structure
(b) transmission of light by TIR
Figure 1719 (a), shows that there is a two-layer structure
of the fbre, the core and the cladding. Te diameter of
the core is constant, at approximately 50 to 60 m and a
typical refractive index index would be 1.440. Te surface
of the core is kept as smooth as possible. Te outer layer,
the cladding, is bonded at all points to the surface of the
core and a typical refractive index would be 1.411. Te
cladding ensures that the refractive index of the outside
of the core is always less than the inside. Te cladding is
usually surrounded by a layer of plastic that protects and
strengthens the fbre.
F.3.4 DESCRIBE THE EFFECTS OF
MATERIAL DISPERSION AND
MODAL DISPERSION
Material dispersion
Although all electromagnetic waves have the same speed
in a vacuum, the speed of the wave in a medium depends
on the wavelength of the wave, a phenomenon known
as dispersion. Another way to regard dispersion is to
recognise that the refractive index of a medium depends
on wavelength (see Topic G.1.4). Te implication of this
for optical fbres is that light of diferent wavelengths will
travel diferent distances along a fbre. Tis means that
the pulses in the fbre will spread out as they travel along
the fbre and the information carried by the waves will
be distorted. Figure 1720 shows how a square wave pulse
might be distorted by this so-called material dispersion.
before transmission after transmission
Figure 1720 Material dispersion
Using laser light as the source of the carrier wave greatly
reduces material dispersion since the bandwidth of the
light emitted by a laser is only about 5 nm. Even using light
emitted by light emitting diodes (LED) reduces material
dispersion since the light emitted still as a bandwidth of
only about 20 nm.
Modal (multipath dispersion)
Te light travelling down a fbre from the source to the
detector can be incident at a variety of diferent angles to
the core-cladding interface. Tis means that diferent waves
can travel diferent paths (or modes as they are called) in
the fbre. Terefore pulses associated with diferent waves
will arrive at the detector at diferent times. Tis is called
modal dispersion.
F.3.5 EXPLAIN WHAT IS MEANT BY
ATTENUATION AND SOLVE
PROBLEMS INVOLVING ATTENUATION
MEASURED IN DECIBELS (DB)
Attenuation
Te intensity of the carrier wave in a fbre will decrease with
the distance travelled along the fbre. Tis phenomenon is
called attenuation and is due to energy being carried by
the wave being lost. Te energy loss is due to a variety of
reasons such as scattering and absorption within the core.
Te attenuation is ofen measured in decibel per kilometre.
Te decibel scale is a logarithmic scale (see Topic I.1.6 to
see how it applies to hearing loss) and in optic fbres the
attenuated power is defned below.
loss of power (attenuation) in decibels
i
output power
nitial power
10log 10log = =
I
1
I
2
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Example
Te power loss between source and detector in a particular
optic fbre of length 1.5 km is 50%. Calculate the power
loss in dB km
-1
.
Solution
power loss in dB = 10log
10(

1

__

2

)
= 3.0 dB
power loss (attenuation) = 2.0 dB km
1
.
Exercise 17.3 (b)
Calculate the length that will result in a power loss of 80%
for of an optical fbre with an attenuation of 2.0 dB km
-1
.
F.3.6 DESCRIBE THE VARIATION
WITH WAVELENGTH OF THE
ATTENUATION OF RADIATION IN
THE CORE OF A MONOMODE FIBRE
A monomode fbre is one in which there is only one
transmission axis thereby eliminating modal dispersion.
In monomode fbres, the core is about 5 m in diameter
which is the same order of magnitude as the wavelength
of the carrier light. Te graph in Figure 1721 shows the
variation with wavelength of the power loss in a monomode
silica optic fbre.
wavelength / x 10
7
m
P
o
w
e
r

l
o
s
s

/

d
b

k
m

1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Figure 1721 Attenuation loss in a monomode optic bre
We see that attenuation decreases with increasing
wavelength and that there are two distinct minima
at about 1300 and 1500 nm. Monomode fbres using
these frequencies of carrier wave make them the best
choice for long-distance communication such as in tele-
communication.
F.3.7 STATE WHAT IS MEANT BY
NOISE IN AN OPTIC FIBRE
One great advantage of using optic fbres for transmitting
data is that they are not very susceptible to noise. Any noise
that does afect the signals arises from stray light entering
the fbre at the transmitting and receiving ends of the fbre.
At the receiving end, photodiodes are used to convert the
light pulses into electrical pulses and photodiodes are
subject to random noise. Te noise to signal power ratio
for an optic fbre is typically in the range 10
-17
to 10
-18
.
F.3.8 DESCRIBE THE ROLE OF
AMPLIFIERS AND RESHAPERS IN
OPTIC FIBRE TRANSMISSION
Reshapers (regenerators)
Monomode fbres efectively eliminate modal dispersion
and although lasers reduce material dispersion the latter
is still present. Suppose for example, data is transmitted at
the rate of 1 Gb s
-1
, then, to ensure that the pulses remain
distinct from each other, they need to be separated by at
least 0.5 ns. Over long distances the pulses can become
quite spread out such that even with laser light, afer
about 50 km, individual pulses will be starting to merge
together. So every 40-60 km, the pulses are detected and
then reshaped. Te reshaped pulses are then encoded onto
a new laser beam for continued transmission. Tis is the
function of the reshaper.
Amplier
Even if pulses have been re-shaped, the carrier wave and
signal still undergo attenuation.
In 1987 David Payne and his co-workers at the University
of Southampton in England developed the frst practical
optical amplifer suitable for optic fbre communication
systems.
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Tese amplifers enable the attenuated carrier and pulses
to be amplifed at various points along the fbre.
Te combination of reshapers and amplifers means that
data can be transmitted along optic fbres for vast
distances. Te longest optic fbre links are those that span
the Worlds oceans, including several across the Atlantic
from North America to Europe and several from the
United States to Japan. Te transatlantic cable laid in 1988
contains eight fbres and each fbre has a bit rate of
560 Mb s
-1
enabling the cable to carry 40,000 telephone
calls at one time. Te next generation of cables which came
into service in 1992, are able to carry double this number
of calls.
F.3.9 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
OPTIC FIBRES
Exercises 17.3 (c)
1. Te cladding of an optic fbre has a refractive
index of 1.46 and the core a refractive index of
1.48. Te fbre is 1.80 10
2
m long.
(a) Calculate the critical angle between the core
and cladding.
(b) Show that the diference between the
transmission time for an axial signal and a
signal that is incident to the cladding at an
angle that is just greater than the critical
angle is about 9 ns. (HINT: consider the
geometry of the situation.)
2. Te input power to an optic fbre is 10 mW and
the signal noise is 1.0 10
-20
W. Te attenuation
loss in the fbre is 2.5 dB km
-1
.
(a) Calculate the ratio of input power to signal
noise in decibels.
(b) Te input signal needs to be amplifed when
its power is attenuated to 1.0 10
-18
W.
Determine the maximum separation of the
amplifers in the cable.
F.4 SL AND HL
CHANNELS OF
COMMUNICATION
F.4.1 Outline dierent channels of
communication, including wire pairs,
coaxial cables, optic bres, radio waves and
satellite communication.
F.4.2 Discuss the uses and the relative
advantages and disadvantages of wire
pairs, coaxial cables, optic bres and
radio waves.
F.4.3 State what is meant by a geostationary
satellite.
F.4.4 State the order of magnitude of the
frequencies used for communication with
geostationary satellites, and explain why
the up-link frequency and the down-link
frequency are dierent.
F.4.5 Discuss the relative advantages and
disadvantages of the use of geostationary
and of polar-orbiting satellites for
communication.
F.4.6 Discuss the moral, ethical, economic and
environmental issues arising from satellite
communication.
IBO 2007
In this section we look briefy at the diferent
communication channels that are available and also their
relative advantages and disadvantages.
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CHAPTER 17 (OPTION F)
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F.4.1 OUTLINE DIFFERENT CHANNELS
OF COMMUNICATION, INCLUDING
WIRE PAIRS, COAXIAL CABLES,
OPTIC FIBRES, RADIO WAVES AND
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
Wire pairs
Te frst real electronic communication system was the
telegraph system that used electrical pulses transmitted
along wires. Tis system led to the development of the
so-called Morse code. One type of telegraph system that
has survived is the Telex system. Tis system has the
advantage over the conventional telephone system that
written documents can be sent.
Although the development of scanners used along with
email and Fax and Teletex have to some extend superseded
Telex, more than three million telex lines remain in
use worldwide. For instance, it is is still widely used in
some developing countries because of its low costs and
reliability.
However, wire pairs that are twisted have one great
advantage, namely that the twisting together results in the
cancelling out of electromagnetic interference from other
sources, particularly from adjacent wires. Essentially, the
wire carry equal and opposite signals such that the noise
in one cancels out the noise in the other. Also, because of
their relative low cost compared to optic fbres and coaxial
cable, twisted wires are ofen used in data networks and
computer systems where there are short and medium
length connections between components. A modern
variant of twisted wires is the so-called Ethernet
connection.
Coaxial cables
A coaxial cable consists of a thin copper wire surrounded
by an insulator which in turn is surrounded by a copper
grid. Tis grid is also surrounded by an insulator. Coaxial
cable will probably be familiar to you as the cable that
ofen connects the aerial to your television set. Although
optic fbres have replaced coaxial cable in many situations,
it is still used to carry the majority of cable television
signals and also for DSL (digital subscriber line) internet
connections. Te main disadvantage of coaxial cable
compared to optic fbre is that coaxial cable is not suitable
for the transmission of digital signals and also that it has
an upper limit bit rate of about 140 Mb s
-1
.
Optic bres
Some of the advantages of optic fbres have been referred
to in Topic F.3.
F.4.2 DISCUSS THE USES AND THE
RELATIVE ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF WIRE
PAIRS, COAXIAL CABLES, OPTIC
FIBRES AND RADIO WAVES
However, it is useful to compare the advantages and
disadvantages of optic fbres to those of coaxial cables.
ADVANTAGES
highly suitable for transmitting digital data
much higher bit rate
much smaller in diameter
low noise
good security
DISADVANTAGES
ofen difcult to access and repair
fnite life of ampfiers and reshapers
Radio waves
Clearly, the main advantage of radio communication
is that it does not require any wires or cables. Te main
disadvantage was that it could not be used to transmit data
contained in documents. However, the advent of wireless
connection for the internet means that this is no longer
the case.
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F.4.3 STATE WHAT IS MEANT BY A
GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE
A geostationary satellite is a satellite that orbits Earth in a
circular orbit above the equator and has an orbital period
of one sidereal day (the time that it takes the Earth to make
one complete rotation about its axis). Tis means that the
satellite will maintain a fxed position over one point of
the equator. Te orbit is at about a height of 3.6 10
7
m
above the surface of Earth. Currently there are fve or six
geostationary satellites each at a diferent point above the
equator.
F.4.4 STATE THE ORDER OF MAGNITUDE
OF THE FREQUENCIES USED
FOR COMMUNICATION WITH
GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES
Te frequency of the carrier waves used to communicate
with the satellite are in the range 0.1-10 GHz. Te up-link
frequency is diferent to the down link frequency since, if
they were the same, the two signals could interfere with
each other giving unwanted feedback.
F.4.5 DISCUSS THE RELATIVE
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF THE USE OF GEOSTATIONARY
AND OF POLAR-ORBITING
SATELLITES FOR COMMUNICATION
Another type of communication satellite is the polar
orbiting satellite. Clearly, a polar satellite is not
geostationary and, as such, it orbital height above the
surface of Earth is much less than that of a geostationary
satellite.
It is useful to compare the advantages and disadvantages
of each type of satellite in their use as communication
satellites.
Te fact that they keep the same position means that,
unlike polar satellites, geostationary satellites need no
tracking system Also, geostationary satellites are always
available to those points that are in the feld of view of
the satellite. Tis is not true for a polar satellite as diferent
points will move out of the feld of view at diferent times.
A disadvantage of geostationary satellites is that their
great height above the surface of Earth means that more
power is needed for transmitting to and from the satellites
than for a polar satellite. An even bigger disadvantage
is that, because of the curvature of Earth, geostationary
satellites are not able to communicate with points further
than about 60-70 North or South. On the other hand
polar satellites will be able to communicate with all points
in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres at some
time during their orbit.
Geostationary satellites, because of their large orbital
height, are much more costly to put into orbit than polar
satellites.
It should be borne in mind that satellites are also used for
remote imaging and that both types have advantages and
disadvantages in this respect.
F.4.6 DISCUSS THE MORAL,
ETHICAL, ECONOMIC AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
ARISING FROM SATELLITE
COMMUNICATION
Tis is a wide issue and is lef as a discussion topic with
your teacher. However, here are a few pointers:
Moral Use in modern warfare.
Economic the question of funding to make and place
satellites in orbit.
Environmental the question of a large amount of
debris in space.
It is probably also worth mentioning the International
aspect of satellite communication in respect of the
economics and shared use.
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F.5.1 State the properties of an ideal operational
amplier (op-amp).
F.5.2 Draw circuit diagrams for both inverting
and non-inverting ampliers (with a single
input) incorporating operational ampliers.
F.5.3 Derive an expression for the gain of an
inverting amplier and for a non-inverting
amplier.
F.5.4 Describe the use of an operational amplier
circuit as a comparator.
F.5.5 Describe the use of a Schmitt trigger for the
reshaping of digital pulses.
F.5.6 Solve problems involving circuits
incorporating operational ampliers.
IBO 2007
F.5.1 STATE THE PROPERTIES OF AN
IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
(OP-AMP)
Te operational amplifer is a remarkable device that
has many uses in electronics and communications. It
was originally called a direct current amplifer (d.c.) to
distinguish it from amplifers that are used to amplify
analogue signals such as audio amplifers.
Figure 1722 shows the circuit symbol for an operational
amplifer (op-amp).
inputs output
+ V
-V
+
-
Figure 1722 The Operational (d.c.) amplier
Te power supply, the +V and V in the diagram, of op-
amps may vary from 15 V to 30 V. It is important to
realise that, for example, a 15 V supply is not the same
as a 30 V supply. Te +15 V is measured with reference to
0 V and so is the 15 V whereas in a 30 V supply the two
supply lines are 30 V and 0 V.
(Note that it is usual to omit the supply lines when drawing
circuits involving op-amps).
Te amplifer has one output terminal and the output
voltage can take any value between V, although in
practice the output will have a slightly smaller range than
this.
Tere are two input terminals to the amplifer. One is
an inverting input (marked -) and a non-inverting input
(marked +).
Te two properties that make the amplifer such a useful
device are:
(i) its very high open loop gain (A
0
), typically about
10
5
, meaning that without any other electrical
components connected to the amplifer, the output
voltage is 10
5
the input voltage.
(ii) its very high input resistance, anything between
10
6
and 10
12
, meaning that the input current to
the amplifer is negligible.
Te amplifer also has very low output resistance and this
is of importance if the output of the amplifer is to be
connected to low resistance components.
In Figure 1722 if the inverting input is V
1
, the non-
inverting input V
2
, and the output V
out
then
V
out
= A
0
(V
2
V
1
)
Tat is, the amplifer amplifes the diference between
the inputs and for this reason it is sometimes called a
diferential amplifer. In the open loop mode of operation,
because of the high gain, the amplifer is very unstable as
small changes in the input are subject to very large changes
at the output.
F.5 HL C.3 SL ELECTRONICS
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F.5.2 DRAW CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS FOR
BOTH INVERTING AND NON-
INVERTING AMPLIFIERS
The inverting amplier
Figure 1723 shows how resistors are connected to the
amplifer in order for it to act as an inverting amplifer.
+
-
0 V
V
out
V
in
R
f
R
in
P
Figure 1723 The inverting amplier
In this amplifer, the non-inverting input is earthed and
a resistor of resistance R
in
is connected to the inverting
input. Another resistor of resistance R
f
is connected
between the output and the input. R
f
is called a feedback
resistance since the resistor is efectively feeding back the
output voltage to the input.
Suppose that the potential diference between the point
P on the diagram and the earth-line (0 V) is V
p
then we
have
V
in
- V
p
= IR
in
where V
in
is the input voltage and I is the input current.
Te input current through R
f
will also be I because of the
very high input resistance of the amplifer such that
V
p
V
0
= IR
f
where V
0
is the output voltage.
However, we also have that
V
0
= -A
0
V
P
or
0
P
0
V
V
A
=
But A
0
, the open-loop gain, is very high so this means that
V
p
zero.
Terefore
V
in
= IR
in
and
- V
0
= IR
f
Te gain G of the amplifer is therefore
0 f
in in
V R
G
V R
= =
Te point P in the diagram is called a virtual earth
because it is efectively at zero potential with respect to
the earth-line. If, in Figure 1723, we were to replace the
amplifer with a piece of plastic, the very high resistance of
the plastic would mean that the current in R
f
would be the
same as that in R
in
but, and this is the important point, the
potential diference at point P would not be zero. It is the
other important property, the high gain of the amplifer,
that ensures that P will efectively be at earth potential.
Te inverting amplifer could therefore be replaced with
the circuit shown in Figure 1724.
Virtual earth
R
in
R
f
0 V
Figure 1724 Equivalent circuit for an inverting ampliier
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F.5.3 DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR
THE GAIN OF AN INVERTING
AMPLIFIER AND FOR A NON-
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
To see how the inverting amplifer works suppose that
R
in
= 1 k, R
f
= 10 k and V
in
= 1 V. Te output voltage
will move to 10 V in order to ensure that the current in
R
f
is the same as that in R
in
(1 mA) and that point P will be
at zero volts. (Hence the voltage at the inverting input is
zero). Since the input voltage to the non-inverting input is
also zero, any change in the input means that the feedback
voltage changes to efectively ensure that the diference in
voltage between the two inputs will still be zero.
The non-inverting amplier
Figure 1725 shows the circuit for the non-inverting amplifer.
+
-
0 V
V
out
V
in
R
f
R
Figure 1725 The non-inverting amplier
Te potential diference across the resistor of resistance R
equals the input potential V
in
(the diference in the input
voltages is zero) such that, if the current in the resistors
R and R
f
is I (remember that the current at the inputs is
zero), then we have that
in
V
I
R
=
and
out in
f
V V
I
R

=
so that
in
V
R
out in
f
V V
R

=
Remembering that the gain
out
in
V
G
V
= , dividing by V
in
and
re-arranging, we have that
f
1
R
G
R
= +
F.5.4 DESCRIBE THE USE OF AN
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
CIRCUIT AS A COMPARATOR
For the open-loop gain of an op-amp we saw that
V
out
= A
0
(V
2
V
1
)
If V
2
>> V
1
then the output will be a maximum and nearly
equal to +V whereas if V
1
>> V
2
the output will be a
minimum and nearly equal to V. Tis makes the op-amp
a useful device for comparing potential diferences. For
example an amplifer might be used to detect a temperature
rise where the temperature rise has caused the voltage at
one of the inputs to change. Figure 1726 shows an example
of such a circuit.
T
R
+
-
+V
-V
V
out
Figure 1726 The operational amplier used as a
comparator
Te resistance of the variable resistor R is adjusted so that
the inverting input is at a greater potential than the non-
inverting input. In this situation V
out
+V and activates
a green light emitting diode (LED) at the output (not
shown). T is a thermistor and in the situation shown, its
temperature is low. When the temperature increases the
resistance of T decreases and reaches a value where the
potential at the inverting input is greater than that at the
non-inverting input. In this situation the output V
out
- V
and this switches of the green LED but activates a red
LED giving warning of the rise in temperature.
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F.5.5 DESCRIBE THE USE OF A
SCHMITT TRIGGER FOR THE
RESHAPING OF DIGITAL PULSES
As we have seen, one problem associated with transmitting
data in digital form, is that the voltage pulses (we will
not concern ourselves here with optical pulses) can
become misshapen during transmission due to noise and
attenuation. Op-amps are used in a circuit called a Schmitt
trigger that enables digital pulses to be reshaped.
Figure 1727 shows the circuit of a non-inverting Schmitt
trigger.
+
-
V
/
R1 R2 P
Vin
Vo
Figure 1727 A non-inverting Schmitt trigger
Suppose that, in the situation shown, the values of the
potential at the two inputs is such that the output voltage
is at its minimum value V
o
. Tis means that the potential
at point P, V
p
(the potential at the non-inverting input),
is less than the potential V
/
at the inverting input. If V
p

increases above V
/
, it will reach a value at which the output
will switch to its maximum value +V
0
. Remembering
that the amplifer draws no current, let us calculate by
how much V
in
has to rise in order for V
o
to switch to its
maximum value. To illustrate this, we will consider a
particular circuit in which V
p
= V
/
= 1.0 V (i.e. the input
signals are equal) and
R
1
= 22 k, R
2
= 100 k and V
o
= 5.0 V.
In the situation where V
o
is = -5.0 V, the potential across
R
1
is
in 1
1.0 22 V IR I = =
where I is the current in the resistors
Te potential across R
2
is
o 2 2
6.0 100 V V IR I + = = =
Terefore I = 0.060 mA, such that
V
in
= 22 0.060 +1 = 2.3 V
We could of course, have done the calculation by
considering R
1
and R
2
as a potential divider across which
the potential diference is V
in
+ 5.0.
Figure 1728 shows the output of a Schmitt trigger that is
the reshaped pulses of misshaped pulse inputs.
time
+V
o
-V
o
V
/
misshapen pulse
reshaped pulse
o
u
t
p
u
t
Figure 1728 Reshaped pulse output of a Schmitt trigger
Te output of the Schmitt trigger is at -V
o
until the input
reaches V
/
at which point the output switches to +V
o
and
remains at this value until the input drops to V
/
again,
when it switches back to -V
o
. In this way the pulses are
re-shaped. In order for the reshaped output pulses to have
only a positive value, a diode is connected between R
2

(Figure 1727) and the output.
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F.5.6 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
CIRCUITS INCORPORATING
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Exercise 17.5
1. Tis exercise shows how an op-amp can be used
as a summing amplifer. In the circuit below each
resistor has the same value of resistance R. For the
circuit, show that the output voltage is the sum of
the three input voltages i.e V
A
+ V
B
+ V
C
= V
out
2. Te two Schmitt triggers shown below each have a
maximum output voltage of + 12 V. Calculate the
switching potential for each trigger.
(a)
+
- 0 V
33 k 100 k

(b)
+
-
5.0 V
47 k 470 k
+
-
0 V
V
out
V
A
V
B
V
C
+
-
0 V
V
out
V
A
V
B
V
C
F.6 HL C.4 SL
THE MOBILE
PHONE SYSTEM
F.6.1 State that any area is divided into a number
of cells (each with its own base station) to
which is allocated a range of frequencies.
F.6.2 Describe the role of the cellular exchange
and the public switched telephone network
(PSTN) in communications using mobile
phones.
F.6.3 Discuss the use of mobile phones in
multimedia communication.
F.6.4 Discuss the moral, ethical, economic,
environmental and international issues
arising from the use of mobile phones.
IBO 2007
Introduction
Tere is little doubt that the development of the mobile
phone system has revolutionised electronic comm-
unication, and in such a relatively short space of time.
Twenty years ago, mobile phones were rare and expensive.
In the present day, the number of mobile phones now
outnumber land-line telephones and also, in the UK for
example, outnumber the population. In 2006, the estimated
number of mobile phone users was 2.5 10
9
and the
number is still growing. It is expected that over 90% of the
worlds population will have access to mobile phone
networks by 2010.
F.6.1 STATE THAT ANY AREA IS
DIVIDED INTO A NUMBER OF
CELLS
Te mobile phone system uses a range of operating
frequencies just below 1 GHz. Each country that has a
mobile phone system is divided into a large number of
small geographical regions of about 2-20 km in diameter.
Tese regions as called cells. At the centre of each cell
is a low power transmitter and receiver that is assigned
a diferent frequency from neighbouring cells. Te low
power of the transmitter means that the physical size of
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the phone can be reduced whereas the diferent operating
frequencies minimises interference between neighbouring
cells. Te use of a cellular network is the reason that mobile
phones are sometimes referred to as cell phones.
F.6.2 DESCRIBE THE ROLE OF
THE CELLULAR EXCHANGE
AND THE PUBLIC SWITCHED
TELEPHONE NETWORK (PSTN)
IN COMMUNICATIONS USING
MOBILE PHONES
Each cell overlaps other cell sites. All of the mobile phone
cell sites are connected to cellular telephone exchanges
which act as switches directing calls to other phones or
to another cellular exchange. Tese cellular exchanges are
also connected to the public switched telephone network
(PSTN). Connection to the PSTN means that mobile
phones can make connection to landline phones and also
to the internet.
As a mobile phone user moves from one cell area to
another, the cellular exchange automatically switches the
cell site the phone is using to a cell with a stronger signal.
Te phone also switches to the frequency used by this new
cell.
F.6.3 DISCUSS THE USE OF MOBILE
PHONES IN MULTIMEDIA
COMMUNICATION
As you are probably well aware, mobile phones can now
connect to the internet, send emails, download music fles,
video and picture fles and send these on to other mobile
phone users. Tey can also of course be used as cameras.
F.6.4 DISCUSS THE MORAL, ETHICAL,
ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL
AND INTERNATIONAL ISSUES
ARISING FROM THE USE OF
MOBILE PHONES
Like all innovations, there are benefts and there are
downsides associated with mobile phone use. Here we
outline only some of the possible downsides that your
teacher might like to discuss with you in more detail; there
are of course many others.
Moral and ethical
Use of mobile phones raises the problem of the invasion
of other peoples private space in respect of their use in
public spaces. Tey also allow the private download of
material that might be illegal.
Recently there have been cases reported of phones
being used to bully individuals by harassment with text
messages.
Environmental
Apart from the invasion of other peoples privacy, there is
the very difcult problem of the disposal of old phones.
You might like to try, as an exercise, to think of some
economic and international benefts and downsides
connected with the use of mobile phones. As mentioned
at the beginning of this Option Topic, the revolution
in modern telecommunication is making the world a
much smaller place and mobile phones are part of that
revolution.
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18
TOK The nature of light
G.1 (SL and HL) The nature of em waves and light sources
G.2 (SL and HL) Optical instruments
G.3 (SL and HL) Two-source interference of waves
G.4 (SL and HL) Diraction grating
G.5 (HL Only) X-rays
G.6 (HL Only) Thin-lm interference
In the 17th century there were two opposing views
expressed regarding the nature of light by Sir Isaac Newton
(1642-1727), and Christian Huygens (1629-1695). Newton
was of the opinion that light consisted of particles and
Huygens was of the opinion that light consisted of waves.
Tey both believed, however, that a medium the ether
was necessary for the propagation of light.
In Galileos book Two New Sciences published in
1638, he pointed out that the fash from an artillery gun
was seen before the sound of the blast was heard. He
concluded that the fash of light appeared instantaneously.
However, he stated that we would not know whether it
was instantaneous unless there was some accurate way to
measure its speed. He suggested an experiment could be
performed where a person with a lantern stood on one hill
and an observer stood on another hill, a known distance
away. By fashing the lantern on one hill, the observer on
the distant hill could time how long it took the fash to
reach him. Tis was highly unlikely to produce a result,
and there is only anecdotal evidence to suggest that the
experiment was actually performed.
In 1676, the Danish astronomer Ole Rmer made the
frst recognised prediction of the speed of light. Trough
observation of Jupiters moon Io, he noticed that the
period between eclipses (when Io disappears behind
Jupiter) of Io is about 42.5 hours. However, he observed
that there was an irregularity in the times between
successive eclipse periods as the Earth orbits the Sun. He
reasoned that because of the Earths motion about the
Sun, it spends about six months of the year moving away
from Jupiter, and the remaining time moving towards it.
Terefore, if the eclipsing at the close distance and the
far distance was compared, he estimated that the extra
time for the light to reach Earth in the extreme was about
22 minutes. A short time later, the Dutch physicist,
Christian Huygens, used Rmers value of 22 minutes and
his estimate of the Earths orbit to obtain a value equivalent
in SI units of 2 10
8
m s
-1
about two-thirds the presently
accepted value (we now know that the actual value is
16 minutes).
In 1849, the French physicist, A.H.L. Fizeau made the frst
non-astronomical measurement of the speed of light. He
realised that the use of a rotating toothed wheel would
make it possible to measure very short time intervals.
He placed a light source on a hill in Paris and a rotating
toothed wheel on another hill 8.63 km away as shown in
Figure 1801.
Rotating cog wheel
Lens Lens
Lens
Observer
Light source
Lens
Semi-transparent
Refecting plane
mirror
8.63 km
half- silvered mirror
Figure 1801 Fizeaus apparatus
to determine the speed of light
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Using a system of lenses and a half-silvered mirror, he was
able to focus a beam of light onto a gap in the toothed
wheel placed on one hill. Te beam then travelled to the
other hill where it was refected of a plane mirror and
returned to the rotating wheel. Te light intensity of the
returning light then passed through the transparent part
of the half-silvered mirror where it was observed. At low
speeds of rotation of the toothed wheel, he found that
little light was visible because the path of the refected
light was obstructed by the teeth of the rotating wheel. He
then increased the rotation of the wheel until the refected
light was visible. He reasoned that this would occur when
the rotation speed was such that the refected light passed
through the next gap between teeth. Te wheel had 720
teeth and the light was bright when the wheel rotated at
25.2 revolutions per second.
In 1860, Jean Foucalt improved Fizeaus method by
replacing the toothed wheel with an eight-sided rotating
mirror. He used the improved apparatus to measure the
speed of light through air and water, and discovered that
the speed of light in water was less than in air.
In the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) put
Faradays theory of electricity and magnetism into a
mathematical form that could be generalised and applied
to electric and magnetic felds in conductors, insulators
and space free of matter. According to Maxwells theory,
a changing electric feld in space produces a magnetic
feld, and a changing magnetic feld in space produces
an electric feld. He predicted that by mutual induction,
a sequence of time-varying and space-changing electric
and magnetic felds would be propagated from an original
source such as an oscillating charge. He proposed that
these fuctuating, interlocked electric and magnetic
felds would propagate through space in the form of an
electromagnetic wave. He still believed that the ether was
the medium for propagation. Following on from other
earlier attempts to determine the speed of light, Maxwell
proposed that the speed of electromagnetic waves was about
311 000 000 m s
-1
.
In 1887 Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) demonstrated
experimental evidence for the existence of electromagnetic
waves as proposed by Maxwell in 1865. Hertzs apparatus
is shown schematically in Figure 1802.
Spark
gap
electromagnetic waves
High voltage
induction coil
Detector loop
Detecting gap
Transmitter
Figure 1802 Hertzs apparatus
Te induction coil produced a large potential diference
between the gap in the source loop, and sparks were
produced. When the detector loop was brought near the
source loop, sparks were also noticed jumping across the
air gap in the detector loop. Hertz hypothesised that the
sparks in the source loop set up changing electric and
magnetic felds that propagated as an electromagnetic
wave, as postulated by Maxwell. Tese waves then aligned
in the air gap of the detector loop setting up electric and
magnetic felds. Tese induced a spark in the air gap.
Between the years of 1880 to 1930, the American physicist,
Albert. A. Michelson, made a series of precise measurements
to determine the speed of light. Using a rotating octagonal
steel prism, he constructed the apparatus is shown in
Figure 1803.
Y
S
A
B
C
X
G
F
E D
Light froma bright source
Octagonal
steel prism
Mt. Wilson Mt. San Antonio
3.4 10
4
m
Concave mirror
Concave mirror
Fixed
telescope
Figure 1803 Michelsons method for determining the
speed of light
His apparatus consisted of the main set-up on the right
of Figure 1803, placed on Mount Wilson in the USA, and a
concave mirror to the lef of the diagram placed on Mount
San Antonio 3.4 10
4
m away.
When the octagonal steel prism is stationary, the light
from the source S follows the path SYABCDEDCFGX, and
an image can be seen through the fxed telescope. When
the rotating prism is rotated slowly, the image disappears
because the faces of the prism are not in a suitable
position. However, if the prism is rotated so that it turns
through one- eighth of a revolution in the time it takes
light to travel from X to Y, then an image is seen in the
fxed telescope. Michelson found that this occurred when
the prism was rotated at 530 revolutions per second.
Michelson then corrected for the fact that the light was
travelling through air rather than a vacuum, and obtained
a value that is today considered to be accurate to one part
in a hundred thousand.
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Another method to determine the speed of light involves
the use of the electrical constants

0
and
0
rather than the speed of light directly. According
to Maxwells electromagnetic theory, the speed of light is
given by
c
1

0
--------------- - =
where
0
is the permittivity of free space and is equal to
8.85 10
-12
C
2
N
-1
m
-2
, and
0
is the permeability of free
space and is equal to 4.25 10
-7
T m A
-1
.
When we substitute these values into the equation, the
value obtained for the speed of light is 299 863 380.5 m s
-1
.
With modern electronic devices being used physicists are
continuing to improve their methods of measurement. Te
most accurate measurements indicate that the speed of
light in a vacuum is 299 792 458 m s
-1
with an uncertainty
of 1 m s
-1
.
Te standard unit of length, the metre, is now defned
in terms of this speed. In 1960, the standard metre was
defned as the length equal to 1 650 763.73 wavelengths of
the orange-red line of the isotope krypton-86 undergoing
electrical discharge. Since 1983, the metre has been defned
as the metre is the length of path travelled by light in a
vacuum during a time interval of 1 / 299 792 458 s. Te
speed of all electromagnetic waves is the same as the speed
of light.
Further investigation showed that the electromagnetic
waves exhibit the properties of refection, refraction,
interference, difraction and polarisation. Furthermore,
they travelled at the speed of light. Since these properties
are also exhibited by light, Hertzs experiment had shown
that light is a form of a transverse electromagnetic wave.
In 1905, Albert Einstein in his special theory of relativity
proposed that the ether did not exist, and that the speed of
light is constant in all frames of reference.
Example
Te distance from the Earth to the Sun is 3.00 10
11
m. If
light takes 16 minutes to travel this distance, what is the
speed of light?
Solution
Now, c
d
t
---
3.00 10
11
m
16 min 60 s min
1
( )
-------------------------------------------------------- 3.13 10
8
= = =
So, the speed of light is 3.13 10
8
m s
-1
.
Example
Determine the speed of light using Fizeaus method.
Solution
Total distance travelled = 2 (8.63 10
3
m)
Time taken =
1
720
-------- -rev


1 s
25.2 rev
--------------------


5.51 10
5
s =
Using,
c
d
t
---
2 8.63 10
3

5.51 10
5

---------------------------------- 3.13 10
8
= = =
Tat is, the speed of light is 3.13 10
8
m s
-1
.
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G.1.1 Outline the nature of electromagnetic (EM)
waves.
G.1.2 Describe the dierent regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
IBO 2007
G.1.1 THE NATURE OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic waves are produced because of the
accelerated motion of electric charges. When electrons
are accelerated in aerials or within atoms, they produce
changing electric felds. Tese changing electric felds
generate changing magnetic felds in a plane perpendicular
to the electric feld plane. As this process continues,
a self-propagating electromagnetic wave is produced.
As the charge oscillates with simple harmonic motion,
the strength of the electric and magnetic vectors vary
with time, and produce sine curves (sinusoidal waves)
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of the
wave velocity v as shown in Figure 1804. Te waves are
therefore periodic and transverse.
B
E
v
Figure 1804 The nature of EM waves
All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in a
vacuum. Tis speed is known as the free space velocity of light
and is given the symbol c. It is a fundamental constant of
nature and has a velocity of 2.998 10
8
m s
-1
(~ 3 10
8
m s
-1
).
Electromagnetic waves can also, of course, propagate in
matter. However, when they travel in diferent media such
as glass, they are refracted and therefore travel at a diferent
speed.
An electromagnetic wave also carries momentum and
energy, and the energy factor will be expanded on shortly.
Recall from Chapter 4 the wave terminology concerning
wave speed, wavelength, frequency and period. Because
speed equals the time rate of change of distance, in
electromagnetic wave terms:
c
wavelength
period
---------------------------

T
--- = =
but, T = 1 / f
c f =
TOK Is EM radiation a health hazard?
Students should know that an oscillating electric
charge produces varying electric and magnetic elds.
Students should know that electromagnetic waves
are transverse waves and all have the same speed in
a vacuum.
Students could consider the possible health hazards
associated with transmission lines.
IBO 2007
G.1.2 REGIONS OF THE
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Figure 1805 shows a typical electromagnetic spectrum. You
will see the EM spectrum depicted in diferent textbooks
in diferent ways. Sometimes it is shown horizontally and
other times vertically. Sometimes the higher energy end is
to the lef and at other times it is reversed. Te spectrum
is only a representation of the diferent radiation bands
and therefore there is no convention as to how it should
be represented.
Visible light as detected by the human eye is only a
small part of the range of electromagnetic waves. Te
wavelength of visible light ranges from 400 nm for the
shorter wavelength violet near the ultra-violet region of
the spectrum to 700 nm for the longer wavelength red
near the infrared region.
G.1 SL AND HL THE NATURE OF EM
WAVESAND LIGHT SOURCES
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Wavelength (metres) Frequency (Hertz)
10
5
10
10
10
15
10
20
10
25
10
5
10
0
10
5
10
10
10
15
Longwave radio
Shortwave radio
(e.g broadcasting)
Microwaves
(e.g radar)
Millimeter waves
Infrared light
Visible light
Ultraviolet light
Xrays
Gamma rays
Visible light
4.3 10
14
7.5 10
14
7 10
5
6 10
5
5 10
5
4 10
5
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
10
6
10
7
10
8
10
9
A.M radio
F.M radio
Cellular phones
Hz
Hz m
Figure 1805 A typical electromagnetic spectrum
Note that there are no sharp divisions or rapid changes of
properties between the various regions, rather a gradual
merging into each other. Te names used for each region
are for convenience only and the classifcation scheme
has developed due to the origin of their manner of
production. For example, the ranges of gamma radiation
and X-radiation overlap. X-rays could be produced with
wavelengths similar to gamma radiation emitted by
radioactive substances, but they are called X-rays because
they are produced when electrons hit a metal target.
You should become familiar with the order of magnitude
of the frequencies (and wavelengths) of the diferent
regions. Figure 1806 indicates the orders of magnitude of
the wavelengths for the regions of the spectrum. If you
become familiar with these you can determine the order
of magnitude of the frequencies using the equation
f = c / . Note that the range of gamma rays extends beyond
the range of instrumentation that is presently available.
Because the speed of electromagnetic waves is constant
(~ 3 10
8
m s
-1
), as the wavelength gets longer (increases),
the frequency decreases. Similarly, if the wavelength
decreases, the frequency increases. Terefore, there is a
range of wavelength values (and frequency values) that
electromagnetic waves can have. Te entire possible
range is called the electromagnetic spectrum. A range of
wavelengths from about 10
8
m to 10
-17
m corresponding to
a frequency range of 1 Hz to 10
25
Hz have been studied by
scientists. Refer to Figure 1806 (a).
Although electromagnetic waves can be produced and
detected in diferent ways, all waves in the electromagnetic
spectrum behave as predicted by Maxwells theory of
electromagnetic waves.
Wave type Order of magnitude of the wavelength (m)
Radio 10
4
10
-2
Microwave 10
-2
10
-4
Infrared 10
-4
10
-6

Visible 7 10
-7
3 10
-7

Ultra-violet 3 10
-7
10
-9
X-rays 10
-9
10
-11
Gamma rays 10
-11
10
-13

Figure 1806 (a) Wavelengths and wave types
Electromagnetic radiation has particular properties in
the diferent regions of the EM spectrum, and they are
generated and detected in diferent manners. Te regions
will now be discussed in some detail.
Radio waves
Radio waves have the longest wavelengths, and lie in the
frequency range from 30 Hz to greater than 3000 MHz.
Tey have specialised uses in radio communication
including AM (amplitude modulated) and FM (frequency
modulated) radio, television, CB radio, radio microphones
and scanning devices in MRI (magnetic resonance
imaging). Because of their many uses governments must
regulate the bandwidth that can be used in communication
devices in order to avoid congestion of the airwaves. Te
internationally agreed frequency bands used for carrier
waves, and their uses are given in Figure 1806 (b).
Radio waves are generated by an electric circuit called
an oscillator and are radiated from an aerial. A tuned
oscillatory electric circuit that is part of a radio/television
receiver detects the radio waves. As they do not penetrate
solid materials, radio waves are relatively easily refected
of surfaces and this makes them ideal for communication
technology. Refer to Figure 1806 (b).
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Band Frequency Frequency Wavelength
(m)
Use
Extremely high EHF
Super high SHF
3003GHz <0.1 Space
satellite link
Ultra-high UHF 30.3GHz 10.1 Television
Very high VHF 30030MHz 101 FM radio
High HF 303MHz 10010
short wave
AM radio
Medium MF 30.3MHz 1000100
medium wave
AM radio
Low LF
Very low VLF
3003kHz >100 000-1000 Defence
use
Figure 1806 (b) Radio frequencies
Long and medium wavelength radio waves easily difract
around obstacles such as small mountains and buildings,
and they can be refected by the earths ionosphere.
Terefore, there does not have to be a direct line of sight
between the antenna and the receiver and they can be
broadcasted over large distances provided the transmitter
used is powerful.
Television and FM broadcasting stations have wavelengths
from 110 m and they are not easily difracted around
objects. Terefore, coaxial cables or relay stations are
necessary to transmit signals between points more than
80 km apart, even if there is a direct line free of obstacles
between them.
Waves in the UHF, SHF and EHF bands are not refected
of the ionosphere in the upper atmosphere but rather pass
into space. For this reason, SHF and EHF bands are used
for outer space and satellite communications. Tese outer
bands are overlapping in the microwave region of the EM
spectrum.
Microwaves
Microwaves have many applications including
mobile phone, satellite communication, radar (radio
detection and ranging) and cooking. Tey are also used
in the analysis of fne details concerning atomic and
molecular structure. Microwaves are the main carriers of
communication between repeater stations. Tey use line-
of-sight technology where relay stations are placed in high
positions 50 km apart.
Tey are produced by special electronic semi-conductor
devices called Gunn diodes, or by vacuum tube devices such
as klystrons and magnetrons. Tey are detected by point
contact diodes, thermistor bolometers and valve circuits.
Radar consists of short pulses of microwaves. Tey are
used to detect the speed of vehicles by police, and to fnd
distances to aeroplanes and ships. It is a microwave system
that guides large aircraf into airports.
Microwaves can interact with matter and this is the basis
of the microwave oven. Water readily absorbs radiation
(energy) with a wavelength of 10 cm, and this absorbed
energy causes the molecules to produce thermal energy
due to their vibration. Te heat is therefore generated in
the substance itself rather than conducted in from the
outside, and this allows food to be cooked rapidly. At
short distances from the source, microwave radiation can
damage living tissue.
Infra-red radiation
In heated bodies, the outer electrons in atoms and
molecules give of electromagnetic waves with wavelengths
shorter than 10
4
m due to a change in the rotational and
vibrational kinetic energy of these particles. Because the
radiation given of has a wavelength slightly longer than
the red end of the visible spectrum, it is called infrared
radiation. Infrared radiation allows us to receive warmth
from the Sun and other heat sources. In fact most of the
emitted radiation from any hot object is infrared.
Infrared radiation can be detected by our skin, by
thermometers, thermistors, photoconductive cells, special
photographic flm. Special photographic flm is used to
identify heat sources such as human beings trying to hide
from the scene of a crime or soldiers moving in a war
situation. Tey can also identify environmental problems.
Because this radiation is scattered by small particles in
the atmosphere, they can be used in haze photography.
It is also employed in the identifcation of the molecular
structure of many organic compounds.
Visible light
As already mentioned, the receptors in the human eye
are sensitive to electromagnetic radiation between about
400 nm to 700 nm, and radiation in this region is referred
to as visible light. Visible light is detected by stimulating
nerve endings of the retina of the eye or by photographic
flm and photocells. Te eye is most sensitive to the
green and yellow parts of the visible spectrum. It can be
generated by the re-arrangement of outer orbital electrons
in atoms and molecules. Tese excited electrons emit light
and other electromagnetic radiation of a certain frequency
when they lose energy as happens in gas discharge tubes.
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Visible light can cause photochemical reactions in which
radiant energy is converted into chemical energy.
Ultra-Violet radiation
Ultra-violet radiation produces EM waves between about
10
-7
m to 10
-9
m. It is generated by the orbital electrons
of atoms of the Sun, and other instruments such as high-
voltage discharge tubes and mercury vapour lamps. Like
visible light, UV radiation can cause photochemical
reactions in which radiant energy is converted into
chemical energy as in the production of ozone in the
atmosphere and the production of the dark pigment
(melanin) that causes tanning in the skin. It also helps to
produce vitamin D in our skin. However, too much UV
radiation can cause melanoma cancers.
UV radiation has the ability to ionise atoms and this is
the reason why ozone is produced in the atmosphere. Tis
ozone is capable of killing bacteria and therefore it can be
put to good use in the sterilisation of many objects.
Te atoms of many elements emit UV radiations that are
characteristic of those elements, and this quality allows
many unknown substances to be identifed. UV radiation
can be detected by photography and the photo-electric
efect. Furthermore, certain crystals fuoresce when they
absorb UV radiation, and this is put to use in washing
powders to make the whites look whiter.
X-Radiation
X-radiation produces EM waves between about 10
8
m
to 10
18
m. It can be generated by the rapid deceleration
(stopping) or defection of fast-moving electrons when
they strike a metal target or other hard objects. It can also
be generated by the sudden change in energy of innermost
orbital electrons in atoms. Te maximum frequency
produced is determined by the energy with which the
fast-moving electrons from the source strike a target. Tis
energy is in turn determined by the accelerating voltage of
an X-ray machine.
X-rays can penetrate diferent materials to diferent
degrees. Hard X-rays (near the gamma end) are more
penetrating than sof X-rays (near the ultra-violet end).
Apart from the penetration increasing with increased
frequency of the X-rays, the penetrating power also
depends on the nature of the material being penetrated.
Te higher the atomic mass of a material, the less is the
penetration. For example, X-rays can easily penetrate skin
and fesh containing mainly the lighter atoms carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen, but are less able to penetrate dense
material such as bone containing the heavier element
calcium. Because X-rays are detected by photography, the
photographic plate placed beneath the body can be used
to identify possible bone fractures.
X-rays are ideal for identifying faws in metals. Tey are
also used in CAT scans (computerised axial tomography).
Because tissues absorb X-rays diferently, when a body
is scanned, the internal organs and tissues can be
identifed from the analysis of the images produced by the
computer.
X-radiation can ionise gases and cause fuorescence.
Because X-rays produce interference patterns when they
interact with crystals in rocks and salts, the structure of
these regular patterns of atoms and molecules can be
determined by this process of X-ray difraction.
X-rays can damage living cells and continued use and
exposure to X-rays is discouraged. Radiologists who work
in X-ray Departments always stand behind lead-lined walls
when an X-ray is being taken. On the other hand, some
types of diseased cells are damaged more easily than are
healthy cells. Terefore, if X-rays are carefully controlled,
they can be used to destroy cancerous cells, as is the case
with the use of certain lasers in radiation therapy.
Gamma radiation
Te gamma radiation region of the EM spectrum
overlaps with the X-ray region and their use in cancer
therapy overlaps with the last statement made about X-
ray use in radiotherapy. Tese high frequency rays are
highly penetrating and are produced by natural and
artifcial radioactive materials. As such, gamma rays will
pass through metres of air and need large thicknesses
of concrete or lead to absorb them in order to protect
humans from danger. Gamma radiation can be detected
by an ionisation chamber as found in a Geiger-Mller
counter.
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G.1.3 DISPERSION OF EM WAVES
G.1.3 Describe what is meant by the dispersion of
EM waves.
G.1.4 Describe the dispersion of EM waves in
terms of the dependence of refractive index
on wavelength.
IBO 2007
When a narrow beam of white light undergoes refraction
on entering a prism, the light spreads out into a spectrum
of colours. Te colours range from red at one side of the
band, through orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo (light
purple), to violet at the other side of the band. We say
that the spectrum of white light is continuous because the
colour bands gradually change from one colour to the next
without there being any gaps. Te separation of the white
light into its component colours is due to dispersion as
shown in Figure 1807. For clarity their angular separation
is exaggerated.
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Indigo
Vi olet
White
light
Screen
prism
Figure 1807 Dispersion due to a prism
Tis form of dispersion was frst explained by Sir Isaac
Newton. When he isolated a particular spectrum colour
produced when white light was passed through a prism,
and then passed it through a second prism, he found
there was no further colour change. He concluded that the
colours produced had not been introduced by the prism,
but rather were components of the white light. Te red and
violet light, being components, are incident on the prism
at the same angle. However, upon entering the prism the
violet ray is refracted through a greater angle than the red
ray.
As well as separating the spectrum into its diferent colours,
Newton also showed that the colours could be recombined
or synthesised to produce white light. Two methods to
show this synthesis are shown in Figure 1808. In the frst
method two prisms are aligned as shown to produce white
light. In the second method, a disc containing coloured
sectors of the spectrum is rotated rapidly. Te colours of
the spectrum are combined together and they appear as an
of-white colour.
Red
Violet
White
light
prism1
White light
Violet
Red
prism 2
R
O
Y
G
B
I
V
Figure 1808 Synthesis of white light.
G.1.4 DISPERSION AND DEPENDANCE
OF THE REFRACTIVE INDEX ON
WAVELENGTH
We now know that the refractive index of the prism material
is diferent for each colour. It is greater for violet light than
it is for red light. Te colour of visible light depends on the
wavelength of the light. Red light has a longer wavelength
than orange light, which in turn has a longer wavelength
than yellow light and so on. Each wavelength of light has
a diferent speed when it enters a medium, and diferent
media have diferent refractive indexes. Terefore, the
dependence of the index of refraction on wavelengths (and
as a result on frequency) is also called dispersion. Each
wavelength of light has a diferent velocity in diferent
media such as glass and oil.
Dispersion is the separation of a mixture of diferent
wavelengths initially travelling together, when they enter a
new medium where velocity depends on a frequency, and
hence each frequency has a diferent refractive index. For
example, the refractive index for glass is smaller for red
light than it is for blue light, and so on.
Figure 1809 shows how the refractive index and
wavelength change for the colours produced when light
from a mercury vapour lamp is incident on a certain glass
prism.
Refractive Index Colour Wavelength / nm
1.651 Violet 404.8
1.643 Blue 435.8
1.625 Green 546.1
1.621 Yellow 579.1
Figure 1809 Refractive indices of dierent wavelengths
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G.1.5 TRANSMISSION, ABSORPTION
AND SCATTERING OF RADIATION
G.1.5 Distinguish between transmission,
absorption and scattering of radiation.
G.1.6 Discuss examples of the transmission,
absorption and scattering of EM radiation.
IBO 2007
Quantum physics began in 1900 with the proposals of
Max Planck. He found that radiation absorbed or emitted
by a black body could not be explained using classical
physics. Planck proposed that electromagnetic radiation
could not be emitted or absorbed continuously as proposed
by classical physics but rather it is emitted or absorbed in
little bursts or packets of energy. We now call these
photons and we say that radiation is quantised.
Tis statement is given mathematically as:
E = hf
where E is the energy of the photon in J or MeV, and h is a
constant called Plancks constant. It has a value of 6.6 10
-34
J s.
Example
A photon of blue light has a wavelength of 450 nm.
Calculate the
(a) photons frequency
(b) photons energy
Solution
(a) c f f
c

--- = =

3 10
8
m s
1

450 10
9
m
---------------------------------
= 6.7 10
14
Hz
(b) E h f 6.6 10
34
J s ( ) 6.7 10
14
Hz ( ) = =
= 4.4 10
-19
J or 2.8 eV
Radiation can relate to the transmission of electromagnetic
energy through space. All regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum can transmit radiation to the surroundings.
For example, all hot bodies transfer thermal energy
with energies mainly in the infrared region between two
substances which are not in contact with each other. All
the incoming radiation I from one object can be absorbed
A, transmitted T or scattered S (refected) from another
object as follows: I = T + A + S
Because electromagnetic waves are produced as a result
of the movement of electric charges, they have energy
or electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation,
whatever its frequency (or wavelength) can only be emitted
if energy is supplied to the source of radiation the charge
that is undergoing acceleration. Tis energy produced
can be absorbed and detected in various ways such as the
heating of food in a microwave oven. Some objects can
then re-radiate the absorbed energy and transmit that
energy to another place. Tis was discussed in Chapter 8
when the Greenhouse Efect was considered.
If the radiation is not absorbed or scattered by an object,
it will continue on its transmission path at the speed of
light.
In terms of this chapter, radiation scattering is the
defection of EM radiation from its original path due to
its collisions with particles in a medium. Te scattered
radiation afer a single collision with a single molecule
could be in many directions with diferent frequencies. It
may cause a change in polarisation or it may interact at the
atomic or molecular level.
G.1.6 EXAMPLES OF TRANSMISSION,
ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING
OF EM RADIATION
When electromagnetic radiation in the visible region is
transmitted from the Sun and enters the earths atmo-
sphere, most of the short-wavelength radiation in the
indigo-violet region is absorbed in the higher atmosphere.
However, the continuous spectrum produced by a
spectroscope on the earths surface still has large amounts
of indigo and violet. So why doesnt the sky appear violet.
Te answer lies in the way in which the human eye is
sensitive to some colours more than others. Our eye
consists of three types of colour receptors, called cones, in
our retina red, blue and green cones that respond more
to colours within these wavelengths.
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A further factor known as Rayleigh scattering needs to be
examined. Lord Rayleigh found that the amount of light
scattered is inversely proportional to the fourth power of
the wavelength for small particles.
Amount of scattering = k 1 /
4
Let us compare the scattering of red light with a wavelength
of 660 nm with that of blue light with a wavelength of
470 nm.
Amount of scattering of red
=
k 1

___________

(660 10
9
)
4
=
k 1

_________

1.9 10
25
= k 5.3 10
24

Amount of scattering of blue
=
k 11

___________

(470 10
9
)
4
=
k 11

_________

4.9 10
26
= k 2.0 10 2.0 10
25

Te ratio
k 2.0 10 2.0 10 2.0 10
25

___________

k 5.3 10 5.3 10 5.3 10
24
= 3.9.
So the blue light is scattered more than the red light.
So on a clear day, the sky appears blue because certain
molecules in the air scatter blue light more than red,
orange and yellow light. A clear cloudless day-time sky is
blue because molecules in the air scatter blue light from
the sun more than they scatter red light. When we look
towards the sun at sunset, we see red and orange colours
because the blue light has been scattered out and away
from the line of sight.
It is a misconception to think that light is scattered by
particulate matter in the atmosphere. Te scattering that
occurs is mainly due to the scattering that occurs when
the transmitted radiation is scattered of nitrogen and
oxygen molecules. Remember from Chapter 8 that it is the
molecular dipole moments of the greenhouse gases that
absorb radiation in the low infrared region. Terefore, it
is believed that water vapour is not responsible for the
scattering efect.
When the Sun rises or sets, most of the blue light has been
scattered and the Suns rays have to travel through more
atmosphere. Te red cone receptors are more sensitive to
red light and we see what appears to be red, orange and
yellow light .
G.1.7 Explain the terms monochromatic and
coherent.
G.1.8 Identify laser light as a source of coherent
light.
G.1.9 Outline the mechanism for the production
of laser light.
G.1.10 Outline an application of the use of a laser.
IBO 2007
G.1.7,8 THE TERMS MONOCHROMATIC
AND COHERENT
A monochromatic source of radiation is one that has
an extremely narrow band of frequencies or extremely
small narrow wavelength band (or colour in the case of
visible light). Most sources of light emit many diferent
wavelengths. Laser light is monochromatic.
When the flament of a light globe emits light, the atoms on
the flament do not maintain a constant phase relationship
because the flament atoms act independently from each
other. Te light emitted is incoherent. However, in a laser,
each photon of light is in phase with all the other photons.
Laser light is coherent.
Laser light is a coherent and monochromatic source of
electromagnetic radiation.
Mechanism for the production of
laser light
Te word laser is an acronym derived from Light
Amplifcation by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. A
laser is an instrument that has a power source and a light-
amplifying substance. Te power source provides the
energy that causes atoms in the light- amplifying substance
to become excited. Tere are a variety of solid, liquid and
gas lasers available on the market. Te common laser used
in the laboratory uses a helium-neon gas mixture as the
light-amplifying substance.
Te operation starts with the light-amplifying substance
absorbing non-coherent radiation from a power source.
It then re-emits some of the energy provided in the form
of a coherent, monochromatic beam of photons of great
intensity. Te light produced is a nearly perfect plane
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wave. Te intensity is in fact increased due to the emitted
waves being coherent.
To gather information about the energy levels of an atom
or a molecule, scientists investigate the radiation absorbed
or emitted when an atom or molecule, (more specifcally
the electrons), undergo a transition. Recall continuous,
absorption and emission spectra that were introduced in
earlier chapters.
In Figure 1810, an incident photon is absorbed and the
system makes a transition to an excited state. Later, the
system makes a transition to the ground state (or a lower
state) with the emission of a photon.
Energy
incident light
1.
Energy
2.
Energy
3.
emitted light
resonance absorption
spontaneous emission
Figure 1810 Spontaneous emission.
Tis is a two-step process - the frst step is called resonance
absorption, and the second step is called spontaneous
emission. Te incident photon is not the same photon as
the emitted photon, and the photons are not correlated.
However, if an atom or molecule is initially in an excited
state, and the energy of the incident photon is equal to
the diference in the energy between the excited state and
the ground state of the atom or molecule (E
2
- E
1
), then a
photon is emitted in the same direction, and in phase, as
the original photon. Terefore, the resulting radiation is
coherent and correlated. Tis process is called stimulated
emission. See Figure 1811.
Energy
incident light
1.
Energy
emitted light
2.
Figure 1811 Stimulated emission
In spontaneous emission, the phase of the light from
one atom is unrelated to that from another atom, and
the resultant radiation is incoherent. With stimulated
emission, the phase of radiation emitted by an atom is the
same as the phase of every other atom, and the resultant
radiation is coherent.
Stimulated emission has important application in modern
optics. Masers and lasers
MASER
Microwave Amplifcation by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
LASER
Light Amplifcation by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Both apply the same principles, and only difer in the
frequency range in which they operate.
A ruby laser consists of a transparent crystal rod of
aluminium oxide containing 0.05% chromium with a fash
tube wrapped around it as shown in Figure 1812. Both
ends of the crystal rod are silvered, one end such that it
is totally refecting and the other partially silvered so that
some of the light can be transmitted as a beam.
partially mirrored
surface
atoms
ruby rod
mirrored
surface
Figure 1812 A diagram of the ruby laser
Figure 1813 shows the energy levels of the chromium atom.
In the ruby laser, light of energy equivalent to 2.25 eV is
absorbed from the fash tube, and this raises the electrons
of chromium from the ground state E
1
to an excited state
E
3
. Tese electrons quickly undergo spontaneous emission
and fall to level E
2
known as the metastable energy state.
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If the incident radiation from the fash tube is intense
enough more electrons are transferred to the E
2
energy
level than remain in the ground state a condition known
as population inversion.
Te metastable state is an unusual excited state of chromium
and other atoms and molecules because the electrons can
remain in this state for a longer period before they decay
to the ground state.
E
3
E
2
E
1
2.25 eV
1.79 eV
spontaneous emission
stimulated emission
absorption
Figure 1813 Energy levels of chromium.
When some electrons in E
2
decay to the ground state
by stimulated emission, they emit photons of energy
equivalent to 1.79 eV and wavelength of 694.3 nm.
Population inversion is achieved slightly diferently in the
helium-neon laser. Te ruby laser requires three energy
states and the helium-neon laser requires four energy
states. See Figure 1814.
A mixture of about 15% helium gas and 85% neon gas
is enclosed in a discharge tube. Te helium electrons are
excited to a state equivalent to 20.61 eV. Te neon atoms
require 20.66 eV to excite the electrons to their required
excited state. Tis is 0.05 eV above that which is required
for the helium atoms. In order to achieve the required
0.05 eV for excitation, the neon atoms collide with the
excited helium atoms and their kinetic energies supply the
extra 0.05 eV needed.
E
N
E
N
E
N
20.16 eV
1.96 eV
spontaneous emission
stimulated emission
absorption 20.66 eV 18.70 eV
1
2
3
E
H
2
E
H
1
collision Helium
Neon
Figure 1814 Energy levels in the helium-neon laser
Once this is achieved, the neon atoms have a metastable
state at 18.70 eV, and population inversion allows
stimulated emission to occur.
G.1.9 IMPORTANT APPLICATIONS OF
LASERS
Te theoretical basis of the laser was frst proposed by
Albert Einstein in 1915. Te frst design was proposed by
Townes and Schawlow in 1958, and the frst working laser
was produced by Maiman in 1960. Even for a time
thereafer, there was very little interest in the applications
of laser beams. However, in the past 20 years their
applications have become extensive in technology,
industry, medicine and communications.
In medicine, lasers are mainly used in the treatment of
tumours, and in eye surgery such as retina attachment and
corneal correction. Other applications include the cutting
of tissue and blood vessels without causing bleeding,
vaporising blood clots and stones, in dental examinations,
in removing tattoos and some birthmarks.
Malignant tissue absorbs laser radiation more strongly
than does healthy tissue. Laser beams of a specifc
wavelength, pulse rate, power density and energy dose are
chosen to suit the absorption properties of the particular
tumour. As well as laser therapy to correct the optical
properties of the lens of the eye, ruby lasers are used to
repair retinal damage through a process called retinal
photocoagulation. If a tear appears in the retina, the laser
spot welds the retina correctly into position.
Lasers can used as communication devices to transmit
and receive voice messages and television signals better
than conventional means, and the fbre optics used to
send the beams are slowly replacing metal wires. Other
communication devices include photocopiers, printers
and bar code readers. In military operations, the success
of laser guidance systems in weapons is clear to most of
us.
In industry, lasers are used for surveying and for cutting
materials including fabrics and microelectronic circuits.
Industrial lasers can produce temperatures of greater than
5500 C and are commonly used for welding and cutting
materials. Te teeth in carpentry saws, the holes in
sewing needles, the holes in the teat of a babys bottle, holes
in metals, are all produced by lasers. Te laser is usually a
solid-state ruby laser that uses a pulsating beam of light.
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Of special interest is the laser used to read the data
on Compact Discs (CDs), Compact Disc Read-Only-
Memory (CD-ROMs) and Digital Video (or Versatile)
Discs (DVDs). As a laser beam scans the disc the light is
either refected from the metal surface or scattered by a pit
or hole in the disc. Optical sensors convert the information
back into digital data. Tis data can then be amplifed to
produce audio, text and pictures.
A compact disc consists of a hard, plastic disc, 120 mm in
diameter that is coated with a highly refractive material/
metal (usually aluminium) with a coating of plastic
to protect the metal surface. To burn a master CD, a
recording laser is focussed on the disc to produce a series
of up to 3 billion pits on one side only. Te pits or lack
of such represent the digital data. Tis series of pits can
form a spiral up to 5 km long and the CD can store up to
650 Mb (megabytes) of data. Te master disc is copied, and
is read by the scanning laser in CD players. Te main use
of CDs is to store audio sounds. CD-ROMs have become
popular recently. Tese store data in the form of text, still
and moving pictures and audio sounds. Te newest optical
disc storage is the DVD. It has a bigger capacity and it can
run faster. It can store data on one or on both sides up to
17 Gb (gigabyte). DVDs need a diferent type of player,
and these have proliferated in recent years.
Scientists use lasers to produce a superheated gas that we
call plasma. It is hoped that research in this area may one
day make nuclear fusion reactors commercially viable.
Te viewing of a laser beam directly may do permanent
damage to the retina. Lasers with a power between 3 and
4 mW are considered a probable hazard. Helium-neon
lasers used for education have a fraction of a milliwatt
power output and should be treated with respect.
Exercise 18.1
1. Describe how are electromagnetic waves
produced?
2. List fve characteristics of electromagnetic waves.
3. A photon of red light has a wavelength of 700 nm.
Calculate the:
(a) photons frequency
(b) photons energy.
4. Te wavelength of the electromagnetic waves
detected in the air loop in the Hertz experiment experiment
were about 1 m. In which region of the EM
spectrum are they found?
5. Describe how long and medium radio waves pass
around obstacles such as buildings and mountains. and mountains.
6. Draw a table showing the order of magnitude of
the frequencies for the diferent regions of the regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
7. Describe how the frequency of X-rays is related to
their penetration of matter.
8. Identify a possible source of the radiation in each
region of the EM spectrum. Give one way of
detecting each source.
9. Describe how the SI unit, the metre, is defned in
terms of the speed of light.
10. (a) With the aid of a diagram, describe the
dispersion of white light by a prism.
(b) Explain how a factor of the prism causes
the dispersion to occur.
11. (a) What does the term LASER stand for?
(b) In simple terms, how is laser radiation
produced?
(c) Give one application of the use of lasers in
each of technology, industry and medicine.
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G.2.1 Dene the terms principal axis, focal point,
focal length and linear magnication
as applied to a converging (convex) lens.
G.2.2 Dene the power of a convex lens and the
dioptre.
G.2.3 Dene linear magnication.
IBO 2007
Introduction
A lens is a transparent object with at least one curved
surface but more commonly two curved faces. Te amount
of refraction is determined by the refractive index. Most
lenses are made of glass but perspex (lucite) and quartz
lenses are common. Tey are used to correct defects of
vision using spectacles and in optical instruments such
as cameras, microscopes and refracting telescopes. Te
curved surfaces of lenses may be spherical, parabolic or
cylindrical but we will restrict our discussion to thin lenses
with spherical surfaces.
Lenses are either convex (converging) or concave
(diverging) as shown by the ray diagrams that locate the
focus in Figure 1815.
F F
focal
length
Lens axis
(real focus)
Principal
axis
Optical centre
F
focal length
(virtual focus)
F
Optical centre
lens axis
Principal axis
converging lens diverging lens
Figure 1815 Converging and diverging lenses
Lenses come in various shapes as shown in Figure 1816.
Convex Concave
double
convex
Planoconvex convex
meniscus
double
concave
Planoconccave concave
meniscus
Converging
lenses
Diverging
lenses
Figure 1816 Some lenses
G.2.1 TERMINOLOGY FOR RAY
DIAGRAM CONSTRUCTION
It is important to understand the meaning of the terms
used with lenses when describing the geometrical optics,
and constructing ray diagrams.
CENTRE OF CURVATURE C
the centre of the sphere of which the lens is made.
RADIUS OF CURVATURE R
the radius of the sphere from which the lens is made.
POLE P
central point of the refracting surface.
PRINCIPAL AXIS
line that passes through the centre of curvature and the
centre of the refracting surface.
PRINCIPAL FOCUS F
point through which rays parallel and close to the principal
axis pass afer refraction if the lens is convex, or appear to
come from if the lens is concave.
FOCAL LENGTH f
the distance between the principal focus and the centre of
the refracting surface. From the defnition it can be seen
that
f
1
2
---R =
APERTURE
the length of the refracting surface on which the incident
rays can be refracted.
PRINCIPAL FOCAL PLANE
the plane that passes through the principal focus and is
perpendicular to the principal axis.
G.2 SL AND HL OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
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G.2.2 POWER OF A CONVEX LENS AND
DIOPTRE
Te power of a convex lens P is the reciprocal of the focal
length. It is a measure of the strength of a lens as used by
optometrists and opthalmologists.
P
1
f
-- - =
Te unit for the lens power is the dioptre D with the unit m
-1
.
So if a lens has a focal length of 40 cm, the power
= 1 /0.40 m = 2.5 D.
Te power of a converging lens is positive and the power
of a diverging lens is negative as we will fnd out later in
this section.
G.2.3 LINEAR MAGNIFICATION
Te linear or lateral magnifcation m of a lens is given by
the ratio of the height of an image to the height of its object
or the ratio of the image distance to the object distance
m
d
i
d
o
-----
h
i
h
o
----- = =
where d
i
and d
o
are the image and object distances
respectively and h
i
and h
o
the image and object heights
respectively. Linear magnifcation has no units.
A negative magnifcation when both d
o
and d
i
are positive
indicates that the image is inverted.
G.2.4 Construct ray diagrams to locate the image
formed by a convex lens.
G.2.5 Distinguish between a real image and a
virtual image.
IBO 2007
Ray diagrams to nd images of
lenses
It is possible to use graphical techniques to locate images
formed by lenses. At least two rays are drawn for the
three construction rules as shown for a converging and a
diverging lens in Figure 1817.
1. A ray passes through the optical centre without
any deviation
2. A ray parallel to the principal axis refracts so that
it passes through the principal focus if convex, principal focus if convex,
or appear to diverge from the principal focus if
concave
3. A ray passing through, or appearing to come,
from the principal focus refracts so that it travels refracts so that it travels
parallel to the principal axis.
F F
Principal
axis
X
object
O
image
O'
F
F
Principal axis
object
image
O O'
Figure 1817 Spherical lens construction rules
Figure 1817 shows the ray diagrams for an object placed
at diferent positions along the principal axis, and gives
examples of the uses of the lens for each situation.
Note that a concave lens gives only one type of image, so
only one ray diagram need be drawn. A concave lens gives
an erect, diminished virtual image.
A virtual image is an image that appears to come from
a single point when rays are extrapolated to that point
as shown by the dashed lines in the frst and last case of
Figure 1818. A real image is an image that can be seen
on a screen that has been put at the point where the rays
intersect at a single point.
G.2.6 Apply the convention real is positive,
virtual is negative to the thin lens formula.
G.2.7 Solve problems for a single convex lens
using the thin lens formula.
IBO 2007
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The thin lens equation
In terms of the focal length f, the lens equation is stated as
1
d
0
-----
1
d
i
---- +
1
f
--- =
where d
o
is the object distance and d
i
is the image distance.
Te convention used for determining the sign of d
o
, d
i
and
f are:
1. real distances are positive
2. virtual distances are negative
3. the focal length and the radius of curvature of
a lens are positive if converging, and negative if converging, and negative if
diverging.
Te lens equation can be derived using geometry and
algebra. Consider Figure 1819, the following ray diagram:
F F
L O'
A
O C
f
o
i
d
o
d
i
E
Figure 1819 A ray diagram
AOL is similar to EIL. Terefore,
AO
IE
--------
AL
IL
-------
o
i
-- -
d
o
d
i
----- = =
Tis is equation 1.
CLF is similar to FIE. Terefore,
CL
IE
-------
LF
FI
------- =
Because
CL EB then
CL
IE
-------
AO
IE
-------- = =
AO
IE
--------
LF
FI
------- =
but LF = f and FI = LI LF = d
i
f
AO
IE
--------
f
d
i
f
------------ =
Tis is equation 2.
From equations (1) and (2), we get,
d
o
d
i
-----
f
d
i
f
------------ and d
i
f d
o
d
i
f ( ) = =
Divide both sides by d
0
d
l
f:
d
i
f
d
o
d
i
f
------------
d
o
d
i
f ( )
d
o
d
i
f
-----------------------
1
d
o
-----
1
f
---
1
d
i
---- = =
So that,
1
d
o
-----
1
d
i
---- +
1
f
--- =
Tis equation is quite ofen written in textbooks as:
1 / f = 1 / u + 1 / v
Many optical devices contain more than one thin lens. Te
fnal image produced by the system of lenses is determined
by frstly fnding the image distance of the frst lens and
using this value along with the distances between lenses to
fnd the object distance for the second lens.
Diagram Properties of image
1.
Between F & L
F
obj
F
image
L
a. virtual
b. erect
c. same side as object
(but further away)
d. magnifed
2.
At F
F
obj
F
L
parallel rays
No image is formed
(i.e., at infnity)
3.
Between F and
2F
F
obj
F
L
2F
a. real
b. inverted
c. opposite side to
object and beyond
2F
d. magnifed
4.
At 2F
F
obj
F
L
2F
a. real
b. inverted
c. at 2F and on the
opposite side
d. same size
5.
Beyond 2F
F
obj
F
L
2F 2F
a. real
b. inverted
c. between F & 2F
and on opposite side
d. smaller
6.
At infnity
F
obj
F
L
2F
parallel rays
ect at infnity a. real
b. inverted
c. at F & on opposite
side
d. smaller
7.
For any position
F
object
image
O
a. virtual
b. upright
c. closer to lens than
object
d. smaller
Position of object
Figure 1818 Images formed by lenses
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Example
A small object is 15.0 cm from a concave lens with a focal
length of 10.0 cm. Locate the image and determine its
magnifcation.
Solution
Using the formula
1
d
o
-----
1
d
i
---- +
1
f
--- =
, we have that
1
15.0
----------
1
d
i
---- +
1
10.0
---------- d
i
6.0 cm = =
So that the image is a virtual image located 6.0 cm in front
of the lens.
Te magnitude is given by
m
d
i
d
o
-----
6.0 cm ( )
10.0 cm
------------------------ + 0.40 = = =
Te virtual image is erect and has a magnifcation of 0.40.
Example Example
An object 1.2 cm high is placed 6.0 cm from a double
convex lens with a focal length of 12.0 cm. Locate the
image and determine its magnifcation.
Solution
From the formula,
1
d
o
-----
1
d
i
---- +
1
f
--- =
, we have,
1
6.0
-------
1
d
i
---- +
1
12.0
---------- d
i
12.0 cm = =
Te image is a virtual image located 12.0 cm in front of the
lens.
Ten, for the magnitude, we use the formula,
m
d
i
d
o
-----
12.0 cm ( )
6.0 cm
--------------------------- + 2 = = =
Te virtual image is erect and has a magnifcation of 2.0.
Example
Two converging lenses each of focal length 10 cm are
15 cm apart. Find the fnal image of an object that is 15 cm
from one of the lenses.
Solution
Tis problem can be solved either graphically or algebraically.
In any case, a diagram as in the fgure below can help to
roughly see the position of the fnal image.
F
1
' F
1
F
2
' F
2
15 cm 15 cm
30 cm
Again, we use the expression,
1
d
o
-----
1
d
i
---- +
1
f
-- - =
so that,
1
15
----- -
1
d
i
---- +
1
10
----- - d
i
30 cm = =
Te image is not formed because the light rays strike the
second lens before reaching the image position. However, the
unformed image acts as a virtual object for the second lens.
Since the unformed image is on the transmission side of the
second lens, it is a virtual object.
So, we now have,
1
15
---------
1
d
i
---- +
1
10
----- - d
i
6 cm = =
Te image is 6 cm on the transmission side of the second
lens.
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Exercises 18.2 (a)
1. An object 1.0 cm high is placed 5.0 cm from a
double convex lens with a focal length of 12.0 cm.
Locate the image and describe its nature and its
magnifcation.
2. Using geometric construction rules, draw the
following ray diagrams to show the position and
properties of the image formed when:
(a) An object is placed outside the principal
focus using a convex lens
(b) An object is placed outside the principal
focus using a convex lens
3. An small object is 16.0 cm from a concave lens
with a focal length of 12.0 cm. Locate the image
and determine its magnifcation.
4. An object 1.2 cm high is placed 6.0 cm from a
double convex lens with a focal length of 12.0 cm.
Locate the image and determine its magnifcation.

The simple magnifying glass
G.2.8 Dene the terms far point and near point for
the unaided eye.
G.2.9 Dene angular magnication.
G.2.10 Derive an expression for the angular
magnication of a simple magnifying glass
for an image formed at the near point and
at innity.
IBO 2007
G.2.8 FAR POINT AND NEAR POINT
FOR THE UNAIDED EYE
Te main purpose for the manufacture of magnifying
optical instruments that operate in the visible region of
the electromagnetic spectrum is to increase the angular
size of the object or its angular magnifcation. We rely on
an eventual sharp image being formed on the retina of the
eye.
Linear magnifcation was previously defned as the ratio
of the height of an image to the height of its object, or the
ratio of the image distance to the object distance. In some
circumstances this means of describing magnifcation can
be misleading because it is assumed in such cases that
the object is bigger than its image. However, sometimes
the image size is bigger than the object size but appears
smaller because it is further away (it makes a smaller
angle at the eye than does the object). In this case, linear
magnifcation does not always give the measure of the
ratio of the apparent size of the image. Terefore, we need
a more useful term for these occasions and the concept of
angular magnifcation is used.
Te size of any image formed on the retina of the eye
depends on the angle subtended by the object at the eye.
Te closer the object is to the eye the greater will be the
angle and thus the angular magnifcation. However, if
an object is too close to the eye then there is difculty
focusing the image.
Te range over which an eye can sharply focus an image
is determined by what are known as the near point and
far point of the eye. Te near point is the position of the
closest object that can be brought into focus by the unaided
eye. Te near point varies from person to person but it has
been given an arbitrary value of 25 cm. Te far point is
the position of the furthest object that can be brought into
focus by the unaided eye. Te far point of a normal eye is
at infnity.
Te ability of the eye to focus over this range is called
accommodation and this is controlled by the ciliary
muscles pulling or relaxing in order to change the
focal length of the fexible eye lens. Te eye has most
accommodation for prolonged viewing when viewing at
the far point.
Te apparent size of an object can be increased by using a
converging lens to allow the object to be brought closer to
the eye, thus increasing the size of the image on the retina.
Tis is the basis behind the simple magnifer.
G.2.9 ANGULAR MAGNIFICATION
Consider the two diagrams of Figure 1821. In case (a), a
small object y is at the near point X
np
. Te size of the image
on the retina depends on the angular magnifcation
0
.
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0
x
np
y
y

f
(a)
(b)
Figure 1821 The simple magnier
In case (b), a converging lens of focal length f is placed in
front of the eye. Te lens allows the eye to be closer than
the near point to the object. Terefore, the focal length of
the double convex lens can be less than the near point.
Tis results in a greater angular magnifcation at the
retina.
When the object is at the focal point of the lens, parallel
rays emerge from the lens and enter the eye as if they came
from an object at infnity. Tis is the most comfortable
state for prolonged viewing.
Te ratio /
0
is called the angular magnifcation M or
magnifying power of the lens.
M

o
------- =
where = the angle subtended at the eye by the image and

0
= the angle subtended at the unaided eye by the object
when it is at the near point.
Te diference between the angular magnifcation and
the linear magnifcation is that the angular magnifcation
is the ratio of the apparent sizes of the object and the
image whereas the linear magnifcation is the real size of
the object and the image.
G.2.10 EXPRESSION FOR ANGULAR
MAGNIFICATION
From Figure 1822 (b), for small angles tan
But tan = y / L Terefore = y / L

i
m
a
g
e
(a)
(b)
y
y
0
F
L
Figure 1822
From Figure 1822 (a), tan
0
=
y
0

__

L
Terefore
0
= tan
1

(

y
0

__

L

)

But M =

__

0
=
(

y

__

L

)

(

y
0

__

L

)
=
y

__

y
0


So, in the case of a magnifying glass:
M (angular magnifcation) = m (linear magnifcation)
Tis means that M =
d
i

___

d
o

If we multiply
1

__

d
o
+
1

__

d
i
=
1

__

f
by d
0
we get
d
i

___

d
o


=
d
i

___

f
1
Terefore,
M =
d
i

___

f
1
So if the focal length is 3.0 cm and the image distance is at
the near point of the eye, then the image distance will be
negative. So:
M =
(

25

___

3

)
1 = 8.33 1 = 9.3
Terefore, the angular magnifcation or the magnifying
power of the lens is 9.3.
So it should be clear that a lens of a small focal length is
required and this is why a simple magnifying glass has
smooth, curved faces. However, there is an upper limit to
the angular magnifcation since images become distorted
if the radius of curvature becomes too great.
Simple magnifers are used as the eyepiece in compound
microscopes and both refecting and refracting telescopes
to view the image formed by another lens system.
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Example
(a) Draw a ray diagram for an object that is inside the
focal length of a double convex lens.
(b) For this lens, the focal length is 8.0 cm and the
distance of the object from the lens forms an
image at the near point of the eye. If the distance
of the lens from the eye is 5.0 cm, calculate the
distance of the object from the lens.
Solution
(a) Te ray diagram is shown in the following Figure.
F
obj
F
image
L
(b) Remember the near point is the position of the
closest object that can be brought into focus by
the unaided eye. Also that virtual distances are
negative.Terefore,
` d
i
= (25 5) = 20 cm.
We use the expression,
1

__

d
o
=
1

__

d
i
+
1

__

f
where

1

__

d
o
=
1

___

20
+
1

__

8
= 0.175
d
o
= 5.7 cm
Example
A double convex lens has a focal length is 8.0 cm. An
object is placed 5.0 cm from the lens.
(a) Draw a ray diagram to show the position of the
image and describe the nature of the image.
(b) Determine the magnifying power of the lens if the
image is at the near point of the eye
Solution
(a) Te following fgure shows the correct construction.
Te image virtual, erect and magnifed.
(b) M =
25

___

8.0
1 = 3.125 1 = 4.125
Te magnifying power of the lens is 4.1
The compound microscope and
the astronomical telescope
G.2.11 Construct a ray diagram for a compound
microscope with nal image formed
close to the near point of the eye (normal
adjustment).
G.2.12 Construct a ray diagram for an astronomical
telescope with the nal image at innity
(normal adjustment).
G.2.13 State the equation relating angular
magnication to the focal lengths of the
lenses in an astronomical telescope in
normal adjustment.
G.2.14 Solve problems involving the compound
microscope and the astronomical
telescope.
IBO 2007
G.2.11 THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Te schematic diagram for a compound microscope is
shown in Figure 1825. It is used to see very small objects
at close distance. In its simplest form, it consists of two
converging lenses.

i
m
a
g
e
y
F
25 cm
d
0
= 5 cm

i
m
a
g
e
y
F
25 cm
d
0
= 5 cm
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h
o
Fo' Fo
Fe'
h
i

f
o
Fe
f
e
h
Figure 1825 Schematic diagram of a compound
microscope
Te objective lens has a short focal length. Te object is
placed just outside the focal length of the objective. Te
image produced by the objective is real, magnifed and
inverted. (Tis image is slightly coloured due to chromatic
aberration as will be explained in the next section G.2.15).
Te image acts as a real object for the eyepiece.
Te eyepiece is placed close to the eye and has a longer
focal length. It acts as a simple magnifer so that the fnal
image is an inverted, magnifed and virtual image that is
positioned at the near point.
If the eyepiece is placed so that the image of the objective
falls at the frst principal focus of the eyepiece, then the
image can be viewed at infnity. However, to gain a greater
angular magnifcation, the eyepiece is placed a little inside
the frst principal focus of the eyepiece so that the fnal
image is at the near point of the viewer. Tis virtual image
is fairly free of colour.
Te overall magnifcation is given by the product of the
angular magnifcation of the eyepiece and the linear
magnifcation of the objective.
M
h
i
h
----
h
h
o
----- =
Tese values are normally printed on the microscope by
the manufacturer. For example, if a microscope has an
20 eyepiece and the objective being used is 40, then the
magnifcation is 800 times.
G.2.12,13 THE ASTRONOMICAL
TELESCOPE
Telescopes are used to view objects that are ofen large and
that are far away. Tere are three basic types of telescopes
1. Te refecting telescope
2. Te astronomical refracting telescope
3. Te terrestrial refracting telescope.
A refracting astronomical telescope shown in Figure 1826
uses the properties of a two converging lens combination
- the objective lens, and the eyepiece that acts as a simple
magnifer.
F
o
&

F
E
Image
eyepiece
objective lens
rays from distant object
rays from virtual
image at infnity
Figure 1826 A reecting astronomical telescope
Te objective lens has a long focal length, and a large
diameter so that large quantities of light from a distant
object can enter the telescope. Te object distance, being
very far away, is much larger than the focal length of
the lens, and this produces an image that is very small
(diminished), real and inverted at the focal length of the
objective F
o
. Tis real image is placed just inside the focal
length of the eyepiece F
E
.
Te eyepiece has a short focal length. It is placed in position
to produce an inverted, virtual image at infnity.
As a rough estimate (allowing for accommodation), the
diagram shows that the objective and the eyepiece need to
be separated by a distance equivalent to the sum of their
focal lengths, F
o
+ F
E
Te angular magnifcation is given by:
M

---
F
O
F
E
------- = =
Te negative sign for the focal length ratio indicates that
the image is inverted. Te equation also indicates that the
angular magnifcation is optimum when an objective of
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large focal length and an eyepiece of small focal length are
used. When specifying a refracting telescope, the diameter When specifying a refracting telescope, the diameter
of the objective lens is frequently quoted. Te bigger the
diameter, the more light is collected thus allowing for
greater resolution of what is being viewed.
For distant objects such as the Moon, it does not cause
major problems when viewing the inverted image. Te
terrestrial refracting telescope as shown in Figure 1827
incorporates a third converging lens called the inverting
lens so that the image is upright.
F
o
Image
objective lens

inverting lens
Figure 1827 A refracting terrestrial telescope
An image that forms the object for the inverter is at twice
the focal length of the inverter. Terefore, the image is real
and upright and very diminished, and is formed at twice
the focal length (on the transmission side) of the inverter.
Tis image is just inside the focal length of the eyepiece as
before and is viewed as an enlarged, virtual and upright
image.
Overall, it should be understood that the magnifying
powers of telescopes are not as crucial as their light-
gathering power. Furthermore, there is a limit to the size
of the objective lens before aberrations are produced, and
it is difcult to support large, heavy lenses by their edges.
G.2.14 PROBLEMS AND THE
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE AND
THE ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
Example
A compound microscope consists of an objective lens
with a focal length of 1.50 cm and an eyepiece with a focal
length of 10.0 cm. Te lenses are separated by a distance
of 15.0 cm as shown in the Figure below (not to scale). An
object of height 0.3 cm is placed at a distance of 2.00 cm
from the objective lens.
2.00 cm 15.0 cm
eyepiece objective
f =10.0 cm
f = 1.50 cm
0.3 cm
(a) Determine the image distance and the
magnifcation of the objective lens.
(b) Determine the object distance of the eyepiece.
(c) Calculate the image distance of the eyepiece
(d) Calculate the magnifcation of the microscope.
Solution
(a)
1

__

d
i
=
1

__

f

1

__

d
o
=
1

____

1.50

1

____

2.00
= 0.167 cm
1
d
i
= 6.00 cm
Magnifcation =
6 cm

____

2 cm
= 3
(the negative sign shows us that the image is
inverted).
(b) d
o
of the eyepiece = 15.0 6.00 = 9.0 cm.
(c)
1

__

d
i
=
1

__

f

1

__

d
0
=
1

____

10.0

1

____

9.00
= 0.011 cm
1
d
i
= 9.00 10
1
cm
(the negative sign indicates the image is virtual).
(d) Magnifcation = magnifcation of the objective
lens magnifcation of the eyepiece
= 3
(

90

___

9

)
= 30 times
Example
Te following Figure shows 3 rays of light coming from
a distant star and passing through the objective lens of a
telescope. Te focal length of the objective lens and the
eyepiece are f
O
and f
E
.
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objective
image
f
0
f
E
(a) Complete the ray diagram to show the formation
of the fnal image.
(b) Label the principal focus of the eyepiece lens f
E

and the image of the star formed by the objective
lens. State where the fnal image is formed by the
telescope.
(c) Te telescope has a magnifcation of 65.0 and
the lenses are 70.0 cm apart. Determine the focal
length of the two lenses.
Solution
(a) and (b) Te Figure above has now been completed. Te
image formed is at infnity.
objective
image
image at
infnity
f
0
f
E
(c) M = - f
O
/ f
E
= -65 f
O
= 65 f
E
(1) Also, f
O
+ f
E
= 70.0 cm.
(2) Substituting (1) into (2) we have:
So, 65 f
E
+ f
E
= 70.0 66 f
E
= 70 f
E
= 1.06 cm and f
O
= 68.9 cm.
Aberrations
G.2.15 Explain the meaning of spherical aberration
and of chromatic aberration as produced by
a single lens.
G.2.16 Describe how spherical aberration in a lens
may be reduced.
G.2.17 Describe how chromatic aberration in a
lens may be reduced.
IBO 2007
G.2.15 SPHERICAL AND CHROMATIC
ABERRATION IN LENSES
An aberration is an image defect of which blurring and
distortion are the most common image defects. Aberrations
can occur with the use of both lenses and mirrors.
In practice it is found that a single converging lens with a
large aperture is unable to produce a perfectly sharp image
because of two inherent limitations:
1. spherical aberration
2. chromatic aberration
Spherical aberration occurs because the rays that refract
at the outer edges of a lens will have a diferent focal length
to those rays that refract near the principal focus. To put it
another way, spherical aberration occurs because the rays
incident near the edges of a converging lens are refracted
more than the paraxial rays as shown in Figure 1831.
Figure 1831 The circle of least confusion
Tis produces an area of illumination rather than a point
image even when monochromatic light is used called the
circle of least confusion. Spherical aberration causing
curving of the image at its edges. So if the object was a
series of square grids as shown in Figure 1832 then the
image would be distorted at the edges.
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OBJECT IMAGE
Figure 1832 Spherical aberration
To reduce spherical aberration, the lens can be ground to
be slightly non-spherical to adjust for the circle of least
confusion or by using diferent combinations of lenses
put together. Alternatively, a stop (an opaque disc with a
hole in it) is inserted before the lens so that the aperture
size can be adjusted to allow only paraxial rays to enter.
However, this reduces the light intensity and introduces
difraction of light.
Recall from your studies that the property refractive index
is a function of wavelength
n
1 2
i sin
r sin
----------

1

2
----- = =
Because visible light is a mixture of wavelengths, the
refractive index of the lens is diferent for each wavelength
or colour of white light. Consequently, diferent wavelengths
are refracted by diferent amounts as they are transmitted in
the medium of the lens. For example, blue light is refracted
more than red light as shown in Figure 1833.
B
R
B
R
B
R
B
R
Converging crown
glass lens
Diverging fint
glass lens
Canada
balsam
Achromatic doublet
Red
Focus
Blue
Focus
Figure 1833 Refraction of red and blue light
Each colour must therefore have a diferent focal length
and it further follows that focal length is a function of
wavelength.
Chromatic aberration produces coloured edges around
an image. It can be minimised by using an achromatic
doublet that is made from a converging crown glass lens
and a diverging fint glass lens that are adhered together by
canada balsam as drawn in the right of Figure 1833. Since
the chromatic aberration of converging and diverging
lenses is opposite, a combination of these two lenses will
minimise this efect.
Exercise 18.2 (b)
1. A simple optical device is placed inside a box as
shown in the diagram. An object O, placed as
shown, produces a real magnifed image I. Refer to
the following Figure.
object
image
optical
device
Te optical device is
A. a convex lens
B. a concave lens
C. a convex mirror
D. a concave mirror
2. Which of the following is an incorrect statement?
A. the magnifying power of an astronomical
telescope can be increased by substituting
an eyepiece of greater focal length
B. with a simple astronomical telescope things
look upside down
C. the eye lens of a human produces a real,
diminished inverted image on the retina
D. refracting telescopes produce less chromatic
aberration than refecting telescopes.
3. An object 4.0 cm high is placed 15.0 cm from a
convex lens of focal length 5.0 cm. On graph paper
draw a ray diagram to determine the position and
nature of the image.
4. An object 4.0 cm high is placed 15.0 cm from a
concave lens of focal length 5.0 cm. On graph
paper draw a ray diagram to fnd the position and
nature of the image.
5. Place the following into the convex lens or concave
lens category:
Magnifying glass, eye lens, camera lens, the
objective lens of a microscope, a lens to correct
short-sightedness, spotlight lens.
6. Determine the position, nature and magnifcation
of the image of an object placed 15 cm from a
convex lens of focal length 10 cm.
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7. A convex lens with a focal length of 8 cm is to be
used to form a virtual image that is four times the
size of the object. Where must the lens be placed ?
8. A slide projector is place 5.0 m from a screen.
Determine the focal length of a lens that would be
used to produce an image that is fve times as large
as the object?
9. A convex lens with a focal length of 4.0 cm is
placed 20.0 cm from a concave lens with a focal
length of 5.0 cm. Find the position of the image
when the object is placed 12.0 cm in front of the
convex lens.
10. A double concave lens has a refractive index of
1.5 and radii of curvature of 10.0 cm and 15 cm.
Determine its focal length.
11. A refracting telescope has an objective lens
with a diameter of 102 cm and a focal length
of 19.5 m. If the focal length of the eyepiece is
10.0 cm, calculate the angular magnifcation of the
telescope.
12. Determine the angle of minimum deviation for a
prism with an apex angle of 60 and a refractive
index of 1.6.
13. Can a rectangular prism be used to disperse white
light? Explain your answer.
14. Describe the meaning of spherical and chromatic
aberration, and a method to reduce the efect of each.
15. Refer to the following table. Choose the correct
combination of lenses that are used in either
the compound microscope or the refracting
astronomical telescope.
optical
instrument
objective lens Eyepiece
A
compound
microscope
long focal length Long focal length
B
compound
microscope
long focal length Short focal length
C
refracting
astronomical
telescope
short focal
length
Long focal length
D
refracting
astronomical
telescope
long focal length Short focal length
G.3 SL AND HL
TWOSOURCE
INTERFERENCE
OF WAVES
G.3.1 State the conditions necessary to observe
interference between two sources.
G.3.2 Explain, by means of the principle of
superposition, the interference pattern
produced by waves from two coherent
point sources.
G.3.3 Outline a double-slit experiment for light
and draw the intensity distribution of the
observed fringe pattern.
G.3.4 Solve problems involving two-source
interference.
IBO 2007
G.3.1,2 THE PRINCIPLE OF
SUPERPOSITION AND TWO
SOURCE INTERFERENCE
Please refer to topics 4.5.5 and 4.5.6. However, we will
reiterate the condition for the interference of waves from
two sources to be observed. Te two sources must be
coherent, that is they must have the same phase or the
phase diference between them must remain constant.
Also, to reinforce topics 4.5.6 and 4.5.6, included in Figure
1826 is another example of two source interference
We can obtain evidence for the wave nature of sound by
showing that sound produces an interference pattern.
Figure 1836 shows the set up for demonstrating this.
CRO
speaker
speaker
signal
generator
microphone
X
Y
Figure 1836 Interference using sound waves
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Te two speakers are connected to the same output of
the signal generator and placed about 50 cm apart. Te
signal generator frequency is set to about 600 Hz and the
microphone is moved along the line XY which is about
one metre from the speakers. As the microphone is moved
along XY the trace on the cathode ray oscilloscope is seen to
go through a series of maxima and minima corresponding
to points of constructive and destructive interference of
the sound waves.
An interesting investigation is to fnd how the separation
of the points of maximum interference depends on the
frequency of the source and also the distance apart of the
speakers.
A note on the coherence of light
sources
In the demonstration of the interference between two
sound sources described above, if we were to move one of
the speakers from side to side or backwards and forwards
the sound emitted from the two speakers would no longer
be in phase. No permanent points of constructive or
destructive interference will now be located since the
phase diference between the waves from the two sources
is no longer constant, i.e. the sources are no longer
coherent.
Light from an incandescent source is emitted with a
completely random phase. Although the light from two
separate sources will interfere, because of the randomly
changing phase no permanent points of constructive or
destructive interference will be observed. Tis is why a
single slit is needed in the Youngs double slit experiment.
By acting as a point source, it essentially becomes a
coherent light source. Te light emitted from a laser is
also very nearly coherent and this is why it is so easy to
demonstrate optical interference and difraction with a
laser.
G.3.2 YOUNGS DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
Tis is one of the great classic experiments of physics
and did much to reinforce the wave theory of light. Te
experiment was carried out by Tomas Young in about
1830.
It is essentially the demonstration with the ripple tank
and the sound experiment previously described, but using
light. Te essential features of the experiment are shown
in Figure 1837.
screen
double slit
single slit
colouredflter
S
1
S
2
Figure 1837 Youngs double slit experiment
Young allowed sunlight to fall onto a narrow single slit. A
few centimetres from the single slit he placed a double slit.
Te slits are very narrow and separated by a distance equal
to about fourteen slit widths. A screen is placed about a
metre from the double slits. Young observed a pattern of
multi- coloured fringes in the screen. When he placed
a coloured flter between the single slit and double slit
he obtained a pattern which consisted of bright coloured
fringes separated by darkness.
Te single slit essentially ensures that the light falling on
the double slit is coherent. Te two slits then act as the two
speakers in the sound experiment or the two dippers in
the ripple tank. Te light waves from each slit interfere and
produce the interference pattern on the screen. Without
the flter a pattern is formed for each wavelength present
in the sunlight. Hence the multi-coloured fringe pattern.
You can demonstrate optical interference for yourself. A
double slit can be made by smoking a small piece of glass
and then drawing two parallel lines on it. If you then look
through the double slit at a single tungsten flament lamp
you will see the fringe pattern. By placing flters between
the lamps and the slits you will see the monochromatic
fringe pattern.
You can also see the efects of optical interference by
looking at net curtains. Each hole in the net acts as a
point source and the light from all these separate sources
interferes and produces quite a complicated interference
pattern.
A laser can also be used to demonstrate optical interference.
Since the light from the laser is coherent it is very easy to
demonstrate interference. Just point the laser at a screen
and place a double slit in the path of the laser beam.
Let us now look at the Youngs double slit experiment in
more detail. Te geometry of the situation is shown in
Figure 1838.
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S
1
S
2
X
P
Q
D
y
d
screen

Figure 1838 The geometry of Youngs double slit

experiment
S1 and S2 are the two narrow slits that we shall regard as
two coherent, monochromatic point sources. Te distance
from the sources to the screen is D and the distance
between the slits is d.
Te waves from the two sources will be in phase at Q
and there will be a bright fringe here. We wish to fnd the
condition for there to be a bright fringe at P distance y
from Q.
Te waves from the two sources will be in phase at Q
and there will be a bright fringe here. We wish to fnd the
condition for there to be a bright fringe at P distance y
from Q.
We note that that D ( 1 metre) is very much greater than
either y or d. ( few millimetres) Tis means that both
and are very small angles and for intents and purposes
equal.
From the diagram we have that
=
D
y
And
2
S X
d
=
(Remember, the angles are very small)
Since then
2
S X y
D d
=
But S
2
X is the path diference between the waves as they
travel to P. We have therefore that
path diference =
D
yd
Tere will therefore be a bright fringe at P if
D
yd
= n
Suppose that there is a bright fringe at y = y
1
corresponding
to n = n
1
then
D
d y
1
= n
1

If the next bright fringe occurs at y = y

2
this will correspond
to n = n
1
+1. Hence
D
d y
2
= (n
1
+1)
Tis means that the spacing between the fringes y
2
y
1
is
given by
y
2
y
1
=
d
D

Young actually use this expression to measure the

wavelength of the light he used and it is a method still
used today.
We see for instance that if in a given set up we move the
slits closer together then the spacing between the fringes
will get greater. Efectively our interference pattern spreads
out, that is there will be fewer fringes in a given distance.
We can also increase the fringe spacing by increasing
the distance between the slits and the screen. You will
also note that for a given set up using light of diferent
wavelengths, then red fringes will space further apart
than blue fringes.
In this analysis we have assumed that the slits act as point
sources and as such the fringes will be uniformly spaced
and of equal intensity. A more thorough analysis should
take into account the fnite width of the slits, Tis has the
efect of modifying the interference pattern as is discussed
in Option H.
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Returning to Figure 1838 we see that we can write the path
diference S
2
X as
S
2
X = dtan
But since


is a small angle the sine and tangent will be
nearly equal so that
S
2
X = dsin
And since

then
S
2
X = dsin
Te condition therefore for a bright fringe to be found at a
point of the screen can therefore be written as
dsin = n
Figure 1839 shows the intensity distribution of the fringes
on the screen when the separation of the slits is large
compared to their width. Te fringes are of equal intensity
and of equal separation.
Intensity
distance along screen
Figure 1839 The intensity distribution of the fringes
It is worth noting that if the slits are close together, the
intensity of the fringes is modulated by the intensity
distribution of the difraction pattern of one of the slits.
G.3.4 SOLVE PROBLEMS ON TWO
SOURCE INTERFERENCE
Example
Light of wavelength 500 nm is incident on two small
parallel slits separated by 1.0 mm. Determine the angle
where the frst maximum is formed?
If afer passing through the slits the light is brought
to a focus on a screen 1.5 m from the slits calculate the
observed fringe spacing on the screen.
Solution
Using the small angle approximation we have
3
7
10
10 5

= =
d

= 5 10
-4
rad
Te fringe spacing is given by
3
7
10
10 5 5 . 1

= =
d
D
y

= 0.75 mm
Exercise 18.3
In Figure 1836, the distance between the speakers is
0.50 m and the distance between the line of the speakers
and the screen is 2.0 m. As the microphone is moved
along the line XY, the distance between successive point
of maximum sound intensity is 0.30 m. Te frequency of
the sound waves is 4.4 10
3
Hz. Calculate a value for the
speed of sound.
G.4 SL AND HL
DIFFRACTION
GRATING
G.4.1 Describe the eect on the double-slit
intensity distribution of increasing the
number of slits.
G.4.2 Derive the diraction grating formula for
normal incidence.
G.4.3 Outline the use of a diraction grating to
measure wavelengths.
G.4.4 Solve problems involving a diraction
grating.
IBO 2007
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G.4.1,2 INCREASING THE NUMBER OF
SLITS AND THE DIFFRACTION
GRATING FORMULA
If we examine the interference pattern produced when
monochromatic light passes through a diferent number
of slits we notice that as the number of slits increases the
number of observed fringes decreases, the spacing between
them increases and the individual fringes become much
sharper. We can get some idea of how this comes about
by looking at the way light behaves when a parallel beam
passes through a large number of slits. Te diagram for
this is shown in Figure 1840.

d
1
2
3
telescope
Figure 1840 A parallel beam passing through several slits
Te slits are very small so that they can be considered
to act as point sources. Tey are also very close together
such that d is small (10
6
m). Each slit becomes a source
of circular wave fronts and the waves from each slit will
interfere. Let us consider the light that leaves the slit at
an angle as shown. Te path diference between wave
1 and wave 2 is dsin and if this is equal to an integral
number of wavelengths then the two waves will interfere
constructively in this direction. Similarly wave 2 will
interfere constructively with wave 3 at this angle, and wave
3 with 4 etc., across the whole grating. Hence if we look
at the light through a telescope, that is bring it to a focus,
then when the telescope makes an angle to the grating a
bright fringe will be observed. Te condition for observing
a bright fringe is therefore
dsin = n
Suppose we use light of wavelength 500 nm and suppose
that d = 1.6 10
6
m.
Obviously we will see a bright fringe in the straight on
position = 0 (the zero order).
Te next position will be when n = 1 (the frst order) and
substitution in the above equation gives = 18.
Te next position will be when n = 2 (the second order)
and this give = 38.
For n = 3, sin is greater than 1 so with this set up we only
obtain 5 fringes, one zero order and two either side of the
zero order.
Te calculation shows that the separation of the orders
is relatively large. At any angles other than 18 or 38 the
light leaving the slits interferes destructively. We can see
that the fringes will be sharp since if we move just a small
angle away from 18 the light from the slits will interfere
destructively.
An array of narrow slits such as described above is
usually made by cutting narrow transparent lines very
close together into the emulsion on a photographic plate
(typically 200 lines per millimetre). Such an arrangement
is called a difraction grating.
Te difraction grating is of great use in examining the
spectral characteristics of light sources.
G.4.3 SPECTRA AND MEASURING
WAVELENGTH
All elements have their own characteristic spectrum.
(See 7.1.4) An element can be made to emit light either by
heating it until it is incandescent or by causing an electric
discharge through it when it is in a gaseous state. Your
school probably has some discharge tubes and difraction
gratings. If it has, then look at the glowing discharge tube
through a difraction grating. If for example, the element
that you are looking has three distinct wavelengths then
each wavelength will be difracted by a diferent amount
in accordance with the equation dsin = n.
Also if laser light is shone through a grating on to a
screen, you will see just how sharp and spaced out are the
maxima. By measuring the line spacing and the distance
of the screen from the laser, the wavelength of the laser
can be measured.
If your school has a set of multiple slits say from a single
slit to eight slits, then it is also a worthwhile exercise to
examine how the difraction pattern changes when laser
light is shone through increasing numbers of slits.
If white light is shone through a grating then the central
image will be white but for the other orders each will be
spread out into a continuous spectrum composed of an
infnite number of adjacent images of the slit formed by
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the wavelength of the diferent wavelengths present in the
white light. At any given point in the continuous spectrum
the light will be very nearly monochromatic because of the
narrowness of the images of the slit formed by the grating.
Tis is in contrast to the double slit where if white light is
used, the images are broad and the spectral colours are not
separated.
G.4.4 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING A
DIFFRACTION GRATING
Exercise 18.4
Light from a laser is shone through a difraction grating on
to a screen. Te screen is a distance of 2.0 m from the laser.
Te distance between the central difraction maximum
and the frst principal maximum formed on the screen
is 0.94 m. Te difraction grating has 680 lines per mm.
Estimate the wavelength of the light emitted by the laser.
G.5 HL ONLY XRAYS
G.5.1 Outline the experimental arrangement for
the production of X-rays.
G.5.2 Draw and annotate a typical X-ray
spectrum.
G.5.3 Explain the origins of the features of a
characteristic X-ray spectrum.
G.5.4 Solve problems involving accelerating
potential dierence and minimum
wavelength.
IBO 2007
G.5.1 PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
In 1895 whilst experimenting with a discharge tube
William Rontgen discovered X-rays. He had completely
covered a discharge tube with black cardboard and was
working in a darkened room. About a metre from the tube
he noticed a weak light shimmering on a bench nearby.
Te source of this strange light was a hexa-cyanoplatinate
coated screen and when the discharge tube was turned
of the fuorescence from this screen disappeared. During
the next seven weeks, Rontgen conducted a series of very
extensive experiments to determine the nature of the rays
emanating from the discharge tube and which gave rise
to the fuorescence at the screen. He concluded that the
rays originated from the point where the electrons in the
discharge tube (at this time the electron had not been
discovered and in his published paper Rontgen referred
to cathode rays) struck the side of the tube or the anode.
Furthermore, the rays travelled in straight lines from their
point of production and were capable of great penetrating
power, quite a thick sheet of aluminium being necessary
to stop them entirely; they could pass through a 1000 page
book without any noticeable decrease in intensity. Perhaps
more striking was their ability to photograph the bone
structure of the hand and other parts of the body.
In 1912, seventeen years afer their discovery, Von Laue
demonstrated that X-rays are very short wavelength
electromagnetic radiation ( 10
-10
to 10
-11
m). So in fact
X-rays are high energy photons.
Figure 1841 is a schematic representation of a modern X-
ray(Coolidge) tube.
heavy metal target
anode
evacuated glass tube
heated cathode
electron
beam
X-rays
Figure 1841 The principle of a modern X-ray tube
Electrons are produced by the heated cathode. Te
potential diference between cathode and anode may range
from about 10 kV to 50 kV. Te anode, which is ofen oil
cooled because of the large amount of thermal energy
produced is faced with a heavy metal such as tungsten or
molybdenum.
As a result of the electrons striking the metal anode, X-rays
are ejected from the metal. Te production of X-rays is
sometimes referred to as the inverse photoelectric efect.
G.5.2/3 A TYPICAL X-RAY SPECTRUM
AND UNDERSTANDING ITS ORIGIN
A great deal of work has been done in measuring the
wavelengths of X-rays produced when electron beams of
various energy strike targets made from diferent elements.
Te results obtained using a molybdenum target are shown
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in Figure 1842 Te electrons have been accelerated through
25 kV and also through 15 kV. Tere are several features of
these curves which are immediately apparent. For both
the spectra produced by electrons of 25 keV and 15 keV
energies there is a minimum wavelength
min
produced.
Te 25 keV curve also shows two distinct peaks called the
K

and the K

lines .
Let us see if we can understand these curves.
3.0 2.0 1.0 0
,
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

/

r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

u
n
i
t
s
6
5
4
3
2
1
K

25 kV
15 kV
K

Figure 1842 A typical X-ray spectrum

When electrons strike a target most of them usually lose
their energy gradually by making glancing collisions
with the atoms of the target material. Te efect of this is
to increase the average kinetic energy of the atoms and so
increase the temperature of the target. It is for this reason
the target in a high energy X-ray tube must be cooled,
usually by a fow of oil. If it were not cooled the tempera-
ture rise could be sufcient to melt the target. About 99 per
cent of the energy of the electron beam goes into heating
the target. However, each glancing collision will result in
the electron emitting radiation due to its acceleration. It is
these glancing collisions that result in the continuous part
of the spectrum. Te continuous spectrum is sometimes
referred to as bremsstrahlung , the German for braking
radiation, a very descriptive name indeed. A few electrons
will lose all their energy in one collision and this rapid
acceleration of the electron results in an energetic pulse
of electromagnetic radiation, i.e. a high energy photon.
If an electron is accelerated from rest through a potential
diference V then the maximum energy of the photon that
is produced when it is brought to rest is Ve such that
min
hc
Ve hf

= =
where
min
is the minimum wavelength of the photon
produced, hence hence
min
hc
Ve
=
Tere is, however, another very important mechanism for
the production of X-rays. If an electron has a sufciently
high energy it can ionize an atom of the target not by
removing one of the electrons in an outer shell but by
removing an electron from one of the inner electron energy
levels. Te ground state energy level is ofen referred to
the K-shell (n = 1) and the next energy level, the M-shell
(n = 2) For example, suppose an incident electron removes
a K-shell electron, the vacancy in this shell can now be
flled by an electron of the L-shell, or the M-shell or other
shells, making a transition to the K-shell. A transition
from the L-shell to the K-shell gives rise to the K

peak
shown in Figure 1842.
An electron which makes a transition from the M -shell to
a vacancy created in the K -shell gives rise to the K

line. If
an incident electron ionizes a target atom by ejecting an
L-shell electron then electron transitions from the M-shell
and N-shell to fll the vacancy give rise to X-ray lines called
the L

and L

respectively. It is apparent that the wavelength

of the lines in an X-ray spectrum will be characteristic of a
particular element. In fact in 1913 Moseley, who measured
the X-ray spectra produced by many diferent elements,
showed that the frequency of a given line (say the K

line)
was related to the proton number Z. Tis was of vital
importance since at this time Z was just regarded as a
number that referred to the position of the element in the
periodic table. Moseley was in fact able to show that the
position of certain elements should be reversed. He was
also able to fll in several gaps in the table by predicting the
existence of new elements, such as Technetium and
Promethium. Unfortunately, Moseley was killed in the ill-
fated Dardanelles expedition of World War I in August
1915.
G.5.4 SOLVE X-RAY PROBLEMS
Exercise 18.5 (a)
1. Calculate the minimum wavelength of X-ray
photons produced when electrons that have been
accelerated through a potential diference of 25 kV
strike a heavy metal target.
2. Te ground state energy level of a fctitious
element is 20 keV and that of the next state is
2.0 keV. Calculate the wavelength of the K

line
associated with this element.
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G.5.5 Explain how X-ray diraction arises from
the scattering of X-rays in a crystal.
G.5.6 Derive the Bragg scattering equation.
G.5.7 Outline how cubic crystals may be used to
measure the wavelength of X-rays.
G.5.8 Outline how X-rays may be used to
determine the structure of crystals.
G.5.9 Solve problems involving the Bragg
equation.
IBO 2007
G.5.5,6 SCATTERING OF X-RAYS BY
CRYSTALS AND THE BRAGG
EQUATION
X-Ray Diraction
As mentioned above, in 1912, Von Laue showed that
X-rays are very short wavelength electromagnetic waves.
In order to show this, he had the idea that the apparent
symmetry of the spacing and position of the atoms in
a crystal might act as a kind of difraction grating. Te
resulting difraction pattern is very complicated since we
are dealing in efect with a three-dimensional grating.
Shortly afer Von Laues work, William Bragg showed the
difraction pattern produced by X-rays interacting with a
crystal actually arose from the scattering of the X-rays by
the crystal lattice planes.
Figure 1843 illustrates the principle of Braggs
interpretation of X-ray difraction by crystals. It also
shows the constructions necessary to fnd the condition
for the scattered rays to interfere constructively.
First plane
Second plane
X X
Y Y
1
2


C
A
B
Figure 1843 Bragg reection from crystal lattice planes
Each lattice ion (represented by a dot) acts as a source of
secondary waves. In general as these waves overlap they
will tend to interfere in a random manner. However, those
waves that are scattered at angles equal to the angle at which
the X-rays are incident on the ion, will stand a chance of
reinforcing constructively with another scattered wave.
Te direction of two such waves are shown in Figure 1843
by the ray labelled 1 that is scattered by the frst layer and
by the ray labelled 2 that is scattered by the second layer.
Ray 2 travels an extra path diference AB + BC where AB =
BC = dsin, d being the spacing between adjacent crystal
layers and the angle between the incident X-ray and the
crystal layer. Te two waves will interfere constructively if
the path diference between them is an integral number of
wavelengths i.e.
2dsin = n
where n = 1, 2 ..etc
Tis equation is known as the Bragg scattering equation
However, there are many more planes from which the
X-rays can be scattered. For example the planes such as
those labelled XY and XY in Figure 1843 must also be
considered. By considering a perfect cubic crystal lattice
array it is possible to predict the difraction pattern that
results from X-ray scattering. We consider this in the next
section.
G.5.7 THE CUBIC CRYSTAL AND THE
MEASUREMENT OF X-RAY
WAVELENGTH
By assuming a perfect cubic lattice array it is possible to
predict the resulting interference pattern produced. Such
a pattern is produced by a zinc sulphide crystal and a
sodium chloride crystal. Once it is known that a crystal
has perfect cubic symmetry the wavelength of the incident
X-rays may be measured. Consider a crystal which consists
of two elements combined to form a cubic lattice. Let the
compound have a density and molecular weight M, then
the mass of one molecule is
A
M
N
, where N
A
is Avogadros
number and M is the molar mass. Te number molecules
n
/
per unit volume is given by
/ A
A
N
n
M
M
N

= =
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and since the crystal under study is diatomic the number
of atoms N per unit volume is given by
A
2 N
N
M

=
Now let n equal the number of atoms along the edge of
a unit cube of the crystal and d equal the spacing of the
individual atoms.
Te length of the unit cube is therefore nd and the volume
n
3
d
3
. But n
3
is just the number N of atoms in the unit cube,
therefore
3
3 3 3 A
2
1
N d
n d Nd
M

= = =
so that
1
3
A
2
M
d
N

=


Bragg was able to check his explanation experimentally
by constructing an X-ray spectrometer. Te principle of
such an instrument is shown in Figure 1844. A collimated
beam of X-rays is incident on a crystal of sodium chloride
which may be rotated to be at any angle to the direction of
the incident beam.
Te intensity of the scattered beam is measured at diferent
angles by the detector shown. Te results of such an
experiment are shown in the graph in Figure 1845.
incident X-ray
beam
detector

Figure 1844 Principle of the X-ray crystal spectrometer

X
-
r
a
y
i
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
Bragg angle
c
1
b
1
a
1
c
2
b
2
a
2
Figure 1845 A typical X-ray crystal spectrum of e.g
sodium chloride
Te three maxima a
1
, b
1
, c
1
, correspond to frst order
maximum interference for three distinct wavelengths
present in the X-ray beam and a
2
, b
2
, c
2
to second-order
interference. Te detector measures the frst order maxima
as occurring at an angle 2, where is the angle that the
crystal face makes with the incident beam. Te wave-
lengths of the X-rays can now be calculated from the Bragg
condition equation and the value of d as calculated. X-ray
spectrometers are used extensively at the present day for
measuring X-ray wavelengths, the only modifcation to
the Bragg spectrometer being the use of a fuorite crystal
rather than a sodium chloride crystal.
G.5.8 X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Another consequence of Braggs work is the branch of
physics known as X-ray crystallography in which X-rays
of known wavelengths are used to explore the crystal
structure of diferent elements and compounds. Tis is a
question of working back from the difraction pattern to
determine the crystal structure that would produce such
a pattern. It was in this way that, in 1952, Francis Crick
and James Watson unraveled the structure of the DNA
molecule.
G.5.8 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
THE BRAGG EQUATION
Exercise 18.5 (b)
A beam of monochromatic X-rays are scattered from
a crystal of sodium chloride. Use the following data to
determine the wavelength of the X-rays in the beam.
Bragg angle at which frst maximum occurs = 18
molecular mass of sodium chloride = 58
density of sodium chloride = 2.2 10
3
kg m
-3
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In this topic parallel flms will be discussed before moving
on to discuss wedge flms. Tis means that we will start
with Statement G.6.5
Parallel lms
G.6.5 State the condition for light to undergo
either a phase change of , or no phase
change, on reection from an interface.
G.6.6 Describe how a source of light gives rise to
an interference pattern when the light is
reected at both surfaces of a parallel lm.
G.6.7 State the conditions for constructive and
destructive interference.
G.6.8 Explain the formation of coloured fringes
when white light is reected from thin
lms, such as oil and soap lms.
G.6.9 Describe the dierence between fringes
formed by a parallel lm and a wedge lm.
G.6.10 Describe applications of parallel thin lms.
G.6.11 Solve problems involving parallel lms.
IBO 2007
G.6.5,6 PARALLEL FILMS
You might well be familiar with the coloured pattern of
fringes that can be seen when light is refected of the
surface of water upon which a thin oil flm has been spilt
or from light refected from bubbles. We can see how these
patterns arise by looking at Figure 1846.
Extended
light source
air
A
B
C
1
2
3
4
Oil flm
Water
Figure 1846 Reection from an oil lm
Consider light from an extended source incident on a thin
flm. We also consider a wave from one point of the source
whose direction is represented by the ray shown. Some
of this light will be refected at A and some transmitted
through the flm where some will again be refected at B
(some will also be transmitted into the air). Some of the
light refected at B will then be transmitted at C and some
refected and so on. If we consider just rays 1 and 2 then
these will be not be in phase when the are brought to a focus
by the eye since they have travelled diferent distances. If
the path diference between them is an integral number of
half wavelengths then we might expect the two waves to
be out of phase. However, ray 1 undergoes a phase change
of on refection but ray 2 does not since it is refected at a
boundary between a more dense and less dense medium.
(See chapter 4) Hence if the path diference is an integral
number of half- wavelengths rays 1 and 2 will reinforce
i.e. ray 1 and 2 are in phase. However, rays 3, 5, 7 etc will
be out of phase with rays 2, 4, 6 etc but since ray 2 is more
intense than ray 3 and ray 4 more intense than ray 5, these
pairs will not cancel out so there will be a maximum of
intensity.
If the path diference is such that wave 1 and 2 are out of
phase, since wave 1 is more intense than wave 2, they will
not completely annul. However, it can be shown that the
intensities of waves 2, 3, 4, 5... add to equal the intensity of
wave 1. Since waves 3, 4. 5... are in phase with wave 2 there
will be complete cancellation.
Te path diference will be determined by the angle at
which ray 1 is incident and also on the thickness (and the
actual refractive index as well) of the flm. Since the source
is an extended source, the light will reach the eye from
many diferent angles and so a system of bright and dark
fringes will be seen. You will only see fringes if the flm
is very thin (except if viewed at normal incidence) since
increasing the thickness of the flm will cause the refected
rays to get so far apart that they will not be collected by the
pupil of the eye.
G.6 HL ONLY THINFILM INTERFERENCE
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G.6.7 THE CONDITIONS FOR
CONSTRUCTIVE AND
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
From the argument above, to fnd the conditions for
constructive and destructive interference we need only
fnd the path diference between ray 1 and ray 2. Figure
1847 shows the geometry of the situation.
A
B
E
F
C
D
1 2

d
Figure 1847 The geometry of interference
Te flm is of thickness d and refractive index n and the
light has wavelength . If the line BF is perpendicular to
ray 1 then the optical path diference (opd) between ray 1
and ray 2 when brought to a focus is
opd = n(AC + CB) AF
We have to multiple by the refractive index for the path
travelled by the light in the flm since the light travels more
slowly in the flm. If the light travels say a distance x in a
material of refractive index n then in the time that it takes
to travel this distance, the light would travel a distance nx
in air.
If the line CE is at right angles to ray 2 then we see that
AF = nBE
From the diagram AC = CD so we can write
opd = n(CD + CB) nBE = nDE
Also from the diagram we see that, where is the angle of
refraction
DE = 2cos
From which opd = 2ndcos
Bearing in mind the change in phase of ray 1 on refection
we have therefore that the condition for constructive
interference is
2nd cos m
1
2
--- +


m , 1 2 , , = =
And for destructive interference 2ndcos = m
Each fringe corresponds to a particular opd for a particular
value of the integer m and for any fringe the value of the
angle is fxed. Tis means that it will be in the form of
an arc of a circle with the centre of the circle at the point
where the perpendicular drawn from the eye meets the
surface of the flm. Such fringes are called fringes of
equal inclination. Since the eye has a small aperture
these fringes, unless viewed at near to normal incidence
( = 0), will only be observed if the flm is very thin. Tis is
because as the thickness of the flm increases the refected
rays will get further and further apart and so very few will
enter the eye.
G.6.8 WHITE LIGHT FRINGES
If white light is shone onto the flm then we can see why
we get multi-coloured fringes since a series of maxima and
minima will be formed for each wavelength present in the
white light. However, when viewed at normal incidence,
it is possible that only light of one colour will under go
constructive interference and the flm will take on this
colour. We look at an example of this in G.6.11 to follow.
G.6.9 DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN FRINGES FORMED BY
A PARALLEL FILM AND A WEDGE
FILM
We will consider this topic when we discuss wedge flms in
Section G.6.1 later in this chapter.
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G.6.10 DESCRIBE APPLICATIONS OF
PARALLEL THIN FILMS
Thickness of oil lms
Te exercise to follow will help explain this use.
Non-reecting lms
A very important but simple application of thin flm
interference is in the production of non-refecting
surfaces.
A thin flm of thickness d and refractive index n
1
is coated
onto glass of refractive index n where n
1
< n. Light of
wavelength that is refected at normal incidence will
undergo destructive interference if
1
2
2
n d

= , that is
1
4
d
n

=
(remember that there will now no phase change at the glass
interface i.e. we have a rare to dense refection)
Te use of such flms can greatly reduce the loss of
light by refection at the various surfaces of a system of
lenses or prisms. Optical parts of high quality systems
are usually all coated with non-refecting flms in order
to reduce stray refections. Te flms are usually made
by evaporating calcium or magnesium fuoride onto the
surfaces in vacuum, or by chemical treatment with acids
which leave a thin layer of silica on the surface of the glass.
Te coated surfaces have a purplish hue by refected light.
Tis is because the condition for destructive interference
from a particular flm thickness can only be obtained for
one wavelength. Te wavelength chosen is one that has a
value corresponding to light near the middle of the visible
spectrum. Tis means that refection of red and violet light
is greater combining to give the purple colour. Because of
the factor cos, at angles other than normal incidence, the
path diference will change but not signifcantly until say
about 30 (e.g. cos 25 = 0.90).
It should be borne in mind that no light is actually lost by
a non-refecting flm; the decrease of refected intensity is
compensated by increase of transmitted intensity.
Non-refecting flms can be painted onto aircraf to
suppress refection of radar. Te thickness of the flm
is determined by
4
nd

=

where is the wavelength of
the radar waves and n the refractive index of the flm
at this wavelength.
Example
A plane-parallel glass plate of thickness 2.0 mm is
illuminated with light from an extended source. Te
refractive index of the glass is 1.5 and the wavelength of the
light is 600 nm. Calculate how many fringes are formed.
Solution
We assume that the fringes are formed by light incident at
all angles from normal to grazing incidence.
At normal incidence we have 2nd = m
From which,
m
2 1.5 2 10
3

6 10
7

------------------------------------------- 10 000 , = =
At grazing incidence the angle of refraction is in fact the
critical angle.
Terefore, arcsin
1
1.5
-------


42 = =
i.e. cos = 0.75
At grazing incidence 2ndcos = m
/

From which (and using cos(sin
1
(1/1.5) = 0.75),
m
2 1.5 2 10
3
0.75
6 10
7

------------------------------------------------------------ 7500 = =
Te total number of fringes seen is equal to m m
/
= 2500.
Exercise 18.6
When viewed from above, the colour of an oil flm on
water appears red in colour. Use the data below to estimate
the minimum thickness of the oil flm.
average wavelength of red light = 630 nm
refractive index of oil for red light = 1.5
refractive index of water for red light = 1.3
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G.6.1 Explain the production of interference
fringes by a thin air wedge.
G.6.2 Explain how wedge fringes can be used to
measure very small separations.
G.6.3 Describe how thin-lm interference is used
to test optical ats.
G.6.4 Solve problems involving wedge lms.
IBO 2007
G.6.1 WEDGE FILMS
Suppose that the edges of the flm are not parallel but
actually form a wedge such that the thickness of the flm
varies. Such a wedge can be made for example by taking
two microscopes slides and placing a thin piece of wire at
the end of one of the slides. Te other slide is then rested
on this slide.
Figure 1848 shows an arrangement for observing the
fringes formed by such a wedge.
wire
glass plate
travelling microscope
monochromatic
slides
light
Figure 1848 An arrangement to observe the fringes
When the monochromatic light strikes the glass plate
some of it will be refected down onto the wedge. Some
of the light refected from the wedge will be transmitted
through the glass plate to the travelling microscope. A
system of equally spaced parallel fringes (fringes of equal
thickness) is observed.
Te travelling microscope enables the fringe spacing to be
measured. Te fringes can also be observed by the naked
eye.
At normal incidence the condition for a bright fringe to
be formed is:
1
2
2
nd m

= +


In going from one fringe to another m changes by 1 and
this means that the thickness d of the wedge will change by
/2. Hence the fringes are of equal thickness and parallel
to each other. By measuring the fringe spacing for a given
wedge the angle of the wedge can be determined which
means that the thickness of the spacer forming the
wedge can also be determined.
G.6.2 EXPLAIN HOW WEDGE FRINGES
CAN BE USED TO MEASURE VERY
SMALL SEPARATIONS
Te example in G.6.4 below illustrates the principle of
using the fringes produced in a wedge flm to determine
small separations.
G.6.3 DESCRIBE HOW THIN-FILM
INTERFERENCE IS USED TO TEST
OPTICAL FLATS
Wedge flms can be used to test optical surfaces for fatness.
If a wedge is made of two surfaces one of which is perfectly
plane but the other has irregularities, the observed fringe
pattern will be irregular in shape. Te irregular surface
can then be re-polished until the fringes are all completely
parallel and of equal thickness.
G.6.4 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
WEDGE FILMS
Example
A wedge flm is made by wrapping a single turn of sticky-
tape about one end of a microscope slide and placing
another slide on top of it. Te microscope slides are 4.8 cm
long and the wavelength of the light is 500 nm. Te fringe
spacing is measured as 0.8 mm. Determine the thickness
of the sticky-tape.
Solution
In a length of 5 cm there will be
4.8
0.08
---------- 60 = fringes.
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Te 60th fringe is formed where the wedge has thickness d,
the thickness of the sticky-tape. Since the wedge encloses
air (n =1) then,
Air (n = 1) then, using we have
2d = 60 l
= 60 500 10
9

d = 30 5 10
7
To give, d = 1.5 10
5
.
Terefore, the thickness of the sticky tape is 1.5 10
5
m.
COMPARISON BETWEEN FRINGES FORMED BY
A PARALLEL FILM AND THOSE FORMED BY A
WEDGE FILM.
For a parallel flm, the fringes are of equal inclination, that
is they form arcs of a circle whose centre is located at the
end of a perpendicular drawn from the eye to the surface
of the flm.
For a wedge flm, the fringes are parallel and of equal
thickness.
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RELATIVITY
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19
H.1.1 Describe what is meant by a frame of
reference.
H.1.2 Describe what is meant by a Galilean
transformation.
H.1.3 Solve problems involving relative
velocities using the Galilean
transformation equations.
IBO 2007
A frame of reference
A
ll measurement must be made relative to some
frame of reference. Usually this frame of reference in
physics experiments will be your school laboratory and in
mathematics, the conventional Cartesian reference frame
consists of three mutually perpendicular axes x, y and z.
To understand why the concept of a frame of reference is
so important, suppose that you were asked to carry out
an experiment to measure the acceleration due to gravity
at the Earths surface by timing the period of oscillation
of a simple pendulum whilst on a fair-ground merry-
go-ground. You would certainly expect to get some very
unusual results. Your overall perspective of the world
would in fact be very diferent from the world observed
by somebody not on the ride. You might well expect the
laws of physics to be diferent. Yet we all live on a merry-
go-round. Te Earth spins on its axis as it orbits the sun.
Fortunately the Earth spins relatively slowly compared to
the merry-go-round so most of the time we can ignore
the efects. However, because of the Earths rotation, the
acceleration due to gravity has a diferent value at the poles
than that at the equator. Also you certainly cannot ignore
the rotation of the Earth when making astronomical
observations or measurements.
Newton was well aware of the complications produced by
making measurements relative to the Earth. Furthermore,
he felt that, for the laws of physics to be precisely valid,
then all observations must be made in a reference system
that it is at rest or in a reference system that is moving with
H.1 (HL) D.1 (SL) Introduction to Relativity
H.2 (HL) D.2 (SL) Concepts and Postulates of Special Relativity
H.3 (HL) D.3 (SL) Relativistic Kinematics
H.4 Some Consequences of Special Relativity
H.5 Evidence to Support Special Relativity
H.6 Relativistic Momentum and Energy
H.7 General relativity
H.8 Evidence to support general relativity
H.1 HL D.1 SL INTRODUCTION TO RELATIVITY
TOK Introduction
Tis is another opportunity, as with Quantum Mechanics to discuss the concept of a paradigm shif and its relation to
the development of scientifc understanding. In particular, the Einstein Teory of Relativity gives rise to the completely
diferent view of space and time than that put forward by Newton.
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uniform speed. Based on the work of Galileo he stated a
theory of relativity as follows: Te motions of bodies
included in a given space are the same among themselves,
whether the space is at rest or moves uniformly forward in
a straight line. Te question of course arises, at rest with
respect to what or at uniform speed with respect to what?
In this option we shall see how the search for a reference
system that truly is at rest led to a radical re-think about the
nature of space and time culminating in the two relativity
theories of Einstein. We shall in fact see that the Laws of
Physics are always true even if you live on a fair ground
merry-go-round.
A frame of reference which is moving with uniform
velocity or which is at rest is known as an inertial reference
frame. When your maths teacher draws the conventional
x and y axes on the board he or she is in fact expecting
you to regard this as an inertial reference frame and ignore
any efects of the Earths motion. Following in your maths
teachers footsteps we will for the time being assume in this
section on Special Relativity that we are dealing with truly
inertial reference frames. (A space ship far away from any
gravitational efects drifing along with constant velocity is
a pretty good approximation of an inertial reference frame).
H.1.2 (D.1.2) DESCRIBE WHAT
IS MEANT BY A GALILEAN
TRANSFORMATION
In Figure 1901 Paul regards his reference system to be at
rest and Marys reference system to be moving away from
him at a constant speed v.
y
y
x x
Paul
Mary
v
P
Figure 1901 Reference systems
Mary measures the point P to be at the point x'. Paul on
the other hand will measure the point to be at the point x
as measured in his reference system where x = x' + vt and
t is the time that has elapsed from the moment when the
two reference systems were together. We have therefore
that, x' = x vt. (Note that in all that follows we will only
consider motion in the xdirection)
Suppose now that Mary observes an object in her
reference system to be moving with speed u' in the x
direction, then clearly Paul will observe the object to be
moving with speed u = u' + v, hence we have u' = u v. It
is not difcult to show that if Mary were to measure the
acceleration of an object as a' then Paul would measure
the acceleration of the object as a = a'. In this respect they
would both interpret Newtons Second Law (in its basic
form, F = ma) identically. Tis means that there is no
mechanics experiment that Mary or Paul could carry out
to determine whether they were at rest or whether they
were moving at constant speed in a straight line.
H.1.3 (D.1.3) SOLVE PROBLEMS
INVOLVING RELATIVE VELOCITIES
USING THE GALILEAN
TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS
Exercise 19.1
1. Te diagram below shows three buoys A, B and C
in a river. Te river fows in the direction shown
and the speed of the current is 2.0 m s
1
.
B
v 3.0 m s
1
=
A
C
v 3.0 m s
1
= Y
X
AB AC =
direction of current at 2.0 m s
1
Te distance AB is equal to the distance AC. A
swimmer X swims from A to B and back with a
steady speed of 3.0 m s
1
relative to the water. At
the same time X leaves A a swimmer Y sets of to
C and back with the same steady speed relative to
the water.
(a) Determine, for an observer on the bank the
speed of
i. X as she swims towards B.
ii. X as she swims back to A.
iii. Y as he swims towards C.
iv. Y as he swims back to A.
(b) Calculate the ratio of the times for the two
journeys.
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RELATIVITY
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H.2.1 Describe what is meant by an inertial frame
of reference.
H.2.2 State the two postulates of the special theory
of relativity.
H.2.3 Discuss the concept of simultaneity.
IBO 2007
Introduction
In 1864 Clerk Maxwell published his electromagnetic
theory of light in which he united the separate studies of
Optics and Electromagnetism. His theory was one of the
great unifcation points in physics comparable with the
Galileo/Newton idea that the laws of celestial and terrestrial
mechanics were the same. Te source of the electric and
magnetic felds is electric charge. If an electric charge is
stationary with respect to you then you will measure an
electrostatic feld. If the charge is moving with constant
velocity relative to you then you will measure a magnetic
feld as well. However, if the charge is accelerated then the
felds are no longer static and according to Maxwell they
radiate out from the charge, moving through space with
the speed of light. Suppose that the charge in question is a
small charged sphere suspended by a string. If it oscillates
with a frequency of 1000 Hz then it is a source of long-
wave radio waves, at a frequency of 10
9
Hz it becomes a
source of television signals. If it oscillates with a frequency
of 10
12
Hz it is a source of infrared radiation, at about
10
15
Hz it would look yellow and at 10
18
Hz it would be
emitting x-rays. Of course all this is a bit absurd but it
does illustrate the fact that the source of all radiation in
the electromagnetic spectrum is the accelerated motion of
electric charge.
Maxwells theory also showed that the speed with which
electromagnetic waves travel depends only on the electric
and magnetic constants of the medium through which they
travel. In a vacuum this means that the speed depends only
on
0
, the permittivity of free space and
0
, the permeability
of free space (see Chapters 7 & 9) Tis is fact means that
the speed of light (or any other electromagnetic wave)
is independent of the speed of the observer. Tis has far
reaching consequences.
Let us return to our two observers Paul and Mary above.
Suppose that Mary were to measure the speed of a light
pulse as 3 10
8
m s
1
in her reference system and that the
relative velocity between Paul and Mary is 2 10
8
m s
1
.
Tis means that Paul would measure the speed of the
pulse to be 5 10
8
m s
1
. Tis, according to Maxwell, is not
possible. Also it would seem that by measuring the speed
of light pulses Mary and Paul have a means of determining
whether they are at rest or not. Tis seems odd.
We have also seen that the laws of mechanics are the same
for all inertial observers so we would expect the laws of
electromagnetism to be the same for all inertial observers.
If, however, we apply the rules for a Galilean transformation
(something that is beyond the scope of this book) we fnd
that the laws of electromagnetism are diferent for diferent
observers. Clearly something is wrong.
Furthermore, if light is an electromagnetic wave, what
is the nature of the medium that supports its motion?
To answer this question, physicists of the time proposed
that an invisible substance called the ether permeates
all of space. It was also proposed that this medium is at
rest absolutely and is therefore the reference system with
respect to which the laws of physics would hold exactly for
all inertial observers. Putting it another way, an inertial
observer should be able to determine his of her speed with
respect to the ether. We shall return to the question of the
ether later on in the chapter. Meanwhile we shall see how
Einsteins Special Teory of Relativity resolves the problem
we seem to have with Maxwells theory and the speed of
light.
H.2.1 (D.2.1) DESCRIBE WHAT IS MEANT
BY AN INERTIAL FRAME OF
REFERENCE
To Einstein it seemed that not only the Laws of Mechanics
should be the same for all observers but all the Laws of
Physics including Maxwells laws. Tis was an idea frst
proposed by Poincar. However, Einstein realised that this
idea must alter completely the then accepted notions of
time and space. In the Special Teory (or restricted theory
as it is sometimes called) he confned himself to inertial
frames of reference, that is non-accelerating reference
frames. We have mentioned inertial reference frames in
H.1.1. Another way of describing an inertial frame is to
note that it is a frame in which Newtons frst law hold true.
H.2 HL D.2 SL CONCEPTS AND POSTULATES
OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY
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Clearly, if a reference frame is accelerating, then objects in
the reference frame will not remain at rest or continue to
move with uniform motion in a straight line.
H.2.2 (D.2.2) STATE THE TWO
POSTULATES OF THE SPECIAL
THEORY OF RELATIVITY
Tere are two postulates of the Special Teory:
1. the laws of physics are the same for all inertial
observers
2. all inertial observers will measure the same value
for the free space velocity of light irrespective of
their velocity relative to the source.
Another way of looking at the second postulate is to
recognise that it means that speed of light is independent
of the speed of the source.
We have seen that the laws of mechanics are the same for all
inertial observers. However, the laws of electromagnetism
do not appear to be so. As we have already seen, if they
were, then we would have a means of fnding an absolute
reference system. Te laws of electromagnetism had been
verifed by careful experiment and were certainly not in
error. Einstein realised that in fact what was in error was
the not the laws of electromagnetism but the nature of the
Galilean transformation itself. A Galilean transformation
does not take into account the second postulate and it also
assumes that time is an absolute quantity. It assumes in
fact that all inertial observers will measure the same value
for given time intervals. But if, as we shall see, the second
postulate of relativity is correct then this cannot be the
case.
H.2.3 (D.2.3) DISCUSS THE CONCEPT OF
SIMULTANEITY
To see why we can no longer regard time as being absolute,
let us see how two events that occur at diferent points in events that occur at diferent points in
space and which are simultaneous for one observer,
cannot be simultaneous for another observer who
observes the events from a diferent frame of reference. In In
Figure 1902 observer Y is in a train which is moving with
constant speed v as measured by the observer X who is
standing by the side of the railway tracks.
v
Y
X
Figure 1902 Situation A
Consider observer, Y, who is at the mid-point of the train.
Just as the train reaches a point where she is opposite X,
lightning strikes both ends of the train. X sees these two
events to take place simultaneously. Refer to Figure1903.
v
Y
X
Figure 1903 Situation B
But this will not be the case for Y. Since the speed of light
is independent of the speed of the source, by the time the
light from each of the strokes reaches Y the train will have
moved forward, Figure 1904.
v
Y
X
a
b
Figure 1904 Situation C
So in efect the light from the strike at the front of the train
will reach Y before the light from the strike at the rear of
the train. Tat is, Y has moved forward and, in doing so,
has moved closer to where the lightning frst hit, so that
the light travels a shorter distance in getting to Y. Whereas
the light from the back of the cart needs to travel further
(a > b) and so takes more time to get to Y.
Y will not see the two events as occurring simultaneously.
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We might ask which observer is correct? Are the two
events simultaneous? In fact both observers are correct.
What is simultaneous for one observer is not simultaneous
for the other; there is no preferred reference frame. Te
interpretation of any sequence of events will depend on an
individuals frame of reference.
Einstein proposed that the three dimensions of space and
the one dimension of time describe a four dimensional
space-time continuum and that diferent observers will
describe the same event with diferent space time co-
ordinates. We shall see later on in the chapter how this
idea is developed further.
H.3 HL D.3 SL
RELATIVISTIC
KINEMATICS
H.3.1 Describe the concept of a light clock.
H.3.2 Dene proper time interval.
H.3.3 Derive the time dilation formula.
H.3.4 Draw and annotate a graph showing
the variation with relative velocity of the
Lorentz factor.
H.3.5 Solve problems involving time dilation.
IBO 2007
Introduction
Shortly afer Maxwells equations of electromagnetism
where published it was found, unlike Newtons Laws,
that they did not keep their same form under a Galilean
transformation. Lorentz found that, for them to keep the
same form, the transformations in the following table have
to be applied.
Galilean Lorentz
x = x vt x = (x vt)
t = t t = t
Figure 1905 GalileanLorentz transformation equations
Where c is the free space velocity of light, and

1
1
v
2
c
2
-----



------------------------ =
and t and t' refer to a time interval in the respective
reference systems.
Te Lorentz transformation equations are embedded
in the Maxwell equations the equations that express
the behaviour of electric and magnetic felds. Tere is a
certain amount of irony here. Newton was well aware of
the concept of relativity and as we have seen, took steps to
address the issue in terms of the Galilean transformations.
Maxwell on the other hand put his equations together
without addressing the relativity issue. When the issue
was addressed by Lorentz, this led to a complete re
assessment of how we think of time and space. Te major
contribution that Einstein made was to realise that the
Lorentz transformation equations can also be derived
from the second postulate of Special Relativity. Tis is not
difcult to do but we shall not do so here.
According to the Special Teory all the laws of physics
must transform according to the Lorentz transformation
equations. Te constancy of the speed of light is contained
within the laws of electromagnetism but not within
Newtons laws under a Galilean transformation. Hence
Newtons laws must transform according to the Lorentz
equations.
H.3.1,2 (D.3.1,2) DESCRIBE THE
CONCEPT OF A LIGHT CLOCK/
DEFINE PROPER TIME INTERVAL
To understand the Lorentz equations and to see the efect
that they have on our conventional understanding of
space and time, let us frst look at how our understanding
of time is afected.
Let us return to the observer in the moving train. Te
observer has set up an experiment in which she times how
long it takes for a light pulse to bounce back and forth
between two mirrors separated by a vertical distance d
as shown in Figure 1906. Tis set up is efectively a light
clock.
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v
d light
Y
Figure 1906 A simple light clock
As measured by Y, the pulse leaves the top mirror at time
t'
1
and reaches the bottom mirror at time t'
2
. Te time
interval t'
2
t'
1
is given by:
t
2
t
1

d
c
-- - = , where c is the speed of light.
Tis time measured by Y is known as the proper time. In
general, the term proper time refers to the time interval
between two events as measured in the reference system
in which the two events occur at the same place.
H.3.3 (D.3.3) DERIVE THE TIME
DILATION FORMULA
How will the observer X who is by the side of the tracks
see the light clock?
Suppose that at the time that the light pulse leaves the
top mirror, X and Y are directly opposite each other. X
measures this time as t
1
and the time that the pulse reaches
the bottom mirror as t
2
v d
light
v t
2
t
1
( )
X
Figure 1907
By the time that the light pulse reaches the bottom mirror,
the train will have moved forward a distance v(t
2
t
1
) as
measured by X and he will see the pulse follow the path as
shown in Figures 1907 and 1908.
A
B C
Figure 1908
If we let t
2
t
1
= t and t'
2
t'
1
= t', then, the distance that
the train travels is BC = vt.
Te distance that X measures for the path of the pulse is
AC = ct'.
Te distance that Y measures for the path of the pulse is
AB = c(t'
2
t'
1
)..
Applying Pythagorass theorem to the triangle, we have
AC
2
AB
2
BC
2
c t [ ]
2
+ c t [ ]
2
v t [ ]
2
+ = =
c
2
t ( )
2
c
2
t ( )
2
v
2
t ( )
2
+ =
From which we have c
2
v
2
( ) t
2
c
2
t ( )
2
=
So that, t ( )
2 c
2
c
2
v
2

----------------



t ( )
2
=
Rearranging this equation, we have
t ( )
2 1
1
v
2
c
2
-----



-------------------- t ( )
2
=
Terefore (taking the positive square root) we have that
t
1
1
v
2
c
2
-----
------------------ t =
Or, letting
1
1
v
2
c
2
-----
------------------ = , we have t = t'.
Te equation t = t' is stated in the IB data booklet as is stated in the IB data booklet as
t = t
0
where t
0
is the proper time.
What this efectively means is that to observer X, the
light pulse will take a longer time to traverse the distance
between the mirrors compared to the time measured by
observer Y. Tis phenomenon is known as time dilation.
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As stated above, the bouncing light pulse can efectively
be regarded as a clock. We reach the conclusion therefore
that any type of clock in an inertial reference systems
which is moving relative to an observer in another inertial
reference system will appear to run slower as measured by
this observer. Tis efectively means that time is slowed
for the moving observer. It has been said, tongue in cheek,
that if you want to live longer, then keep running. If there
were a clock on the train then to X it would not tell the
same time as a clock on the ground nor would the clock
on the ground tell the same time to Y as the clock in the
train. Time can no longer be regarded as absolute. We
must also bear in mind that the situation is symmetric and
to observer Y, a clock in observer Xs system will appear to
run slower than a clock in her own system.
You might also like to ponder the following: is the speed
of light the same for all inertial observers because time is
not absolute or is time not absolute because the speed of
light is the same for all inertial observers? Tis is the sort
of question that keeps the philosophers happy for ages.
From the physicists point of view, what is of importance
is that the Special Teory has been verifed experimentally
and that all the predictions that it makes have also been
verifed experimentally. Te Special Teory of Relativity is
part of the accepted framework of Physics.
H.3.4 (D.3.4) DRAW AND ANNOTATE
A GRAPH SHOWING THE
VARIATION WITH RELATIVE
VELOCITY OF THE LORENTZ
FACTOR
In terms of predicted time dilations we are actually
looking at some very small diferences when considering
everyday situations. For our two observers X and Y above,
if for example the train is moving at 30 m s
1
relative to
observer X then a time interval of 1 second as recorded by
Y will be recorded as 1.00001 seconds by X. For this time
dilation to be noticeable then clearly we must have relative
velocities between observers which are close to the speed
of light. Figure 1909 shows the variation with relative
speed between inertial observers of the function.
0 1 2 3 4 5
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
function
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
a
s
a
f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
o
f
t
h
e
s
p
e
e
d
o
f
l
i
g
h
t
Figure 1909
From this graph you can see that, for two observers with
a relative speed of about 0.98c, then a time interval of one
second as measured by one observer will be measured as a
time interval of nearly 5 seconds by the other observer.
H. 3.5 (D.3.5) SOLVE PROBLEMS
INVOLVING TIME DILATION
Example
An observer sets up an experiment to measure the time of
oscillation of a mass suspended from a vertical spring. He
measures the time period as 2.0 s. To another observer this
time period is measured as 2.66 s. Calculate the relative
velocity between the two observers.
Solution
Since the measured event occurs at the same place in which
the time period is measured as 2.00 s, then
2.66 = 2.00
such that
1.33
1
1
v
2
c
2
-----
------------------ = =
or
1.33
2 1
1
v
2
c
2
-----
-------------- 1
v
2
c
2
-----

1
1.33
2
------------- 0.57 = ( ) = =
.
Terefore
v
2
c
2
----- 0.43 = so that v = 0.66c.
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Tis is a very high speed to say the least and in one time
period the observers will have moved about 4 10
9
m
apart. Which makes the whole thing strange. However we
will look at a more realistic example later in the chapter.
H.3.6 Dene proper length.
H.3.7 Describe the phenomenon of length
contraction.
The derivation of the length contraction formula is
not required.
H.3.8 Solve problems involving length contraction.
IBO 2007
Length contraction
H.3.6,7 (D.3.6,7) DEFINE PROPER
LENGTH/DESCRIBE THE
PHENOMENON OF LENGTH
CONTRACTION
We now consider how the Special Teory afects our
concept of space.
In Figure 1910 Mary is moving at a constant velocity v
in the x direction relative to Paul who regards himself as
being at rest. AB is a rod, which is at rest with respect to
Mary.
y
y
x x
Paul
Mary
v
A B
x
1
x
2

Figure 1910
In terms of Galilean relativity Mary and Paul would both
obtain the same value for the length AB of the rod. But this
is not the case if we apply the Lorentz transformations.
We defne the proper length of the rod as the length of
the rod measured by the observer at rest with respect to
the rod.
Suppose that end A of the rod is at x'
1
and B is at x'
2
as
measured by Mary. Te rod is at rest in Marys system
therefore the proper length of the rod is x
2
x
1
( ) L =
(say).
If we apply the Lorentz transformation then x'
1
and x'
2
are
given by x
1
x
1
vt
1
( ) = and x
2
x
2
vt
2
( ) = where x
2

and x
2
are the respective ends of the rod as measured by
Paul.
Te length of the rod as measured by Paul can therefore
have many diferent values depending on the choice of t
1

and t
2
, the times when the rod is measured. To make any
sense, the length of the moving rod (from Pauls point of
view) is defned as the length when the ends are measured
simultaneously i.e. t
1
= t
2
.
Hence the proper length of the rod
L x
2
x
1
( ) x
2
x
1
( ) = = .
Hence the length L of the rods measured by Paul will be
given by L' = L
Tis equation is written as L
L
0

----- - = in the data booklet

where L
0
is the proper length. (You will not be expected to (You will not be expected to
derive this equation in an examination).
Since is always greater than unity, L will always be
less than the proper length. To Paul the rod will appear
contracted in the direction of motion.
Exercise 19.3 (a)
1. Use the defnition of the function to confrm its
value as shown by the previous graph when the
velocity is 0.5c, 0.8c and 0.95c (Figure 1909).
2 Mary measures the time between two events as
being separated by an interval of 2.0 ms. Paul
measures the interval to be 2.5 ms. Calculate the
relative velocity of Mary and Paul.
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H.3.8 (D.3.8) SOLVE PROBLEMS
INVOLVING LENGTH
CONTRACTION
Example
Mary is travelling in a space ship, which is not accelerating.
To her the length of the space ship is 100 m. To Paul
who is travelling in another space ship, which is also
not accelerating, Marys space ship has a length of 98 m.
Calculate the relative velocity of Paul and Mary.
Solution
Te proper length is 100 m therefore
100
98
-------- - 1.02 = =
so that 1.02
1
1
v
2
c
2
-----
-------------- = = .

Terefore
1
1
v
2
c
2
-----
--------------
1
1.02 ( )
2
------------------ 0.96 = =

giving v
2
= 0.04c
2
,
so that v = 0.2c.
Example
To Paul, his space ship measures 150m. Determine the
length that it will appear to Mary?
Solution
Te factor is the same for both Paul and Mary but at this
time 150 m is the proper length so Mary will see the ship
contracted by a factor 1 i.e. 147 m.
Since both observers are inertial observers both will
observe the length contraction and both observers will be
correct.
Exercise 19.3 (b)
1 A spaceship is travelling away from the Earth with
a speed of 0.6c as measured by an observer on the
Earth. Te rocket sends a light pulse back to Earth
every 10 minutes as measured by a clock on the
spaceship.
(a) Calculate the distance that the rocket
travels between light pulses as measured by
i. the observer on Earth.
ii. somebody on the spaceship?
(b) If the Earth observer measures the length
of the spaceship as 60 m, determine the
proper length of the spaceship.
2. Calculate the relative velocity between two inertial
observers which produces a 50% reduction in the
proper length.
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H.4.1 Describe how the concept of time dilation
leads to the twin paradox.
H.4.2 Discuss the Hafele-Keating experiment.
H.4.3 Solve one-dimensional problems involving
the relativistic addition of velocities.
IBO 2007
The twin paradox
H.4.1 DESCRIBE HOW THE CONCEPT
OF TIME DILATION LEADS TO
THE TWIN PARADOX
It might well have occurred to some of you during the
discussion of time dilation that if there is no preferred
reference system why doesnt the observer on the train
perceive that clocks on the other side of the tracks run
slower than his own clocks? In fact, we could just as well
have described the experiment the other way round so
that the observer on the tracks was the one carrying out
the experiment with the bouncing light pulse. Proper time
would then be the time measure in his reference system.
Te Special Teory tells us that both observers are correct.
Tis introduces the famous so called twin paradox.
Paul and Mary are twins born sometime in the future
when inter-stellar star travel is commonplace. When they
are 30 years old, Mary sets of in a space ship to travel
to Alpha Centauri and back, a total distance of 8.6 light
years. Her space ship travels at an average speed of 0.98c.
Te round trip for her will take about 9 years. However, to
Paul all Marys clocks will appear to run slower, her heart
will beat slower, in fact everything will be slowed down
from Pauls point of view. If you refer to the previous time
dilation graph you will see that 1 second for Mary will
appear as about 5 seconds for Paul. So when Mary returns
to Earth she will be about 39 years old and Paul will be
about 77 years old. But if all motion is relative, why cant
we regard Paul as being the person in motion and Mary at
rest? As we shall see, it has been verifed experimentally
that time does go slower in moving reference frames. So
this is the paradox. By symmetry the only possible result is
that Paul and Mary must be the same age when they meet
up again on Earth. However, for Mary to come back to
Earth from the star, she has to turn round and this involves
an acceleration so this is no longer a symmetrical situation.
She also has to accelerate away from the Earth and slow
down to land back on Earth. Tis, therefore, is the way
round the paradox - there is no paradox. Te observer that
experiences the acceleration is the person that is moving.
If both observers are in inertial reference frames then they
can never meet to compare their ages or their clocks unless
one of them slows down and the observer that slows down
is no longer in an inertial reference system.
H.4.2 DISCUSS THE HAFELE-KEATING
EXPERIMENT
In order to test Einsteins theory of relativity with actual
clocks rather than light clocks, in October, 1971, Hafele
and Keating took four caesium atomic beam clocks aboard
commercial airliners. Te airliners few around the world
twice, once eastward and once westward. Te times read
by the clocks were then compared with clocks at U.S. Naval
Observatory. According to Einsteins theory the clock
should have lost 40 ns during the eastward trip and should
have gained 275 ns during the westward trip as compared
with the atomic time scale of the U.S. Naval Observatory.
Te fying clocks actually lost 59 ns during the eastward
trip and gained 273 ns during the westward trip. When the
errors and the corresponding standard deviations were
taken into account, the agreement between the theory
and experiment was excellent, providing unambiguous
evidence for the resolution of the twin paradox.
H.4 SOME CONSEQUENCES OF SPECIAL
RELATIVITY
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Velocity addition
H.4.3 SOLVE ONE-DIMENSIONAL
PROBLEMS INVOLVING THE
RELATIVISTIC ADDITION OF
VELOCITIES
In Figure 1911 (a) Mary is in a train which is moving with
speed v relative to Paul who is standing at the side of the
tracks.
u
Speed of object relative to Mary u u v =
Speed of object relative to Mary u u v + =
P
v
Mary
Paul
u
P
v
Mary
Paul
Figure 1911 (a) and (b)
Te object P is moving horizontally with a speed u relative
to Paul. According to a Galilean transformation, Mary
would measure the speed of the object as u' = u v. If the
object is moving in the other direction, Figure 1911 (b),
then the speed would be, as measured by Mary, given by
u' = u + v.
If P were a light beam, then Mary would measure the
speed of the beam to be c + v.
But if we are to believe the Special Teory then this can
not be so since all inertial observers must measure the
same value for the speed of light. Te Galilean
transformations for velocity cannot therefore be correct.
It is not difcult to show that, if we apply the Lorentz
transformations for displacement and time, then the
velocity transformation equations become
u
x
u
x
v
1
u
x
v
c
2
--------
----------------- =
for u
x
in the positive x direction
u
x
u
x
v +
1
u
x
v
c
2
-------- +
------------------ =
for u
x
in the negative x direction
Exercise 19.4 (a)
1. Use the Lorentz velocity transformation equations
to show that any two inertial observers will always
measure the same value for the velocity of light.
Mass and energy
H.4.4 State the formula representing the
equivalence of mass and energy.
H.4.5 Dene rest mass.
H.4.6 Distinguish between the energy of a
body at rest and its total energy when
moving.
H.4.7 Explain why no object can ever attain the
speed of light in a vacuum.
H.4.8 Determine the total energy of an
accelerated particle.
IBO 2007
H.4.4/ H.4.5 STATE THE FORMULA
REPRESENTING THE EQUIVALENCE
OF MASS AND ENERGY/ DEFINE
REST MASS
If a body of mass m is subjected to a force F then, according
to Newtons Second Law, its acceleration a can be
computed from the equation F = m a.
A prediction of the Special Teory, (in order to ensure
that the conservation of momentum holds for all inertial
observers,) is that as the speed of body increases then, to
an observer at rest relative to the body, the mass of the
body will increase.
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CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
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If m
0
is the mass of the body when it is at rest with respect
to the observer, the so-called rest mass, then its mass m
when moving at a speed v relative to the observer is given
by m = m
0
remember that
1
1
v
2
c
2
-----
------------------ =
.
H.4.6
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE
ENERGY OF A BODY AT REST AND
ITS TOTAL ENERGY WHEN MOVING
We have seen that, as a consequence of the Special Teory,
the mass of a moving object increases. A net force is
needed to accelerate any object and this force does work
on the object. In Newtonian mechanics the conservation
of energy leads to the idea that the work done by the net
force is equal to the increase in kinetic energy of the object
such that
Work done = force displacement = gain in kinetic energy

i.e., F s KE ( )
1
2
-- -m v
2
( ) = =
Tis equation will not apply in Special Relativity. In fact,
if we are still to believe in the conservation of energy we
must look for a diferent relationship between the work
done and the energy transferred. It might be tempting to
substitute m as m
0
but this does not in fact lead to the
correct physical interpretation.
In thinking along these lines Einstein was led to the idea of
mass and energy being interchangeable such that the gain
in mass of an accelerated body could be equated to a gain
in energy. Tis led him to the celebrated equation
E = mc
2
In this equation, E is the total energy of the object and m is
its relativistic mass. If the object is at rest then it has a rest
mass energy given by
E
0
m
0
c
2
=
If we combine these two equations in terms of the work
done when a force accelerates an object from rest then, at
a certain speed v, the object will have a total massenergy
mc
2
. Its massenergy will have changed from rest by an
amount, E
k
, where
E
k
E m
0
c
2
mc
2
m
0
c
2
= =
It is this change in energy which is the gain in the kinetic
energy of the object and is equal to the work done on the
object. It is important to understand the signifcance of
these equations, namely that energy and mass are entirely
equivalent.
A word on units
In the equation E = mc
2
, if m is measured in kilograms
and c as m s
1
, then the unit of E is clearly joules. However,
the theory of relativity only becomes signifcant for speeds
close to that of c and this usually means we are dealing with
the acceleration or movement of atomic or sub-atomic
particles. For a example, an electron accelerated from rest
through a potential diference of 10
6
volt will attain an
energy of 1M

eV as measured in electron-volts. It is much
more convenient to express the energy of particles in eV (or
multiples thereof) such as MeV. Similarly, it is much more
convenient to express their mass in units of MeV c
-2
. So for
example the rest mass of a proton is 938 MeV c
-2
which equals
6 19
16
938 10 1.6 10
kg
9 10

= 1.67 10
-27
kg.
Lets us now look at an example using the idea of mass-
energy equivalence.
Example
A coal fred power station has a power output of 100 MW.
Calculate the mass of coal that is converted into energy in
one year (3.15 10
7
s).
Solution
Te energy produced in one year =
100 10
6
3.15 10
7
3.15 10
15
= J
this represents a mass change of
m
ene rg y
c
2
----------------- -
3.15 10
15

9 10
16

---------------------------- 3.5 10
2
= = = kg.
Tis actually means that if the coal is weighed before it is
burnt and all the ashes and fumes could be weighed afer
burning there would be a mass defciency of about 35 g.
Although, we must not forget that some oxygen would have
been added.
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In view of the equivalence of mass energy we can no longer
talk about the conservation of mass and the conservation of
energy as two separate laws of physics but instead we have
just one law, the conservation of mass-energy. However,
for many chemical reactions we can use the separate laws
since the mass defciency involved is usually very small.
For example, when one gram mole of carbon combines
with two gram moles of oxygen, the mass defciency is only
about 10
-9
g which is far too small to detect. However, as
we have learned in Chapter 11, the mass energy equation
plays a very important role in nuclear reactions.
H.4.7 EXPLAIN WHY NO OBJECT
CAN EVER ATTAIN THE SPEED
OF LIGHT IN A VACUUM
Newtons Second Law does not put any upper limit on
the velocity that a body can attain. For example we could
envisage a force of 1000 N acting on an object of mass 1 g
for a period of 1000s. Afer this period of time the speed of
the object would be 10
9
m s
1
which is much greater than
the speed of light. However, the Lorentz transformation
equations show us that if the relative velocity between
two observers is c then the time dilation is infnite and
the length contraction is zero. Putting it another way, time
stays still for objects travelling at the speed of light and
also the object has no length in the direction of travel.
Furthermore, the equation for the relativistic increase of
mass shows that the mass of the object would be infnite.
So not only does the Special Teory put an upper limit on
the velocity that objects can attain (the speed of light) it
predicts that this velocity is unattainable. Te only thing
that can travel at the speed of light would seem to be light
itself.
H.4.8 DETERMINE THE TOTAL ENERGY
OF AN ACCELERATED PARTICLE
Let us look at another example of mass-energy
equivalence which brings in the idea of work done and
changes in kinetic energy.
Example
An electron is accelerated through a potential diference
of 2.0 V. Calculate, afer acceleration, the velocity of the
electron applying
(a) classical Newtonian mechanics
(b) relativistic mechanics.
Solution
(a) We use the equation v
2eV
m
---------- = (Ve = gain in
kinetic energy) to give
v
4 10
6
1.6 10
19

9.1 10
31

--------------------------------------------------- 8.4 10
8
= m s
1
.
A value which is clearly greater than the speed of light.
(b) Using relativistic mechanics we have that the energy
supplied i.e. the work done = V e and this equals
the gain in KE of the electron such that
Ve mc
2
m
0
c
2
m
0
c
2
m
0
c
2
= =
So that
m
0
c
2
m
0
c
2
Ve + =

m
0
c
2
Ve +
m
0
c
2
------------------------- =
To give
1
Ve
m
0
c
2
------------ + =
Equation (1)
(We can actually express m
0
c
2
in units of eV =
9.1 10
31
9 10
16

1.6 10
19

------------------------------------------------------ 0.51 = MeV.

(We can therefore express the mass of the electron as 0.5 MeV c
-2
.)
So substituting 0.5 MeV into equation (1) we have
1
2 MeV
0.51 MeV
------------------------ + 4.9 = =
Te total energy of the particle afer acceleration is m
o
c
2
= 4.9 0.51 = 2.5 MeV
Using the equation for the gamma factor, a value of 5 gives
the velocity of the electron as 0.98c.
Exercise 19.4 (b)
1. Calculate the speed of a particle relative to a
laboratory observer when its kinetic energy is
equal to its rest-mass energy
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H.5.1 Discuss muon decay as experimental
evidence to support Special Relativity.
H.5.2 Solve problems involving the muon decay
experiment.
H.5.3 Outline the Michelson-Morley experiment
H.5.4 Discuss the result of the Michelson-
Morley experiment and its implication.
H.5.5 Outline an experiment that indicates
that the speed of light in vacuum is
independent of its source.
IBO 2007
H.5.1,2 DISCUSS MUON DECAY AS
EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE TO
SUPPORT SPECIAL RELATIVITY/
SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
THE MUON DECAY EXPERIMENT
Direct experimental confrmation for time dilation and
length contraction as predicted by the Special Teory
is found in the decay of muons. Muons are sub-atomic
particles, which can be created in high-energy particle
accelerators. Te muons are unstable and decay with a
half-life of 3.1 10
6
s as measured in a reference frame in
which they are at rest. (Or at least moving with relatively
low speeds). However, muons are also created in the upper
atmosphere of the Earth from cosmic ray bombardment
and these muons can, and do, have very high velocities.
If we consider muons that are formed at a height of say
10 km and with a velocity of 0.98c, then they will take
3.4 10
-5
s to reach the ground. Tis is about 10 half lives
and in this time the majority of the muons would have
decayed. However, large numbers of muons are in fact
detected at the Earths surface. Because they are moving
at such high speeds, time dilation becomes important and
at 0.98c the factor is 5. To the Earth observer, the half
life is not 3.1 10
-6
s but times this i.e. 15.5 10
-6
s. Te
time to reach the ground is now only about 2.2 half-lives
and so plenty of muons will be detected. To the muons the
distance to the Earth is not 10 km but
10

------
kilometres = 2 km
and from their point of view, the time to travel this distance
(6.8 10
-6
s) is just 2.2 half lives. In experiments carried
out at the surface of the Earth, the half lives of muons
moving with diferent velocities have been measured and
the values have been found to agree closely with the values
predicted by the Special Teory.
H.5.3,4 OUTLINE THE MICHELSON-
MORLEY EXPERIMENT/
DISCUSS THE RESULT OF
THE MICHELSON-MORLEY
EXPERIMENT AND ITS
IMPLICATION
We mentioned early in this chapter that it was proposed
that electromagnetic waves were propagated through a
substance called the ether and that this ether permeated
all space. It was further proposed that the ether was
absolutely at rest and this was the reference frame against
which all measurements should be made.
In 1887 two American physicists, Michelson and Morley,
devised and carried out an experiment to measure the
absolute velocity of the Earth with respect to the ether.
Te essential principle of the experiment was to fnd the
diference in time that it took light to travel along two
paths, one in the direction of travel of the Earth through
the ether and one at right angles to the direction of travel
of the Earth through the ether. Figure 1912 shows the
basic set up of the experiment.
A B
compensator
plate
beam
splitter
fxed
mirror
diff use monochromatic
light source
movable mirror
observer O
D
C
Figure 1912 The Michelson Morley experiment
H.5 EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT SPECIAL
RELATIVITY
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Light from a difuse monochromatic source is incident on
the half silvered mirror A. Tis acts as a beam splitter such
that some of the light goes on to the moveable mirror and
some on to the fxed mirror C. On refection from these
mirrors, light from both mirrors arrives at the observer
O. B is a compensator plate equal in thickness to the beam
splitter.
If the diferent path length of the two rays on reaching
the observer is a multiple number of wavelengths, then a
bright spot of light will be observed at O and if it is an odd
number of half wavelengths, a dark spot will be observed
at O. However, since a difuse source is used a great many
paths of slightly difering lengths will occur and the overall
efect will be to observe a series of light and dark fringes at
O. An interference pattern in fact.
If the mirror D is moved backwards or forwards the
interference pattern will be shifed and the amount that
it is shifed will depend on the amount that the mirror D
is moved.
Te actual apparatus used by Michelson and Morley was
very large. Te efective length of the two arms was about
10 m. One arm was aligned to be parallel to the direction
of motion of the Earth in its orbit such that the other arm
was at right angles. If the ether through which the light
travels is at rest relative to the motion of the Earth, then
the light will take slightly diferent times to traverse the
two paths. Hence there will be an observed shif in the
interference pattern. Te situation is analogous with two
swimmers in a river both setting of from the same point.
One swims parallel to the direction of the current and one
swims at right angles to the direction of the current. Tey
each swim the same distance from the starting point and
then return. A little thought will show that the trip for
the swimmer who sets of at right angles is going to take
longer than the trip for the swimmer who swims parallel
to the current.
Te result of the Michelson-Morley experiment was
spectacular in as much as no shif in the interference
pattern was observed. Many attempts were made to explain
this non-result before Einstein recognised that there was
no ether and therefore no absolute reference frame and
that all inertial observers will measure the same value for
the speed of light.
H.5.5 OUTLINE AN EXPERIMENT
THAT INDICATES THAT THE
SPEED OF LIGHT IN VACUUM IS
INDEPENDENT OF ITS SOURCE
Te decay of a neutral pion (see Topic J.1) into two photons
suggests that the speed of light is independent of the speed
of the source. However more direct evidence to support
this comes from astronomical observations of so-called
gamma ray bursters (GRBs). Bursts of gamma rays have
been observed to come from seemingly random parts of
the Universe and are thought to be due to the collapse of a
rapidly rotating neutron star see (E.5.6) that is expanding
and contracting. Gamma radiation reaches us from the
expanding near side and the receding far side of the object.
Te near and far sides are expected to be moving apart
at speeds close to that of the speed of light. If the speed
of light were dependent on the speed of the source, then
gamma pulses reaching Earth from the two sides of the
GRB would result in a separation of the pulses. To within
1 part in 10
20
, no separation has been observed.
H.6 RELATIVISTIC
MOMENTUM
AND ENERGY
H.6.1 Apply the relation for the relativistic
momentum p = m
0u
of particles.
H.6.2 Apply the formula E
K
= ( -1)m
0
c
2
for the
kinetic energy of a particle.
H.6.3 Solve problems involving relativistic
momentum and energy.
IBO 2007
Note: Derivation of the relativistic momentum and energy
formulae will not be examined.
In Classical Physics, we saw in Topic 2.3 that there is a
useful relationship between the momentum p and the
kinetic energy E
k
of a particle, namely of a particle, namely
E
k
p
2
2m
------- =
where m is the mass of the particle.
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CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
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In Special Relativity, we can fnd an equally useful
relationship between momentum and energy, but in this
instance the energy E is the total energy of the particle.
We have that
m
m
0
1
v
2
c
2
-----
------------------ =
such that if we square both sides and rearrange we have
m
2
c
2
m
0
2
c
2
m
2
v
2
+ =
If we now multiply through by c
2
we have
mc
2
( )
2
m
0
2
c
4
mv ( )
2
c
2
+ =
But, mv is the momentum p of the particle and mc
2
is equal
to E the total energy. Hence
E
2
m
0
2
c
4
p
2
c
2
+ =
Tis is the relativistic equivalent to the classical equation
E
k
p
2
2m
------- = and is useful in many diferent situations.
Example
Find the momentum and speed of an electron afer it
has been accelerated through a potential diference of
1.8 10
5
V.
Solution
Te total energy E is given by
E Ve m
0
c
2
+ =
.
If we bear in mind that
m
0
c
2
is equal to 0.51 MeV, and Ve = 0.18 MeV, then in
this instance we have that
E 0.18 0.51 + ( ) 10
6
e E
2
V 0.4761 10
12
eV
2
= =
Also, from the relativistic relation between total energy
and momentum, we have
p
2
E
2
m
0
2
c
4

c
2
------------------------ - =
(1)
And m
0
2
c
4
0.51 10
6
eV ( )
2
0.2601 10
12
e V
2 2
= = ,
hence,
p
2 0.216 10
12
e V
2 2

c
2
------------------------------------ = = 0.46 MeV c
-1
.
Or, p = 2.5 10
22
N s
Since particle physicists are ofen dealing with energies
measured in electron volts, they ofen express momentum
in the units MeV c
1
(energy/speed).
To fnd the speed, we need to fnd the mass of the electron
afer acceleration.
We have that E
Total
= mc
2
= Ve + m
o
c
2
Terefore
m = (Ve + m
o
c
2
) c
-2
= (0.18 + 0.51) MeV c
-2
= 0.68 MeV c
-2
And v = p/m = 0.46 MeV c
-1
/0.68 MeV c
-2
= 0.68 c.
Tis demonstrates how much easier are relativistic
dynamic calculations when we deal in the units MeV for
energy, MeV c
2
for mass and MeV c
1
for momentum.
Example
A gamma photon that is travelling close to a lead atom,
materialises into an electron-positron pair
e.g. e
-
+ e
+
Te initial energy of the photon is 3.20 MeV. Neglecting
the recoil of the lead atom, calculate the speed and mass of
the electron and positron.
Solution
For one particle E
tot
= 1.60 = E
K
+ m
0
c
2
= E
K
+ 0.511
E
K
= 1.09 MeV = (1 - ) m
0
c
2
To give = 3.13
Which gives v = 0.948c
m = m
0
c
2
= 1.6 MeV c
-2
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RELATIVITY
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H.7.1 Explain the dierence between the terms
gravitational mass and inertial mass.
H.7.2 Describe and discuss Einsteins principle of
equivalence.
H.7.3 Deduce that the principle of equivalence
predicts bending of light rays in a
gravitational eld.
H.7.4 Deduce that the principle of equivalence
predicts that time slows down near a
massive body.
IBO 2007
Gravitational mass and inertial
mass
Te Special Teory of Relativity is special in the sense
that it apples only to inertial reference systems. A logical
question to ask would be is non-uniform motion also
relative? For example, when a Jumbo Jet takes of does
it make any diference whether we consider the Earth to
be at rest with respect to the jet or whether we consider
the jet to be at rest and the Earth accelerating away from
the jet. If accelerated motion is relative then it should be
possible to choose the jet as the fxed reference system. But
how then do we account for the inertial forces that act on
the passengers during take-of? (As the jet accelerates the
passengers are pushed back into their seats). Afer the
publication of the Special Teory, physicists were happy to
believe that uniform motion was indeed a special case and
that non-uniform motion was not relative. Einstein could
not accept this viewpoint and in 1916 he published the
General Teory of Relativity in which he postulated that
all motion is relative.
Central to the General Teory is the so-called Machs
Principle. Towards the end of the last century Ernst Mach
suggested that inertial force and gravitational force are
equivalent. Tere was evidence for this assumption, which
has been around since the time that Galileo reportedly
dropped objects of diferent masses from the Leaning
Tower of Pisa and concluded that the acceleration of free
fall is the same for all objects. Tis is something that is taught
very early in all High School Physics courses. However,
the reason why this should be so is rarely mentioned
because High School physics generally makes no attempt
to distinguish between inertial and gravitational mass.
As we have seen (Chapter 2 and Chapter 9), the concept
of mass arises in two very diferent ways in Physics. You
met it for the frst time in connection with the property of
inertia - all objects are reluctant to change their state of
motion. Tis reluctance is measured by a property of the
object called its inertial mass. Te concept of inertial mass
is quantifed in Newtons Second law, F = ma.
But the concept of mass also arises in connection with
Newtons gravitational law in which the force between two
point masses m
1
and m
2
separated by a distance r is given
by
F
Gm
1
m
2
r
2
------------------- =
In this respect, mass can be thought of as the property
of an object, which gives rise to the gravitational force
of attraction between all objects and is therefore called
gravitational mass.
Since gravitational and inertial mass measure entirely
diferent properties there is no reason why we should
consider them to be identical quantities. However,
consider an object close to the surface of the Earth which
has a gravitational mass m
g
and an inertial mass m
I
. If the
gravitational mass of the Earth is M
g
then the magnitude
of the gravitational force exerted on the object is given by
F
GM
g
m
g
R
2
------------------- =
Where R is the radius of the Earth.
Te object will accelerate according to Newtons Second
law such that
F
GM
g
m
g
R
2
------------------- m
I
a = =
Letting
GM
g
R
2
------------ k = (= constant) so that a k
m
g
m
I
------ - =
All the experimental evidence points to the fact that the
value of a (the acceleration of free fall at the surface of the
Earth) is the same for all objects.
Hence we conclude that m
g
= m
I
. i.e. gravitational and
inertial mass are equivalent.
H.7 GENERAL RELATIVITY
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CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
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Einsteins principle of equivalence
Te General Teory of Relativity gives the interpretation of
the equivalence between gravitational and inertial mass.
In Figure 1913, a person is in a lif (elevator), far from any
mass, which is accelerating upwards with acceleration g.
g
Figure 1913
If he releases an object as shown he will observe that it
falls to the ground with acceleration g. An outside
observer would say that the ball stays where it is but the
lif foor is accelerating upwards towards the ball with
acceleration g.
Another interesting situation arises here in which we can
consider a lif in free fall close to the surface of the Earth.
When the person in the lif releases the object in this
situation then the object will stay where it is. Te object
is in fact weightless. Tis is the reason that astronauts in
orbit around the Earth are weightless they are in free
fall and although they are in a gravitational feld, because
of their acceleration, they will feel no gravitational force.
g
Figure 1914
In Figure 1914, the lif is at the surface of the Earth and
again the person drops the ball and observes it to accelerate
downwards with an acceleration g.
An outside observer would say that this is because of the
gravitational attraction of the Earth.
Te two results (Figures 1913 and 1914) are identical and
according to Einstein there is no physical experiment
that an observer can carry out to determine whether the
force acting on the object arises from inertial efects due
to the acceleration of the observers frame of reference or
whether it arises because of the gravitational efects of a
nearby mass.
Tis is the so-called Einstein Principle of Equivalence
and it can be stated
there is no way in which gravitational efects can be
distinguished from inertial efects.
In this respect Einstein concluded that all motion is
relative. If we consider the situation in Figure 1913 we
can choose the lif to be the fxed reference system and
it is the rest of the Universe that must be considered to
be accelerating. It is this acceleration of the Universe, in
Einsteins interpretation, that generates what Newton
called a gravitational feld. According to Einstein there
is no absolute choice of a reference system, only relative
motion can be considered.
H.7.3 DEDUCE THAT THE PRINCIPLE
OF EQUIVALENCE PREDICTS
THE BENDING OF LIGHT IN A
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
B
A
light
Figure 1915 The space ship is accelerating
Te General Teory predicts that light will be bent by
gravity. In Figure 1915 a person is in an accelerating space
ship far away from any mass. A ray of light enters through
a window at A. Because of the acceleration of the ship the
light will strike the opposite wall at point B which is below
A. To the person in the ship the path of the light ray will
therefore appear to be bent.
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RELATIVITY
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B
A
light
Earth
Figure 1916 The space ship is stationary
In Figure 1916 a space ship is at rest on the surface of the
Earth. If the Einstein principle of equivalence is correct
then this situation cannot be distinguished from the
situation described in Figure 1915. Te path of a light
beam entering a window of this space ship will therefore
also appear to be bent. Te prediction is therefore that
light that passes close to large masses will have its path
altered.
H.7.4 DEDUCE THAT THE PRINCIPLE
OF EQUIVALENCE PREDICTS
THAT TIME SLOWS NEAR A
MASSIVE BODY
H.7.5 Describe the concept of spacetime.
H.7.6 State that moving objects follow the
shortest path between two points in
spacetime.
H.7.7 Explain gravitational attraction in terms of
the warping of spacetime by matter.
IBO 2007
The concept of spacetime
In the Special Teory, space and time are intimately linked.
A very useful way of envisaging this is to represent the
motion of particles in a spacetime diagram. Space can be
represented by the Cartesian co-ordinates, x, y and z and
time is represented by an axis at right angles to the other
three axes. Tis is obviously impossible to draw or even to
picture mentally so here we will only concern ourselves
with motion in the xdirection. However, mathematically,
there is nothing intrinsically wrong in having four
lines mutually at right angles describing a spacetime
continuum.
In Figure 1917, space is represented by the conventional
xaxis and time t by an axis perpendicular to the xaxis.
A
B
C
t
x
Figure 1917 Time space graph
Te line A represents a stationary particle and the line B
represents a particle that starts from the point where A is
at rest and moves with constant velocity away from this
point. Te line C represents a particle that has certain
velocity at some diferent point in space and is slowing
down as it moves away from this point.
Gravitational attraction
Te General Teory of Relativity essentially does away
with the concepts of gravitational mass and gravitational
force. How then do we account for the gravitational force
of attraction between objects? We have seen that, in
Special Relativity, space and time are intimately linked
and an event is specifed by four coordinates of space-
time. Einstein proposed that space-time is curved by the
presence of mass. An analogy is to think of a stretched
elastic membrane onto which is placed a heavy object. In
the vicinity of the object, the membrane will no longer be
fat but will be curved, see Figure 1918. Te curvature will
be greatest close to the object and the general curvature
will also increase as the mass of the object increases.
Figure 1918 Spacetime and gravity
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We can explain gravitational attraction in terms of this
warping of space.
Figure 1920
Consider two objects moving in the direction shown in
Figure 1920. Each object curves its local space and will
therefore move towards the other object. As the objects
get closer, the local space-time will become more curved
and they will behave as though they were experiencing
an ever increasing force of attraction. If we choose the
appropriate geometry to describe the curvature of space,
then the objects will move just as if there were an inverse
square force between them. You can think of the analogy
of two ships at the equator sailing due North. Because of
the curvature of the Earths surface they will get closer and
closer together even though they are following a straight
line path. However, do not take this analogy too literally
since, in Einsteins theory, it is the objects themselves that
curve the space.
Einstein proposed that all objects will take the shortest
possible distance between two events in space-time. Such
a distance is known as a geodesic. Te geodesic for a plane
surface is a straight line and for a sphere, a great circle. In
this sense, the planets are actually following geodesics in
the particular geometry of the space-time produced by the
mass of the sun.
H.7.8 Describe black holes.
H.7.9 Dene the term Schwarzschild radius.
H.7.10 Calculate the Schwarzschild radius.
H.7.11 Solve problems involving time dilation
close to a black hole.
IBO 2007
Black holes
In 1939 Oppenheimer and Snyder pointed out that the
General Teory predicts the existence of black holes.
During the life-time of some stars, there is a period when
they undergo collapse. As they collapse, their density
increases and therefore their surface gravity increases.
Radiation leaving the surface will not only be redshifed by
this gravitational feld but, as the surrounding space-time
becomes more and more warped, as the gravitational feld
increases, the path of the radiation will become more and
more curved. If the surface gravity increases sufciently
there will come a point when the path of the radiation is so
curved that none of the radiation will leave the surface of
the star. Te star has efectively become a black hole.
From a classical point of view we can think of a black hole
in terms of escape velocity. A star becomes a black hole
when the escape velocity at the surface becomes equal to
the speed of light. Te radius at which a star would become
a black hole is known as the Schwarzchild Radius afer the
person who frst derived the expression for it value.
General Relativity enables a value for the radius of a
particular star for this to happen to be derived, but the
derivation is beyond the scope of HL physics.
Te Schwarzchild radius R
sch
is given by
R
sch
2GM
c
2
------------- =
(Coincidentally, Newtonian mechanics gives the same
value.)
Te surface of a black hole as defned by the Scwarzchild
radius is called the event horizon since inside the surface
all information is lost.
It is lef as an exercise for you to show that if our Sun were
to shrink until its radius was 3000 m then it would become
a black hole.
Of course, if no radiation can leave a black hole and all
radiation falling on it will also be trapped, we have to ask
how can such things be detected, should they exist. One
possibility is to observe a black hole as a companion to a
binary star system. Another way is to observe the efect that
a black hole has on high frequency gamma radiation as it
passes close to a black hole. Sufcient to say at this point
that astronomers do not doubt the existence of black holes.
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H.7.11 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
TIME DILATION CLOSE TO A
BLACK HOLE
Tis also relates to gravitational red-shif; see H.7.12.
If a person is outside the gravitational feld of a black hole
and observes an event that takes place a distance r from
a black hole, then the time for the event will be dilated
according to the equation
0
1
t
t
R
s
r

where R
S
is the Schwarzschild radius of the black hole.
Tis efectively means that, if the person where to observe
a clock approaching a black hole, the motion of the hands
of the clock would appear to get slower and slower the
nearer the clock gets to the event horizon of the black hole.
At the event horizon, they would stop moving and time
would stand still.
Example
A person a distance of 3 R
S
from the event horizon of a
black hole measures an event to last 4.0 s. Calculate how
long the event would appear to last for a person outside
the feld of the black hole.
Solution
Substituting in to the above formula gives t = 4.9 s.
Gravitational red-shift
H.7.12 Describe the concept of gravitational
red-shift. -shift. shift.
H.7.13 Solve problems involving frequency shifts
between dierent points in a uniform
gravitational eld.
H.7.14 Solve problems using the gravitational time
dilation formula.
IBO 2007
H.7.12 DESCRIBE THE CONCEPT OF
GRAVITATIONAL RED-SHIFT
Figure 1921 (a) shows a space ship which is accelerating
with acceleration a. On the foor of the spaceship is a light
source, 1, which emits light of a well defned frequency f.
Te observer O is at the top of the spaceship and another
light source 2, identical to light source 1, is placed next to
this observer. At time t = 0 the spaceship starts to accelerate
and at the same instant the two light sources emit light.
Bearing in mind that the speed of light is invariant, the
light from source 1 will appear to O to be emitted from
a source that is moving away from him at speed v, where
v = at, t being the time it takes the light from source 1 to
reach him. Compared with the light from source 2 the
light from source 1 will appear to be Doppler shifed i.e.
it will be of a lower frequency than the light emitted from
source 2.
v at =
2
1
a ( )
2
1
b ( )
Earth
O O
Figure 1921 (a) and (b)
If we consider the space ship to be at rest on the surface of
the Earth as shown in Figure 1921 (b), then because of the
principle of equivalence, the same efects will be observed
as in diagram (a). Tis means that the observed frequency
of light emitted from a source depends upon the position
of the source in a gravitational feld. For example, light
emitted from the surface of a star will be red-shifed as
seen by an observer on Earth. Light emitted from atoms in
the stars corona will not be as red-shifed as much.
Since frequency is essentially a measure of time this means
a consequence of General Relativity is that, to an observer
on the top foor of a building, clocks on the ground foor
will appear to run more slowly. Te conclusion is that time
slows in the presence of a gravitational feld. As mentioned
above, a remarkable consequence of this is that at the
event horizon, of a black hole, to an outside observer, time
stops.
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H.7.13 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
GRAVITATIONAL RED SHIFT
You will not be expected to prove the redshif equation in
an examination.
However, for completeness sake, an elementary proof is
given here based on the Doppler efect.
In this proof we return to the accelerating space ship in
which there are two light sources, one on the foor of the
ship and the other on the ceiling. (Figure 1922)
v gt =
2
1
h
O
Figure 1922
Let the acceleration a = g and let the distance between the
two sources be h. Te time t for the light from source 1
to reach the observer is therefore
t
h
c
------ =
In this time the speed gained by the O is
v gt
g h
c
---------- = =
Because of the efective Doppler shif of the light from
source 2 (remember, to the observer O this source will
efectively be moving away from him at speed v = gt when
the light from the source reaches him), the frequency f '
measured by O will be given by the Doppler shif equation,
i.e.,
f ' f 1
v
c
--


=
If we now substitute for v then
f' f 1
g h
c
--------- -
c
----------




f 1
g h
c
2
--------- -


= =
or
f ' f f
fg h
c
2
------------ = =
so that
f
f
-----
g h
c
2
--------- - =
Tis equation can also be derived on the basis of Einsteins
principle of equivalence by considering the loss in energy
of a photon from source 1 as it moves to source 2 in the
gravitational feld of the Earth. Te two separate proofs of
the gravitational redshif equation again show that there is
no diference between inertia and gravity.
Example
Calculate the redshif that is observed between radiation
emitted from the surface of a neutron star and radiation
emitted from the centre of the star if the mass of the star is
10
31
kg and its radius is 10 km.
Solution
We need to calculate g for the star which we do from
g
GM
r
2
--------- =
and then substitute in the equation
f
f
-----
g h
c
2
--------- - =

with h = 10 km. You can do this to show that h = 10 km. You can do this to show that = 10 km. You can do this to show that
f
f
-----
= 0.74.
Which is indeed an enormous redshif.
Note that we have assumed that g is constant.
Example
A satellite communication signal has a frequency of 100
MHz at the surface of the Earth. What frequency will be
measured by an astronaut in a satellite which is in orbit
200 km above the surface of the Earth?
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Solution
Again, assuming that g is constant we can use the red shif
equation in the form
f
f
-----
g h
c
2
--------- - =
and substitute to get
g h
c
2
--------- -
9.8 200 10
3

3 10
8
( )
2
------------------------------------- =
.
So that,
f
f
----- 2.2 10
11

f
100 10
6

----------------------- - 2.2 10
11
= =
f 0.002 = Hz
H.7.14 SOLVE PROBLEMS USING THE
GRAVITATIONAL TIME DILATION
FORMULA
Please see example in H.7.11 earlier.
H.8 EVIDENCE
TO SUPPORT
GENERAL
RELATIVITY
H.8.1 Outline an experiment for the bending of
EM waves by a massive object.
H.8.2 Describe gravitational lensing.
H.8.3 Outline an experiment that provides
evidence for gravitational red-shift.
IBO 2007
INTRODUCTION
For any physical theory to be accepted it must not only
explain known phenomena but also make predictions that
can be verifed experimentally.
Te Special Teory introduced a completely new way of
thinking about time and it was able to account for the
Lorentz transformations encountered in Maxwells theory.
It also made several predictions all of which have been
born out by experiment. We therefore accept that the
Special Teory tells us the correct way in which to think
about time.
Te General Teory introduces a completely new way of
thinking about space, time and gravity and if the theory
is to be accepted then it too must account for known
phenomena and make predictions that can be verifed by
experiment. In this section we look at some of the evidence
that supports the predictions made by General Relativity.
Gravitational lensing
Einstein suggested a method by which the efect of gravity
on the path of light could be detected. Te position of a star
can be measured very accurately relative to the position of
other stars. Einstein suggested measuring the position of
a particular star, say in June, and then again six months
later when the Earth is on the other side of the Sun relative
to the star.
Earth position in
Earth position
in June
Sun
star
apparent position
of star
December
Figure 1923 Gravitational lensing
Te path of the light from the star reaching the Earth
according to Einstein should now be bent as it passes close
to the Sun. Tis will cause an apparent shif in the position
of the star. See Figure 1923.
Einstein predicted that the path of starlight should be
defected by 1.75 seconds of arc as it passes by the Sun.
To observe starlight that passes close to the Sun, then
the stars must be observed during the day and the only
way that this can be done is during a total eclipse of the
Sun. Te General Teory was published in 1917 and by
good fortune a total eclipse of the Sun was predicted for
29th March 1919 near the Gulf of Guinea and Northern
Brazil. Expeditions were mounted to both destinations
and scientists were able to collect enough photographs
of suitable stars to test Einsteins prediction. Te location
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of the stars indicated that the path of the light had been
deviated by 1.64 seconds of arc, a result that compared
very favourably with the Einstein prediction. However,
recently doubt has been cast on Eddingtons interpretation
of the data.
More recently observations have been made of quasar
images indicating that the light from the quasars has
been defected by galaxies or even clusters of galaxies on
its passage to Earth. Even more accurate work has been
carried out on radio signals transmitted from Earth and
refected from the planets. Solar space-time curvature will
efect the delay times for the echo signals. Te experimental
results are in excellent agreement with the General Teory.
Tis bending of light by large gravitational masses is ofen
referred to as gravitational lensing in analogy with the
bending of light by optical lenses.
Red shift experiment
In 1960 Pound and Rebka performed an experiment which
verifed gravitational redshif to a high degree of accuracy.
Instead of light sources they used gamma radiation emitted
from two cobalt57 sources mounted vertically 22 m above
each other. Te wavelength of the used gamma radiation
emitted by the lower of the two sources was redshifed
with respect to the other source by an amount predicted
by the General Teory.
Recently even more accurate experiments have been
done with atomic clocks. In 1976 an atomic clock was
placed in a rocket and sent to an altitude of 10,000 km.
Te frequency at which this clock ran was then compared
with the frequency of a clock on the Earth. Te observed
diferences in frequency confrmed the gravitational
redshif predicted by the General Teory to an accuracy
of 0.02 %.
Conclusion
Te General Teory of Relativity is now accepted as
being the correct interpretation of gravity and as such the
correct model for our view of space and time. General
Relativity and Quantum Teory form the two great
theories upon which the whole of Physics rests. To date,
all attempts to unify then into one complete theory have
been unsuccessful.
SUMMARY
Special Theory
THE POSTULATES
I. Te Laws of Physics are the same for all inertial
observers irrespective of their relative velocity.
II. All inertial observers will measure the same value
for the free space velocity of light irrespective of
their relative velocity.
The Lorentz Transformation
equations
Given that
1
v
2
c
2
-----


1
2
---
1
1
v
2
c
2
-----
------------------ = =
then
TIME DILATION
t = t
0
LENGTH CONTRACTION
L
L
0

------ =
MASS INCREASE
m = m
0
REST MASS ENERGY
E
0
= m
0
c
2
TOTAL ENERGY
E = mc
2
VELOCITY TRANSFORMATION
u
x
u
x
v
1
u
x
v
c
2
--------
----------------- =
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RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM
p m
0
u =
TOTAL ENERGY
E m
0
c
2
E
k
m
0
c
2
+ = =
ENERGYMOMENTUM EQUATION
E
2
p
2
c
2
m
0
2
c
4
+ =
0 1 2 3 4 5
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
function
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
a
s
a
f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
o
f
t
h
e
s
p
e
e
d
o
f
l
i
g
h
t
Figure 1924
Te graph shows how the function varies with velocity
and should be referred to in problems in order to verify
if a particular value of the function has been calculated
correctly.
General Relativity
POSTULATES
I. Machs principle - Inertial and gravitational forces
are indistinguishable.
II. Four dimensional space-time is curved as a result
of the presence of mass.
III. Objects take the shortest path between two points
in space-time.
The Einstein Principle of Equivalence
Tere is no way in which gravitational efects can be
distinguished from inertial efects.
THE GRAVITATIONAL REDSHIFT EQUATION
f
f
-----
g h
c
2
--------- - =
GRAVITATIONAL TIME DILATION EQUATION
0
1
t
t
R
s
r

Experimental evidence
SPECIAL THEORY
Te Special Teory is well supported by experimental
evidence.
Te invariance of the velocity of light in respect of source
and observers relative motion.
Measured mass increase of accelerated electrons.
Te arrival of muons at the surface of the Earth and the
measurement of their respective half-lives gives evidence
of time dilation.
Pair production gives evidence of the conservation of
mass-energy.
Nuclear binding energy and nuclear processes all verify
the conservation of mass-energy.
GENERAL THEORY
Except for some minor perturbations the orbits of the
planets are ellipses and the major axis of the elliptical orbit
is fxed. However it was observed that the major axis of the
orbit of Mercury shifs its plane by some 5.75 seconds of
arc per century.
By considering the gravitational efects of all the other
planets on the orbit of Mercury, Newtons theory accounted
for all but 43 seconds of arc of the precession of the major
axis. However, the General Teory accounts for the entire
precession.
Te apparent displacement of the measured position of
stars gives evidence of the bending of the path of a ray of
light by a gravitational feld.
Te Pound-Rebka experiment gives evidence of
gravitational redshif.
Te existence of black holes gives further evidence of the
warping of space by the presence of matter.
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Miscellaneous Exercises
In the following exercises, should a particular value of
be required, then refer to the graph, Figure 1924 on page
477.
1 State the two postulates of the Special Teory of
Relativity and explain, with the use of appropriate
diagrams, how two events that are simultaneous to one
observer need not necessarily be simultaneous to another
observer in a diferent reference frame.
2 Show that 1 atomic mass unit is equivalent to
about 930 MeV.
3. An electron is moving at a constant velocity of
0.90c with respect to a laboratory observer X.
(a) Determine the mass of the electron as
measured by X?
(b) Another observer Y is moving at a constant
velocity 0.50c with respect to X in a
direction opposite to that of the electron in
Xs reference frame. Determine the mass of
the electron has measured by Y
4 Use the time dilation (page 477) graph to fnd
the function when v = 0.5c and 0.8c and hence
calculate the relativistic mass increase of an
electron when travelling at these speeds.
5 A proton is accelerated from rest through a
potential diference of 8.00 10
8
V. Calculate as
measured in the laboratory frame of reference
afer acceleration the
i. proton mass.
ii. velocity of the proton.
iii. momentum of the proton (HL only).
iv. total energy of the proton (HL only).
6. Estimate how far you would have to push a ball of
mass 2.0 kg with a force of 50 N until its mass was
4.0 kg.
7 If another beam of protons is accelerated at the
same time through the same potential diference
as in question 5, but in the opposite direction,
calculate, afer acceleration, the relative velocity of
a proton in one beam with respect to a proton in
the other beam.
8. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of electrons
that have been accelerated through a potential
diference of 1.8 10
5
V.
9. Explain what is meant by Einsteins principle of
equivalence.
10. Describe how Einsteins description of the
gravitational attraction between two particles
difers from that ofered by Newton.
11. Summarise the evidence that supports the General
Teory of Relativity.
12. -rays are emitted from a source placed in a
ground foor laboratory. Tey are measured to
have a wavelength of 0.05 nm. If the source is
moved to a laboratory on the top foor of the
building, they are measured to have a frequency
shif of 3.3 10
4
Hz. Estimate the height of the
building.
13. Use a spreadsheet to plot a graph that shows the
variation with distance r from a black hole of the
time dilation t of an event.
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20
I.1 THE EAR AND
HEARING
I.1.1 Describe the basic structure of the human ear.
I.1.2 State and explain how sound pressure
variations in air are changed into larger
pressure variations in the cochlear uid.
I.1.3 State the range of audible frequencies
experienced by a person with normal hearing.
I.1.4 State and explain that a change in observed
loudness is the response of the ear to a
change in intensity.
I.1.5 State and explain that there is a logarithmic
response of the ear to intensity.
IBO 2007
I.1.1 BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE
HUMAN EAR
Te human ear as shown in Figure 2001 consists of 3 sections:
1. the external or outer ear
2. the middle ear
3. the internal or inner ear
Te outer ear consists of the pinna, the external auditory
canal and the ear-drum (tympanic membrane). Sound
waves reaching the ear are collected by the pinna it has
an important spatial focussing role in hearing. Te sound
waves are directed down the external auditory canal that
is about 2.5 cm long and about 7 mm in diameter. It is
closed at one end by the ear drum (tympanic membrane)
that consists of a combination of radial and concentric
fbres about 0.1 mm thick with an area of about 60 mm
2

that vibrate with a small amplitude. Te ear canal is like a
closed organ pipe as the canal is a shaped tube enclosing
a resonating column of air that vibrates with an optimum
resonant frequency around 3 kHz. Te ear-drum acts
as an interface between the external and middle ear. As
sound travels down the ear canal, air pressure waves
from the sounds set up sympathetic vibrations in the taut
membrane of the ear and passes these vibrations on to the
middle ear structure.
Hammer
Stirrup
Anvil
Semicircular
Canals
Bone
Eustachian
tube
Cochlea
Tympanic
membrane
Auditory
Nerve
Pinna
Oval
window
Auditory
canal
Figure 2001 Typical human ear
I.1 The ear and hearing
I.2 Medical imaging
I.3 Radiation in medicine
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Te middle ear consists of a small (around 6 cm
3
), irregular,
air-flled cavity in which, suspended by ligaments, are the
ossicles - a chain of three bones called the malleus, incus
and stapes, more commonly known as the hammer, anvil
and stirrup. Tey act as a series of levers with a combined
mechanical advantage of 1.3. Because of their combined
inertia as a result of the ossicle orientation, size and
attachments, they cannot vibrate at frequencies much
greater than 20 kHz. Te malleus is attached to the inner
wall of the tympanic membrane and the fat end of the
stapes comes up against the oval window (a membrane
called fenestra ovalis).
I.1.2 PRESSURE VARIATIONS IN AIR
AND FLUID
As the eardrum vibrates in step with air pressure waves
of sound, the malleus vibrates also in sympathy with the
eardrum. Te mechanical vibrations are then transmitted
by the incus and stapes to the oval membrane and then to
the fuid of the inner ear. Because the density of the air in
the middle ear and the fuid of the inner ear are diferent,
they have to be matched in order to prevent excessive
refection of sound energy. Te term acoustic impedance
is used to describe the opposition of an elastic medium
to the passage of sound waves through it. Acoustic
impedance is directly proportional to the density of a
medium. Because of the air-fuid density diference, we
say that the acoustic impedance between the middle ear
and the inner ear has to be matched to avoid the loss of
energy due to refection.
Acoustic impedance matching is achieved in three ways:
1. Te round window membrane (fenestra rotunda)
acts like a pressure release valve. When pressure
is exerted on the fuid in the inner ear, the round
window, on command from the brain, allows the
bulk movement of the fuid of the inner ear to
occur. Tis reduces the efective impedance of the
fuid to a value closer to that of air.
2. Te ossicle lever system acts as a force magnifer.
If the mechanical advantage of the lever system is
about 1.3, then the magnifcation of the force on
the ear-drum to the force on the oval window is
also about 1.3.
3. Te cross-sectional area of the ear-drum (about
0.6 cm
2
) is approximately 20 times bigger than the
cross-sectional area of the oval window (about
0.03 cm
2
). Terefore, the pressure across the oval
window will be amplifed, and this higher pressure
will be able to put in motion the denser fuid
of the inner ear. Tis also matches the acoustic
impedance between the inner ear and the outer
ear to a greater degree.
As well as the necessity for acoustic impedance matching,
the middle ear helps to protect the delicate inner ear
cochlea from sudden increases in pressure intensities
through the linking of the middle ear to the back of the
throat by a tube called the eustachian tube. Tis tube,
which is usually shut, equalises the air pressure on each
side of the ear-drum. If the pressures were not equal,
the eardrum will not vibrate ef ciently, and if there was
a sudden large change in pressure, the ear-drum or the
cochlea would rupture. Te eustachian tube can be opened
by swallowing, yawning or chewing. We are all aware of
the relief this brings when we experience sudden changes
in pressure such as in air fights.
Te inner ear is a complicated bony chamber flled with
fuid and embedded in the bone of the skull. It is divided
into two parts:
1. Te central part together with the semi-circular
canals (three fuid-flled canals) that are concerned
with maintaining balance and the detection of
movement and the position of the body. Tey do
not contribute to the process of hearing.
2. A spirally coiled, fuid-flled tube about 3 mm in
total diameter with a volume of 100 mm
3
called
the cochlea. Te cochlea is connected to the brain
by way of the auditory nerve.
Te cochlea is the most delicate organ in the hearing
process and it contains many intricate structures that will
not be fully investigated at this level. It consists of three
canals two outer canals, the upper (scala vestibuli ), the
middle (scala tympani) , and a lower canal (scala media)
as shown in Figure 2002.
Middle
canal
Bone
Auditory
nerve
Lower
canal
Upper
canal
Cross section
through cochlear tube Organ of Corti Basilar membrane
To
auditory nerve
Overlying
shelf of tissue
Hair cells
Sensory
neurons
Figure 2002 A section of the cochlea
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Te pressure wave from the oval window passes through
a fuid called perilymph down the spiral of the scala
vestibuli (upper) to its end, and returns via the scala
tympani (middle). Te pressure variation is absorbed at
the return end by the round window membrane. Te two
chambers make up the helicotrema. Between these two
chambers is the membranous scala media that contains a
diferent fuid called endolymph. It is surrounded by the
vestibular membrane (top) and the basilar membrane
(bottom), and it terminates at the base of the cochlea. Te
scala media contains the sensors in which pressure waves
generate electrical signals that are carried to the brain via
the auditory nerve due to a potential diference between
the two diferent fuids and the membrane between the
fuids.
Te basilar membrane is embedded with about 20 000 non-
cellular fbres. Located on the top of the basilar membrane
are a set of hair cells that are suspended by fbres embedded
in another membrane called the tectorial membrane.
Tese components make up the complex structure called
the organ of Corti. Although not fully understood, it is
believed that when the basilar membrane moves, the hair-
like fbres move back and forth and stimulate the hair cells
of the organ of Corti to initiate neural impulses.
Tis can be dealt with in terms of the diferent areas of the
eardrum and oval window, together with the lever action of
the ossicles. Although the concept of impedance matching
is not formally required, students should appreciate
that, without a mechanism for pressure transformation
between media of diferent densities (air and fuid), most
sound would be refected, rather than transmitted into the
cochlear fuid.
I.1.3 RANGE OF AUDIBLE
FREQUENCIES FOR HUMANS
Te range of frequency audible to the human ear varies
considerably from individual to individual, but the average
range is from 2020 000 Hz or 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Te upper
limit is around 20 kHz for a young, normal individual but
it decreases with age.
Sound waves below 20 Hz are termed subsonic or infra-
sonic. Below this frequency, sounds waves in the cochlea
merely move the perilymph fuid in the helicotrema but
they do not disturb the basilar membrane and the fbres
of the organ of Corti. Sound waves of frequencies greater
than 20 kHz are called ultrasonic and the characteristics
of ultrasound will be examined later this chapter in the
section concerning medical imaging.
Te characteristics of a musical note are its pitch, its
loudness and its quality, or timbre.
Te pitch is determined by the notes frequency. Tis has
already been defned as the number of vibrations that
occur in one second measured in Hz or s
-1
.
Te quality, or timbre, of a note is very much determined
by the source or instrument producing the note. It
is determined by both the frequency and the relative
amplitude of the note/s being produced. Te timbre of
noise is poor because it consists of a random mixture
of unrelated frequencies. Te timbre of a violin is good
because the notes produced are mixtures of fundamental
frequencies and harmonics.
Just as the resonance of two vibrating tuning forks mounted
in two sound boards is the selective reinforcement of the
natural frequency of vibration of the sound boards, so
too the response of the ear to sound is essentially one of
resonance due to the vibrations of the sound matching the
natural frequencies of the vibration of parts of the ear. Te
external auditory canal is like a closed pipe and exhibits
slight resonance at approximately 3000 Hz. Te middle
ear displays a slight but broad resonance between about
700 Hz and 1400 Hz, and is greatest at about 1200 Hz. Te
cochlea of the inner ear displays excellent transmission
between about 600 Hz and 6000 Hz.
I.1.4,5 OBSERVED LOUDNESS AND THE
LOGARITHMIC RESPONSE OF THE
EAR TO INTENSITY FREQUENCY
RESPONSE
Te human perception of loudness at diferent frequencies
is not constant and varies considerably over the audible
frequency range as shown in the intensity-logarithmic
frequency diagram of Figure 2004. A logarithmic scale for
frequency is preferred so that the wide range of audible
frequencies can be examined on the same graph.
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10 100 1000 10 000
Frequency / Hz
10
2
10
0
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
10
12
10
10
S
o
u
n
d

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

/

W

m

2
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

l
e
v
e
l

/

d
B
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
jet taking of
thunder
shouting
quiet talking
whispers
Figure 2004 Frequency range of the average ear
Te minimum detectable intensity for a given frequency
is called the threshold intensity of hearing and it is the
envelope of the curve in the above diagram. For example,
the threshold of hearing between 2-3 kHz is 10
-12
Wm
-2

and at 90 Hz, the threshold of hearing is about 10
-8
Wm
-2
.
From the graph, we can see that the intensity level of the
sound increases as the range of frequencies that can be
detected increases, up to a maximum intensity level of 100
dB where the audio range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz is reached.
Te ear is most sensitive to sounds at a frequency around
3 kHz. Tis is no accident as the the cochlear tube length
is 2.5 cm and it acts like a closed pipe with a standing wave
of . ( this is approximate because it is more a travelling
wave due to changing speed and wavelength). Tis would
give us = 10cm. If the speed of sound is 330 ms
-1
, then
the frequency would equal 3000 Hz. Why do you think
alarms and the human scream are around 3000 Hz?
At the normal conversation level of 60 dB, the approximate
frequency range is between 50 Hz and 14 kHz. Te audible
frequency range for the diferent intensity levels is shown
by the threshold of hearing envelope in the diagram.
Te ability of the ear to distinguish diferent frequencies
is called frequency discrimination. At frequencies below
50Hz, it is hard for the ear to discriminate the individual
pitch. From 60Hz to 1000Hz, a pitch difering by 23Hz
can be discriminated when listened to separately. Above
1000Hz, the ability to discriminate close frequencies
decreases by about 2Hz per 1000Hz. Above this value,
frequency discrimination is acute.
Te ability to discriminate frequencies is controlled by
the cochlea. Refer to Figures 2001 and 2002 again. As the
foot of the stirrup ossicle pushes inward onto the oval
membrane, a pressure wave is produced in the perilymph
fuid. Te basilar membrane is forced to bulge towards
the round window, and this in turn bulges outwards. Te
elastic tension causes a travelling wave to move along the
basilar membrane. Depending on the frequency of the
stimulation to the oval membrane, the travelling wave
will produce a maximum amplitude at some well-defned
point along the length of the basilar membrane:
1. Low frequencies produce an amplitude peak far
from the oval window and the hair fbres already
mentioned are actually longer. Terefore, there
is a greater membrane mass found here, and the
amount of perilymph set in vibration is large.
2. High frequencies produce amplitude peaks
close to the oval window and the hair fbres are
shorter and thinner. Terefore, there is a smaller
membrane mass found here, and the amount of
perilymph set in vibration is smaller.
3. Medium frequencies produce an amplitude peak
around 2000 Hz and the hair fbres have a length
and thickness in between cases 1 and 2.
Terefore, the cochlea can distinguish between diferent
frequencies due to the complex fbres and hair cells and
there are corresponding neurones along the length for each
frequency. Te specifc neural impulses can then travel
along the auditory nerve to the brain. Te travelling waves
produced are not standing waves because the travelling
wave will lose energy as it moves along the length of the
basilar membrane and it will, as such, have a changing
velocity and wavelength.
Loudness
Te loudness of a note is a subjective quantity. It is not a
measure of intensity level. Although loudness takes into
account the logarithmic measure of the ears response to
intensity dB, it does not take into account the hearing of
the listener or the frequency response of the listeners ear
to diferent frequencies. Terefore, loudness is determined
by the intensity and the frequency of a sound. Loudness is
measured in phons. A change in the observed loudness of
a sound is the response of the ear to a change in intensity.
Just as an audible frequency is dependent on the sound
level intensity, so too is loudness intensity. However, it
is also dependent on the energy transfer mechanisms
of the ear. Te basilar membrane and the hair cells are
afected, and, as the sound intensity is increased, the nerve
fbres become more stimulated and this creates a greater
impulse frequency to the brain. Te brain registers this as
an increase in loudness. A graph of loudness perception is
shown in Figure 2005. Equal changes in sound intensity
are not perceived as equal changes in loudness.
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10 100 1000 10 000
Frequency / Hz
10
2
10
0
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
10
12
10
10
S
o
u
n
d

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

/

W

m

2
0 phon
20 phon
40 phon
80 phon
120 phon
Figure 2005 Curves of equal loudness
perception for the human ear
Each curve is of equal loudness perception and is measured
in units called phons. Te relationship between sound
intensity and loudness is logarithmic. A hundredfold
increase in intensity is perceived to be a twentyfold
increase in loudness. So a ten times increase in intensity
would raise the loudness by a factor of two.
It can be shown that:
Loudness increase the intensity increase / initial intensity
i.e. dL =
k dI
I

If we integate this expression we get L = k ln I + C where
C is a constant.
When I = I
o
, L = 0. Terefore,
C = -k ln I
o
So L = k ln I k ln I
o

= k ln (I / I
0
)
Tis is further evidence of the logarithmic reponse to a
change in intensity.
I.1.6 Dene intensity and also intensity level (IL).
I.1.7 State the approximate magnitude of
the intensity level at which discomfort
is experienced by a person with normal
hearing.
I.1.8 Solve problems involving intensity levels.
I.1.9 Describe the eects on hearing of short-
term and long-term exposure to noise.
I.1.10 Analyse and give a simple interpretation
of graphs where IL is plotted against the
logarithm of frequency for normal and for
defective hearing.
IBO 2007
I.1.6 SOUND INTENSITY AND
INTENSITY LEVEL
Te ear and the brain in combination produce a very
sensitive instrument that can detect properties such as pitch
and loudness. Pitch is a measure of frequency. Loudness is
a measure of the power carried in a longitudinal sound
wave. Sound waves travel in a three-dimensional medium
such as air (gas) or bone (solid) but these travelling sound
waves form two-dimensional fronts that are perpendicular
to the direction of the wave propagation. Terefore, it is
more appropriate to defne the transport of sound energy
as the average power per unit area rather than as the
total power in the wave because of the two-dimensional
wavefronts that are detected in the air-brain combination.
Te average power per unit area of a sound wave that is
incident perpendicular to the direction of propagation is
called the sound intensity. Te units of sound intensity
are watts per square metre, W m
2
.
I
P
av
A
-------- =
As the sound intensity spreads out from its source, the
intensity I is reduced as the inverse square of the distance
d from the source. Terefore,
I
1
d
2
-----
For example, doubling the distance from a sound source
would cause the sound intensity to become one-quarter
that at the original distance.
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In a sound wave, the medium particles, such as air
molecules, vibrate in simple harmonic motion parallel
to the direction of wave propagation. Just as the energy
in simple harmonic motion is proportional to the square
of the amplitude (A) and the square of the frequency, so
too sound intensity is directly proportional to the square
of the amplitude and the square of the frequency of the
particle vibrations.
I A
2
Te ear-brain combination can accommodate a range of
sound intensities. Te just detectable sound intensity known
as the threshold of hearing I
0
is taken to be 10
-12
W m
-2
. Te
sound intensity that produces a sensation of pain called
the pain threshold is taken to be 1 W m
-2
.
A sound wave can also be considered as a pressure wave
because the particle vibrations cause harmonic variations
in the density of the medium. Te pressure variations
corresponding to the hearing threshold and the pain
threshold are 3 10
5
Pa to 30 Pa repectively superimposed
on atmospheric pressure of about 101 kPa.
Because of the extreme range of sound intensities to which
the ear is sensitive - a factor of 10
12
- (curiously about the
same factor as the range of light intensities detectable by
the human eye), and because loudness (a very subjective
quantity) varies with intensity in a non-linear manner, a
logarithmic scale is used to describe the intensity level of a
sound wave. Te intensity level of sound, IL, is defned as:
b
I
I
0
----


10
log =
where I is the intensity corresponding to the level b and I
0

is the threshold intensity or threshold of hearing taken as
10
-12
W m
-2
. b is measured in bels B, named afer Alexander
Graham Bell, one of the inventors of the telephone.
Because the bel is a large unit, it is more convenient to use
the decibel dB (one-tenth of a bel).
b 10
I
I
0
----


10
dB log =
Using this scale, the threshold of hearing is:
b 10
I
0
I
0
----



10
log 10 1
e
log 0 dB = = =
Te pain threshold is:
b 10
10
0
10
12
-------------


10
log 10 10
12
10
log 120 dB = = =
I.1.7 INTENSITY LEVELS AND THE
PAIN THRESHOLD
Figure 2003 shows the intensity levels of some recognisable
sounds.
Sound Intensity
W m
-2

I
I
0
----
Decibels
dB
Description
Just detectable 10
12
10
0
0 Hearing
threshold
Whisper 10
10
10
2
20
Library 10
9
10
3
30 Very quiet
Normal ofce 10
7
10
5
50 Quiet
Normal
conversation (2m)
10
6
10
6
60
Machine shop 10
2
10
10
100 Constant
exposure
impairs
hearing
Rock concert 10
0
10
12
120 Pain
threshold
Overhead thunder 10
1
10
13
130
Nearby jet take-of 10
3
10
15
150
Figure 2003 Intensity levels of some common sounds.
At very high dB levels, a number of physiological efects
have been noticed. Above 130 dB, nausea, vomiting and
dizziness can occur. Noise greater than 140 dB can cause
temporary deafness. Noise around 190 dB can cause major
permanent damage to the ear in a short time.
I.1.8 PROBLEMS - SOUND INTENSITY
AND INTENSITY LEVEL
Example
Te sound intensity at a distance of 20 m from a fre alarm
is 5.0 10
3
W m
2
. Calculate the sound intensity at a
distance of 50 m.
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Solution
Given that I
1
d
2
----- Id
2
k (a constant) = .
Terefore,
I
1
d
1
2
I
2
d
2
2
= .
So that (5.0 10
3
W m
2
) (20 m)
2
= I
2
(50 m)
2

I
2

5.0 10
3
W m
2
( ) 20 m ( )
2
50 m ( )
2
---------------------------------------------------------------------- =
8.0 10
4
W m
2
=
Example
Calculate the sound intensity level in dB of a sound from a
loudspeaker with a sound intensity of 8.0 10
-4
W m
-2
Solution
b 10
I
I
0
----


10
dB log =
10
8.0 10
4
W m
2

10
12
W m
2
---------------------------------------------


10
dB log =
89 dB =
Example
A sound level meter placed near a circular saw registers a
value of 92 dB. What is the intensity in W m
2
corresponding
to this intensity level.
Solution
We have that:

b 10
I
I
0
----


10
dB log =
92 10
I W m
2
10
12
W m
2
---------------------------------


10
dB log =
9.2 I 10
12
( )
10
log =
10
9.2
I 10
12
=
I 10
9.2
10
12
=
1.6 10
3
W m
2
=
I.1.9 SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM
EXPOSURE TO NOISE
As already mentioned, the decibel is a logarithmic scale
whose sound intensity level is given by:
b 10
I
I
0
----


10
log =
Physically, every 6 dB increase corresponds to a doubling
of the sound pressure level. For our perception, every
10 dB increase sounds to twice as loud.
For adults (subjects) there are established ranges of the
sound intensity level of the degree of a hearing loss at each
frequency interval as shown in Figure 2006.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

l
e
v
e
l

/
d
B
Frequency (logarithmic scale) / Hz
120
Normal hearing
Mild hearing loss
Moderate hearing loss
Moderately sever e hearing loss
Severe hearing loss
Profound deafness
Low pitch High pitch
Soft
Loud
Figure 2006 Degrees of hearing on an audiogram
Tese ranges are:
10 dB to 20 dB (normal hearing)
21 dB to 45 dB (mild hearing loss)
Te subject will have difculty hearing sof speech or
normal conversations but would manage fne if the speech
is clear. Mild hearing loss in the high frequencies in both
ears suggests noise damage. Te subject would miss some
consonant sounds such as ss, zs, ths, vs, even under
perfect listening conditions. Under noisy conditions, the
subject would experience more difculty with hearing
these sounds. Te subject does not need a hearing aid, but
should protect their remaining hearing by avoiding loud
noise and using efective ear protection.
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46 dB to 60 dB (moderate hearing loss)
Te subject will experience difculty with multi
conversations, especially if there is background noise.
Much of the loudness of speech will be lost and there
will be confusion amongst heard words due to the
misinterpretation of consonant sounds. Te volume for
TV and radio would need to be increased. A hearing aid
would help provided that the speech discrimination was
good and the background noise minimised.
61 dB to 75 dB (moderately severe hearing loss)
Tis is a common result amongst the old due to the efects
of an ageing inner ear. Te subject has moderately severe
hearing loss in both ears usually in the higher frequencies
meaning that it would be hard to distinguish one word
from another. A hearing aid is needed to amplify sof
sounds considerably, moderate sounds a little and loud
sounds not at all but the aid must also leave the low
frequencies unchanged.
76 dB to 90 dB (severe hearing loss)
Normal conversational speech is inaudible. A hearing aid
will only help a little. Te subject is likely to lip-read.
91 dB (profound hearing loss)
It is unlikely that a hearing aid will help. Hearing losses
can be conductive, sensory or neural.
A conductive hearing loss occurs due to an abnormality
in the outer and/or middle ears, and as a result, the sound
energy cannot be conducted to the inner ear and then to
the brain as it should be.
Outer ear disorders
Tese are ofen due to obstruction of the ear canal due
to either an accumulation of wax or growths in the bony
external ear that prevent sound energy from reaching the
eardrum. Furthermore, bacterial or fungal infections can
cause swelling that obstructs the pathway of the external
auditory canal. One form of this is called swimmers ear.
In most cases, conductive hearing loss can be treated
medically or surgically.
Middle ear disorders
A common complaint called fuid in the ear arises when
the eustachian tube is unable to drain fuid to the throat.
It can be caused by allergies or infections in the throat and
it causes severe earaches. It is quite common in children.
Otosclerosis is a condition found in adults in which the stapes
bone begins to grow a spongy mass that prevents it from
vibrating correctly in the oval window. Surgery can sometimes
improve the hearing loss. A heavy blow to the auricle bone or
the head can cause perforations in the eardrum or damage to
any of the ossicles. Te conductive mechanism is disrupted
and there may be no surgical solution.
Inner ear disorders
A sensory hearing loss is caused by damage to the inner ear
without damage or abnormality of the outer and/or middle
ear. In most cases, sensory hearing losses are irreversible
through surgical intervention. Cochlear implants are a
possible solution in some cases. Most sensory hearing
losses are of a hereditary or congenital nature but post-birth
acquired sensory hearing loss can also occur.
Hereditary hearing loss is due to the genetic make-up of the
subject. Te cochlea and its associated neural functions or
the auditory nerve can be impaired by the genetic make-up
in association with other degenerative diseases of the nervous
system, albinism or metabolic disorders. Congenital hearing
loss is due to a condition occurring during pregnancy and
foetal formation. It may be caused by maternal rubella, the
breakdown of red blood cells causing neonatal jaundice,
birth injury, drug ingestion or degrees of prematurity, to
name but a few.
Post-birth acquired sensory hearing loss results from trauma,
disease or toxic agents that damage the structures of the
inner ear. It can occur in infants, children and adults. Noise-
induced sensory hearing loss can permanently damage the
hair cells of the inner ear and prevent proper stimulation of
incoming sound signals. Many common drugs including
antibiotics, aspirin and quinine if taken in large amounts can
damage the structures of the cochlea and the semi-circular
canals. Te measles and mumps viruses are well known to
cause sensory hearing loss. Some statistical analyses suggest
that sensory losses due to degenerative changes associated
with aging will afect 30% of people in the 6570 age
category.
A neural hearing loss is when the outer, middle and inner
ear are functioning normally but there is an abnormality or
growth of tissue on the auditory nerves. Common problems
are loss of hearing to one ear, ringing in the ear (tinnitus)
and balance problems. Degenerative diseases caused by
multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy or traumas due to a
stroke or brainstem and brain injury cause damage to the
auditory structure.
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It is not only the degree of hearing loss but also the range
of audible sounds that afects a hearing-impaired person,
and this selective frequency loss can lead to a loss of speech
discrimination. Not only is the volume or quantity of sound
afected but also the quality of the sound can be distorted.
Te lack of discrimination can be measured using speech
discrimination scores that the audiologist then shades onto
an audiogram. A speech discrimination score is shown by
the shading on the audiogram in Figure 2007.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
EE
OO
Th
Vowel sounds
Consonant
sounds
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

/

d
B
Frequency (logarithmic scale) / Hz
Figure 2007 An audiogram
Generally, vowel sounds (a, e, i, o, u) are recognised at
frequencies lower than 1000 Hz, and consonant sounds
(s, z, th, v), are found above this frequency. Speech
discrimination can greatly afect the quality of sound. For
example, missing many consonants would mean that the
subject may experience difculty distinguishing one word
from another.
I.1.10 HEARING TESTS AND
AUDIOGRAMS
Te science of hearing is called audiology. Audiometry
is the measurement of hearing for various frequencies of
sound, particularly of impaired hearing. An audiogram is
a graph of a persons hearing ability and is a measure of the
sofest sound that a person hears at least 50% of the time.
Hearing tests are carried out by audiologists and the
tests begin with an initial recognition of the problem in
the surgery with the use of pure sounds from beeps and
whistles being made in each ear (air conduction) or by
using a vibrating tuning fork placed on the mastoid bone
behind the ear (bone conduction). Once the audiologist
does this initial test, the subject is asked to sit in an acoustic
booth and listen to a number of pure tones (pure tone
audiometry), and indicate when the tones can be heard. Te
tones are reduced in intensity until they can just be heard.
Te hearing threshold is then marked on an audiogram.
For air conduction, hearing is measured with pure tones
through a set of headphones placed on the ears. Te
subject is asked to push a button when they hear certain
frequencies. Tis is known as the air threshold method as
sound must travel through the air of the ear canal, through
the middle ear, and through the inner ear cochlea.
When the sensitivity of the inner ear needs to be directly
measured, the bone conduction method is used. Tis
method allows for the outer ear and the middle ear to be
bypassed. A vibrator is placed on the mastoid bone behind
the ear, and this is held in place by a small metal band
stretching over the top of the head. Tis method transmits
sound by direct vibration of the bone and these vibrations
are carried by the skull bones, tissues and fuids directly to
the cochlea in the inner ear.
Te standard audiogram reads
1. the frequency in hertz from the lowest to the
highest pitch within an audible hearing range of
the average person on the horizontal axis.
Te range used is 125 Hz or 250 Hz on the lef side and
8000 Hz on the right side. Te scale is based upon octave
intervals of a particular note like on a piano keyboard.
Lows are to the lef of 1750 Hz and highs are to the right of
this imaginary vertical line.
2. the loudness (intensity) in decibels is on the
vertical axis and from 10 dB to 0 dB at the
bottom, and 110 dB at the top.
0 dB does not mean the recognition of no sound but
rather it is the sofest sound that a person will hear 50%
of the time. Normal hearing is in the 0 to 20 dB range at
all frequencies. Sof sounds are below 35 dB, moderate
sounds are then from 35 dB to 70 dB, and loud sounds are
above 70 dB.
3. represents the lef ear and represents the
right ear in air threshold hearing curves detected
using headphones. If the bone-conduction
vibrator technique is used to determine the
threshold, a > is used for the lef ear, and a < is
used for the right ear.
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A typical audiogram is illustrated in Figure 2008 for a
normal hearing range - all frequencies are in the 0 20
dB band. If all the and readings fall above the 20 dB
line, then you have normal hearing. If anything is below
this line, then you have a hearing loss. Sometimes, a
frequency interval showing a 3000 Hz and 6000 Hz line is
included making the audiogram longer by two intervals.
Figure 2008 shows a normal audiogram obtained using
the air or bone conduction method.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
i
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

l
e
v
e
l

/
d
B
frequency (logarithmic scale) / Hz
Figure 2008 A normal audiogram
A comparison of the air and bone hearing curves can
determine whether the hearing defect is conductive (when
the air conduction curve shows a hearing loss but the bone
conduction curve is normal), sensorineural (when the air
conduction and bone conduction curves show the same
amount of hearing loss), or a combination of both.
Exercises 20.1
1. Te fgure below shows a cross-section of the
human ear.
(a) Draw 3 vertical lines to diferentiate
between the outer, middle and inner ear.
(b) For each of the parts listed below, label their
position on the diagram, and explain their
function:
(i) ear drum
(ii) ossicles
(iii) semi-circular canals
(c) If there was no mechanism for pressure
transformation between the media (air,
bones and fuids) of the ear what would
happen to most of the sound entering the
ear?
(d) Label the cochlea. Using arrows, show the
approximate position within the cochlea
where high frequency and low frequency
sounds are processed to produce neural
impulses.
(e) Label the remaining arrows that are given
in the fgure.
2. Which of the following are good estimates of the
appropriate sound intensity level for some sounds?
A. normal speech 60 dB
B. the hearing threshold 100 dB
C. thunder 60 dB
D. the pain threshold 120 dB
E. a noisy factory 100 dB
3. Calculate the intensity level in dB of a sound
having an intensity of magnitude 1.0 10
-5
W m
-2
.
4. By how many dB does a sound level increase if its
intensity is trebled?
5. A circular saw and a grinder when operated
alone produce sound levels of 90 dB and 70 dB
respectively. Calculate the sound level intensity
when both machines are operated together.
6. Te intensity of sound 30 m from a busy street
is 1.0 10
-4
W m
-2
. Calculate the intensity at a
distance of 120m from the street.
7. Distinguish the diference between the terms
sound intensity and sound intensity level as applied
to sound and hearing.
8. Te sound intensity at a distance of 20m from a
fre alarm is 5.0 10
-3
Wm
-2
. Calculate the sound
intensity at a distance of 40 m.
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9. Calculate the intensity level in dB of a sound
from a loudspeaker with a sound intensity of
7.0 10
-4
Wm
-2
.
10. A sound level meter placed near a circular saw
registers a value of 96 dB. Determine the intensity
in Wm
-2
corresponding to this intensity level.
11. By how many dB does a sound level increase if its
intensity is doubled?
12. Te fgure below shows how the typical threshold of
hearing varies with frequency for the average ear.
10 100 1000 10 000
Frequency / Hz
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

l
e
v
e
l

/

d
B
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
pain
discomfort
Use the graph to fnd
(a) the frequency range over which a sound of
intensity 10
-6
Wm
-2
can just be heard.
(b) the frequency at which the ear is most
sensitive.
(c) how much less intense a sound of 250 Hz
must be than a sound of 10 000 Hz if it is to
be just heard.
13. Te fgure below shows a schematic diagram of the
ossicles positioned as levers between the eardrum
and the oval window.
2
3
--- l
l
F
1
F
2
A
1
A
2
oval window
ear drum
pivot
inner ear middle ear outer ear
(a) With reference to the diagram, explain how
pressure amplifcation to the inner ear occurs.
(b) If the cross-sectional area of the eardrum
is 60 mm
2
and the cross-sectional area of
the oval window is 3.0 mm
2
, calculate the
pressure amplifcation of the oval window.
14. Give an interpretation of the audiogram below.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
l
e
v
e
l
/
d
B
Frequency (logarithmic scale) / Hz
(a) Outline how the data for this audiogram
was obtained from the patient.
(b) Describe a possible interpretation of the
audiogram in terms of the possible cause of
the hearing disorder.
(c) Determine the sound intensity in Wm
-2
that
is just audible at a frequency of 1000Hz.
(d) Would a hearing aid help the patient?
Explain your answer.
15. State the approximate frequency range of the
spoken word.
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I.2.1 Dene the terms attenuation coecient and
half-value thickness.
I.2.2 Derive the relation between attenuation
coecient and half-value thickness.
I.2.3 Solve problems using the equation
I = I
0
e
x
.
I.2.4 Describe X-ray detection, recording and
display techniques.
I.2.5 Explain standard X-ray imaging techniques
used in medicine.
I.2.6 Outline the principles of computed
tomography (CT).
IBO 2007
Introduction
In Chapter 18 Option G , the production of X-rays and
their nature in terms of bremsstrahlung radiation
(continuous spectrum) and characteristic line spectrum
were discussed, and you might want to look at this section
as back-up material.
Tere are a number of X-ray tubes used for medical
purposes. Te tubes can be classifed as either diagnostic
(medical imaging) or therapeutic (radiation therapy).
We will concentrate in this section on diagnostic details
because we are interested in medical imaging at the
moment. Most diagnostic X-ray machines use a rotating
anode X-ray tube as shown in Figure 2012.
Filament
Released electrons
Vacuum tube
Tungsten anode
X-rays
V +
Leadlined steel
compartment
Rotor
Motor windings
Figure 2012 Rotating-anode X-ray tube.
Electrons with a very high potential diference (typically
around 15 000V in hospital machines) are accelerated
between the cathode and the anode. A focusing cup usually
made of molybdenum contains a tungsten flament.
Electrons are released from the tungsten flament by
thermionic emission. Because the large number of electrons
released experience forces of repulsion, the electron stream
tends to spread out. To prevent this spreading out so that a
small area of the anode target material is bombarded, the
cathode-focusing cup produces electrical forces that cause
the electron stream to converge onto the anode target at a
focal spot. Most of the energy of the electrons is converted
to heat in this collision due to their sudden deceleration
with less than 1% being converted to X-radiation. Because
large amounts of heat are produced at the focal spot of the
electron beam, the tungsten disc anode is made to rotate
using an induction motor so that the heat loading on any
particular point on the disc is reduced.
I.2.1I.2.2 X-RAY ATTENUATION
COEFFICIENT AND HALF-VALUE
THICKNESS
Te attenuation of an X-ray beam is the reduction in its
intensity due to its passage through matter. When a beam
of X-rays passes through a material such as the sof tissue
of the body or bone, some of the X-rays will be absorbed.
Tere are four attenuation mechanisms where energy can
be lost due to absorption in matter:
1. simple coherent scattering
2. the photoelectric efect
3. Compton scattering
4. pair production.
low Energy Xray photon
Xray photon
electron
light photon
recoil electron
low Energy Xray photon
highEnergy Xray photon
very high Energy
Xray photon
positron
electron
annihilation photon
(a) ) d ( ) c ( ) b (
Figure 2013 The mechanisms of attenuation
Simple coherent scattering (see Figure 2013(a)) occurs
when the energy of the incoming X-ray photon is smaller
than the energy required to remove inner-shell electrons
from an atom. When the incident X-ray photon interacts
I.2 MEDICAL IMAGING
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with an atom, it is scattered in a new direction without a
loss of energy. It is the dominant mechanism in sof tissue
in the 1-30 keV range.
In the photoelectric efect mechanism (see Figure 2013(b)),
the incoming X-ray photon has an energy greater than
the energy required to remove inner-shell electrons, and
photoelectrons and positive ions are produced. As other
electrons in the atom fll the vacant spots of the ejected
photoelectrons, characteristic lower-energy photon emission
occurs. It is the dominant mechanism in sof tissue in
the 1-100 keV range. Te optimum photon energy for
diagnostic radiography is around 30 000 kV where the
photoelectric efect predominates because this gives the
maximum contrast between body tissues and bones.
Compton scattering (see Figure 2013 (c)) occurs when
the X-ray photon ejects outer-shell recoil electrons and
the X-ray photon moves of in a diferent direction with
a slightly lower energy. It is the dominant mechanism in
sof tissue in the 0.5-5 MeV range. High energy X-ray
photons can produce electron-positron pairs. It is the
dominant mechanism in sof tissue above 5 MeV. Te
Compton scatter is used in therapeutic radiology where
higher energies are preferred. When matter (such as an
electron) collides with its corresponding antimatter
(such as a positron), both particles are annihilated, and 2
gamma rays with the same energy but with a direction at
180 degrees to each other are produced. Te direction of
the gamma rays produced is in accordance with the law
of conservation of momentum and the electron- positron
annihilation gives energy equal to E = mc
2
(0.51 MeV
each). Tis is depicted in Figure 2013(d).
Te attenuation (reduction in intensity) of X-rays occurs
in two ways:
1. the intensity of the X-ray beam may decrease with
distance from the source (tungsten target) as they
diverge or spread out in spherical wavefronts.
2. the intensity of the X-ray beam decreases as the
X-ray photons are scattered or absorbed by a
material.
Te radiation emitted by an X-ray tube is heterogeneous
because it is made up of photons with a range of energies.
Te flters already mentioned flter out the low energy
photons to improve the X-ray quality. Tese photons would
only be absorbed by the skin or surface tissue of a person
being X-rayed, and one aim is to minimise any excess
radiation dose because of the invasive characteristics of X-
radiation.
A beam of homogeneous, monoenergetic X-rays contains
photons of only one energy and thus only one wavelength.
When a beam of monoenergetic X-rays of intensity I
0
passes
through a medium with a thickness x, the attenuation or
fractional reduction in intensity I is given by:
I I
0
e
x
=
where = the constant of proportionality called the
linear attenuation coefcient. Its value depends on the
X-ray energy concerned and the nature of the absorbing
material. It has units m
-1
.
Te intensity of the monoenergetic beam decreases
exponentially with absorber thickness. Te value of the
attenuation coefcient increases as the X-ray energy
decreases and higher absorption results. Figure 2014
shows a small thickness of lead absorbing X-rays.
Soft Xrays
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
Hard Xrays
I
o I
o
lead
lead
x / nm x / nm
Figure 2014 Attenuation in a slab of lead.
Te most penetrating radiation with short wavelengths
(~ 0.01 nm) are termed hard X-rays. Very little absorption
occurs when they pass through the lead slab. Long
wavelength (~1 nm) X-rays are easily absorbed by the
lead slab and these are called sof X-rays. Tey are less
penetrating and more absorbing than hard X-rays.
Te quality (penetrating power) of a monoenergetic beam
of X-rays can be described in terms of the half-value
thickness (HVT) in a given material.
Te half-value thickness is the thickness of a material that
reduces the intensity of a monoenergetic X-ray beam to
half its original value.
Figure 2015 shows the exponential decay of attenuation
and the corresponding half-value thickness of an absorbing
material.
50
100
I
I
o
---- e
x
=
%
t
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
Thickness of absorber, x / m
halfvalue
thickness
Figure 2015 The exponential decay of attenuation
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Since the half-value thickness is the thickness of a material
that reduces the intensity of a monoenergetic X-ray beam
to half its original value, then in this instance:
If x x
1 2
then I
1
2
---I
0
= = .
Using I I
0
e
x
= , we have:
1
2
---I
0
I
0
e
x
1 2
1
2
--- e
x
1 2

0.5 ( ) ln x
1 2
= = =

0.5 ( ) ln x
1 2
=
0.6931 x
1 2
=
Tat is,
x
1 2
0.6931

---------------- =
We can also determine a value for the linear attenuation
coefcient for a monoenergetic beam by plotting a graph
of ln I against thickness:
I = I
0
e
-x
. Take log
e
of both sides.
ln I = ln I
0
+ ln
e
e
-x

ln I = - x + ln I
0

x
lnI
Gradient = -
y - intercept = lnI
0
thickness
Figure 2016 The linear attenuation coecient for a
monoenergetic beam
From Figure 2016 we can see that the gradient of the
straight line is equal to - and the y-intercept is equal to
lnI
0
.
I.2.3 PROBLEMS ON X-RAY
ATTENUATION COEFFICIENT
AND HALF-VALUE THICKNESS
Example
Te half-value thickness of a 30 keV X-ray photon in
aluminium is 2.4 mm. If the initial intensity of the X-ray
beam is 4.0 10
2
kW m
2
.
(a) What is the intensity afer passing through 9.6
mm of aluminium?
(b) Calculate the linear attenuation coefcient of the
aluminium.
(c) What is the intensity of the beam afer passing
through 1.5 mm of aluminium?
Solution
(a) Intensity afer passing through 2.4 mm would be
half the initial intensity.
Intensity afer passing through 4.8 mm would be a
quarter of the initial intensity.
Intensity afer passing through 7.2 mm would be an
eighth of the initial intensity.
Intensity afer passing through 9.6 mm would be
one-sixteenth of the initial intensity
New intensity =
1

___

16
(4.0 10
2
kWm
2
) = 25 kWm
2
(b) x

1

_

2

=
0.6931

______

=
0.6931

______
x

1

_

2

=
0.6931

______

2.4
= 0.29
Terefore, the linear attenuation coefcient is
0.29 mm
1
or 2.9 10
2
m
1
. Be careful of the units
here because if the value is 0.29 per mm then it is
290 per m.
(c) I = I
0
e
x
= 4.0 10
2
e
(290 0.0015)
= 2.59 10
2
Te intensity is 2.59 10
2
kW m
-2
.
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Example
(a) What is meant by the term attenuation when
referring to X-rays?
(b) Name two mechanisms responsible for the
attenuation of X-rays by matter.
(c) Name two ways in which the attenuation of X-rays
occur.
(d) Defne the term attenuation coefcient.
(e) State the two factors upon which the value of the
attenuation constant depends.
(f) Te transmission of X-rays by matter can depend
upon the thickness of the material in the path of
the X-rays.
(i) Sketch a graph of percentage transmission
versus the thickness of the absorbing
material.
(ii) By using your graph, explain the meaning
of the term half-value thickness.
Solution
(a) Te attenuation of an X-ray beam is the reduction
in its intensity due to its passage through matter.
(When a beam of X-rays passes through a material
such as the sof tissue of the body or bone, some of
the X-rays will be absorbed).
(b) Tere are four attenuation mechanisms where
energy can be lost due to absorption in matter:
1. simple coherent scattering
2. the photoelectric efect
3. Compton scattering
4. pair production
(c) Te attenuation (reduction in intensity) of X-rays
occurs in two ways:
1. the intensity of the X-ray beam may decrease
with distance from the source (tungsten
target) as they diverge or spread out in
spherical wavefronts.
2. the intensity of the X-ray beam decreases as
the X-ray photons are scattered or absorbed
by a material.
(d) A beam of homogenous, monoenergetic X-rays
contains photons of only of one energy and thus only
one wavelength. When a beam of monoenergetic
X-rays of intensity I
0
passes through a medium
with a thickness x, the attenuation or fractional
reduction in intensity I is given by :
I = I
0
e
x
Where = the constant of proportionality called the
linear attenuation coefcient. It has units m
-1
.
(e) Its value depends on the energy of the X-ray
photons and the nature of the absorbing material.
(f) (i) See the graph below which shows the expo-
nential attenuation by an absorbing material.
50
100
I
I
o
---- e
x
=
%
t
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
Thickness of absorber, x / m
halfvalue
thickness
(ii) Te quality (penetrating power) of a
monoenergetic beam of X-rays can be
described in terms of the half-value thickness
HVT in a given material. Te half-value
thickness is the thickness of a material that
reduces the intensity of a monoenergetic X-
ray beam to half its original value.
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I.2.4 X-RAY DETECTION, RECORDING
AND DISPLAY TECHNIQUES
Figure 2018 (a) shows the components of the process of a
patient being X-rayed to produce a radiographic image on
a photographic plate.
lead collimators
Xray flm
scattered Xrays
Xray tube
patient
Figure 2018 (a) Producing a radiographic image.
Te X-ray beam passes through the glass wall of the X-ray
tube, a layer of oil then a 3 mm thick aluminium plate to
flter out low energy radiation. It is then collimated by lead
plates. Te aim is to produce a narrow beam because any
random scatter increases the blur of the radiographic image.
Te amount of exposure time the patient experiences is
strictly controlled. Te X-rays enter the patient where
they are either scattered or absorbed. In order to decrease
blurring on the radiograph due to scattering, a lead grid
system is inserted before the photogaphic flm. Direct
X-rays pass between the grid while the scattered X-rays
are absorbed by the lead plates, see Figure 2018 (b).Te
direct X-rays then fall on an intensifying screen cassette
containing double-sided flm sandwiched between two
fuorescent screens, see Figure 2018 (c).
X ray beam
scattered radiation
transmitted radiation
grid
Figure 2018 (b) Reducing scatter
X rays from patient
plastic front
front
intensifying
screen
double sided flm
felt pad
metal back
Figure 2018 (c) Image intensifying screen
Te standard X-ray machine used in radiography can
produce images of some of the internal organs of the body
and the bones. Air pockets, fat and sof tissues can be
diferentiated from each other because they can attenuate
the X-ray beam in diferent ways. Bones produce a white
image because they contain heavier body elements such as
calcium and phosphorus in a dense matrix that attenuate
the X-ray beam more than the sofer tissues. Tissues that
contain lighter elements such as hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen
and oxygen produce a grey image on the radiograph. It is
easy to distinguish a black lung image because it contains
lower density air when compared with more dense water
that is present in abundance in tissues.
Certain parts of the body are difcult to image against the
background of other body parts. In order to improve the
contrast of the image, solutions of heavy elements with a
large attenuation co-efcient can be introduced into the
body. Tese materials are known as contrast-enhancing
media. Barium and bismuth can be introduced through
the mouth or the rectum for the imaging of the alimentary
canal or the appendix. It is common for people with
stomach pain or possible gastro-intestinal ulcers to be
asked to drink a barium sulfate meal before an X-ray is
taken. An iodine solution can be introduced intravenously
to enhance the image of the cardiovascular system, the
kidney and the brain. However, the contrast of the image
produced in sof tissue anatomy is not very clear in many
situations. Over the past 20 years, this clarity has been
greatly improved by using X-rays and electronic detection
and display together in computed tomography imaging.
I.2.5 X-RAY QUALITY AND IMAGING
TECHNIQUES
As the relative intensity of the X-rays is increased so too
does the electromagnetic spectral range. We say the X-ray
quality has increased. Te quality of an X-ray beam is a
term used to describe its penetrating power.
Tere are a number of ways that the quality of an X-ray
machine can be increased.
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1. Increasing the tube voltage.
2. Increasing the tube current.
3. Using a target material with a relatively high
atomic number Z.
4. Using flters.
Tube voltage
When the accelerating voltage between the cathode and
anode of an X-ray tube is increased, the frequency of the
X-radiation increases. Terefore, the radiation has more
energy and the penetration increases. As the intensity per
unit area increases due to the higher potential, so too does
the spectral spread as shown in Figure 2019.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
i
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
Photon energy / keV
Characteristic Xrays
Low voltage
High voltage
Figure 2019 Eect of tube voltage on X-ray quality.
Te following efects can be observed:
(a) E
max
increases.
(b)
min
decreases.
(c) the peak of the continuous spectrum moves
towards higher energies.
(d) the total intensity given by the area under the
curve increases, and is V
2
.
(e) more characteristic line spectrum may appear.
Tube current
Increasing the tube current will increase the rate of
thermionic emission from the cathode. Because there are
more electrons available to produce X-ray photons, the
overall intensity increases. Figure 2020 demonstrates the
efects observed when the tube current is increased.
50 100 150 200
0.5
1.0
Photon energy / keV
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
i
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
20mA
10 mA
Figure 2020 Eect of tube current on X-ray quality.
Te following efects can be observed:
(a) the spectral shape remains the same.
(b) E
max
remains the same as the voltage is constant.
(c) the total intensity (given by the area under the
spectrum) increases as the area under the curve is
proportional to I.
Target material
Te target material must have a high melting point so
that it will not melt with the large heat generated by the
accelerated electrons bombarding it. Furthermore, the
target material must have a relatively high atomic number
so that the mass, size and number of protons in the atoms
ensure a greater probability that the bombarding electrons
make the necessary collisions to produce X-rays. Common
target materials include tungsten (Z = 74) and platinum
(Z = 78). Tungsten is more widely used because of its high
melting point (3370
0
C). See Figure 2021.
K lines
K lines
L lines
0.5
1.0
0 E
max
Photon energy / keV
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
i
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
high Z
lowZ
Figure 2021 Eect of target material on X-ray quality
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Figure 2021 shows the efects observed when the atomic
number is increased.
We then note that:
(a) E
max
remains constant.
(b) the characteristic line spectra are shifed to higher
photon energies.
(c) the X-ray intensity increases as the area under the
curve is directly proportional to Z.
Filters
A thin sheet of material is placed in the path of the X-ray
beam, and selectively absorbs more lower-energy photons
than high-energy photons. Te efect of selective fltration
is shown in Figure 2022.
Photon energy / keV
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
i
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
E
min
E
max
no flter
removed by flter
with flter
Figure 2022 Eect of ltration on X-ray quality
Te following efects can be observed:
(a) E
max
does not change.
(b) Tere is a shif in E
min
towards higher energies.
(c) Tere is a reduction in X-ray output.
Although the intensity is reduced, the beam is more
penetrating because of the removal of lower energy
photons. Te X-rays are said to be harder.
Example
An X-ray tube has a beam current of 35 mA and it is
operated at a voltage of 30 kV.
(a) At what rate does the machine transform energy?
(b) How many electrons reach the target each second?
(c) What is the maximum energy of the X-rays
produced? (Assume no thermal energy loss).
(d) What is the minimum wavelength of the X-rays
produced?
Solution
(a) P = VI = (3 10
4
V) (3.5 10
-2
A) = 1.05 kW
(b) q = It = (3.5 10
-2
A) (1 s) = 3.5 10
-2
C
1 C is the charge on 6.25 10
18
electrons . Tus
the number of electrons reaching the target
= (6.25 10
18
e C
-1
) (3.5 10
-2
C)
= 2.2 10
17
electrons per second
(c) E = eV = (1.6 10
-19
C) (30 000 V) = 4.8 10
-15
J
(d) E
hc

------
hc
E
------ = =
= 6.63 10
-34
Js 3 10
8
ms
-1
/ 4.8 10
-15
J
= 4.143 10
-11
m
= 0.0414 nm
I.2.6 COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
Standard X-ray imaging techniques record a longitudinal
image on a photographic plate producing 30 shades of
grey. Computed tomography (CT) imaging, also called
computed axial tomography (CAT) imaging, uses X-rays,
scintillation detectors and computer technology to build
up an axial scan of a section of an organ or part of the
body with 256 grey shades. Te tube voltages are about
130 kV, and the exposure times are greater than that of
standard radiography. (Tomography means the study of
body section radiography).
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A patient lies on a table that passes through a circular
scanning machine about 60-70 cm in diameter called a
gantry. Te gantry can be tilted, and the table can be moved
in the horizontal and vertical directions. X-rays from the
gantry are fred at the organ being scanned and attenuation
occurs dependent on the type of tissue being investigated.
Te image produced on the computer monitor is a series
of sections or slices of an organ built up to create a three-
dimensional image. A schematic diagram of one section is
shown in Figure 2023.
lead collimators
Xrays
Xray tube mounted
Bananashaped detector
made up of many small
detectors
computer
Monitor
on gantry
Figure 2023 Section using a CT scanner
A fan beam of around 100 X-ray pulses is produced as the
X-ray tube and the photomultiplier detectors around the
patient make a 360
0
rotation. A cross-section or slice of
an organ from 1 mm to 10 mm in thickness is obtained
with each rotation. Te slice thickness is controlled by
the lead collimators. About 1000 profles or pictures are
obtained in each rotation. A series of slices can be made to
produce a 3-dimensional picture of an entire organ. Te
time required for the complete scan of an entire organ
is normally from 3-5 seconds. However, short scanning
times of 500 ms can be used when the anatomical region
being investigated is afected by the patients motion and
breathing.
Te detectors send the information to a series of computers
and a host computer oversees the entire operation. Te
plane of the tomographic image is divided into small pixel
areas of about 1 mm
2
, each of which can be given a grey
shade value from 1 (black) to 256 (white). Te thickness of
each slice is simultaneously built into a volume pixel called
a voxel. Te image is produced on a computer monitor,
and this image can be manipulated and reconstructed
to get rid of interference by subtracting the background.
Te required well-contrasted image of the organ being
investigated is then obtained.
CAT scans provide detailed cross-sectional images for
nearly every part of the body including the brain and
vessels, the heart and vessels, the spine, abdominal organs
such as the liver and kidneys. Tey are being used in
many diagnostic applications including the detection of
cancerous tumours and blood clots.
I.2.7 Describe the principles of the generation
and the detection of ultrasound using
piezoelectric crystals.
I.2.8 Dene acoustic impedance as the product
of the density of a substance and the speed
of sound in that substance.
I.2.9 Solve problems involving acoustic
impedance.
I.2.10 Outline the dierences between A-scans
and B-scans.
I.2.11 Identify factors that aect the choice of
diagnostic frequency.
IBO 2007
I.2.7 ULTRASOUND GENERATION
AND DETECTION
As already mentioned, ultrasound is sound with
frequencies greater than 20 000 Hz. Just as transverse
electromagnetic waves interact with matter as is the
case with X-radiation, CAT and MRI, so too ultrasound
mechanical waves interact with matter. Tree properties
they possess are: they can be refected, refracted and
absorbed by a medium.
SONAR (sound navigation and ranging) was developed
during World War 1. It is basically the use of sound waves
to detect and estimate the range of submerged objects. In
the 1930s it had its applications in medical therapy. In the
1940s diagnostic ultrasound developed in parallel with
SONAR.
Ultrasound from 20 000Hz to several billion hertz can be
produced by ultrasound transducers (a device that converts
energy from one form to another) using mechanical,
electromagnetic and thermal energy. Normal sound waves
are not useful for imaging because their resolution is poor
at long wavelengths. Medical ultrasound uses frequencies
in the range greater than 1 MHz to less than 20 MHz. In
this range with speeds around 1500 m s
-1
in body tissue
the wavelengths are about 1-2 mm.
Te common transducer used in ultrasound is the
piezoelectric crystal transducer. In 1880, Pierre and Jacques
Curie observed that when a quartz crystal is subjected
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to mechanical deformation, a tiny electric potential
diference is produced between the faces of the crystal,
and conversely the application of an electric potential
would deform the crystal and make it vibrate. Tis is
known as the piezoelectric efect. Today, the piezoelectric
transducers used in ultrasound have certain ceramic
materials in place of crystals. Tese transducers operate
over the entire range of ultrasound frequencies.
When ultrasound meets an interface between two media,
the ultrasound wave can undergo refection, transmission,
absorption and scattering. Tis is similar to when light from
air enters glass. Te same laws of refection and refraction
occur. For example, with refraction (transmission) the
frequency of the ultrasound source will remain constant
but a change in the waves velocity as it crosses the
boundary will change the wavelength.
In a typical ultrasound scan, a piezoelectric transducer
is placed in close contact with the skin. To minimise the
acoustic energy lost due to air being trapped between
the transducer and the skin, a gel is applied between
the transducer and the skin. Te pulse produced by the
transducer refects of various tissue interfaces. Te pulse
is again detected by the same transducer as a refected
wave or echo. Te electronic representation of the data
generated from the repetition of this process is displayed on
an oscilloscope as an ultrasonic image. Tus the distance,
size and location of hard and sof tissue structures can be
determined.
I.2.8 ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
In ultrasound imaging, it is the refected portion of the
ultrasound beam that is used to produce the image. Te
greater the diference in the characteristics of the media
boundary, the more energy will be refected to give an
echo. Te major characteristic is called the acoustic
impedance of a medium. It is a measure of how easy it is
to transmit sound through that medium and it has been
found that acoustic impedance depends on both the speed
of the sound wave (v) and the density of the medium being
considered (r) in the following way:
Z = rv
Te unit of acoustic impedance is the rayl. Tis is equivalent
to the SI unit kg m
-2
s
-1
. Figure 2024 gives the speed, density
and acoustic impedance for some biological materials.
Medium Velocity
ms
-1

Density
kg m
-3

Acoustic
impedance
kg m
-2
s
-1
10
6
Air (20 C, 101.3 kPa) 344 1.21 0.0004
water (20 C) 1482 998 1.48
whole blood (37 C) 1570 1060 1.66
Brain 1541 1025 1.60
Liver 1549 1065 1.65
Kidney 1561 1038 1.62
Skull bone 4080 1912 7.80
Muscle 1580 1075 1.70
Sof tissue (37 C) 1540 1060 1.66
Lens of eye 1620 1136 1.84
Figure 2024 The approximate speed of sound in some
biological materials
Te greater the diference in acoustic impedance between
two materials, the greater will be the proportion of the
pulse refected. If I
0
is the initial intensity and I
r
is the
refected intensity for normal incidence, it can be shown
that:

I
r

__

I
0
=
(Z
2
Z
1
)
2

________

(Z
2
+ Z
1
)
2

where Z
1
is the acoustic impedance of material 1 and Z
2
is
the acoustic impedance of material 2.
I.2.9 SOLVING PROBLEMS ON
ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
Example
(a) Te speed of an ultrasound in blood is 1570 ms
-1

and the density of the blood is 1060 kgm
-3
.
Calculate the acoustic impedance of blood.
(b) Calculate the thickness of a slice of muscle tissue if
its fundamental resonant frequency is 1.5 MHz.
(c) Te time delay for a pulse going through fat is
0.133 ms and the speed of ultrasound in the fat is
1450 ms
-1
. Determine the depth of the fat.
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Solution
(a) Z = r v = 1570 ms
-1
1060 kgm
-3
= 1.66 10
6
kg m
-2
s
-1
.
(b) Te wavelength of the resonant frequency
= v / f = 1580 ms
-1
/ 1.5 10
6
Hz = 1.05 10
-3
m.
Now the ultrasound has to go down and back. Terefore, the
actual wavelength will be half of this = 0.53 mm.
(c) Te time taken to reach the boundary of the fat
= 1.33 10
4
s = 6.65 10
5
s
Distance = speed time = 1450 ms
1
6.65 10
5
s = 9.6 cm
I.2.10 A-SCAN AND B-SCAN IMAGING
A-scan
A scan produced by a single transducer when a single bit
of information with a one-dimensional base is displayed
is called an A-scan (amplitude-modulated mode). Te
transducer scans along the body and the resulting echoes
are plotted as a function of time as shown in Figure 2025.
Te A-mode measures the time lapsed between when the
pulse is sent and the time the echo is received. Te frst
echo is from the skin, the second and third pulses are from
either side of the frst organ, the fourth and ffh echo are
from either side of the second organ. Te pulse intensity
decreases due to attenuation.
pulse strength
organ
transducer
skin
ultrasound emitted by transducer
ultrasound echo returning to transmitter
time
Figure 12.25 A-scan mode.
Figure 2025 A-scan mode
Tis mode is seldom used, but when it is, it measures the
size and distance to internal organs and other organs such
as the eye.
B-Scan imaging
In the B-scan mode (brightness-modulated scan), an
array of transducers scan a slice in the body. Each echo
is represented by a spot of a diferent shade of grey on an
oscilloscope. Te brightness of the spot is proportional to
the amplitude of the echo as shown in Figure 2026.
organ
transducer
skin
moves across
skin
Figure 2026 B-scan mode
Te scan head containing many transducers is arrayed
so that the individual B-scans can be built up to produce
a two-dimensional image. Te scan head is rocked back
and forth mechanically to increase the probability that the
pulse will strike irregular interfaces.
I.2.11 CHOICE OF DIAGNOSTIC
FREQUENCY
Resolution (the fne detail that can be detected) is an
important factor in ultrasound imaging. A patient may
have a small tumour, say in the liver, and the doctor wants to
see the photo of the fne detail. Te smaller the wavelength,
the greater the resolution. Tat is, higher frequency
ultrasound gives more fne detail. If the ultrasound beam is
refected, transmitted, absorbed and scattered, its intensity
will decrease. If the frequency of the source is increased
too much, the attenuation (the reduction in intensity) in
fact increases as does the penetration depth. Furthermore,
the resolution also decreases if the frequency is increased
beyond an optimum point. In a typical pulse-echo
diagnostic procedure, the maximum mean ultrasound
power delivered is about 10
-4
W, and the frequency is in
the range 1-5 MHz.
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I.2.12 Outline the basic principles of nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging.
I.2.13 Describe examples of the use of lasers in
clinical diagnosis and therapy.
IBO 2007
I.2.12 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF NUCLEAR
MAGNETIC RESONANCE (NMR)
IMAGING
Te phenomenon known as nuclear magnetic resonance
is the basis of the diagnostic tool known as magnetic
resonance imaging - MRI. It is a technique used for
imaging blood fow and sof tissue in the body. It is the
preferred diagnostic imaging technique for studying the
brain and the central nervous system.
Rather than using X-rays as the source of radiation, it
uses radiation in the radio region of the electromagnetic
spectrum and magnetic energy to create cross-sectional
slices of the body.
Te patient is laid on a table and moved into a chamber
containing magnets that can produce a uniform strong
magnetic feld around 2 T as shown in Figure 2027. Pulses
of non-uniform radio-frequency (RF) electromagnetic
waves bombard the patient. At particular RF frequencies,
the atoms in the tissues absorb and emit energy. Tis
information is sent to a computer that decodes the
information and produces a two-dimensional or three-
dimensional image on a computer monitor screen.
superconducting
magnet
saddle coil
(producing vertical feld gradient)
saddle coil
(producing horizontal feld gradient)
Figure 2027 MRI magnetic elds
Although the principles of nuclear magnetic resonance are
beyond the scope of this course, the basic principles of this
phenomenon will be outlined in the next few paragraphs.
Recall that when a current is passed through a coiled wire
(solenoid), the magnetic feld produced is similar to that
produced by a simple bar magnet. At the microscopic
level, it is known that a charged particle such as a proton
or an electron acts like a tiny current loop. As a result, the
nuclei of certain atoms and molecules also behave like
small magnets due to the rotation or spin of their nuclear
protons or neutrons. Spin is in two directions and when
nuclei have equal numbers of protons and neutrons, the
spin is equal in both directions and there is no net spin.
However, if there are diferent numbers of protons and
neutrons, the spins do not cancel and there is a net spin.
Tis happens with hydrogen nuclei.
If hydrogen nuclei are placed in a strong external
magnetic feld, they will tend to align their rotation axes
with the external feld direction. However, the laws of
quantum mechanics allow certain alignment angles and
as a result, the nuclear magnets cannot come into perfect
alignment with the external feld. Some will align with the
magnetic feld and others align themselves in the opposite
direction to the magnetic feld. In fact, they precess like
small magnetic tops wobbling at fxed angles around the
magnetic feld direction.
Now when a weak oscillating magnetic feld in the form
of pulses of radio waves are superimposed on the strong
magnetic feld, the oscillating feld rotates at right angles
to the strong feld. If the radio frequency is not a certain
frequency, known as the Larmor frequency, the axis of
the rotating particle will wobble as described previously.
If the applied frequency is equal to the Larmor frequency
of precession, the charged particles resonate and absorb
energy from the varying radio wave magnetic feld. Te
magnetisation of the material is changed and this is
detected by a radio-frequency signal emitted from the
sample.
Te strength and duration of the radio signals absorbed
and emitted are dependent on the properties of the tissue
being examined. Te proton in the hydrogen atom has a
strong resonance signal and its concentration is abundant
in body fuids due to the presence of water. Bone shows no
MRI signal. MRI is ideal for detecting brain and pituitary
tumours, infections in the brain, spine and joints and in
diagnosing strokes.
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I.2.13 LASERS IN CLINICAL DIAGNOSIS
AND THERAPY
Lasers (light amplifcation by stimulated emission of
radiation) have many applications in both the diagnostic
and therapeutic areas of medicine. Te nature of lasers
and how they are produced has been covered in Chapter
18 Option G if you wish to explore them further. For this
option we will restrict our fndings to establish their use
in medicine. Some basics need to be mentioned. Firstly,
lasers are a collimated, coherent, monochromatic source
of photons with the same energy. Tis means that they are
parallel, single wavelength, in-phase waves. Secondly, from
their source, they can be continuous or pulsed. Although
their average power is the same, the pulsed laser at the
peak of its pulse has greater power than the continuous
models. Tere are many diferent types of lasers that can
be made to use diferent frequencies of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Some of the lasers used in medicine are given
in Figure 2028.
Type of
laser
Wavelength
/nm
Power/W or
energy/J
Endoscope
fbre
transmission
Carbon
dioxide
10600 0.150 W No
Neodymium
yttrium
aluminium
garnet
Nd - YAG
1064 0.5100 W Yes
Argon 488 -514 110 W Yes
Dye 550 -700
depending on
the dye used
0.055 W Yes
Nd- YAG
(Q-switched)
1064 0.11 J per
nanosecond
No
Nd- YAG
(pulsed)
1064 0.11 J per
microsecond
Yes
Dye (pulsed) 550 -700
depending on
the dye used
0.010.1
J per
microsecond
Yes
Excimer
(pulsed)
193 0.00.J per
nanosecond
Yes
Figure 2028 Types of medical lasers
Lasers are commonly used in conjunction with endoscopy
which uses optical fbres to look inside the body. An
endoscope consists of two basic parts a fexible tube
ftted with a camera and a bright light that can be inserted
through a small incision, and a viewing monitor that
magnifes the transmitted image of the part of the body
being examined. Te endoscope is used as the viewing
device for the surgical instruments being used. Because
lasers are highly collimated they can be for transmission
along optical fbres. For example, the neodymium YAG
laser can be used with the endoscope to help to destroy
cancers in parts of the gut, the colon and airways. It can
also be used to treat blood clots in the legs and coagulate
bleeding ulcers of the stomach. Recently, the Nd-Yag laser
has been used to remove fatty deposits in blood vessels.
Lasers are also used in pulse oximetry which is a non-
invasive technique used to monitor the oxygen content of
hemoglobin. It is critical that intensive care patients and
patients being taken to hospital in an ambulance afer a
trauma are monitored. A small clip is attached to a part
of the body that is transparent to laser light. A laser light
source with two diferent wavelengths one in the infra-
red and one in the red region is partially absorbed by
the hemoglobin by diferent amounts dependant upon the
amount of saturated or unsaturated oxygen that is present.
A processor connected to the laser probe can determine
the proportion of the hemoglobin that is oxygenated.
Carbon dioxide lasers cannot be used in optical fbres
because they operate in the far infra-red region and
their energy is absorbed by the fbre. However, they have
become a major laser in operations for cutting the skin
and surface tissue, cauterizing bleeding blood vessels,
doing fne surgery of the brain and fallopian tubes and
treating cervical cancer.
Argon lasers that produce blue-green light are used to
remove red birthmarks and some tattoos. Tey are also
used to treat eye diseases in diabetic patients and for
re-attaching detached retinas.
Te excimer laser is commonly used to correct eye defects
by vaporising excess tissue in the reshaping of the corneal
surface.
Te advantages and disadvantages of diagnostic techniques
are summarised with the other imaging techniques in
Figure 2029.
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Exercise 20.2
1. Describe the function of the following parts of an
X-ray tube:
(a) Te flament
(b) Te potential diference across the
electrodes
(c) Te tungsten target
2. Calculate the wavelength and frequency of an
X-ray with an energy of 30 000 V.
3. Explain why the target in an X-ray tube is
mounted on a disc that rotates at 3600 revolutions
per minute.
4. Explain why you would not use hard X-rays for
imaging tissues.
5. An X-ray tube has a beam current of 40 mA and it
is operated at a voltage of 100 kV.
(a) Calculate the rate at which the machine
transforms energy.
(b) Determine how many electrons reach the
target each second.
(c) Calculate the maximum energy of the
X-rays produced. (Assume no thermal
energy loss).
(d) Calculate the minimum wavelength of the
X-rays produced.
6. Te half-value thickness of 30 keV X-ray photons
in aluminium is 4.8 mm. Te initial intensity of
the X-ray beam is 2.59 10
2
kW m
-2
.
(a) Determine the intensity of the beam afer
passing through 9.6 mm of aluminium.
(b) Calculate the linear attenuation coefcient
of the aluminium.
(c) Determine the intensity of the beam afer
passing through 1.2 mm of aluminium.
7. Describe what is meant by the term X-ray quality,
and name two ways in which the quality can be
increased.
Advantages Disadvantages
U
l
t
r
a
s
o
u
n
d
Relatively cheap to use.
Abundant ultrasound
machines.
No ionising radiation.
Non-invasive.
Good for sof-tissue
diagnosis.
Can break down
gallstones and kidney
stones.
Good for measuring bone
density.

Highly refective
boundaries between
bone/tissue and air/ tissue
prevent efective imaging.
High frequency
ultrasound has low
penetrative ability.
A limit to the size of
objects that can be
detected.

X
-
r
a
y
s
Simple to use.
Cheapest alternative.
Abundant X-ray
machines.
Good for certain
structures.

Poor at body-function
diagnosis.
Not good for
diferentiating one
structure from another.
Resolution not as good as
others.
Sometimes enhancing
materials need to be
ingested.
Radiation dangerous to
health.

C
o
m
p
u
t
e
d

T
o
m
o
g
r
a
p
h
y
Good for 3D images
showing structure.
Creates cross-sections.
Resolution better than
basic X-ray radiography.
Good for tumours and
other lesions.
Good for stroke
detection.

Not good for organ

function.
Radiation not good for
the health.
More expensive than
standard X-ray.

M
a
g
n
e
t
i
c

R
e
s
o
n
a
n
c
e

I
m
a
g
i
n
g
No ionising radiation.
Clearest images of the
brain.
Best image of the central
nervous system.

Most expensive.
Scan time up to 40
minutes.
Cannot be used with
heart pacemakers and
metal prostheses.

Figure 2029 Advantages and

disadvantages of imaging techniques
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8. Te half-value thickness of 30 keV X-ray photons
in aluminium is 2.4 mm. If the initial intensity of
the X-ray beam is 4.0 10
2
kW m
-2
(a) Determine the intensity of the beam afer
passing through 9.6 mm of aluminium
(b) Calculate the linear attenuation coefcient
of the aluminium.
(c) Determine the intensity of the beam afer
passing through 1.5 mm of aluminium.
9. CAT and MRI scanners produce tomographic
images of parts of the body in diagnostic tests.
(a) Describe what is meant by the term
tomography.
(b) Outline the method by which CAT scans
are collected.
(c) Give two diagnostic applications that CAT
scans are used for.
(d) Discuss the advantages that a CAT scan
has when compared to conventional X-ray
techniques.
10. MRI is proving to be an extremely useful
technique for imaging blood fow and sof tissue
in the body. It is the preferred diagnostic imaging
technique for studying the brain and the central
nervous system.
(a) Describe the basic principles employed to
collect an MRI scan of body tissues
(b) State the property of the hydrogen atom
makes it such a useful atom for MRI
diagnosis?
(c) Give two diagnostic applications that MRI
scans are used for.
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages
that a MRI scan has when compared to
other diagnostic techniques.
11. Ultrasound is a useful device in medical diagnosis
and imaging.
(a) Describe how ultrasound is diferent to
other types of radiation used in medical
diagnosis.
(b) Explain the SONAR principle used in
medical ultrasonic diagnosis.
(c) Below is data relating to ultrasound
transmission in various media.
Medium Velocity
ms
-1
Density
kg m
-3
Acoustic
Impedance
kg m
-2
s
-1
10
6
Air (20 C, 101.3 kPa) 344 1.21 0.0004
Water (20 C) 1482 998 1.48
Whole blood (37 C) 1570 1060 1.66
Brain 1541 1025 1.60
Liver 1549 1065
Kidney 1561 1038 1.62
Skull bone 4080 1912
Muscle 1580 1075 1.70
(i) Calculate the acoustic impedance for
the liver and the skull bone
(ii) Predict whether ultrasound could
be used to obtain images of the lung.
Explain your prediction.
(d) What is the function of the gel used in
ultrasound?
(e) Identify the factors that afect the choice
of the diagnostic frequency used in
ultrasound.
(f) Distinguish between A-scans and B-scans
used in ultrasound diagnosis.
(g) Discuss some of the advantages and
disadvantages of ultrasound in medical
diagnosis.
12. State and explain which imaging technique is
normally used to:
(i) examine the growth of a foetus.
(ii) detect a broken bone.
(iii) detect a tumour in the brain.
13. Te following fgure shows the variation in
intensity I of a parallel beam of X-rays afer it has
been transmitted through a thickness x of lead.

10
20
I
x / mm
0
15
5
10 8 6 4 2
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Te linear attenuation coefcient was 8 m
-1
m for a
1.2 MeV radiation incident on a tissue.
(a) Calculate the thickness of the tissue that
is required to reduce the intensity of the
radiation by half.
(b) Defne half-value thickness.
(c) Estimate the half-value thickness for this
beam in lead from the graph.
(d) Determine the thickness of lead that is
required to reduce the intensity by 40% of
the initial value.
(e) Another sample of lead has a half-value
thickness of 4 mm. Determine the thickness
of this lead that would reduce the radiation
intensity by 80%.
14 (a) State a typical value for the frequency that is
used in ultrasound imaging.
(b) Te fgure below shows an ultrasound
transmitter / receiver placed in contact with
the skin.
Transmitter/
receiver
fat layer
l
X
d
skin
Tere is a layer of fat and an organ X at distance d
from the fat layer. Te organs length is l.
On the following graph, the pulse strength of the
refected pulses is plotted against time t where t is the
time elapsed between the pulse being transmitted
and the time that the pulse is received.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
t / s
p
u
l
s
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

A
B
C
D
(i) Indicate on the Figure the origin of the
refected pulses shown on the graph.
(ii) Te mean speed in tissue and muscle
of the ultrasound used in this scan is
2.0 10
3
m s
1
. Using data from the
graph above, estimate the depth d of
the organ beneath the skin and the
length l of the organ O.
(c) Is the scan above an A-scan or a B-scan? Explain
the diference between these types of scan.
I.3 RADIATION IN
MEDICINE
I.3.1 State the meanings of the terms exposure,
absorbed dose, quality factor (relative
biological eectiveness) and dose
equivalent as used in radiation dosimetry.
I.3.2 Discuss the precautions taken in situations
involving dierent types of radiation.
I.3.3 Discuss the concept of balanced risk.
(Students should appreciate that codes of
practice have been developed for conduct
involving the use of radiations).
I.3.4 Distinguish between physical half-life,
biological half-life and eective half-life.
I.3.5 Solve problems involving radiation dosimetry.
I.3.6 Outline the basis of radiation therapy for
cancer.
I.3.7 Solve problems involving the choice of
radio-isotope suitable for a particular
diagnostic or therapeutic application.
I.3.8 Solve problems involving particular
diagnostic applications.
IBO 2007
I.3.1 TERMS USED IN DOSIMETRY
Dosimetry is the study of radiation. Recall that radiation
can be transmitted in the form of electromagnetic waves
or as energetic particles, and that, when sufcient energy
is absorbed by an atom, it can cause the release of electrons
and the formation of positive ions. When radiation causes
ions to form it is called ionising radiation. Ionising
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radiation is produced by X-rays, CAT, radioactive tracers
and radiopharmaceuticals, as well as by many other
natural and artifcial means.
When ionising radiation penetrates living cells at the
surface or within the body, it may transfer its energy
to atoms and molecules through a series of random
collisions. Te most acute damage is caused when a large
functioning molecule such as DNA is ionised leading to
changes or mutations in its chemical structure. If the DNA
is damaged it can cause premature cell death, prevention or
delay of cell division, or permanent genetic modifcation.
If genetic modifcation occurs, the mutated genes pass the
information on to daughter cells. If genetic modifcation
occurs in sperm or egg cells, the mutated genes may be
passed on to ofspring.
Since the body is 65% water by weight, most of the radiation
energy is absorbed by the water content. Tis energy can
produce ions (H
+
, OH
-
, H
3
O
+
) and electrically neutral free
radicals of water. Tese ions and free radicals can cause
chemical reactions with other chemical constituents of the
cell. For example, OH
-
ions and OH free radicals that form
the strong oxidising reagent hydrogen peroxide (H
2
O
2
)
which can interfere with the carbon-carbon double bonds
within the DNA molecule, causing rupture of the double
helical strands. Free radicals may also cause damage to
enzymes that are required for the metabolism of the cell
or they can afect the membranes that are vital for the
transport of materials within the cell.
Ionising radiation appears to afect diferent cells in
diferent ways. Cells of the reproductive organs are very
radiationsensitive and sterility is a common outcome
afer radiation exposure. Bone and nerve cells are relatively
radiation-resistant. However, radiation of bone marrow
leads to a rapid depletion of stem cells that can then induce
anaemia or even leukemia.
Exposure to radiation results in a range of symptoms
including skin burns, radiation sickness (nausea, vomiting,
diarrhoea, loss of hair, loss of taste, fever) cancer, leukemia
and death.
External exposure to particles is fairly harmless as
they will be absorbed by a few microns of skin. Internal
exposure afer ingestion is very damaging as the -
particles are very ionising and they can interact with body
fuids and gases. -particles are more penetrating but
because of their irregular paths upon entering body tissue
they are considered to have low ionising ability. X-rays
and -radiation have high ionising ability (but not as
high as ingested -particles), and are a common cause of
disruption to normal cellular metabolism and function.
Te relative sensitivity of diferent types of cells to
ionising radiation can be summarised using the following
four characteristics known as the Laws of Bergonie and
Tribondeau:
1. AGE
Younger cells are more sensitive than older cells.
2. DIFFERENTIATION
Simple cells are more sensitive than highly complex cells.
3. METABOLIC RATE
Cells that use energy rapidly are more sensitive than those
with a slower metabolism.
4. MITOTIC RATE
Cells that divide and multiply rapidly are more sensitive
than those that replicate slowly.
All living things are being exposed to cosmic radiation
from the Sun and space, and terrestrial radiation from
the lithosphere (uranium and thorium series and isotopes
of radon) It is important that we have measures in place
to monitor both this background and artifcial radiation
produced in medicine and the nuclear industry. In 1928,
the body now known as the International Commission
on Radiological Protection (ICRP) was set up to make
recommendations as to the maximum amounts of
radiation which people could safely receive.
Radiation dosimetry deals with the measurement of the
absorbed dose or dose rate resulting from the interaction
of ionising radiation with matter. Te ways of measuring
and monitoring radiation will now be discussed.
Exposure
It has been found that when X-rays and -radiation pass
through matter, a measurement of their ionising ability
gives a good indication of the total energy absorbed. It is
also known that the energy absorbed per kilogram in air
and tissue is similar.
Te term exposure X is defned for X-radiation and
-radiation as the total charge, Q, of ions of one sign
(either electrons or positrons) produced in air when all
the -particles liberated by photons in a volume of air of
mass m are completely stopped by the air.
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X
Q
m
---- =
It can be seen that the units for exposure are C kg
-1
.
Te measurement of exposure has limited applications
because it only applies to X-rays and -radiation, and it
only refers to ionisation in air and not to absorption in body
materials. It would be better to have a monitoring quantity
that applies to all forms of radiation in all material.
Absorbed dose
A more useful quantity is absorbed dose D. It is defned
as the amount of energy E transferred to a particular unit
mass m.
D
E
m
---- =
Te SI unit of absorbed dose is J kg
-1
otherwise known as
the Gray (Gy).
Te absorbed dose is difcult to measure directly and,
as a result, it is usually calculated from measurements of
exposure. Te relationship between exposure and absorbed
dose can be determined for X-rays and -radiation. On
average, the energy required to release one electron or
positron is found to be 34 eV in air. Now 1 eV = 1.6 10
-19
J,
and 1 C is the charge on 6.25 10
18
electrons.
Terefore, an exposure of 1 C kg
-1
corresponds to a dose of
6.25 10
18
electrons per kg
= (34) (1.6 10
-19
J) (6.25 10
18
electrons) per kilogram
= 34 J kg
-1
= 34 Gy
Terefore, the absorbed dose is equal to 34 Gy the
exposure
D Gy = 34X Ckg
-1
in air, where X = exposure.
Tis is the value for the energy absorbed for air. Te energy
absorbed per kilogram for other biological materials will
depend on the type of material and the photon interactions
(scattering, photoelectric efect and Compton scattering).
Terefore, each medium will have its own absorption
property and identical exposure will lead to diferent
absorbed doses in diferent materials.
D Gy = f X C kg
-1
for other media
Where f is a factor dependant on the material involved
and the types of photon interactions involved.
Dose equivalent & quality factor
Although the diferent types of ionising radiation may all
be measured in units of absorbed dose, equal quantities
of diferent types of radiation measured in grays, may
not have identical biological efects. Neutrons and
-particles dissipate their energy more densely causing
more cellular damage than less densely ionising radiations
like -particles, X-rays and -radiation, even when the
absorbed dose is the same. For this reason, a further
quantity called dose equivalent H has been introduced.
H = QDN
where Q is a dimensionless quantity called the quality
factor of the radiation, and N is another dimensionless
quantity that is the product of all other modifying factors
that might alter the potentially harmful biological efects
of the absorbed dose (currently assigned a value of 1).
Te unit of dose equivalent is the Sievert (Sv) and
1Sv = 1 J kg
-1
. Te millisievert mSv is the more common
measure of dose equivalent.
Te quality factors of some radiations are given in Figure
2034.
Radiation type Quality factor
, , X 1
slow neutrons 5
fast neutrons, protons, 10
heavy recoil nuclei 20
Figure 2034 Quality factors of some radiation
Relative biological eectiveness
During the 1950s, neutrons, protons and heavy charged
particles that had been discovered as interacting with
matter, needed to be measured. Tese were particles
whereas X-rays and -radiation were photons. It was also
recognised that these particles laid down energy more
densely along their tracks (more energy per unit length)
than did electrons, and that more energy per unit length was
laid down by 250 keV X-rays than was by X-rays generated
in the megavolt range. Tese diferences were expressed as
a ratio called the relative biological efectiveness N. Te
relative biological efectiveness is defned as:
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RBE
absorbed dose of 250 keV Xrays for a given eect
absorbed dose of another Xray magnitude to produce the same
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
In 1962, the ICRU replaced the RBE with the dose
equivalent quantity (the RBE factor is conceptually related
to the quality factor). Te reason for this was because the
biological efect of radiation exposure varies according to
the type and energy of radiation, and because equal doses
of various types of radiation do not necessarily result in
equal biological efects. Terefore, the terms quality factor
and relative biological efectiveness can be taken to mean
the same thing.
I.3.2 PROTECTIONS AND PRECAUTIONS
IN RADIATION SITUATIONS
Te exposure time to the radioactive source has to be
carefully monitored.
As the intensity of the radiation obeys the inverse square
law for distance from the source, keeping a safe distance
from the source is the best means of protection. Workers
in the industry ofen use mechanised calipers and tongs
that operate within a confned area behind thick lead-glass
viewing windows to manipulate radioactive sources.
Shielding materials are always used. For example, a
suitable thickness of perspex sheet will stop beta rays, and
lead, concrete and water will absorb gamma and X-rays.
Lead aprons are ofen used on patients to stop any stray
radiation.
All radioactive sources must be completely contained to
prevent the spread of contamination.
Radiation detectors such as a flm badge as shown in Figure
2035 or a thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) are worn
by all workers employed in any industry using ionising
radiation. Te flm badge is basically a double emulsion
photographic flm that is placed inside a holder with an
area of 3 cm by 5 cm that contains diferent thicknesses of
plastic, an open window and 3 diferent metal plates. It is
pinned to clothing and, over a period of time, the exposure
to radiation results in a darkening of specifc areas of the
photographic flm. One side is coated with a large grain,
fast emulsion that is sensitive to low levels of exposure.
Te other side of the flm is coated with a fne grain, slow
emulsion that is less sensitive to exposure. If the radiation
exposure causes the fast emulsion in the processed flm to
be darkened to a degree that it cannot be interpreted, the
fast emulsion is removed and the dose is computed using
the slow emulsion.
Te -dose is monitored by comparing the blackening
through the open window and diferent thicknesses of
plastic. Te dural (an alloy of aluminium) window absorbs
beta and low-voltage X-rays and gamma rays. Te lead/tin
window absorbs all but the highest energy X and gamma
rays. Te cadmium/lead window absorbs most of the X
and gamma rays but thermal neutrons interact with the
cadmium to produce gamma radiation, which blackens
the flm.
Te badges are assessed every two to four weeks and the
TLD every 3 months. Te ICRP recommends that the
efective dose to industry workers should not exceed an
average of 20 mSv per year over any fve-year period, with
the proviso that the efective dose should not exceed 50
mSv in any one year. Members of the public should not
receive more than 1 mSv per year from non-medical,
artifcial sources. It is considered that a dose of 250 mSv of
whole body irradiation, or 750 mSv to a part of the body
is an overdose.
dural
cadmium/lead
lead/tin
photographic flm
diferent
thicknesses
of plastic
open
window
badge casing
Figure 2035 The principle of a radiation lm badge
For the patient, it is known that radiation doses to the bone
marrow in the order of 3 000 to 4 000 mSv have lethal
efects within a month in about half of the exposed people
in the absence of specialised medical treatment. Single
doses over 2 000 mSv absorbed by the testes or 3 000 mSv
absorbed by the ovaries can cause permanent sterility. Te
specialised medical treatment in the case of doses up to
10 000 mSv would include isolation of the patient in a
sterile environment, selective treatment with antibiotics
and stimulation of leukocyte production in order to ofset
damage to white blood cells. Bone marrow transplant
may also be necessary. So you can see that protection is
paramount in any medical diagnosis or therapy. Some
typical radiation doses used in medicine are given in
Figure 2036.
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Medical Source mSv
Annual cosmic radiation reference at sea level 0.3
Chest X-ray 0.03
Dental X-ray 0.14
Mammography 0.4
Head CT 1.8
Abdomen CT 7.2
Tyroid radiopharmaceutical 2.0
Heart scan radiopharmaceutical 17
Sof tumour radiopharmaceutical 22
Tyroid therapy 8 000
Figure 2036 Radiation doses
I.3.3 BALANCE RISK AND
PROTECTION OF THE
INDIVIDUAL
Te type of radiation, the strength of the source, the
distance from the source, the exposure time, the origin of
the source (external or internal), the portion of the body
being irradiated and the general health of the individual
needs to be monitored carefully. For this reason, it became
necessary for the ICRP to make recommendations for
radiation protection. In 1977, the ICRP formulated
general guidelines, the main features being:
1. No practice shall be adopted unless its
introduction produces a positive net beneft
2. All exposures shall be kept As Low As Reasonably
Achievable (ALARA) with economic and social
factors being taken into account
3. Te dose equivalent to individuals shall
not exceed the limits recommended for the
appropriate circumstances by the Commission.
Tis system has set guidelines to establish procedures and
principles to minimise radiation exposure of patients and
workers. Te main components involve the way in which
the source is isolated and the protection ofered to the
individual.
In industry, full protective clothing including coats,
gloves, overshoes and in some cases respirators which
prevent contamination through the skin and wounds.
As already mentioned, flm badges or thermoluminescent
badges are worn for monitoring purposes.
Te typical universal trefoil radiation symbol should be
clearly signposted in any area where a radioactive source
is being used.
In addition, all workers at risk of being exposed to radiation
should obey the following basic rules:
1. Wear laboratory coats or other protective clothing Wear laboratory coats or other protective clothing
at all times in areas where radioactive materials are
used.
2. Wear disposable gloves at all times while handling Wear disposable gloves at all times while handling
radioactive materials.
3. Either afer each procedure or before leaving any Either afer each procedure or before leaving any
area, monitor your hands for contamination in a
low-background area.
4. Do not eat, drink, smoke, or apply cosmetics in Do not eat, drink, smoke, or apply cosmetics in
any area where radioactive material is stored or
used.
5. Do not store food, drink, or personal efects in Do not store food, drink, or personal efects in
areas where radioactive material is stored or used.
6. Wear required personnel monitoring devices at all Wear required personnel monitoring devices at all
times while in areas where radioactive materials
are used or stored.
7. Dispose of radioactive waste only in designated, Dispose of radioactive waste only in designated,
labeled and properly shielded receptacles.
8. Never pipette by mouth. Never pipette by mouth.
9. Confne radioactive solutions in CLEARLY labeled Confne radioactive solutions in CLEARLY labeled
containers.
10. Secure all radioactive material when not under the Secure all radioactive material when not under the
constant surveillance and immediate control of the
authorized users and their staf.
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I.3.4 PHYSICAL, BIOLOGICAL AND
EFFECTIVE HALF-LIFE
Recall the defnition of half-life. Te physical half-life T
R

of a radioactive nuclide is the time taken for half the nuclei
present to disintegrate radioactively.
If a radioactive nuclide is administered to a patient, not
only is it disintegrating within the body but it is also being
removed from the body by biological processes such as
respiration, urination and defaecation. Terefore, the
activity of the radioactive nuclide within the body will be
considerably less than the physical half-life due to pure
radioactive decay. It has been found that the amount of
the radioactive substance administered ofen decreases
exponentially with time. In order to take this factor into
account, the quantity called biological half-life is used.
Te biological half-life T
B
of a material is the time taken
for half the radioactive substance to be removed from the
body by biological processes.
Terefore, the efective half-life T
E
of the radioactive
substance will be less than the physical half-life due to the
biological half-life component.
If
R
and
B
are the fractions of the radioisotope removed
per second by physical decay and biological processes
respectively, then the total fraction removed per unit time

E
is given by:

E
=
R
+
B
Te efective decay constant is related to the efective half-
life by:

E
= 0.693 / T
E
and it then follows that:
0.693 / T
E
= 0.693 / T
R
+ 0.693 / T
B
So that,
1
T
E
------
1
T
R
-------
1
T
B
------- + =
I.3.5 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN
RADIATION DOSIMETRY
Example
Calculate the absorbed dose in air when the exposure is
1 unit.
Solution
Average ionisation energy in air = 34 eV
Exposure of one unit = 1 C kg
-1
Energy absorbed = 34e / e = 34 J kg
-1
Absorbed dose = E /m = 34 J / 1kg = 34 Gy
Example
How much energy is absorbed when a person of mass
70 kg receives an efective dose equivlent to 30 mSv, half
the dose equivalent being acquired from radiation of
quality factor 1 and half from radiation of quality factor 3
Solution
H
1
D
1
1 15 mSv D
1
15 mJ kg
1
= = =
H
2
D
2
3 15 mSv D
2
5 mJ kg
1
= = =
Terefore, energy absorbed by 70 kg = 70 kg 20 mJ kg
-1
=
1400 mJ = 1.4 J
Example
Te isotope iodine-131 can be used to treat malignant
growths in the thyroid gland. Te isotope has a physical
half-life of 8 days and a biological half-life of 21 days.
Calculate its efective half-life and determine the time it
would take the activity to decrease to 1/8th of its initial
activity.
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Solution
1 / T
E
= 1 / 8 + 1 / 21
1 / T
E
= 0.1726
T
E

= 5.8 days
1/8 is 3 efective half-lives. So the time is 3 5.8 days
= 17.4 days.
Example
(a) Describe what is meant by the term quality factor
(relative biological efectiveness).
A person of mass 75 kg has his whole body exposed
to monochromatic X-rays of energy 250 keV.
Because of this exposure, he receives a dose
equivalent of 0.50 mSv in 2.0 minutes.
(b) Deduce that the person absorbs approximately 10
9

photons per second.
Solution
(a) Diferent radiations of the same intensity cause
diferent amounts of ionization in the body. Te
quality factor compares the relative biological
efectiveness of diferent types of radiation to that of
X-rays that are given a quality factor of 1.
(b) D = E / m Terefore D =0.5 mSv = 5 10
4
Jkg
1
.
E = m D = 75 kg 5.0 10
4
Jkg
-1
= 3.75 10
2
J.
W = qV = 250 10
3
eV 1.6 10
19
C = 4.0 10
14
J.
So the number of photons in 1 second
= 3.75 10
2
J / (120 s 4.0 10
14
J)
= 7.8 10
8
10
9
photons per second.
Example
- radiation and - radiation have diferent quality factors.
State which type of radiation has the largest quality factor,
and explain why the radiations have diferent efects for
the same absorbed dose.
Solution
particles have the largest quality factor because they cause
more ionisation per unit length of their track.
I.3.6 RADIATION THERAPY FOR CANCER
It is ofen useful for some medical conditions to destroy or
weaken malfunctioning cells using radiotherapy because
rapidly dividing cells are particularly sensitive to damage
by radiation. For this reason, some cancerous growths
can be controlled or eliminated by irradiating the area
containing the growth. Depending on the cancerous
growth, the radiotherapy administered can be of three
diferent types:
1. Internal radiotherapy - where the radioisotope is
localised in the afected organ.
2. External radiotherapy (teletherapy and X-ray
therapy) - where the radioactive source used is
outside the body.
3. Brachytherapy - where the radioactive source is
temporarily implanted in the body at the site to be
irradiated.
With internal radiotherapy, the radioactive isotope
administered is taken up by that part of the body that
is specifc to the biological path of the disease site.
Alternatively, the radioactive source may be attached to a
biological compound such as immunoglobulin molecules
(monoclonal antibodies) that, afer insertion, lodges at
the disease site. -emitters are mainly used in internal
radiotherapy as they deposit their energy close to the
site being treated and, as a result, do little damage to the
surrounding tissue.
Iodine-131, iodine-123, phosphorus-32, samarium-153
and yttrium-90 are some radioisotopes used in internal
radiotherapy.
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Iodine-131 is used either as a diagnostic or therapeutic
radiation source. It has a half-life of 8 days and emits
-particles as well as -radiation. It is used to treat the
thyroid gland for cancers and other abnormal conditions
such as hyperthyroidism (over-active thyroid). It is given
to the patient orally as a sodium iodide solution and is
absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract where it passes into
the bloodstream. It then concentrates in the thyroid where
it is used to make hormones specifc to that gland. Iodine-
123, a -emitter, is also used.
Phosphorus-32 is used to control a disease called
polycythemia vera. In this disease, an excess of red blood
cells is produced in the bone marrow. Phosphorus-32 is
used to control this excess.
Samarium-153 ethylene diamine tetramethylene phos-
phonate, known commercially as Quadramet, is used
internally to reduce pain associated with primary tumours
of the breast, prostate and some other cancers.
Yttrium-90 is used for liver cancer therapy.
External radiotherapy called teletherapy commonly
uses the isotope cobalt-60 as a source of -radiation. It
is produced by neutron bombardment of the common
isotope cobalt-59 in a cyclotron. It produces penetrating
gamma rays of sufciently high energy around 1.25
MeV. Tis is equivalent to X-rays generated at 3 MV. Te
equipment requirements for teletherapy are simpler than
X-rays and do not have the high voltage hazards associated
with X-rays. Te tumour to be irradiated is pinpointed
using laser beams. Te cobalt-60 source is located near
the centre of a lead-flled steel container known as a head.
During therapy, a shutter is opened by a motor and the
emerging gamma rays are collimated before striking
the patient. In order to minimise the impact on healthy
tissue, multiple-beam and rotational therapy are used for
deep tumours. Either the radioactive source is rotated or
the patient is rotated. Unfortunately, the radioactivity of
cobalt-60 cannot be switched of like an X-ray.
Cobalt-60 therapy is losing favour these days with
preference in developed countries for linear accelerators
(betatrons or linacs) that use X-rays or high-energy
protons. Te results for cancers of the pelvis, cervix,
larynx and pituitary gland have been more successful with
Xrays than cobalt-60.
Iridium-192 implants (brachytherapy) that emit -
particles and low energy -radiation are now commonly
used to treat breast cancer and cancers of the mouth.
Tese are produced in wire form and are introduced
through a catheter to the target area usually in the head
or breast. Afer a time period calculated to give the correct
dose, the implant wire is removed to shielded storage. Tis
procedure gives less overall radiation to the body, is more
localised to the target tumour and is cost efective.
Radioactive tracers (radioisotopes)
Radioactive tracers have been used since the 1960s to assist
in the diagnosis of body metabolism (chemical reactions
within the cells of organs and tissues) and diseases. Te
radioisotopes used are called radioactive tracers and the
imaging technique is called isotope scanning, nuclear
scanning or nuclear imaging.
Te stable isotopes of chemicals in the body carry out
their physiological processes in a normal fashion on most
occasions. However, when these normal functions are
disrupted various illnesses are generated at both the cellular
and organ level. If a specifc radioisotope is introduced
into the body, generally by intravenous injection, it should
behave in the same manner as the equivalent stable
isotope of the same element. Te path or accumulation of
the radioactive tracer can then be pinpointed with the use
of a detecting device.
If the radioactive tracer is of the preferred gamma-emitter
type, its path can be detected by a gamma camera (a
scintillation counter) that is traced over the body system
or an organ and the activity of the tracer can be imaged.
For example, a gamma camera scan (scintigram) of the
heart could be taken and abnormalities in heart function
could be analysed on the lack of uptake (a cold spot) or the
excessive uptake (a hot spot) of the radioactive tracer.
-emitters and -emitters do not pass far enough through
the body to be easily detected. However, blood and fuid
samples can be taken and the radioactive tracer activity can
be detected and measured with other radiation detectors.
Tere are a number of organ specifc chemicals. Certain
stable isotopes tend to accumulate in particular parts of the
body. Some examples include iodine in the thyroid gland,
calcium and strontium isotopes in the bone or potassium
and rubidium in the muscles. By attaching radioisotopes
to these chemicals, the tracer can be directed to the organ
of interest.
It is important that any radioactive tracer used has a short
half-life (in the order of minutes, hours or a day) as long
half-life radioisotopes would emit potentially dangerous
radiation for a long time period.
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One of the most popular radiopharmaceuticals is
technetium-99m. It has a short half-life of 6 hours and
it is considered to be non-toxic. It can be manufactured
in major hospitals from its parent nuclide molybdenum-
99 with a half-life of 66 hours. Tis means it can produce
99m
Tc for over a week before it needs to be replenished. It
is an excellent tracer for many diagnostic purposes. Figure
2037 describes this radioisotope together with others in
terms of their main applications.
Radioisotope Half-life Applications
Au-198 2.7 days Liver imaging
Ga-67 72 hours Sof-tissue tumour detection
Sr-85 64 days Bone imaging
T-201 74 hours Coronary artery disease
diagnosis
I-122 3.6 minutes Brain blood fow
I-123 13.1 hours Brain, kidney, heart studies
I-131 8.04 days Tyroid imaging
Tc-99m 6 hours Imaging of
brain,thyroid,lungs, liver,
spleen, kidney, gall bladder
Xe-127 36.4 days Imaging of brain disorders
such as dementia
Figure 2037 Some radioisotopes
used in medical scanning
I.3.7,8 SOLVE PROBLEMS
INVOLVING THE CHOICE
OF A RADIOISOTOPE AND
DIAGNOSTIC APPLICATIONS
Exercise 20.3
1. Calculate the absorbed dose in air when the
exposure is 2 units.
2. Determine how much energy is absorbed when
a person of mass 50 kg receives an efective dose
equivalent of 20 mSv, half from radiation of
quality factor 1 and half from radiation of quality
factor 2.
3. A certain source produces an exposure rate of 500
C kg
-1
h
-1
at 1.0 m from the source. Determine
the distance a barrier must be placed if the
exposure rate at the barrier is not to exceed 30 C
kg
-1
h
-1
?
4. Iodine-131 can be used to label albumen that is
found in blood serum. It has a physical half-life
of 8 days and a biological half-life of 21 days.
Calculate the efective half-life when iodine-131 is
used for this purpose.
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5. Radioactive substances have been used since
the 1960s to assist in the diagnosis of body
metabolism (chemical reactions within the cells of
organs and tissues) and diseases.
(a) Discuss the use of radioactive tracers in
medical diagnosis and in the study of body
function.
(b) Explain why radioactive tracers of the
gamma-emitter type are preferred.
(c) Certain stable isotopes tend to accumulate
in particular parts of the body. Give an
example of such a stable isotope and the
body part where accumulation occurs.
(d) Describe why it is important that any
radioactive tracer used has a short half-life.
(e) One of the most popular radioisotopes is
technetium-99m. It has a short half-life of
6 hours, a gamma ray emission of 140 keV,
and it is considered to be non-toxic. It can
be manufactured in major hospitals from
its parent nuclide molybdenum-99 with a
half-life of 66 hours. State two reasons why
these physical properties of
99m
Tc make it an
excellent radioisotope for nuclear scanning.
6. Explain why, when using radioactive tracer Explain why, when using radioactive tracer
elements in the treatment of cancer, it is better to
use radioactive isotopes that have a long physical
half-life and a short biological half-life.
7. A beam of protons with a quality factor 11 is
directed at a tumour of mass 0.10 kg. Each
proton has an energy of 4.2 MeV and 1.9 10
10

are incident on the tumour each second. A dose
equivalent of 250 Jkg
-1
is required to destroy the
tumour. If all the incident protons are absorbed
within the tumour, determine the exposure time
needed to destroy the tumour.
8. (a) Outline the biological efects that can occur
when a person is subjected to ionising
radiation.
(b) Defne the terms exposure, absorbed dose,
quality factor and dose equivalent as used in
radiation dosimetry.
(c) Explain, with reference to Explain, with reference to and radiation,
the distinction between absorbed dose and
dose equivalent.
(d) Calculate the absorbed dose per kilogram
in air when a person is subjected to an
exposure of 1 unit (the average ionisation in
air is 34 eV).
(e) Determine how much energy is absorbed
when a person of mass 50 kg receives an
efective dose equivalent of 30 mSv, half
the dose equivalent being acquired from
radiation of quality factor 1, and half from
radiation of quality factor 3.
(f) Discuss the precautions required in
situations involving radiation and the types
of protection that may be used.
(g) Explain the diference between biological
half-life, physical half-life and efective
half-life.
(h) Iodine-131 can be used to label albumen
that is found in blood serum. It has a
physical half-life of 8 days and a biological
half-life of 20 days.
(i) Calculate the efective half-life when
iodine-131 is used for this purpose.
(ii) What percentage activity will remain
afer 40 days?
(i) Discuss the diferent mechanisms and
diferent types of sources that can be used
in radiation therapy for cancer.
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21
TOK The study of particles
Te study of particles has been fundamental to our understanding of the composition and the behaviour of matter and
as such particle physics can be called the foundation stone on which all other branches of science are based. Te basic
structure of the atom was supposedly frst proposed by Democritus in 480 B.C. when he stated that all matter was composed
of atomos. Te exploration of the atom through the fndings of Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie, James Clerk Maxwell,
Heinrick Geissler, Julius Plcker, William Crookes, Heinrick Hertz, J.J. Tomson, Robert Millikan, Ernest Rutherford, Hans
Geiger, Ernest Marsden, Niels Bohr, James Chadwick, Max Planck, C.T.R. Wilson, Albert Einstein, Louis de Broglie, Erwin
Schrdinger, Werner Heisenberg, Wilhelm Rntgen, Enrico Fermi, Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli, Hideki Yukawa, Richard
Feynmann, Murray Gell-Mann, Carlo Rubbia and Stephen Hawking to mention but a few, have revolutionised the world
over the last 120 years. Teir research has led to the development of nuclear power stations (and unfortunately nuclear
bombs), radioisotopes and medical imaging techniques, the chemical and petrochemical industries, lasers, electronics
and computers, and, has revitalised the sciences of astrophysics and cosmology.
So when and how were atoms created? Tere is strong evidence to suggest that the elementary particles that make up
atoms were created within the frst seconds of the Big Bang when time and space began from a singularity. Atoms are
the very complex end-products of this event as the elementary particles combined over the following few thousands of
years. In order to understand the origin of matter, it is necessary to try and re-create the intense heat conditions of the
Big Bang in the laboratory. Particle accelerators and their detectors try to imitate the original conditions in order to fnd
these elementary particles and to develop a model of the nature of matter and energy. Tis is the branch of Physics that
has become known as particle physics.
Particle physics had its beginnings in the 1920s when the nature of high-energy particles from outer space known as
cosmic rays were studied at high altitudes. It was found that more particles existed other than protons, neutrons and
electrons. Te leptons positron and muon, the baryons Lamda, Sigma plus and the Xi minus, and the mesons Kaon
zero, Kaon plus and Kaon minus were discovered in cosmic radiation using cloud chamber and emulsion detectors.
Further particles were discovered in the 1950s using cloud chambers, bubble chambers, scintillation counters as detectors.
More particles were discovered in nuclear reactions. It was soon realised that if more particles were to be found, then
reactant particles would need to accelerated to high speeds in order to produce high-energy product particles of large
mass or to resolve product particles of small size. By the beginning of the 1930s, the van der Graaf accelerator (named
afer Robert van der Graaf) was developed to accelerate positive charges with very high potential diferences to give the
charges kinetic energy up to 30 MeV.
J.1 Particles and interactions
J.2 Particle accelerators and detectors
J.3 Quarks
J.4 Leptons and the standard model
J.5 Experimental evidence for the quark and standard model
J.6 Cosmology and strings
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In Figure 2101, a voltage of 50 kV is applied to a pointed conductor at the bottom so that electrons are pulled of the
moving belt insulator and the positive charges produced are moved to the top of the belt where they are transferred
to the dome. Since there is no electric feld inside a hollow conductor, the charges move to the outside of the dome
because electrons are taken to earth by the belt. Te conducting dome is hollow so as to allow a large charge build-up
on its outside. Te van der Graaf charge generator is connected to an evacuated accelerator tube containing hydrogen or
helium ions. Tese are repelled by the high positive voltage and are accelerated to an earthed target.
When these ions are crashed into a target material, new particles of diferent masses and sizes can be produced. Tere
are currently several hundred composite and elementary particles with corresponding antiparticles that have been
identifed.
In 1930, Ernest Lawrence developed a small cyclotron, and between the 1980s and 1990s, we saw the developments of the
Stanford Linear Accelerator Centre (SLAC, California) electron-positron linear collider (3 km long), the Geneva CERN
(Conseil Europen pour la Recherche Nuclaire) large electron-positron circular collider (27 km circumference) and
the Fermilab tevatron (6.4 km circumference near Chicago) which collides protons and anti-protons inside electronic
detectors. CERN presently has 2 accelerators that are being continually upgraded. Tese accelerators and others in
Germany, Japan, Russia and China will be studied fully in Section J2.
Particle phycisists have discovered hundreds of new varieties of particles with many weird names such as quarks,
neutrinos, gauge bosons and muons with each having its own colour charge. Particle physicists talk about the favor
of some elementary particles. Te up, down and strange quarks were originally called vanilla, chocolate and strawberry
and thus the term favor has stuck. Murray Gell-Mann was quite a comedian and when he came up with the term quark
to describe a group of elementary particles, scientists asked him for the origins of the word. During various lectures he
was known to call them quirks, quorks but the word quark stuck and it has its origins in James Joyces novel Finnegans
Wake - . Tree quarks for Muster Mark. Such is the menagerie of terms that some have coined the term sub-atomic
zoo to describe the variety of particles.
As has been mentioned a number of times already in this textbook, there are 4 fundamental forces: the strong force, the
electromagnetic force, the weak force and gravity, and all particles are governed by these forces. In the past 50 years,
particle theorists have organised what has been found by particle experimenters into a theory that may explain a standard
model of elementary particles and unite the forces into a Grand Unifed Teory (GUT). Maxwell was able to show in the
1860s that the electric force and the magnetic force could be unifed into a single electromagnetic force and his theory
has been further refned into quantum electrodynamics (QED). In the 1960s, electromagnetism and the weak force were
unifed into the electroweak theory which predicted the existence of the Z boson particle as one of the exchange particles
that mediate the weak force. Particle experimenters found the Z boson and particle theorists were found to be correct
in their prediction. In 1973, the discovery of asymptotic freedom established quantum chromodynamics QCD as the
correct theory to explain the nature of the strong force. Te calculations done by Gross, Wilczek and Politzer showed that
quarks were held together very strongly at distances that are comparable to the size of a proton, and this explained the
concept of quark confnement. Now the search is on to fnd the link between the strong force, the electromagnetic, the
weak force and gravity.
Tese major breakthroughs in particle physics have spurred on the developments in astrophysics and cosmology that
hope to answer the questions concerning the origin and evolution of the universe - why does it have its shape and form
and will it reach a point where it will stop expanding. Perhaps one of the best outcomes of particle physics is that it has
brought scientists from many nationalities into a collaborative working environment. Accelerators are very expensive
to construct and operate, and the CERN accelerator that passes underground into Switzerland and France is funded by
19 European countries and employs over 100 research physicists, over 800 applied physicists and engineers, over 1000
technicians and 1000+ ofce and administration staf and crafsmen.
Tis option ofers the TOK student an opportunity to refect on the nature of observation, the meaning of measurement and
the meaning of evidence among other things.
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J.1 (HL) D4 (SL)
PARTICLES AND
INTERACTIONS
Description and classifcation of
particles
J.1.1 State what is meant by an elementary particle.
J.1.2 Identify elementary particles.
J.1.3 Describe particles in terms of mass and
various quantum numbers.
J.1.4 Classify particles according to spin.
J.1.5 State what is meant by an antiparticle.
J.1.6 State the Pauli exclusion principle.
IBO 2007
J.1.1-1.2 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
IDENTIFIED
Particles are called elementary particles if they have no
internal structure, that is, they are not made out of any
smaller constituents. Te elementary particles are the
leptons, quarks and exchange particles.
Tere are three classes of elementary particles - quarks,
leptons and exchange particles (gauge bosons).
1. Leptons
Leptons are particles that can travel on their own, meaning
that they are not trapped inside larger particles. Six distinct
types called favors have been identifed along with their
antiparticles.
First generation ordinary matter included in this category
are the electron with a size of less than 10
-18
m, with its
antiparticle the positron, and the neutrino, with its
antiparticle the antineutrino. Electrons have a negative
charge, while positrons have a positive charge. Neutrinos
are neutral in charge. Leptons interact via the weak nuclear
force, but not the strong, as well as the gravitational force,
and where a lepton is charged, the electromagnetic force.
Tere are other leptons which are believed to have existed
in the early moments of the Big Bang and may be found
in cosmic rays and particle accelerators. Tey are the
second generation muon and the muon neutrino and
their antiparticles; that are heavier than the electron,
and the third generation tau and tau neutrino (found at
the Stanford collider but not found in nature) and their
respective antiparticles, that are even heavier still than the
muon.
Leptons have an electric charge of -1, +1 or 0 as can be
seen in Figure 2102. Te top Roman numerals give the
generation of each lepton and the bottom number in the
table gives the rest mass of each lepton relative to the rest
mass of a proton m
p
.
Leptons
I II III
electron -1
e
-
0.005
muon -1

-
0.1
tau -1

-
1.9
electron
neutrino 0

e
~ 0
muon
neutrino 0

~ 0
tau
neutrino 0

< 0
Antileptons
I II III
positron +1
e
+
0.005
antimuon+1

0.1
antitau +1

1.9
electron
antineutrino 0

e+
~ 0
muon
antineutrino 0

~ 0
tau
antineutrino 0

< 0
Figure 2102 Standard model for the leptons
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
spark
belt
insulating column
conducting stand
connecting wire
metal sphere
Figure 2101 A van de Graaf accelerator
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In spite of the diferent masses of each favor of leptons,
they have identical spin of a and the same angular
momentum.
Te muon is unstable and decays into an electron, an
electron antineutrino and a muon neutrino on average
every 2.2 s through the weak force interaction.Te tau
lepton decays on average every 3 10
-13
s.
Leptons are found in many environments. Te electron
is the charge-carrier in conductors and semi-conductors.
Electron antineutrinos are found in the beta decay of a
neutron into a proton. Te remaining favors are found in
nuclear reactors, particle accelerators and cosmic rays.
2. Quarks
Quarks with a size of less than 10
-18
m can never be found
in isolation as they are trapped inside other composite
particles called hadrons of which the proton, the neutron
and mesons are examples. Hadrons are classifed as:
(A) MESONS
Examples are the Pions
+
,
-
and
0
, the Kaons
+
,
-

and
0
,
J/PSI, J/ and Eta
0
. Mesons can mediate the
strong nuclear force and this will be discussed futher
in a later section. Like the frst and second generation
leptons, mesons only exist for a short time and they are
thus very unstable.
(B) BARYONS
Baryons are the heavyweights amongst particles that
make up matter, including the proton and the neutron.
Other baryons include Lamda
0
, Sigma
+
,
0
and
-
,
Cascade
0
and
-
and Omega
-
particles to name but
a few.
Hadrons are not elementary particles because they are
composed of quarks. Mesons consist of a quark and an
antiquark. Baryons have three quarks. A proton has 2 up
and 1 down quarks - uud, and the neutron has 2 down and
1 up quarks ddu. Hadrons interact predominantly via the
strong nuclear force, although they can also interact via
the other forces. Figure 2103 shows the generation, names,
symbols, charges and rest mass (bottom lef) relative to the
rest mass of the proton of the favors of quarks.
Quarks
I II III
UP
u + 2/3
1/3
CHARM
c + 2/3
1.7
TOP
t +2/3
186
DOWN
d - 1/3
1/3
STRANGE
s - 1/3
0.5
BOTTOM
b - 1/3
4.9
Antiquarks
I II III
ANTI UP
u

- 2/3
1/3
ANTI CHARM
c

- 2/3
1.7
ANTI TOP
t

- 2/3
186
ANTI DOWN
d

+ 1/3
1/3
ANTI STRANGE
s

+ 1/3
0.5
ANTI BOTTOM
b

+ 1/3
4.9
Figure 2103 Standard model for the quarks
All six favors of quarks have been identifed. Quarks can
experience weak interactions that can change them from
one favor to another.
3. Exchange particles - gauge
bosons
Exchange particles are elementary particles that transmit
the forces of nature. Figure 2104 lists the 6 exchange
particles and some of their properties.
Force Exchange
particle
Rest mass
m
p
Charge Spin
strong Gluons g 0 0 1
weak
W
+
W
-
Z
0
Higgs boson
(hypothetical)
89
89
99
> 86
+1
-1
0
0
1
1
1
1
electromagnetic photons 0 0 1
gravity graviton 0 0 2
Figure 2104 Standard model for the exchange particles
Recall that when an electron transition occurs from a high
energy level to a lower energy level, the energy diference
is emitted in the form of a quanta of electromagnetic
energy called a photon. Te other exchange particles
are similarly associated with quanta of energy. However,
when we talk of a classical force we defne it in terms of the
rate of change in momentum. When looking at subatomic
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particles, quantum mechanics and relativity replace
classical Newtonian mechanics and a more sophisticated
notion of force is required that is descibed in terms of an
interaction. It has become evident that the meaning of
force transmission if a particular interaction is to occur
is related to the energy and momentum that is carried by
a quanta of the force feld. Tis new force model will be
explained more fully in section J.1.7.
However, one thing that is obvious when looking at the
standard model for exchange particles is that the weak force
exchange particles have mass whereas the others do not. Why
do they have mass nearly 100 times the mass of the proton
while the other exchange particles have zero mass? Tis new
force model will be explained more fully in section J.1.7.
J.1.3 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES - MASS
AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
Students must be aware that particles
(elementary as well as composite) are
specied in terms of their mass and various
quantum numbers. They should consider electric
charge, spin, strangeness, colour, lepton number
and baryon number. IBO 2007
Mass
All the classes of particles have distinct masses. Let us now
introduce some common classes of particles in Figure 2105
and Figure 2106 showing their distinct masses, charge,
spin and their life-spans. Because the kilogram is a large
unit in which to measure mass, the preferred unit for mass
in particle physics is the electron-volt/c
2
.
Name Mass / c
2
Charge Spin Lifespan
Mesons
pion (pi-zero)
0
135 MeV 0 0 0.8 10
16
s
pion (pi-plus)
+
(pi-minus)
-
140 MeV
+1
1
0 2.6 10
8
s
kaon (K-zero) K
0
498 MeV
0
0
short 0.9 10
10
s
long 5 10
8
s
kaon (K-plus) K
+
(K-minus) K
-
494 MeV
+1
1
0 1.2 10
8
s
J/psi 3.1 GeV 0 1 0.8 10
20
s
Baryons
proton p 938.8 MeV +1 stable
antiproton p

938.8 MeV 1 stable

neutron n
anti-neutron n
939.6 MeV 0
in nuclei:
stable
lamda
anti-lamda
1.115 GeV 0 2.6 10
-10
s
sigma
(sigma-zero)
0
1.192 GeV 0 6 10
-20
s
sigma
(sigma-plus)
+
1.189 GeV +1 0.8 10
-10
s
sigma
(sigma-minus)
-
1.197 GeV 1 1.5 10
-10
s
xi cascade
(xi-minus)
-
1.321 GeV 1 1.6 10
10
s
xi cascade
(xi-zero)
0
1.315 GeV 0 3 10
-10
s
omega minus
-
1.672 GeV 1 3/2 0.8 10
-10
s
Figure 2106 Properties of some mesons and baryons
Name Mass / c
2
Charge Spin Lifespan
Leptons
electron e
-
0.511 MeV 1 stable
positron e
+
0.511 MeV +1 stable
muon and
antimuon
+

-
105.6 MeV
1
+1
2 10
6
s
tau and antitau

+
1.784 GeV
1
+1
3 10
13
s
electron neutrino/
antineutrino
e

e

< 50 eV 0 stable
muon neutrino/
antineutrino

< 0.5MeV 0 stable
tau neutrino/
antineutrino

< 50 MeV 0 stable
Quarks
up and
anti-up u
~ 5 MeV
+2/3
1/3
stable
down and
anti-down d d
~ 10 MeV
1/3
+1/3
variable
strange and
anti-strange s s
~ 100 MeV
1/3
+1/3
variable
charm and
anti-charm c c
~ 1.5 GeV
+2/3
1/3
variable
bottom and
anti-bottom b b
~ 4.7 GeV
1/3
+1/3
variable
top and anti-top t t

> 30 GeV
1/3
+1/3
variable
Gauge Bosons
photon 0 0 1 stable
W-plus and W-
minus
81 GeV
+1
1
1
10
25
s
Z 93 GeV 0 1 10
25
s
gluon 0 0 1 stable
Figure 2105 Properties of leptons,
quarks and exchange bosons
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However, one electron-volt is too small and as such
we usually talk in mega and giga electron-volts. Te
rest energy E
0
of a particle can be defned as the energy
associated with its rest mass m
0
. Te Teory of Relativity
demonstrated that mass and energy are equivalent as given
by the equation E
0
= m
0
c
2
, so energy can be measured in
electron-volt and rest mass can be measured in eV/c
2
. It is
ofen convenient to assume that the c
2
is therefore mass
and just talk of a relative particle mass being measured in
MeV or GeV.
Quantum numbers
Te Quantum Mechanics model of the atom was proposed
in 1925 and 1926 to overcome some of the inadequacies
of the Bohr model of the atom. Remember that the Bohr
model had its limitations because although it could
account for the wavelengths of light absorbed and emitted
for the hydrogen atom, it could not be applied to any other
atom. Furthermore, it could not account for the hyperfne
lines that existed due the tiny splitting of energy levels.
While quantum mechanics retained some aspects of the
Bohr model, it predicted that the electrons were spread
out in space in electron clouds of negative charge as a
result of the wave nature of the electrons. Tese electron
clouds can have various three-dimensional shapes such
as spheres, dumbbells and donuts. Te diferent states
in which an electron can exist are determined by four
quantum numbers:
the principal quantum number n where n = 1,2,3
the orbital quantum number l where l = 0 to n-1
the magnetic quantum number m
l
where m
l
= -l to +l
the spin quantum number m
s
where m
s
= + or
Without going into too much depth here, the principal
quantum number is similar to the n number of energy
levels in the Bohr model, and it applies not only to electrons
but to all leptons and baryons. Tese particles are called
fermions (particles that have a half-integer spin). It defnes
the distinct energy levels or shells in which fermions can
be located. Te maximum number of fermions that the
principal energy level can accommodate is 2n
2
. So, when
n = 1, there can be two fermions, and when n=2, there can
be 8 fermions and so on. Fermions move in orbitals which
can be depicted as a three-dimensional probability region.
For each value of n, there are n
2
orbitals. So, for the third
principal energy, level, n=3, and therefore there will be 9
orbitals.
Te orbital quantum number is related to the orbital
angular momentum. In the Bohr model:
L = mvr
n
= n h/2 where n = 1,2,3
In the Schrdinger model:
L = l(l 1) h where l = 0,1,2(n 1)
Angular momentum is a vector and as such the magnetic
quantum number relates to the direction of the angular
momentum. Spin will be discussed soon.
Just as leptons can exist in lepton energy levels, so too
can other elementary particles and their composites
the hadrons. Tis has already been discussed in section
13.2.3.
Terefore, each elementary particle or a composite of
elementary particles can be specifed in terms of its mass
and various quantum numbers.
Conservation of energy
In particle physics, the total energy of the particles before
a reaction or decay must be equal to the total energy of the
particles afer the decay. Te law of conservation of energy
manifests itself in 2 forms in particle physics:
Te kinetic energy which is dependant on the
velocity of the particles
Teir mass energy is given by E = mc
2
.
It can be seen that the greater the mass of a particle, the
greater is the mass energy that a particle has. It has been
shown that if a particle decays into other particles then the
mass of a decaying particle has to be greater or equal to the
mass of the products. Let us say that particle X decays and
forms Y and Z.
X Y + Z
However, if energy is to be conserved, the kinetic energy
of particles Y and Z must be taken into account:
X Y + E
KY
+ Z + E
KZ
Terefore, the mass of X > the mass of Y + the mass of Z
On the other hand, a reaction between 2 particles in their
initial state can have less mass than the total mass of the
products because initial particles can introduce energy
into the reaction so that energy is conserved.
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Conservation of charge (Q)
Electric charge is given the symbol Q. As noted previously,
antiparticles are identical to their corresponding particle
in mass, but difer in electric charge. For example, the
positron is the antiparticle which corresponds to the
electron, so it has a mass of 9.11 10
-31
kg, but an electric
charge of +1. But charge is not the only diference between
particles and antiparticles.
Example
Determine whether the following reactions can occur due
to charge conservation:
(a) e
-
+ p + n
(b)
-
+ p
-
+
+
(c) p + n p + n +
+
(d) e
+
+ e
-

+
+

Solution
(a) e
-
+ p + n
Q -1 + 1 = 0 + 0 charge is conserved.
(b)
-
+ p
-
+
+
Q -1 + 1 = -1 + 1 charge is conserved.
(c) p + n p + n +
+
Q 1 + 0 1 + 0 + 1 charge is not conserved.
(d) e
+
+ e
-

+
+

Q 1 + -1 1 + 0 charge is not conserved.

Lepton number is also not conserved as we will see later.
Other particle specications
Tere are other specifcations that make particles unique
according to the quantum mechanical model such as spin,
strangeness, colour, baryon number and lepton number.
Spin will be discussed shortly and the other attributes will
be studied in detail in sections J3 and J4.
J.1.4 ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND
SPIN
Te existence of the spin quantum number was not part
of the Schrdinger equation but experiments suggested
that there was a missing link as hyperfne lines could be
seen in the hydrogen emission spectrum. It was thought
that these very fne lines could be due to the angular
momentum associated with the spinning of the electron.
However, no one really knows what spin is other than the
fact that it is an intrinsic attribute of an elementary particle
that is a fermion. In other words, just as mass and charge
cannot be changed for a certain particle so too spin cannot
be changed. To confuse matters even further, we know
that spin can be gained and lost just as speed and angular
momentum can be gained or lost. So really spin can have
two attributes. Te intrinsic attribute will be dealt with
here and the second attribute will be dealt with later.
Paul Dirac was able to devise a mathematical description
to demonstrate how spin within a system of particles is
dependant on the spin of the constituent particles. By
taking the property of angular momentum that we do
know, we can compare spin to its behaviour.
Te rules for spin are:
Leptons, quarks and lighter baryons can have a
total spin of with two diferent states spin up
+ and spin down with the spin down state
having slightly less energy than the spin up state.
Mesons have a spin number equal to 0 or 1
Gauge bosons have a spin number equal to 1
Some heavier baryons have a spin number of 3/2
Integral spin can be 0, 1, 2.. and half-integral
and half-integral spin can be 1/2, 3/2, 5/2
J.1.5 ANTIPARTICLES
All particles have antiparticles which are identical to the
particle in mass and half-integral spin but are opposite
in charge to their corresponding particle. In 1928, Paul
Dirac, while tryng to combine special relativity and
electromagnetic theories mathematically, came to the
conclusion that particles with the same mass but opposite
charge might exist somewhere in the Universe. In 1932,
Carl Anderson found that cosmic radiation travelling
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through a bubble chamber during pair production split up
into an electron path and a path with the same mass as an
electron but in an opposite direction. Tus the positron
had been discovered. In Figure 2107, incoming gamma
radiation (from the bottom) produces two circular tracks
of a positron (to the lef) and an electron (to the right),
and a secondary electron-positron track.
Figure 2107 Electron-positron pair creation
Further evidence came with the discovery of the
antineutrino during beta-minus decay. It was not until
1955 that the antiproton was discovered. In particle
accelerators, beams of electrons and positrons or protons
and antiprotons are accelerated in opposite directions
and are then collided with each other in detectors. Tese
collisions produce enormous amounts of energy and
the products of the collisions are studied. Today, most
antiparticles have been identifed in this way. Te question
still remains as to where has all the antimatter gone that
must have been created during the Big Bang.
Although antiparticles have the same mass as their particle
pair, they have opposite charge, lepton number, baryon
number and strangeness. Some electrically neutral bosons
and mesons are their own antiparticle.
J.1.6 PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
Te Pauli exclusion principle states that an orbital can
only contain a maximum of two electrons and when the 2
electrons occupy an orbital they have opposite spin.
Tis principle is also extended to the shell model that
explains nuclear energy states. It perplexed physicists as
to how a dense collection of strongly interacting nucleons
could collide in the nucleus without the loss of energy
during scattering. However, the Pauli exclusion principle
explains why there is no loss of energy because only one
nucleon can occupy a given energy state. Te lower energy
states will fll up frst and particles in a higher energy state
cannot lose their energy by dropping to a lower energy
state because these energy levels are already full. Of course
scattering can raise fermions to a higher energy level but
scattering which would lower the energy is not possible
according to the Pauli exclusion principle.
Fundamental interactions
J.1.7 List the fundamental interactions.
J.1.8 Describe the fundamental interactions in
terms of exchange particles.
J.1.9 Discuss the uncertainty principle for time
and energy in the context of particle
creation.
IBO 2007
J.1.7 TYPES OF FUNDAMENTAL
INTERACTIONS
Tere are four fundamental interactions and some of
their properties are shown in Figure 2109. As can be seen
the fundamental interactions are:
Gravitational
Weak
Electromagnetic
Strong
Since the early 1970s the electromagnetic and weak
interactions have been shown to be two aspects of the
same interaction, the electroweak interaction.
Te electromagnetic force is the cause for basic collisions
between charged particles such as:
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p + p p + p
Te strong force is mainly responsible for reactions
between hadrons. For example,
p + p p + p +
0
Te weak force is the only force in lepton reactions that
produce neutrinoes as they are electrically neutral and
so will not be afected by the electromagnetic force. For
example,

e
+
-
e
-
+

J.1.8 INTERACTIONS AND EXCHANGE

PARTICLES
Te graviton is the exchange particle for the gravitational
force. It is an inverse square force with an infnite range
that afects all particles and acts on all mass/energy and it
has a rest mass of zero.
Te W
+
, W
-
and Z
0
are the exchange particles involved
in the weak nuclear interaction. Tey were predicted in
1979 and then measured at the CERN particle accelerator
in 1982 by Carlo Rubbia. According to the electroweak
unifcation theory, the weak and electromagnetic forces
should have the same strength but the experimental data
showed that this was not the case. However, under certain
conditions a high strength force can have the appearance
of a weak strength force provided the exchange particles
have a large mass, as does the W and Z particles.
Te photon is the exchange particle that is responsible for
the electromagnetic force and its energy is given by the
Planck relationship E = hf = hc / . Te electromagnetic
force is transmitted almost instantaneously, since photons
travel at the speed of light.
In 1935, based on the earlier theory of electromagnetic
forces, the Japanese physicist Hideki Yukawa (19071981)
suggested the interchange of certain particles could also
explain the strong nuclear force. Tese particles, members
of the meson family, came to be known as pions (short
for pi mesons). Yukawa suggested that the composite
nucleons continuously exchange mesons with nearby
nucleons without being altered themselves. Of course,
this interaction must take place in a short enough time
frame so as not to violate the law of conservation of
mass-energy. Yukawa suggested the mesons mediate the
strong nuclear force in the same way photons mediate the
electromagnetic force and that the strong nuclear force is
responsible for holding nucleons together in the nucleus.
Yukawas theory started a search for his predicted particle,
and in 1947, pions were discovered in cosmic rays by Cecil
Frank Powell (1905 1969). In 1949, Yukawa received the
Nobel Prize in Physics for his prediction of the existence of
pions. One year later, Powell also received the Nobel prize
for his discovery of mesons, and developing the method
that enabled their discovery.
Te strong force due to gluons only occurs within hadrons.
Te force that holds the nucleus together is caused by
leakage from the gluon exchange. For example, in
interactions between protons and neutrons there is an
exchange of pions. Gluons are the exchange particle that
are responsible for quark colour. Just as the positive and
negative charges are associated with the electromagnetic
force, a three colour charge are associated with quarks and
gluons that bind the quarks together. Te linking between
quarks and antiquarks is done by gluon clumps called
glueballs. Colour will be dicussed in detail in section J3.
Interaction Gravitational
Weak Electromagnetic Strong
Electroweak Fundamental Composite
It acts on: Mass-energy Flavour Electric charge Colour charge
On what particles: All
Quarks
Leptons
Electrically charged
particles
Quarks
Gluons
Hadrons
Exchange particle
is:
Graviton?
W
+
W
-
Z
0
Gluons Mesons
Relative strength 10
-38
10
-5
10
-2
1 Not applicable
Range ~10
-18
m ~10
-15
m
Figure 2109 Fundamental interactions and some properties
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J.1.9 HEISENBERGS UNCERTAINTY
PRINCIPLE
In 1927, the German physicist Werner Heisenberg
(1901 - 1976) introduced the world to what would become
known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. In simple
terms, it deals with the inability to measure precisely both
the position and momentum of electrons. Te reason lies
in the main method of measuring these quantities, that is,
photon bombardment. Heisenberg theorized that photon
bombardment of electrons would automatically change
both the position and the motion of the target electron,
as that electron absorbed energy from the collision with
the photon.
Te best measurements are obtained using photons of short
wavelength, but those photons also have high frequencies,
and hence, high energies. However, a collision with a higher
energy photon will have a much great impact on the electron
than one with a lower energy photon. When lower energy
photons are used, the resulting measurements are much
less accurate due to the longer wavelengths of the photons.
Terefore, any increase in the accuracy of a position
measurement must be accompanied by a corresponding
decrease in the accuracy of the momentum measurement.
Tere are implications of this inability to simultaneously
measure accurately both position and momentum. Without
being able to pinpoint the position and momentum of an
electron at a given point in time and space, it is virtually
impossible to simultaneously observe both its wave and
particle properties. If these properties cannot be observed
for electrons, then it is also impossible to observe them for
light. Furthermore, other pairs of physical quantities related
to the motion of an object, such as time and energy, are also
impossible to measure simultaneously.
Mathematically, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle can
be stated as:
(x )( p) h / 2
So if the position x is small, then the uncertainty in the
momentum p will be greater and vice-versa.
Another useful form of the uncertainty principle can be
used to relate energy and time. Suppose a particle has
an uncertainty in position x approximately equal to its
wavelength and a photon used to detect it is travelling at
the speed of light c.
So, x / c / c. Terefore, the measured time when
the particle is at this position would be t / c. Since
the photon can transfer some or all of its energy to the
particle the uncertainty in the energy E could be given
by the equation E = hc/. So if we multiply the time and
energy equations, the result is E t h. Heisenbergs
calculations arrived at the equation:
(E) ( t) h / 4
Tis form of the mathematical uncertainty principle
describes that the energy of a particle can be uncertain or
nonconserved by an amount E for a time ( t) h / 4.
Tis fact will become important when we look at Feynman
diagrams.
J.1.10 Describe what is meant by a Feynman
diagram.
J.1.11 Discuss how a Feynman diagram may
be used to calculate probabilities for
fundamental processes.
J.1.12 Describe what is meant by virtual particles.
J.1.13 Apply the formula for the range R for
interactions involving the exchange of a
particle.
J.1.14 Describe pair annihilation and pair
production through Feynman diagrams.
J.1.15 Predict particle processes using Feynman
diagrams.
IBO 2007
J.1.10 FEYNMAN DIAGRAMS
Te mediation of exchange forces can be easily represented
using Feynman diagrams, so named for their inventor, the
American physicist Richard Feynman (19181988). Tey
were developed by Feynman as a graphical tool to examine
the conservation laws that govern particle interactions
according to quantum electrodynamic theory.
A typical Feynman diagram in Figure 2110 depicting
how 2 electrons approach each other, exchange a virtual
photon and as a result repel each other. Be careful here
they do not depict the track of a particle or how a particle
conserves energy and momentum in the classical sense
because the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells us of
the uncertainty in position and momentum, so the path
of the particle is not known in much detail. Each point at
which lines come together is called a vertex. Lines with
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arrows represent particles and the direction of their travel
while wavy lines represent the virtual particle.
e

virtual
photon
Figure 2110 Feynman diagram for the
electromagnetic force between 2 electrons
Each point at which lines come together is called a vertex.
Lines with arrows represent particles and the direction of
their travel while wavy lines represent the virtual particle.
Backward arrows represent antiparticles.
Tey are space time diagrams with the vertical direction
representing time and the horizontal direction representing
space, in this case ct. At each vertex, the conservation laws
of charge, lepton number and baryon number must be
obeyed. Feynman diagrams are a shorthand method for
studying the probability for particle interactions.
Some of the interactions using Feynman diagrams are
shown in Figure 2111.
.
e

virtual
photon
n
p
e

Electromagnetic Weak
Strong Interaction
between quarks between nucleons
W

v
e
blue
green
blue
green
green-
antiblue
gluon
p
p
n
n
Figure 2111 Some interactions using
Feynman diagrams
J.1.12 VIRTUAL PARTICLES
Early in the last century, scientists began to search for an
explanation of the four fundamental forces, particularly
how they can act over a distance. One of the mechanisms
suggested was the exchange of virtual particles. A virtual
particle is a particle that cannot be observed during an
interaction. A virtual photon is said to be the carrier of
the electromagnetic force. An example of this would be
the exchange of virtual photons between charged particles
as a mechanism for the repulsions and attractions that
make up the electromagnetic force.
Te analogy that is ofen used for repulsion of charged
particles is to imagine the particles are like two people
sitting on big frictionless frisbees on an icy pond. If one
person throws a heavy object to the second person, the
frst person will recoil in the opposite direction to the
object fight and the second person will recoil in the same
direction as the object fight.
A similar analogy for attraction could be of children
exchanging pillows. Imagine two children standing facing
one another, each holding a pillow. Te children can
exchange their pillows in one of two ways. Tey can grab
them from one another, at the same time pulling on each
other, an action analogous to an attractive force. Te other
possibility is that they can throw them at one another, at
the same time stepping back to catch the pillows, which
is analogous to a repulsive force. If charged particles such
as electrons exchanged photons in the same manner, the
attractive and repulsive electromagnetic forces could be
explained quite simply. Photons emitted by one electron
cause it to recoil, as it transfers momentum and energy to
the other electron. Ten the second electron undergoes the
same process almost immediately. Te closer two charges
are, the more energetic the virtual photons exchanged,
while the further away two charges are, the less energetic
their virtual photons. Because the exchange must be very
rapid, the photons exchanged are called virtual photons,
suggesting they are not observable. Tese virtual photons
are said to carry the electromagnetic force, or in other
words, to mediate the force. Figure 2112 shows the
Feynman diagram for the force of attraction between an
electron and a positron.
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e
+ e
+
e

Figure 2112 Force between an electron and positron

J.1.11 PROBABILITIES FOR
FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES
Feynmann diagrams are a reliable shorthand picture for
the probability calculations during particle interactions.
Te events that occur in an electromagnetic interaction
are the emission and absorption of photons by charged
particles. Te magnitude of the force as determine by
F=qE is proportional to the number of photons. Tat is,
the greater the force on a charged particle, the greater the
number of photons that it will emit or absorb. It has been
said that the charge on a particle is proportional to the
probability that it will emit or absorb photons.
Now why is it that when two electrons approach each
other from an infnite distance that one electron emits a
photon and recoils while the other absorbs the photon and
acquires its own momentum? Where does the energy used
to create the virtual photons come from? It appears that
the law of conservation is violated.
Heisenbergs uncertainty principle for energy-time
demonstrates that as the electrons approach each other,
work is being done against the electrostatic force of
repulsion and the electrons will gain energy. If the
electrons are to interact via the exchange of a virtual
photon, then this will occur in a time t. In order to
measure E with precision, the energy state must last for:
t
h

______

4(E)

Terefore, a photon with energy E can be created
provided it exists for a a very short time t without
violation of the law of conservation of energy. Te virtual
photons in fact only last for about 10
-20
s.
Photons have an infnite range and the single photon
can be considered to consist of an infnite number of
photons that are exchanged during the interaction. Te
whole process begins when the two electrons were an
infnite distance apart. Tey then move to their point of
closest approach where virtual photons are absorbed and
emitted in a very short period of time during which the
states energy becomes uncertain. Te system is allowed to
move through this state with some probability that energy
conservation is not violated. Te electrons then move an
infnite distance apart.
J.1.13 RANGE FOR INTERACTIONS
INVOLVING THE EXCHANGE OF
A PARTICLE
Te electromagnetic force has an infnite range and so it
only needs a zero mass exchange particle but the weak and
strong forces have ranges of 10
-18
m and 10
-15
m respectively.
To understand their behaviour we give them large mass
exchange particles. To create an exchange particle of large
mass will require an amount of energy at least as large as
E = m
0
c
2
where m is the rest mass of the particle. Tis state
according to the uncertainty principle cannot last longer
than:
t
h

______

4(E)

h

______

4 mc
2


Now speed = distance / time and distance = speed time.
Te furthest distance that it can move called the range R
that is equal to ct. So R ct. Terefore, upon substitution
we get:
R
h

______

4 m
0
c

From this relationship it can be seen that the range of an
interaction is inversely proportional to the rest mass of
the virtual exchange particle.
Now it is possible by using this equation to determine the
mass of the virtual exchange particles for the strong and
weak forces.
Example
Calculate the approximate masses of the virtual exchange
particles for the strong and weak forces.
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Solution
Te strong force has a range 10
-15
m. Substituting, we get:
10
15

h

______

4m
0
c
,
m
0
=
6.63 10
34
Js

______________________

4 10
15
m 3 10
8
m s
1
= 210
28
kg
Te strong force has a range 10
-18
m. Substituting, we get:
10
18

h

______

4m
0
c
,
m
0
=
6.63 10
34
Js

______________________

4 10
18
m 3 10
8
m s
1
= 210
25
kg
Yukawa used a similar idea to predict the mass of the
exchange particle of the strong force and this led to the
discovery of the pi-meson (pion) in 1947. Electroweak
theory predicted that the Z
0
, W
-
and W
+
were the carriers of
the weak force and they were discovered at CERN in 1983.
Tis model cannot be used for the gluon the exchange
particle between quarks. Te graviton with an infnite range
should have a rest mass similar to the photon but it has not
been detected.
J.1.14 PAIR ANNIHILATION AND PAIR
PRODUCTION
When matter (such as an electron) collides with its
corresponding antimatter (such as a positron), both
particles are annihilated, and 2 gamma rays with the
same energy but with a direction at 180
0
to each other are
produced. Tis is called pair annihilation. Te direction
of the gamma rays produced is in accordance with the law
of conservation of momentum and the electron- positron
annihilation gives energy equal to E = mc
2
. Tis is depicted
in Figure 2113.
positron path
positron emitted by
nucleus collides with
electron
ray
ray
Figure 2113 Electron-positron annihilation
When particles and antiparticles collide, they can annihilate
one another, releasing energy in the form of gamma rays.
Te gamma rays result from conversion of matter to
energy, according to Einsteins famous equation, E = mc
2
.
For example, an electron and positron annihilating one
another at rest release an amount of energy equal to:
E = mc
2
= (2 9.11 10
-31
kg) (3 10
8
ms
-1
)
2

= 1.64 10
-13
J = 1.03 MeV.
Te energy released is higher if the particles annihilate in
a collision where one or both contributes kinetic energy
to the process.
Particleantiparticle pairs can also be produced when
a gamma ray with sufcient energy passes close by a
nucleus. Te process is the reverse of annihilation and is
called pair production. Te law of conservation of mass-
energy requires particles and antiparticles to be produced
in pairs.
Figure 2114 gives the Feynman diagrams for pair
annihilation and pair production.
e

e
+
electron-positron
annihilation
e

electron-positron
pair production
e
+
Figure 2114 Feynman diagrams for electron-positron
annihilation and production
Note that the backward arrow is an antiparticle, in this
case a positron. Also remember the space-time concept
of the Feynman diagram with time progressing upwards.
Even though the arrow of the antiparticle is downwards,
the antiparticle is still progressing upwards in time.
Providing sufcient energy is available, particles other
than photons can be produced.
J.1.15 PREDICTING PARTICLE
PROCESSES
A number of particle processes have already been
introduced in the preceding sections. Let us look at some
more examples as shown in Figure 2115.
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(a) (b)
e
-
s u

W
-
e
-
e
u
d

(d) (c)

+ W
+
Figure 2115 Some examples of Feynman diagrams
In (a), a muon neutrino interacts with a photon exchange
particle to become an electron. In (b), a strange quark
emits an exchange particle and becomes an up quark. Tis
is an example of a favour change as it transforms into a
member of another generation. In (c), a negative muon
emits a W
-
particle and becomes a muon neutrino. Te
W
-
particle changes to particle-antiparticle pair in the
form of an electron and an electron antineutrino. In (d),
a positive pion decays into a positive muon and a muon
neutrino. Te up quark and the antidown quark annihilate
to produce a W
+
particle. Note the backward direction of
the antidown quark. Te W
+
then decays into a positive
muon and a muon neutrino.
More complicated interactions can be demonstrated. For
example, the electromagnetic interaction leads to photon
photon scattering (that is, scattering of light by light). Te
particles in the loop are electrons or positrons and this
interaction is shown in Figure 2116.
photon
photon
photon
photon
Figure 2116 Electrons or positrons are in the loop
Exercise 21.1
1. Describe the diference between an elementary
particle and a composite particle.
2. Neutrons and protons are classifed as hadrons,
whereas electrons are classifed as leptons.
Describe the concept underlying this type of
classifcation.
3. (a) Describe the properties of the neutrino.
(b) Explain the reasons that led Enrico Fermi
to predict the existence of the neutrino.
4. Te neutrino belongs to the same family as the
A. neutron.
B. proton.
C. electron.
D. baryon.
5. Hadrons difer from the other two families in that
A. they mainly interact via the electromagnetic
force.
B. they mainly interact via the gravitational
force.
C. they mainly interact via the strong nuclear
force.
D. they mainly interact via the weak
interaction force.
6. State the name and give the charge of each of the
symbols given, and classify the particles as either
quarks, baryons, mesons, leptons or gauge bosons:
1. e
+
2. d 3.
+
4.
e
5. 6.
+
7.
+
8.
0
9. K
-
10. g 11.
-
12.
13.
+
14. Z 15.

16. 17.
-
18. c
7. Determine whether the following reactions can
occur:
(a) e
-
+ p n + n
(b)
-
+ p
-
+
+
(c) p + n p + n +
+
(d) K
0

0
+
0
+
+
8. (a) State the Pauli exclusion principle
(b) Does the principle only apply to leptons?
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9. State the spin number for each of the following
particles:
1. e
+
2. n 3.
+
4.
e
5. 6.
+
7.
+
8.
0
9. K
-

10. g 11.
-
12.
13.
+
14. Z 15.

10. Antiparticles difer from their corresponding

particle in their
A. charge.
B. rest mass.
C. family.
D. rest energy.
11. Defne the terms antiparticle and antimass.
12. Describe how baryons difer from mesons.
13. Of the proton, neutron, and electron, state which
would
a. travel in a straight line through a magnetic
feld.
b. travel in a curved path in a magnetic feld.
c. travel in a curved path of greatest radius in
a magnetic feld.
14. Describe the quarks that make up a proton and
a neutron in terms of the type of quark and their
overall charge.
15. (a) Describe what is meant by pair annihilation.
(b) Calculate the energy of each photon
produced when an electron and positron,
initially at rest, are annihilated.
(c) Describe the direction of travel of the
photons.
(d) Determine the threshold photon frequency
for electron-positron pair production.
16. Pair production results when
A. particles and antiparticles annihilate one
another.
B. particles of sufcient energy pass close to a
nucleus.
C. gamma rays of sufcient energy pass close
to a nucleus.
D. gamma rays and particles annihilate one
another.
17. Calculate the energy released when a proton and
antiproton annihilate one another
a. at rest.
b. in a collision where each has kinetic energy
of 25 MeV (assume no energy is lost).
18. If a -ray is to produce a neutron-antineutron pair,
determine the minimum energy, in MeV, that it
must have.
19. Explain how photon exchange mediates the force
between two electrons.
20. Predict the Feynman diagram particle processes as
shown in the fgure below.
(a) (b)

-
d u

W
+
e
+
e
u

-

(d) (c)

-
W
-
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Particle accelerators
J.2.1 Explain the need for high energies in order
to produce particles of large mass.
J.2.2 Explain the need for high energies in order
to resolve particles of small size.
J.2.3 Outline the structure and operation of a
linear accelerator and of a cyclotron.
J.2.4 Outline the structure and explain the
operation of a synchrotron.
J.2.5 State what is meant by bremsstrahlung
(braking) radiation.
J.2.6 Compare the advantages and
disadvantages of linear accelerators,
cyclotrons and synchrotrons.
J.2.7 Solve problems related to the production of
particles in accelerators.
IBO 2007
J.2.1 HIGH ENERGIES AND PARTICLES
WITH LARGE MASS
Te large hadron collider that is due to go online in
November 2007 at CERN is the biggest and most
complex scientifc experiment in particle physics. Te
circular tunnel with a diameter of 8.5 kilometres set
90 m underground will whirl protons beams in opposite
directions around the 27 kilometre circumference until
they travel at 99.999999% the speed of light. Te proton
beams will be collided and the annihilation will produce
1400 GeV of energy so that an array of particles will be
created. But why is there a need to have so much energy
available?
When a particle with low energy E and mass M collides
with a particle of the same mass at rest, the collision
energy is equal to E/2 and the remaining energy equal
to E/2 goes to their energy of motion. However, at very
high energy, special relativity has to be taken into account
and the actual collision energy is approximately equal to
(2Mc
2
E)
1/2
.
E
COLL
~ (2Mc
2
E)
1/2
Let us take the situation of a proton of mass M with energy
E equal to 50Mc
2
colliding with another proton of mass M,
then the collision energy would be close to:
(100M
2
c
4
)
1/2
= 10Mc
2
.
Tis is only 20% of the original energy. So the collision
energy is much less than E/2 if the initial energy is much
bigger than mc
2
.
However, if two particle beams travelling in opposite
directions collide head on with each other, the total kinetic
energy of the combined system will be zero. Terefore,
all the energy of the two particles becomes available as
collision energy. Te total available energy is given by:
E
avail
~ (2Mc
2
E)
1/2
+ Mc
2
+ mc
2
Tis can be written as:
E
a

2
= 2Mc
2
E + (Mc
2
)
2
+ (mc
2
)
2
Tis is a large amount of energy and new particles that have
mass greater than the original particles can be formed. For
example, 2 protons can produce 2 protons, a K
+
and a K
-

provided the original protons are accelerated to a speed
close to the speed of light.
J.2.2 HIGH ENERGIES TO RESOLVE
PARTICLES
Because all particles have wave properties, particles can
be used as probes to fnd small particles. Most particles
in nature have long wavelengths relative to the particles
that are being sought. But if a probe particles momentum
is increased the wavelength decreases as can be seen by
using the de Broglie equation = h / p. Beams of GeV
particles would be travelling at relativistic speeds. We can
assume that they would be travelling at approximately the
speed of light. Terefore,
= h/p = h/mv h/mc = hc/mc
2

In order to resolve a particle of size d, the de Broglie
wavelength of the probe particle used to scatter from it
must be of the same order of magnitude as d. To probe
down to smaller scales, the probes wavelength has to be
made smaller. At high energies the de Broglie wavelength
of an electron is small enough to resolve particles inside
J.2 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS & DETECTORS
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the proton. In efect, the electrons can difract of quarks
inside the protons. If the probe particle such as electron can
be considered one source and the particle being probed as
another source, then according to the Rayleigh criterion, if
the central maximum of one difraction pattern coincides
with the frst minimum of the other difraction pattern,
then the two sources will just be resolved.
So as the energy of the particles increases in the accelerator,
the momentum of the particles increases and therefore the
wavelength decreases.
J.2.3 LINEAR ACCELERATORS AND
CYCLOTRONS
Recall that an electric feld can change the kinetic energy
of charged particles. A magnetic feld cannot change the
kinetic energy of charged particles but it can change their
direction. Te path of a charged particle in an electric feld
is parabolic and in a magnetic feld it is circular. For an
electric feld, F = qE and W = qV = mv
2
. For a magnetic
feld, F = qvB and qvB = mv
2
/ r. When a uniform electric
feld and a uniform magnetic feld are perpendicular to
each other, they are known as crossed felds, and if the
force exerted on a charged particle beam by each feld
is the same magnitude, then they can be used to select a
particle a single velocity from a beam containing particles
with difering velocities, a velocity selector, according to:
qE = qvB so that v = E/B
Linear accelerators
A linear accelerator (LINAC) is a device that accelerates
charged particles in a straight line inside a long evacuated
tube. Tere are 2 types of linacs:
Drif tube accelerators as at Berkeley university
Travelling wave accelerators as at Stanford university
In the drif tube accelerator at Berkeley, protons are
accelerated to 31 MeV through a series of hollow cylindrical
electrodes of increasing length called drif tubes as shown
in Figure 2118. Tese electrodes are connected alternately
to opposite terminals of a high-frequency alternating
potential diference produced by a magnetron.
to target
drift tubes
high frequency supply
Figure 2118 Drift tube accelerator
As the protons enter a drif tube, they travel with a constant
velocity. At the gaps, the protons are accelerated and this is
why the tubes have to be progessively longer in size.
Knowing that W = qV = mv
2
, then making v the subject
of the equation, we get:
v =

____

2qV

____

m

By knowing the alternating potential diference and the
frequency of the electric source, the time that a particle is
in each tube can be calculated by taking half the period of
the alternating potential diference. Terefore, the length
of each drif tube can be calculated.
Te largest travelling-wave accelerator is at Stanford
University in the USA. It is electron-positron collider that
is 3.2 km long. It is capable of accelerating electrons to
an energy of 50 GeV in an evacuated system of storage
rings and the linear accelerator. Te SLAC unit has been
responsible for the the discovery of the tau lepton and the
J/Psi meson as well as the up, down and strange quarks and
antiquarks directly observed due to electron scattering.
Te electrons and positrons gain their energy by giving
them a kick with microwave electromagnetic radiation.
Te basic components of the Stanford linear accelerator
collider are:
the electron gun
the positron producer unit
2 storage rings
the linear accelerator
the klystrons
the Stanford positron-electron accelerating ring
(SPEAR)
particle detectors inside the Stanford synchrotron
research laboratory (SSRL)
At SLAC, the electrons are produced by an electron gun
by thermionic emission and then their speed is regulated
inside a klystron so that they arrive in bunches at the output
cavity with the required microwave wavelength before
they enter the accelerator. Some of the electrons are sent
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to a damping ring and some are sent down the linac where
they are diverted and collided with tungsten to produce
positron bunches which are then diverted by magnets back
to a second damping ring. So why do we need damping
rings in a linear accelerator? Te reason is that the bunches
of electrons and positrons tend to spread out if introduced
directly into the linear accelerator. Terefore, the particles
are sent to the small storage rings where the bunches lose
energy due to synchrotron radiation (X-rays). Te bunches
are re-accelerated with electric (F = qE) feld as they pass
through a special cavity that sorts the bunches so that only
those that have the required direction are fed into the two
linear accelerator lines.
Upon returning to the linear accelerator the bunches gain
speed up to 99.9% the speed of light within the frst few
metres. Te two lines are made of 80 000 small copper
discs about 2 cm thick with a small aperture (hole) that
are joined together over the 3.2 km journey. Microwave
klystrons placed along the track produce current in the
copper that then produces oscillating electromagnetic
felds of the required sort so that all the microwaves are
in phase. Te electron and positron bunches must arrive
in the copper discs just at the right moment when they
can be accelerated by the electric feld. Te positrons with
opposite charge to the electrons will have to arrive at a
point when the oscillating electric feld is in the opposite
direction to that of the electron, so that they can be
accelerated in the same direction as the electrons down
the accelerator.
Afer reaching the end of the linear accelerator, the
particle bunches are diverted into the SPEAR storage ring
that is 80 m in diameter. Dipole magnets separated by the
required distance keep the particle bunches circulating in
the ring with speeds up to 4 GeV. Again the particles lose
energy due to synchrotron radiation and they have to be
re-accelerated by electric felds at certain cavity points.
When they have the required energies, they are sent to
detectors at the Stanford synchrotron research laboratory
for analysis afer the electron and positron bunches are
collided. Figure 2119 shows a schematic layout of the
SLAC.
North Damping Ring
South Damping Ring
e
-
g
u
n
2
0
0
M
e
V
i
n
j
e
c
t
o
r
3 km
L
i
n
a
c
Positron Return Line
Positron Source
PEP II
Low Energy Ring
PEP II
High Energy Ring
Beam
Switch
Yard
SSRL
SPEAR PEP II IR-2
detector
End
Station A
Final Focus
Test Beam
End
Station B
NLCTA
SLD
Figure 2119 Schematic layout of the SLAC
Cyclotrons
Linacs are used to make radioisotopes for medical
diagnosis and therapy. Te X-rays produced by
synchrotron radiation can be used to study the structure
of matter at the molecular level. A machine that is more
commonly used for medical purposes is the cyclotron that
was frst invented by Ernest O Lawrence in the 1930s. A
schematic diagram of a cyclotron is shown in Figure 2120.
Te cyclotron is basically like a linac that has been
wrapped into a tight spiral. It has the following important
components:
a source of charged particles usually protons,
deuterons or helium nuclei
2 semi-circular boxes called dees
a uniform magnetic feld
an evacuated chamber
an high-frequency alternating potential diference
Protons are injected into the frst D-sector near the centre
of the cyclotron and they move in a circular path according
to r = mv / qB. If the proton takes time t to move a distance
r to move through this dee, then t = r / v. Terefore,
from these equations:
t =
m

___

qB

Tis demonstrates that the time to travel around a dee is
constant for a constant magnetic feld intensity, and that
the time is independent of the velocity and radius.
Source
Ion
Detector
Alternating
P.D.
Figure 2120 Schematic diagram of a cyclotron
Tere is a high-frequency alternating potential diference
between the dees that accelerates the protons into the
second D-sector. Since its velocity has increased it will
now travel in a path of larger radius because r = mv / qB.
Afer leaving the second D-sector, the polarity of of the
potential diference is reversed and it is again accelerated
into the frst D-sector. Te protons follow a spiral path
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that can consist of hundreds of loops. Upon reaching
the maximum radius loop, the protons are defected by a
charged plate and are incident on a target material with
energies of up to 25 MeV.
Te energy gained, E, can be calculated for any radius
according to:
E = mv
2
= m(qBr/m)
2
Since the potential diference must reverse twice each
cycle, then the period T of each cycle will be given by:
T =
2m

____

qB
and therefore f =
qB

____

2m

Tis frequency is known as the cyclotron frequency or the
resonance frequency. Tis is usually 10 MHz which is in
the radio frequency range.
When the particles have energies of about 20 MeV, they
become appreciably more massive according to the theory
of relativity. Tis slows them down and they become
unsynchronised with the alternating potential diference
when they travel across the gaps between the dees. Te
solution is to use a synchrocyclotron. An oscillator (radio-
frequency generator) that accelerates the particles around
the dees is automatically adjusted to stay in step with the
accelerated particles.
J.2.4 STRUCTURE AND OPERATION OF
A SYNCHROTRON
Two of the most famous synchrotrons are the large
hadron collider at CERN and the proton-antiproton
Tevatron collider at Fermilab just outside Batavia, Illinois.
Schematic diagrams for CERNs electron-positron collider
and Fermilabs Tevatron are shown in Figures 2121 and
2122. Synchrotrons are the most powerful members of
the accelerator family, the main components being:
a source of particles and antiparticles
radio-frequency accelerating cavities
bending magnets
focusing magnets
detector
2
7
km
(16.8 miles) circumference
Experimental
hall
Accumulator
ring
Linear acceletor
Antiprotons
Protons
Large
synchroton
Small
synchroton
Figure 2121 The CERN electron-positron collider
Firstly, beams of particles are injected into smaller
synchrotron rings. Tey consist of two evacuated tubes
at low pressure with large radii through which batches of
particles can travel, one for a batch of particles and one
for a batch of antiparticles. Te batches are accelerated by
an alternating potential diference of radio frequency as
they move from cavity to cavity. At CERN, there are 14
acceleration points. Te tubes are surrounded by bending
magnets that keep the particles moving in the same
circular path, and, focusing magnets that keep the particles
travelling through the center of the tube in a focused beam.
As the beams gain momentum, the magnetic fux density
has to be increased to keep them traveling in a circular
path. When the particle beams have been accelerated
to many million electron volts, they are injected into a
much larger synchrotron ring, and computers are used
to maintain the relationship between the magnetic feld
and oscillator frequency of the electric feld to compensate
for the relativistic increase in mass. In a few seconds, the
particles reach energies greater than 1 GeV and are ejected,
either directly into experiments or toward targets that
produce a variety of elementary particles upon collision
with the accelerated particles.
Proton
synchroton
Antiproton
storage
ring
Protons
Detector
Antiprotons
Main ring
Tevatron
6
.
4
k
m
(
4
m
ile
s)
circum
ference
2
3
4
5
Figure 2122 The Fermilab proton-antiproton collider
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Synchrotrons have a big radius because according to the
equation r = mv / qB, the larger the radius the greater are
the velocities that can be achieved and thus the greater
the kinetic energy of the particles. Remember it is not the
magnetic fux density that allows them to gain momentum
but rather the alternating potential diference of radio
frequency.
J.2.5 BREMMSTRAHLUNG RADIATION
When a fast-moving particle is rapidly decelerated or
defected by another target particle, it radiates most of
its energy in the form of photons in what is known as
bremsstrahlung or braking radiation in the X-ray region
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Tese photons can create
a variety of other particles.
Te energy of the photons is given by:
W =eV = hc /
min

J.2.6 ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF COLLIDERS
Figure 2123 lists some of the advantages and disadvantages
of the linac, cyclotron and the synchrotron.
Advantages Disadvantages
L
i
n
e
a
r

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
o
r
Easier and less expensive
to build. Do not need big
magnets. Do not need
large radii.
Radiation loss big for
small particles. Cannot
be used to study large
particles.
C
y
c
l
o
t
r
o
n
Cheap to build.
Good for medical use.
Cannot be used for
massive particles.
S
y
n
c
h
r
o
t
r
o
n
Good for studying
massive particles.
Can produce very high
energy particles.
Higher chance for a
collision in detectors.
Radiation losses are big.
Very expensive to build.
Need expensive
magnets.
Figure 2123 Advantages and disadvantages of colliders
J.2.7 PROBLEM SOLVING OF
PARTICLES IN COLLIDERS
Example
Calculate the wavelength and comment on the resolution
of a beam of 1.5 GeV electrons
Solution
=
h

__

p
=
h

___

mv

h

___

mc
=
hc

____

mc
2
where mc
2
= 1.5 GeV.
Terefore, =
6.63 10
34
Js 3 10
8
ms
1

_________________________

1.5 10
9
eV 1.6 10
19
JeV
1

= 8.3 10
-16
m
Tis is less than the size of the nucleus and thus the resolution
should be good.
Example
A drif tube accelerator has an alternating potential
diference of 50 kV, with a frequency of 10 MHz applied
to a row of tubular electrodes. Calculate the length of the
frst drif tube if electrons are to arrive at the right time to
be accelerated in the next gap.
Solution
Knowing that W = qV = mv
2
, then making v the subject
of the equation, we get:
v =

____

2qV

____

m
=

________________________

2 1.6 10
19
C 50 10
3
V

________________________

9.11 10
31
kg

= (1.76 10
15
)
v = 4.19 10
7
ms
-1
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f = 10 10
6
Hz and so T = 1 10
7
s.
Te average time for the polarity to change in the tube
lengths = T/2 = 0.5 10
-7
.
Terefore, the length of the tube =
vt = 4.19 10
7
ms
-1
5 10
-8
m = 2.10 m.
Example
Te synchrotron at Fermilab has a diameter of 2.0 km.
Estimate the magnetic fux density needed to move a
proton beam of 350 GeV.
Solution
mv
2
/ r = qvB where r = 1000 m.
If we assume that the proton beam is travelling at
approximately the speed of light, then mv
2
/ r mc
2
/ r where
mc
2
= 350 GeV. Terefore,
B
mc
2
(350 10
9
eV 1.6 10
-19
JeV
-1
)
(1.6 10
-19
C 3 10
8
ms
-1
1000)
1.2 T.
qcr

Example
A cyclotron is operated at an oscillator frequency of 15
MHz and has a dee radius of 0.50 m.
(a) Calculate the magnetic fux density needed to
accelerate protons in the cyclotron.
(b) Determine the kinetic energy of the protons in
MeV.
Solution
(a) Since the potential diference must reverse twice
each cycle, then the period T of each cycle will be
given by: T = 2m / qB and therefore f = qB / 2m
and B = 2mf / q. So,
B =
2 1.673 10
27
kg 15 10
6
s
1

______________________________

1.6 10
19
C
= 0.99 T
(b) mv
2
/r = qvB and therefore v = rqB / m. So,
=
0.5 m 1.6 10
19
C 0.99 T

________________________

1.673 10
27
kg
= 4.7 10
7
ms
1
E
K
= mv
2
= 0.5 1.673 10
-27
kg (4.7 10
7
ms
-1
)
2

= 1.84 10
-12
J
= 11.5 MeV.
Particle detectors
J.2.8 Outline the structure and operation of the
bubble chamber, the photomultiplier and
the wire chamber.
J.2.9 Outline international aspects of research
into high-energy particle physics.
J.2.10 Discuss the economic and ethical
implications of high-energy particle physics
research.
IBO 2007
J.2.8 STRUCTURE AND OPERATION OF
DETECTORS
BUBBLE CHAMBERS
We are all familiar with the vapour trails of jet aircraf,
providing a record of the jets movement. Te trails consist
of fne water droplets condensed on the jets exhaust fumes,
creating a long thin cloud. Tis is sort of the basis behind
cloud chambers. However, with the advent of particle
accelerators, the energetic particles could hurtle through
the cloud chamber without decaying or interacting with
chambers thin gas.
Now when you open a bottle of soda you can explain that
there is a fall in pressure as you release the bottles cap
causing bubbles to rise up through the liquid. A young
Michigan physicist, Donald Glaser (born 1926) used this
idea to create a bubble chamber. He reasoned that if you
put a liquid under pressure at close to its boiling point and
then you lowered the pressure, the liquid would begin to
boil because lowering the pressure decreases the normal
boiling point of a liquid. But if you lower the pressure
rapidly, no gas is formed even though it is above the
liquids boiling point. Tis state is called a superheated
liquid. It is an unstable state that can only exist for a short
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period unless no disturbance happens in the liquid. But if
a disturbance such as charged particles moving through
the liquid occurred, bubbles would form along the path
of the charged particles as they ionise the particles in the
liquid, and these paths can be photographed.
By repeating cycles of lowering and rapidly increasing
the pressure, many paths of charged particle could be
obtained.
Glaser chose diethyl ether as the liquid because of its low
vapour pressure but this was replaced with liquid hydrogen
at the suggestion of L.W. Alvarez. Bubble chambers are
easy to handle and the particles path can be viewed from
all angles to give a three-dimensional picture. However,
the data acquisition is slow and the bubble chamber has
been phased out as a particle detector.
PHOTOMULTIPLIERS
Te main instrument used for studying radioactivity and
X-rays at the beginning of the 1900s was the electroscope.
A more convenient and accurate instrument is the
scintillator or scintillation counter. Tis was the method
used by Geiger and Marsden and Rutherford to count
alpha-particles as they were scattered from thin gold foil.
Te alpha-particles emitted by the radium source have
kinetic energy which can be converted to tiny fashes of
light called scintillations.
A scintillation counter consists of an appropriate phosphor
such as zinc sulfde combined with a photomultiplier tube
as shown in Figure 2124. Not only alpha-particles but also
the weak fashes of beta-particles and gamma radiation
can be detected.
1V 3V 5V
2V 4V
0V
photoelectron
scintillator
photon
vacuum
signal
photocathode
dynodes
anode 10V
Figure 2124 A photomultiplier unit
It produces an electrical pulse for each ionizing emission
it detects. Each fash of light in the scintillator can knock
an electron out of the surface of the photocathode. Tis is
at negative voltage so the electron is accelerated towards
the frst dynode, gaining enough energy to knock out
several more electrons. Tese are then accelerated to the
next dynode and so on. An avalanche of electrons builds
up down the tube with perhaps 10
6
electrons arriving at
the anode 1 nanosecond later. Te voltage pulse at the
fnal resistor can be counted by an electronic system. Te
height of each pulse carries information about the number
of ion-pairs created in the scintillator by the emission.
So, the received signals from the photomultiplier are
measured, digitised, and the information is transmitted to
higher computers to reconstruct the events of a collision.
THE WIRE CHAMBER SPARK COUNTER
Te wire chamber operates on the principle of a Geiger-
Mller tube. Tis tube is a very sensitive type of ionisation
chamber that can detect single ionising events. It consists
of a cylindrical metal cathode (the wall of the tube) and a
wire anode as shown in Figure 2125.
+400 V
pulse output metal cathode
wire anode
+ -
mica
window
Figure 2125 Schematic diagram of the Geiger-Mller tube
Te tube is flled with argon gas. Te mica window allows
various types of radiation to enter. A potential diference
around 400 V is maintained between the anode and the
cathode, and because the anode is very thin, an intense
electric feld is created near it. When radiation enters
the tube and produces a few ions, the tube dramatically
increases the number of ions to produce a pulse of charge.
As negative charge accelerates towards the wire anode, they
have sufcient energy to produce ion-pairs. Te electrons
released by this secondary ionisation create more ion-pairs
in an electron avalanche. All the electrons are absorbed
by the wire to produce a large pulse of anode current. And
the resistance of the gas is said to have broken down.
Te positive ions being more massive are slower to move
towards the cathode and afer a short time there are so
many positive ions near the anode that the electric feld
around the wire is cancelled out and thus prevents more
ionisation. So the electron avalanche and the associated
anode current are cancelled out.
Tis process is known as gas amplifcation and as many as
10
8
electrons can be produced in a single ionising event.
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Te wire chamber difers from the Geiger- Mller tube in
that it has planes of thin wires spaced millimetres apart
inside the chamber. Te data collected gives the arrival
time of a particle as well as its track. In many particle
physics experiments, beams of particles are maintained by
by focusing and bending magnets in what is known as a
beam line. In this way, particles of interest can be kept
circulating until needed. Wire chambers are placed along
the beam line to identify individual particles and their
momentum.
J.2.9 INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS OF
PARTICLE RESEARCH
Students should be aware that governments need
to collaborate to construct and operate large-scale
research facilities. There are very few accelerators, for
example, CERN, DESY, SLAC, Fermilab and Brookhaven.
Results are disseminated and shared by scientists in
many countries.
IBO 2007
As already mentioned in the introduction to this chapter,
the number of employees at the facilities mentioned
above is quite high and researchers and engineers from all
countries are selected for their expertise to work at these
facilities. CERN and DESY (Germany) are funded by the
European Economic Community (EEC).
Te various facilities share the information they gather
in a joint collaboration. Tis is necessary because some
operate at the lepton level and others at the hadron
level. Te researchers would love to be the frst to make
predictions and then track down the remaining enigmas of
the grand unifed theory (GUT) such as the Higgs boson,
and there has been some ferce rivalry in the early days of
particle physics. However, the cooperation needed to solve
the mysteries of cosmology and particles has continued
throughout the last century or so.
J.2.10 ECONOMIC AND ETHICAL
ASPECTS OF HIGH-ENERGY
PARTICLE RESEARCH
Tis last section urges the reader to apply the IB Learner
profle and to refect on the IB MYP Science assessment
criterion called One World that examines the good and
bad efects of the impact of science and technology on
society and the social, political, economic, environmental
and ethical implications that are involved as a result of this
activity.
Te economic implications of high-energy particle
research are high as the facilities cost millions of dollars
to setup and maintain. Some organizations argue that this
money could be better spent to remove poverty from the
world, to fght the HIV epidemic or to improve the social
standing of citizens. Even at the height of the Cold War,
Western and Soviet scientists collaborated in the feld of
particle physics.
Tis section is for you the reader to decide through
gathering the facts and debating for and against particle
research.
Exercise 21.2
1. Calculate the total energy and wavelength of a
proton that has kinetic energy of 30 GeV.
2. Calculate the strength of a magnetic feld used in
a cyclotron in which a deuteron makes 1.5 10
7
revolutions per second.
3. Calculate the wavelength and comment on the
resolution of a beam of 3.2 GeV protons.
4. A drif tube accelerator has an alternating
potential diference of 30 kV, with a frequency of
15 MHz applied to a row of tubular electrodes.
Calculate the length of the frst drif tube if
electrons are to arrive at the right time to be
accelerated in the next gap.
5. Te synchrotron at Fermilab has a diameter of
2.0 km. Estimate the magnetic feld intensity
needed to move a proton beam of 300 GeV.
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6. A cyclotron is operated at an oscillator frequency
of 15 MHz and has a dee radius of 0.50 m.
(a) Calculate the magnetic fux density needed
to accelerate deuterons in the cyclotron.
(b) Determine the kinetic energy of the protons
in MeV.
7. Estimate the maximum resolving power that is
attainable using 370 GeV protons.
8. Te hadron track at CERN has a diameter of
8.5 km. Estimate the time it would take a high-
energy proton to make one revolution in the
collider.
9. Te following fgure is a sketch of the path of the
pair production of an proton and antiproton.
Tere is a magnetic feld pointing out of the page.
A
B
(a) Explain which of the tracks is due to the
antiproton, A or B.
(b) Deduce whether the particles have the same
energy.
(c) Calculate the minimum energy required for
the pair production in GeV.
10. An ion gun in an evacuated container consists
of 2 parallel conducting plates separated by a
distance of 2.0 cm. A potential diference of 50 kV
is applied across the plates. Protons enter between
the plates and drif with negligible speed into a
region between the plates. Te negative plate has a
small hole where protons can be ejected.
(a) Calculate the electric feld strength between
the plates.
(b) Determine the energy of the protons that
are ejected through the hole of the negative
plate.
(c) Deduce that the speed of the protons
ejected through the hole is approximately
3.1 10-6 ms
-1
.
(d) Describe why the apparatus is evacuated.
11. At CERN, protons are injected into the 200 m diameter,
28 GeV synchrotron ring with an energy of 50 MeV.
Te tube is flled with protons which are injected with
a proton current of 100 mA for 6 s. Tere are 14
acceleration points spaced evenly around the ring with
a potential diference between the electrodes of each
accelerator of 4 kV. Te fnal energy of the proton is 28
GeV. If relativistic efects are ignored:
(a) calculate the speed of the proton at injection
(b) determine the time it takes to go around the
ring at this speed
(c) calculate the momentum of the proton at
injection
(d) determine the number of protons that were
injected
(e) deduce by how much the energy of a
proton increases in each revolution of the
synchrotron
(f) estimate the number of times a proton must
go around the accelerator to obtain its fnal
maximum energy.
J.3 HL, D5 SL QUARKS
J.3.1 List the six types of quark.
J.3.2 State the content, in terms of quarks and
antiquarks, of hadrons (that is, baryons and
mesons).
J.3.3 State the quark content of the proton and
the neutron.
J.3.4 Dene baryon number and apply the law of
conservation of baryon number.
J.3.5 Deduce the spin structure of hadrons (that
is, baryons and mesons).
J.3.6 Explain the need for colour in forming
bound states of quarks.
J.3.7 State the colour of quarks and gluons.
J.3.8 Outline the concept of strangeness.
J.3.9 Discuss quark connement.
J.3.10 Discuss the interaction that binds nucleons
in terms of the colour force between quarks.
IBO 2007
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J.3.1 TYPES OF QUARKS
In 1963, the American physicist Murray Gell-Mann
(born in 1929), and the Israeli physicist Yuval Neeman
independently developed a new classifcation system for
the hundreds of elementary particles known at that time.
Gell-Mann called his new theory the eightfold way.
Gell-Mann realised that if baryons and mesons were
organised according to their charge, strangeness, and
spin (angular momentum), simple patterns emerged. He
used a new quantity called hypercharge, which was the
sum of the baryon and strangeness numbers, as well as
the spin number, to place each particle on a graph. What
emerged were hexagon-shaped patterns, with six particles
forming the hexagon and two particles at the centre of
each hexagon, hence the name eightfold way. Subsequent
work lead to triangle-shaped patterns consisting of ten
particles.
Te true test of any theory is its ability to not only explain
known phenomena, but also to make predictions of new
phenomena. When Gell-Manns diagrams were initially
set up, all of the particles on them were known, except one.
Tat one particle was called omega minus (). Using his
diagrams, Gell-Mann was able to predict the strangeness,
isotopic spin, charge, and mass of the new particle, which
gave physicists more than enough information to begin
searching for the particle. It took only seven months for the
existence of the predicted particle to be verifed. Murray
Gell-Mann received the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physics for his
new classifcation scheme.
Gell-Manns work did not end with the discovery of the
omega minus particle. His classifcation scheme suggested
that the hadrons known in 1964 were not actually
fundamental particles, but that these baryons and mesons
were actually composed of even more fundamental
particles.
Te new fundamental particles were given the whimsical
name quarks, a name which was apparently taken from
a line in the James Joyce novel, Finnegans Wake. Te line
reads Tree quarks for Muster Mark.
To build all the hadrons known in 1964, only three
quarks were necessary. Gell-Mann soon determined the
characteristics such as mass, charge and spin that these
quarks would need. It is interesting to note that these
quarks need to have fractions of the charge on an electron
in order to work, a suggestion that was quite revolutionary
in the wake of nearly sixty years of evidence that the
electron was the smallest unit of charge.
Te three quarks initially proposed were named Up
(symbol u), Down (symbol d), and Strange (symbol s). Up
and down have charges of +2/3e and -1/3e respectively,
and zero strangeness, while strange has a charge of -1/3,
but a strangeness value of 1. Baryons are built by grouping
quarks in threes. For example, the proton is duu, while the
neutron is ddu.
Note that these groupings support the law of conservation
of charge.
Once the idea of quarks had been proposed, scientists
began to hunt for evidence of their existence. Physicists
at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Centre used electron
beams to bombard liquid hydrogen (protons), and soon
discovered tiny, point-like charge concentrations inside
the proton. Tese charge points were determined to have
the predicted charges, verifying that quarks do indeed
exist.
Scientists then proceeded to try to make quarks, using
colliding beams of electrons and positrons, such as the ones
used in the LEP Collider at the European Laboratory for
Particle Physics. In 1974, a new quark was discovered that
had a charge of +2/3e. Te new quark was named charm
(symbol c) because of its magical ability to solve certain
theoretical problems. Another new quark, named bottom
or beauty (symbol b), was discovered in 1977. Bottom
carries a charge of -1/3e. Because quarks must occur in
pairs, a sixth quark was proposed, with the suggested
names top or truth (symbol t) and a predicted charge of
+2/3e, this was confrmed in 1995. Some properties of
quarks are given in Figure 2127.
Quark Spin Q B S C B T
C
h
a
r
g
e
B
a
r
y
o
n
S
t
r
a
n
g
e
n
e
s
s
C
h
a
r
m
e
d
B
o
t
t
o
m

n
e
s
s
T
o
p
n
e
s
s
Up u + 0 0 0 0
Down d - 0 0 0 0
Strange s - -1 0 0 0
Charm c + 0 +1 0 0
Bottom b - 0 0 -1 0
Top t + 0 0 0 -1
Figure 2127 Properties of quarks
Te corresponding symbols for the antiquarks are, Up; u

,
Down; d

, Strange; s

, Charm; c

, Bottom; b

, Top; t

. Teir
properties are the same as those for quarks except that
they have the opposite signs. For example, an strange
quark has a charge of - e, a Baryon number of and
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a strangeness of 1, meaning that the corresponding
antiquark would have a charge of -e, a baryon number
of and a strangeness of +1.
J.3.2 AND J.3.3 QUARK CONTENT OF
THE HADRONS
Some properties of the hadrons and their quark content
are given in Figure 2128. Te symbols Q, B and S stand
for charge, baryon number and strangeness that will be
introduced in the next two sections J.3.4 and J.3.6.
Name Mass Q B S Spin Quarks
Mesons
pion (pi-zero)
0
antiparticle self
0
135
MeV
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 uuu

or ddd

pion (pi-plus)
+
(pi-minus)
-
140
MeV
+1
1
0
0
0
0
0 u

d
kaon (K-zero) K
0
anti-kaon zero K
-0
498
MeV
0
0
0
0
1
1
0 duu

kaon (K-plus) K
+
(K-minus) K
-
494
MeV
+1
1
0
0
1
1
0 dss

suu

J/psi 3.1
GeV
0 0 0 1 ccc

Baryons
proton p 938.8
MeV
+1 +1 0 uud
antiproton p

938.8
MeV
1 1 0 u

neutron n
anti-neutron n

939.6
MeV
0
0
+1
1
0
0
ddu
d

lamda
0
anti-lamda

0
1.115
GeV
0
0
+1
1
1
+1
uds
u

sigma-zero
0
anti-sigma zero

0
1.192
GeV
0
0
+1
1
1
+1
uds
u

sigma-plus
+
anti-sigma minus

-
1.189
GeV
+1
1
+1
1
1
+1
uus
u

sigma-minus
-
anti-sigma plus

+
1.197
GeV
1
+1
+1
1
1
+1
dds
d

xi-minus
-
anti-xi plus

+
1.321
GeV
1
+1
+1
1
2
+2
dss
d

xi-zero
0
anti-xi zero

0
1.315
GeV
0
0
+1
1
2
+2
uss
u

omega minus
-
omega plus
+
1.672
GeV
1
+1
+1
1
3
+3
3
2 sss
s

Figure 2128 Properties of some mesons and baryons

and their quark content
J.3.4 CONSERVATION OF BARYON
NUMBER (B)
Te baryon number is given the symbol B. It was introduced
as a conservation law when it was found that reactions that
conserved electric charge were not taking place.
For example, consider the following reaction:
p + p p +
+
Q 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 charge is conserved but the reaction
does not occur.
If we apply a couple of simple rules then we can decide
whether baryon number is conseved. Te rules are:
the total number of baryons must remain constant
all baryons are assigned a baryon number of 1
(p, n, , , )
all non-baryons (leptons and mesons) are assigned
a baryon number of 0 (, , e, , ).
an antiparticle has the opposite baryon number (-1)
from its particle.
If we take the original reaction and look at the baryon
numbers we have:
p + p p +
+
Q 1 + 1 = 1 + 1
B 1 + 1 1 + 0
Te reaction does not occur because the baryon number
is not conserved.
Now we will look at an earlier equation:

-
+ p
-
+
+
Q -1 + 1 = -1 + 1 charge is conserved.
B 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 baryon number is conserved.
Te reaction does occur because electric charge and the
baryon number is conserved.
Finally, let us take an example that examines the 3
conservation laws introduced so far:

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n
+
+

energy 1 = 1/7 + 1/7 mass is greater in the initial particle

Q 0 = 1 - 1 charge is conserved
B 1 0 + 0 baryon number is not conserved.
Te reaction does not occur.
J.3.5 SPIN STRUCTURE OF HADRONS
Te rules for spin as mentioned in section J.1.4 are:
Leptons, quarks and lighter baryons can have a
total spin of with two diferent states spin up
+ and spin down with the spin down state
having slightly less energy than the spin up state.
Mesons have a spin number equal to 0 or 1
Gauge bosons have a spin number equal to 1
Some heavier baryons have a spin number of 3/2
Integral spin can be 0, 1, 2.. and half-integral
and half-integral spin can be 1/2, 3/2, 5/2
Te quantum number rules for particles with a spin of ,
3/2, 5/2 require that they must be distinguishable from
each other in at least one quantum number. Tese are
the particles that are the building blocks of matter. Te
particles that have a spin number of 0, 1, 2..can all have
the same quantum numbers including position, and these
are the particles that are associated with forces.
Spin is an important characteristic of some baryons that
contain three quarks. For example the baryons
0
and

0
both have the same three quarks uds as shown in
Figure 2129.
u d
s
u d
s
0 0
Figure 2129 Internal spin states for
0
and
0
baryons
As can be seen, the
0
baryon has an up and a down
quark spinning in opposite directions and the strange
quark spinning in the same direction as the up quark. Te
total spin is + - = . But, for the
0
baryon, the up
and down quarks are spinning in same direction and the
strange quark spins in the opposite direction to the up and
down quarks. Te total spin is + - = .
J.3.6 COLOUR IN FORMING BOUND
STATES OF QUARKS
Afer quark theory had been proposed, it was suggested
that quarks and gluons had properties of colour charge
and colour force respectively. Tis new theory was
called quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Quarks are
diferentiated from one another primarily by their charges
and their energies. However, they do difer by another
property, referred to as their colour, and this colour is
necessary to satisfy the Pauli exclusion principle. All
fermions (leptons, baryons, and quarks) obey the exclusion
principle and have a half-integral spin such as , 3/2, 5/2
Te bosons do not obey the exclusion principle and
have whole number spins such as 0,1,2
Te colours assigned to the favours of quarks are the three
primary colours, red, green, and blue, and for anti-quarks
cyan, magenta, yellow, although there is no connection
between the colour property and actual colour. As quarks
are much smaller than the wavelength of visible light, they
would not have any colour at all. Anti-quarks carry the
anti-colours of anti-red, anti-green and anti-blue.
Remember that elementary particles are divided into
three main families based on their interactions. Te
lepton family is characterised by its lack of interaction
via the strong nuclear force and is therefore colourless.
Te hadron family is characterised predominantly by its
interactions via the strong nuclear force. Baryons such
as protons and neutrons are also colourless but they
are composed of coloured quarks. It is thought that the
colour property of the quarks causes strong interactions
whenever one baryon comes close enough to another for
the quarks to feel the efects of colour with one another.
Te fact that hadrons have no colour is a consequence of
quark confnement to be discussed shortly.
Baryons are composed of quarks of all three colours
and mesons contain quarks of one colour and the
corresponding antiquark such as blue and anti-blue. Te
colours of the quarks are thought to neutralise each other.
So the strong nuclear force can be thought of as arising out
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of the colour force which would make the colour force a
fundamental force.
Just like electrically-charged particles, exchange photons
in an electromagnetic interaction, coloured particles
exchange gluons during the strong interactions causing
the particles to be glued together. Unlike the photon that
carries no colour charge, gluons carry combinations of a
colour and an anti-colour and therefore change the colour
of the quarks when they pass from one to another. Tese
colours can be mixed such as a red/anti-blue combination.
Te changing of colour is diferent to what happens in
other particle exchanges where there is no change to the
particles doing the exchanging. Tis feature of gluons is
important due to the fact that when quarks move apart,
the strong force actually gets stronger, rather than weaker.
Tis accounts for the fact that it highly unlikely that an
individual quark will be observed because gluons are
normally produced in quark-antiquark pairs. Tere are 8
combinations of colour/anti-colour for gluons.
J.3.8 CONSERVATION OF
STRANGENESS (S)
Another property which difers for particles and their
corresponding antiparticles is strangeness. Strangeness
(symbol S) is a quantum number introduced in the early
1950s to explain the production and decay behaviour of
some newly found particles, namely the kaon (symbol
K
0
) and the lambda hyperon (symbol
0
). Tese particles
are always produced in pairs, even though conservation
of mass-energy laws would allow production of single
particles. Also, they are unstable even though the particles
have much longer lifetimes than would be expected, leading
scientists to believe they were produced via the strong
force but decay via the weak interaction force. Strangeness
was found to be conserved in strong nuclear interactions,
but not in weak ones. Antiparticles of those particles
that exhibit strange behaviour are assigned strangeness
numbers that are opposite to their corresponding particles
strangeness number. So strangeness needs to be conserved
in all strong and electromagnetic interactions but it does
not need to be conserved in weak interactions.
Let us look at the following example

+ p
-
+
+
Q -1 + 1 = -1 + 1 charge is conserved
B 0 + 1 = 0 + 1 baryon number is conserved.
However, this reaction does not take place.
Here are some rules for strangeness:
the strangeness of leptons is zero
protons, neutrons and pions are assigned a
strangeness of 0
K
+
and K
0
mesons are assigned a strangeness of +1
K
-
, and and baryons are assigned a strangeness
of -1
baryons are assigned a baryon number of -2
baryons are assigned a baryon number of -3
all antiparticles have the opposite strangeness to
their particles.
So let us assign strangeness to the above example:

+ p
-
+
+
Q -1 + 1 = -1 + 1 charge is conserved.
B 0 + 1 = 0 + 1 baryon number is conserved.
S 0 + 0 0 + 1 strangeness is not conserved.
Terefore, the reaction does not occur.
Now let us examine a further nuclear reaction.
p + p p + p + K
+
+ K
-
Q 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + (-1) charge is conserved.
B 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 0 + 0 baryon number is conserved and
the number of baryons is the same.
S 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 1 + (-1) strangeness is conserved.
Terefore, this reaction can occur.
Now let us examine the quark content of the particles
that exhibit strangeness. Te K
+
meson consist of an up
quark and an anti-strange quark (strangeness of +1),
and K
-
consists of a strange quark and an anti-up quark
(strangeness of -1). Another example is the baryon that
contains uds quarks and has strangeness of -1. Finally, the

-
contains dss quarks and is assigned strangeness of -2.
Terefore, it can be seen the number of the strangeness is
negative for each strange quark present and positive for
each anti-quark present.
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J.3.9 QUARK CONFINEMENT
Colour-charged particles such as quarks and gluons can
never be found in isolation. Tey always exist in groups.
In fact it is found that the strong (colour) interaction
increases when quarks are tried to be separated. With
the tremendous energy of modern particle accelerators,
it was once thought that a quark may be one day found
individually. However, all that we get in collisions is more
3-coloured baryons, and, colour and anti-colour mesons.
A particle with four quarks has never been found. So, only
combinations that are colour-neutral can be found. Te
property that quarks are always found in groups that are
colourless is called quark confnement.
J.3.10 INTERACTION THAT BINDS
NUCLEONS IN TERMS OF THE
COLOUR FORCE BETWEEN QUARKS
Te interaction between nucleons is the residual
interaction between the quarks in the nucleons and this is
a short-range interaction.
J.4 LEPTONS AND
THE STANDARD
MODEL
J.4.1 State the three-family structure of quarks
and leptons in the standard model.
J.4.2 State the lepton number of the leptons in
each family.
J.4.3 Solve problems involving conservation laws
in particle reactions.
J.4.4 Evaluate the signicance of the Higgs
particle (boson).
IBO 2007
J.4.1 THREE-FAMILY STRUCTURE IN
THE STANDARD MODEL
Te standard model of elementary particles is shown in
Figure 2131. Tis model shows the three generations of
leptons and quarks. Figure 2130 is the legend that shows
the properties of the elementary particles.
I Generation
RGB
1/3
~ 310
Name
Symbol
u
up
Rest mass
MeVc
-2
Colour
Charge
LEGEND
Figure 2130 The legend for the elementary particles
Te standard model is the presently accepted theory
describing the electromagnetic and weak interactions of
quarks and leptons.
J.4.2 CONSERVATION OF LEPTON
NUMBER (L)
Te lepton number is given the symbol L. As already
mentioned, leptons carry the same electric charge and
react via the weak and electromagnetic forces but not the
strong force. Tey have partner neutrinos and they are
split into 3 generations - L
e,
L

and L

.
Neutrinos must accompany their partner leptons. But how
does one know if a neutrino or an antineutrino is involved
in a reaction or a decay. Basically, the rules are:
If the lepton and neutrino are on the same side of an
equation
electrons, negative muons and negative tau must
be accompanied by an antineutrino
positrons, positive muons and positive tau must be
accompanied by an neutrino.
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If the lepton and neutrino are on the opposite side of an
equation
electrons, negative muons and negative tau must
be accompanied by an neutrino
positrons, positive muons and positive tau must be
accompanied by an antineutrino.
Again, this can be understood in terms of a new
conservation rule the conservation of lepton number.
Te rules for lepton number conservation are:
the total number in each generation must always
remain the same
the electron and electron-neutrino are assigned a
lepton electron number of 1
the negative muon and muon-neutrino are
assigned a lepton muon number of 1
the negative tau and tau-neutrino are assigned a
lepton tau number of 1
all other particles are assigned a lepton number of 0
an antiparticle has the opposite lepton number (-1)
from its particle.
Leptons Antileptons
I II III I II III
electron -1
e
-
0.511
muon -1

-
106.6
tau -1

-
1784
positron +1
e
+
0.511
antimuon+1

101.6
antitau +1

-
1784
electron 0
neutrino

e
~ 0
muon 0
neutrino

~ 0
tau 0
neutrino

< 70
electron 0
antineutrino

e+
~ 0
muon 0
antineutrino

~ 0
tau 0
antineutrino

< 7 0
Figure 2231 (a) Leptons and Antileptons
Quarks Antiquarks
I II III I II III
Up
+2/3
u RGB
~ 310
Charm
+ 2/3
c RGB
1500
Top
+2/3
t RGB
> 22500
Anti Up
- 2/3
u

CMY
~ 310
Anti Charm
- 2/3
c

CMY
1500
Anti Top
- 2/3
t

CMY
> 22500
Down
- 1/3
d RGB
~ 310
Strange
- 1/3
s RGB
505
Bottom
- 1/3
b RGB
~ 5000
Anti Down
+ 1/3
d

CMY
~ 310
Anti Strange
+ 1/3
s

CMY
505
Anti Bottom
+ 1/3
b

CMY
~ 5000
Figure 2231 (b) Quarks and Antiquarks
Force Exchange
particle
Rest mass
GeVc
-2
Charge Spin Relative
strength
Range Colour
strong Gluons g 0 0 1 < 10
-18
m Yes
weak W
+
W
-
Z
0
Higgs boson
hypothetical
81
81
93
> 83
+1
-1
0
0
1
1
1
1
10
-19
< 10
-15
m Colour neutral
Electromagnetic photons 0 0 1 10
-2
Infnite Colour neutral
gravity graviton 0 0 2 10
-30
Infnite Colour neutral
Figure 2131 (c) Properties of elementary particles
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For example, consider the following reaction:

e
+
e
e
-
+

L
e
1 + 0 = 1 + 0 frst generation lepton number is
conserved
L

0 + 1 = 0 + 1 second generation lepton number is
conserved.
Terefore the reaction can take place.
Now let us look at a second equation:
n +
e
p +
-
L
e
0 + 1 0 + 0 frst generation lepton number is not
conserved
L

0 + 0 0 + 1 second generation lepton number is
not conserved.
Terefore the reaction cannot take place.
J.4.3 SOLVING PROBLEMS USING
CONSERVATION LAWS
Electric charge, total energy, momentum, baryon
number and family lepton number are conserved in all
particle reactions. Strangeness is conserved in strong
and electromagnetic interactions, but not always in weak
interactions.
Example
Indicate the validity of each of the following decay
processes. State the reason for your choice.
(a)
-

+
+
e

(b)
0

0
+
0
(c)
-
e
-
+
e
+

(d) p + p p + p + n
(e) p + p p +
+
+ K
0
Solution
(a) Q -1 +1 + (0). Charge is not conserved.
L
e
0 0 + 1. Lepton number is not conserved.
L

0 1 + 0. Muon number is not conserved.
(b) Q 0 = 0 + 0. Charge is conserved.
B 1 = 1 + 0 Baryon number is conserved and the
number of baryons is the same.
(c) Although charge is conserved, the lepton generation
number is not conserved.
(d) Although charge is conserved, baryon number is not
conserved.
(e) Tis reaction occurs. Charge is conserved and there
is a pair of strange hadrons.
Q 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 0
B 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 0
S 0 + 0 = 0 + -1 + 1
J.4.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE HIGGS
BOSON
Scientists have gathered a lot of evidence about the structure
and constituents of the atom but as yet, it is not known
how particles get their masses. Furthermore, particle
theorists have wondered why the W and Z bosons have
large masses rather than being massless like the photon.
Peter Higgs proposed that particles can acquire mass as a
result of interactions with a hypothetical extra electroweak
force feld called the Higgs feld. Higgs reasoned that if
we start out with a particle H that has mass but no other
conservation characteristics and bring it close to another
particle, say a proton, then H can interact with the proton
because there is a force between them. If H and the proton
interact, then H must be a boson.
When particles are created and annihilated in accelerators,
particles are said to arise from felds that are spread out in
space and time. By using quantum mechanics mathematics,
Higgs found that if H was in its lowest energy state of a feld
empty space the feld would not be zero. Terefore, the
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Higgs particle (boson) that interacts with other particles
can gain mass as a result of the interaction.
Now the search is on to fnd the Higgs particle, and it is
hoped that once the hadron collider is commisioned at the
end of 2007 at CERN, that this elusive boson will be found. It
is important to fnd it because it plays an important role in the
unifcation of diferent forces. If it is not found, then particle
physics is back to the drawing board, a new theory will have
to be proposed to replace the Grand Unifying Teory.
Exercise 21.4
1. Given the following particles, and their quark
composition, determine the charge of each
particle:
a. ; uds
b. ; uus
c. + ; ud

d. K
-
; u

s
2. Te weak force is
(a) the only force afecting neutrons
(b) responsible for radioactive decay
(c) the only force afecting protons
(d) responsible for stability of the nucleus
3. Strangeness must be conserved in:
(a) weak interactions
(b) electromagnetic interactions only
(c) strong interactions interactions only
(d) both strong and electromagnetic
interactions.
4. State the name of the force carrier in the Feynman
diagram shown in the Figure below. Explain why
you have chosen this force carrier.
virtual photon

e
-
e
-

5. No particles of fractional charge have been

confrmed thus far. Does this mean that quarks do
not exist? Explain.
6. Explain why is it impossible thus far to detect
single quarks?
7. List 3 quarks that will produce a baryon with a
charge of:
(a) +1
(b) -1
(c) 0
8. By using the the conservation rules determine the
missing particle in the following reactions.
(a) K
+

+
+ ...
(b)
-
+ p n

+ ...
(c)
-
+ p

+ ...
(d)
0
+ e + ...
(e) K
+

+ ...
9. Determine whether the following nuclear
reactions will occur.
(a) p + p p + K
+
+
0

(b) n +
e

-
+ p
(c) p + n

energy
(d)
+
+ e
-
energy
(e) p +
e
e
+
+
0
+ K
0
(f) p +

+
+ n
(g) p +
e
e
-
+
+
+ K
+
(h) K
+

+
+
0
(i)
0
p + K
-
10. State the quark content of the following particles
and name the particle/antiparticle pairs.
(a)
0

(b)
+

(c)
0

(d) K
+
(e)

11. Identify the equation for the decay of a neutron by

beta-decay. Explain this decay using a Feynman
diagram.
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J.5.1 State what is meant by deep inelastic
scattering.
J.5.2 Analyse the results of deep inelastic
scattering experiments.
J.5.3 Describe what is meant by asymptotic
freedom.
J.5.4 Describe what is meant by neutral current.

J.5.5 Describe how the existence of a neutral
current is evidence for the standard model.
IBO 2007
J.5.1 J.5.2 DEEP INELASTIC
SCATTERING
Electrons can be used in collisions to indirectly identify
protons inside the nucleus, and we now know that at high
energies the de Broglie wavelength of an electron is small
enough to resolve particles inside the proton.
However, before the late 1960s, particle accelerators could
not produce the energies needed to probe inside protons.
However, when the SLAC linac came on line, electrons
could be accelerated up to 20 GeV. Low energy electrons
tend to be scattered away by protons. However, if the
electron has sufcient energy, it can probe deep inside
the proton. Te collision is inelastic because the proton
is disrupted and produces new particles. In efect, the
electrons can difract of quarks inside the protons causing
one quark to move away from the other two, and this
shattering produces a stream of hadrons.
Tese and later experiments have provided evidence for
the existence of quarks, gluons and colour.
J.5.3 ASYMPTOTIC FREEDOM
In 1973, David Gross and Frank Wilczek working
at Princeton university and David Politzer working
independently at Harvard university found that as quarks
inside a meson or baryon get closer together, the force of
attraction between them gets weaker so as to asymptotically
approach zero for very close confnement. On the other
hand, if the quarks move apart, the force of attraction
becomes stronger. Tis discovery is known as asymptotic
freedom and it established quantum chromodynamics
QCD as the correct theory to explain the nature of the
strong force. Te calculations done by Gross, Wilczek and
Politzer showed that quarks are held together very strongly
at distances that are comparable to the size of a proton,
and this explained the concept of quark confnement, that
was previously mentioned in section J3.
Quark confnement can be visualized by using what is
known as the bag model as shown in Figure 2134.
U
U U
U
U
U U D
U U D
U U D
U
U
U U D
U
U
D
U U D
U
U UD
U U U
U U D
U
U U D
Figure 2134 The bag model of quark connement
In a normal proton, the quarks are close together and are
free to move within the proton bag. However, when you
supply energy of the order of a GeV per femto distance,
(10
-15
m), the bag stretches like a balloon. Te energy
needed to remove a quark is much larger than that to
produce a quark-antiquark pair. So instead of removing
the quark, you just get a shower of mesons produced.
J.5.4 J.5.5 NEUTRAL CURRENTS
AND THE Z
0
INTERMEDIATE
BOSON
Recall that the weak interaction is mediated by the W
+
, the
W
-
and the Z
0
intermediate bosons.
In the 1960s, it was thought that the weak force that was
responsible for radioactive decay was carried by the W
+
and
W
-
intermediate bosons. However, when the electroweak
theory that unifed the electromagnetic and weak force
was proposed by Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg at
Harvard and Abdus Salam at Imperial College, London,
J.5 EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR THE
QUARK AND STANDARD MODELS
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it became obvious that the weak force should also have
a neutral charge carrier. If this was the case, there must
be reactions in which the charges of interacting particles
were not moved between particles. Tey termed such a
reaction a neutral current reaction. Te neutral current
was fnally discovered at CERN in 1983. Te discovery of
neutral current Z
0
interaction was of great signifcance in
establishing the validity of the electroweak theory.
Electroweak forces can be classifed as:
Te electromagnetic interaction mediated by the
photon.
Te charged-current weak interaction mediated by
the W
+
and W
-
intermediate bosons.
Te neutral-current weak interaction mediated by
the Z
0
intermediate boson.
Let us examine these interactions and their exchange
particles to see how they are unique to certain reactions.
Te photon carries no electric charge and therefore there
is no charge change between the incoming and outgoing
particles. Te W
+
and W

cause exchange of charge such as

when a neutral muon-neutrino is changed into a charged
muon. Te W is involved in processes such as the decay
of the neutron, beta decay and pion decay. Te Z
0
carries
no electric charge and so an incident particle such as the
neutrino remains as an outgoing neutrino. Tese neutral
particles can also be exchanged via the photon and thus the
link between the electromagnetic force and the weak force
can be seen it what we term electroweak unifcation.
Just as an interaction of the Z
0
with a lepton does not
change its charge, the interaction with a quark does not
change the colour of the quark. Tis fts perfectly with
the lepton-quark standard model that predicts weak
interaction processes involving the exchange of a massive,
neutral particle (the Z
0
boson).
J.6 COSMOLOGY
AND STRINGS
J.6.1 State the order of magnitude of the
temperature change of the universe since
the Big Bang.
J.6.2 Solve problems involving particle
interactions in the early universe.
J.6.3 State that the early universe contained
almost equal numbers of particles and
antiparticles.
J.6.4 Suggest a mechanism by which the
predominance of matter over antimatter
has occurred.
J.6.5 Describe qualitatively the theory of strings.
IBO 2007
J.6.1 TEMPERATURE CHANGE SINCE
THE BIG BANG
Before we look at the Big Bang theory, there were a number
of important facts that had been established about the
Universe. Firstly, it was known that the approximate age
of the universe was 20 10
9
years old as calculated from
Hubbles Law. Secondly, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson
discovered cosmic microwave background radiation.
Te intensity of this radiation at a wavelength of 7.35 cm
corresponded to blackbody radiation (Stefans Law) of
2.7 K, the present temperature of the universe.
With the further knowledge gained from particle physics,
there has been some convincing evidence as to how the
universe began and how it has evolved in what is termed
the standard model. Before the Big Bang, there was no
time and space but just a point of extremely dense matter
known as a singularity. Tere was a huge release of energy
that was accompanied with temperatures of the order
of magnitude greater than 10
32
K, and the four forces in
nature would have been unifed into a single force. Because
the quantum efect of gravity has not yet been solved, we
begin the journey at 10
-43
s when the temperature was
10
32
K. At this temperature, no atoms could have formed.
Instead, it is thought that universe consisted of photons
and other elementary particles. Te universe would have
been opaque because as soon as the photons emitted
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radiation, they would have been scattered and absorbed
by electrons and positrons. Tis energy would have spread
out in all space dimensions and the temperature would
have dropped.
J.6.2 PARTICLE INTERACTIONS IN THE
EARLY UNIVERSE
Let us examine the evolution of the universe from its
beginning to now in more detail. It has already been
established that we can only surmise what happened
afer 10
-43
s. Figure 2132 demonstrates the variation of
temperature with time in the evolutionary process.
10
32
10
28
10
24
10
20
10
16
10
12



T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

K
0 10
-43
s 10
-35
s 10
-6
s 10
-4
s 1s 10s 10
2
s 10
3
s 10
6
y 10
10
y
10
8
10
4
0
GUT era
Hadron
era
L
e
p
t
o
n

e
r
a
Nucleo
synthesis
Radiation
era
S
t
a
r
s
,

g
a
l
a
x
i
e
s






M
A
T
T
E
R
Time
Figure 2135 Variation of temperature with time of the
universe.
Te average kinetic energy of a particle is given by the
expression:
E = 3/2 kT
where k is Boltzmanns constant that has a value of
1.38 10
-23
JK
-1
. Because we are dealing with such large
energies this equation can be stated as E = kT.
Prior to 10
-43
s, it is speculated that the four forces were
unifed into only one force and it is believed that the
temperature was around 10
32
K. Tis means that the energy
of a particle would be approximately:
E = (1.38 10
-23
JK
-1
10
32
K) (1.6 10
-19
JeV
-1
) = 10
19
GeV.
Te particles had so much energy that the symmetry of the
four forces was disrupted and the strong, electromagnetic
and weak forces created an array of quarks, leptons,
photons, W and Z plus gluons. Te gravitational force
condensed out. Tere was a slight imbalance between the
matter and anti-matter already occurring.
At about 10
27
K and 10
-35
s, it is thought that the strong
force separated out and because the quarks were too
close to each other, the strong force could not bind them
to form hadrons. Tere was a sea of quarks, gluons and
leptons. However, as the quarks started to separate, quark
confnement occurred and hadrons began to form. During
the hadron era, the excess of matter over antimatter of the
GUT era meant that there was a slight excess of quarks
versus antiquarks creating an excess of baryons versus
anti-baryons.
At about 10
15
K and 10
6
s, it is believed the weak force
separated from the electromagnetic force.
At about 10
13
K and 10
4
s, it is thought that hadrons with an
energy of about 1GeV started to annihilate each other and
there existed pair-production/annihilation equilibrium.
However, once the energy had dropped below 1GeV, the
pair production of nucleons could not take place. Tere
was a slight excess of energy from the annihilations,
enough to form some lefover nucleons, and it is this mass
that is in the universe today. Light particles such as the
photon and lighter leptons thus dominated the universe in
equal numbers and thus began the lepton era.
At about 10
10
K and 1

s, it is believed that the lighter leptons
with energy about 1 MeV were still able to create electrons,
positrons and photons in equal numbers and equilibrium
between pair-production and annihilation still existed.
However, within a few seconds, electrons and positrons
started to annihilate each other in larger numbers and
their numbers dropped and there was a slight excess of
electrons over positrons. At about 10s, there was a large
excess of photons and neutrinos and the radiation era
began.
At about 10
9
K and 3.2

s, crucial events began to occur as
atoms of hydrogen, helium, deuterium and lithium started
to form in what is known as nucleosynthesis. Let us do a
quick calculation of the temperature for average kinetic
energy of particles around 500 keV.
E = 3/2 kT and T = 2/3 E/k
=
0.67 500 10
3
eV 1.6 10
19
JeV
1

_______________________________

1.38 10
23
JK
1
= 3.9 10
9
K
Te universe was cooling too quickly for heavier atoms to
form and nucleosynthesis stopped.
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At about 3000 K and 300 000 years, free electrons with
energies of a few electron-volts were bound to nuclei to
form atoms. Te photons that were previously ionizing
atoms were free to spread throughout the universe. Te
universe became transparent. Te photon radiation
became red-shifed and the radiation cooled to 2.7 K and
they formed the cosmic background radiation that we
detect from every part of the universe. So from this point
the universe became matter-dominated.
J.6.3 J.6.4 PARTICLE AND
ANTIPARTICLES IN THE
UNIVERSE
Te early universe contained almost equal numbers
of particles and antiparticles with a small imbalance
favouring matter over anti-matter. However, once photons
had reached energies at which they could not undergo pair
production from their interaction with particles and anti-
particles, matter dominated over anti-matter.
J.6.5 STRING THEORY
Te failure to reconcile gravitation with quantum theory
has created the idea of a string as the fundamental building
block of matter. Te known fundamental particles are
modes of vibration of the string similar to the harmonics
of an ordinary vibrating string.
Quantum theory has failed so far to determine the mass
of the top quark or to combine gravitation with the
other fundamental forces. String theory is an intriguing
alternative to quantum theory that proposes that each
fundamental particle consists of an oscillating string of a
small size compared with the proton. Rather than talking
about mathematical particles, string theory talks about
oscillating strings that are lines or loops of about 10
-35
m,
and membranes in small dimensions other than the three
dimensions that we presently use. Although the strings are
identical in length, it is the mode of vibration of the strings
that account for the mass and other properties of what we
call a particle.
0700817 Physics Ch 21 final.indd550 550 22/05/2009 12:12:21 PM
GLOSSARY
551
A
a.f (audio frequency) amplifer
an amplifer that amplifes signals in the approximate
range 10 Hz to 20 Hz
aberration
an image defect of which blurring and distortion are
the most common image defects. Aberrations can occur
with the use of both lenses and mirrors.
absolute magnitude (M)
the apparent magnitude of a star if it were at a distance
of 10 pc from Earth.
absolute zero
the point where molecular motion becomes a minimum
the molecules have minimum kinetic energy but
molecular motion does not cease.
absorbed dose (D)
the amount of energy E transferred to a particular unit
mass m. Te SI unit of absorbed dose is J kg
-1
otherwise
known as the Gray (Gy).
absorption spectrum
occurs when white light passes through a substance in the
gaseous phase. Dark lines in the white light correspond to
the wavelengths characteristic of the emission spectrum
of the particular substance.
AC transformer
a device that can be used for increasing or decreasing ac
voltages and currents.
acceleration
see average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration
accommodation
the ability of the eye to focus over this range is called
accommodation and this is controlled by the ciliary
muscles pulling or relaxing in order to change the
focal length of the fexible eye lens. Te eye has most
accommodation for prolonged viewing when viewing at
the far point.
accuracy
is an indication of how close a measurement is to the
accepted value indicated by the relative or percentage
error in the measurement. An accurate experiment has a
low systematic error.
acoustic impedance
a measure of how easy it is to transmit sound through
a particular medium. Te unit of acoustic impedance is
the rayl.
active solar heating
the use of solar collectors to convert solar energy into
heat energy.
adiabatic
expansion or contraction is one in which no thermal
energy Q is allowed to fow into or out of the system. For
the entire adiabatic process, Q = 0.
aerial
a conductor designed to detect a transmitted EM signal
air resistance
a term that refers to the drag force exerted on object as
they move through the atmosphere.
albedo ()
at a surface, is the ratio between the incoming radiation
and the amount refected expressed as a coefcient or as
a percentage. (Latin for white)
alpha-particle
a doubly ionised helium atom, that is a helium nucleus.
AM
see amplitude modulation
ammeter
an instrument used to measure the current fowing in an
electric circuit and is always connected in series.
A-mode scan
measures the time lapsed between when the pulse is
sent and the time the echo is received. Te frst echo
is from the skin, the second and third pulses are from
either side of the frst organ, the fourth and ffh echo are
from either side of the second organ. Te pulse intensity
decreases due to attenuation.
ampere
defned in terms of the force per unit length between
parallel current-carrying conductors.
amplifer
any device that amplifes a signal
amplitude
the maximum displacement of a particle from its
equilibrium position when executing SHM For wave
motion it is the maximum displacement of the medium
through which the wave travels.
amplitude modulation (AM)
the encoding of information on to a carrier wave by
producing variations in the amplitude of the carrier
wave.
angle of incidence
the angle between the direction of travel of the incident
wave and the normal to the boundary
070819 Physics Glossary FINAL.indd 551 12/6/09 11:06:07 AM
GLOSSARY
552
angle of refraction
the angle between the direction of travel of the refracted
wave and the normal to the boundary
angular frequency ()
2 times the linear frequency.
angular magnifcation
the ratio /
0
is called the angular magnifcation M or
magnifying power of the lens.
antineutrino
a particle with zero rest mass and zero charge that results
from beta-minus decay and decay of a free neutron.
antinode
a point on a stationary wave where the displacement is
zero.
antiparticles
all particles have antiparticles which are identical to the
particle in mass and half-integral spin but are opposite
in charge to their corresponding particle. Although
antiparticles have the same mass as their particle pair,
they have opposite charge, lepton number, baryon
number and strangeness. Some electrically neutral
bosons and mesons are their own antiparticle.
aperture
the length of the refracting surface on which the incident
rays can be refracted.
apparent brightness
the apparent brightness of a star (b) is the energy received
from the star per unit time per unit area of the Earths
surface.
apparent magnitude (m)
a measure of how bright a star appears. Te scale is
defned such that a diference in apparent magnitude
of 5 corresponds to a factor of 100 in brightness. Tis
means that 100 stars of magnitude 6 will produce as
much power per unit area at the surface of the Earth as a
single star of apparent magnitude 1. Te higher the value
of m the less bright is the star.
artifcial transmutation
a process by which nuclei of an element can be induced
to from nuclei of a diferent element ofen by the
bombardment with neutrons.
APPCDC
Asia-Pacifc Partnership for Clean Development and
Climate, an organisation that proposed that, rather than
imposing compulsory emission cuts, it would work in
partnership to complement the Kyoto protocol. Te six
countries involved were Australia, China, India, Japan,
South Korea and the USA.
astronomical unit (AU)
the average distance between Earth and the Sun.
1 AU = 1.50 10
11
m.
atomic mass unit (u)
this is 1/12th of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
attenuation
of an X-ray beam is the reduction in its intensity due to
its passage through matter.
average acceleration
change in velocity over an interval of time divided by the
time interval
average speed
change in distance over an interval of time divided by
the time interval
average velocity
change in displacement over an interval of time divided
by the time interval
Avogadros number
one mole of a substance at 0C and 101.3 kPa pressure
(STP) contains 6.02 x 10
23
particles.
B
bandwidth
the frequency range covered by the sideband frequencies
baryons
the heavyweights amongst particles that make up
matter, including the proton and the neutron. Other
baryons include Lamda
0
, Sigma +,
0
and -, Cascade

0
and - and Omega - particles to name but a few.
becquerel
this is 1 nuclear disintegration per second.
beta particle
a negative or a positive electron associated with
radioactive decay.
Big Bang Teory
postulates that the Universe emerged from an enormously
dense and hot state about 14 billion years ago. Te size of
the universe at its beginning was assumed to be extremely
small with enormous temperature and pressure. It
is assumed that a gigantic explosion occurred that
created space, time and matter.
binary stars
two stars that orbit a common centre of gravity.
070819 Physics Glossary FINAL.indd 552 12/6/09 11:06:07 AM
GLOSSARY
553
biological half-life (T
B
)
of a material is the time taken for half the radioactive
substance to be removed from the body by biological
processes.
black hole
an object whose gravitational feld strength at it surface
is large enough to prevent light escaping from its surface/
an object whose escape velocity at its surface is equal to
or greater than the free space speed of light.
black-body radiation
the radiation emitted by a perfect emitter. Te radiation
is sometimes called temperature radiation because
the relative intensities of the emitted wavelengths are
dependant only on the temperature of the black body.
breeder reactor
a nuclear fssion reactor that creates or breeds more
fssionable material than consumed.
bremsstrahlung
when a fast-moving particle is rapidly decelerated or
defected by another target particle, it radiates most of
its energy in the form of photons in what is known as
bremsstrahlung or braking radiation in the X-ray region
of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Brewster angle ()
the angle to the normal at which refected light is
completely plane polarized.
Brewsters law
the refractive index n of a substance is related to the
Brewster angle () by n = tan.
Brownian motion
the random, zig-zag motion observed when larger
molecules or particles in motion collide with smaller
molecules.
B-scan mode
(brightness-modulated scan), an array of transducers
scan a slice in the body. Each echo is represented by a
spot of a diferent shade of grey on an oscilloscope.
C
carrier wave
the name given to the wave that is altered by the
superposition of the signal wave
cell phones
another name for mobile phones
centre of curvature C
the centre of the sphere of which the lens is made.
centripetal acceleration
the acceleration of a particle traveling in a circle.
centripetal force
the general name given to the force causing a particle to
travel in a circle.
cepheid variables
stars whose luminosity varies with a regular frequency.
Chandrasekhar limit
the maximum mass of a star for it to become a white
dwarf. (1.4M
sun
)
change of state (of an ideal gas)
if some macroscopic property of the system has changed
eg. phase, temperature, pressure, volume, mass, internal
energy.
chemical energy
energy associated with chemical reactions.
chromatic aberration
produces coloured edges around an image. It can be
minimised by using an achromatic doublet. It is made
from converging crown glass lens and a diverging fint
glass lens that are adhered together by canada balsam
coal
an organic material made up primarily of carbon, along
with varying amounts of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
and sulfur. It is a sedimentary rock.
Coaxial cable
consists of a thin copper wire surrounded by an insulator
which in turn is surrounded by a copper grid. Tis grid
is also surrounded by an insulator.
cochlea
the most delicate organ in the hearing process and it
contains many intricate structures that will not be fully
investigated at this level. It consists of three chambers
- two outer chambers, the scala vestibuli (top) and the
scala typani (bottom), and an inner chamber called the
scala media.
coefcient of volume (or cubical expansion) ()
the fractional change in volume per degree change in
temperature:
coherent
when the flament of a light globe emits light, the
atoms on the flament do not maintain a constant
phase relationship because the flament atoms act
independantly from each other.Te light emitted is
incoherent. However, in a laser, each photon of light is in
phase with all the other photons. Laser light is coherent.
070819 Physics Glossary FINAL.indd 553 12/6/09 11:06:07 AM
GLOSSARY
554
combined cycle gas turbines (CCGT)
a jet engine is used in place of the turbine to turn the
generator. Natural gas is used to power the jet engine
and the exhaust fumes from the jet engine are used to
produce steam which turns the generator.
compression
digital data can be compressed enabling the same
bandwidth to be used by several diferent broadcasting
channels
computed tomography (CT) imaging
also called computed axial tomography (CAT) imaging,
uses X-rays, scintillation detectors and computer
technology to build up an axial scan of a section of an
organ or part of the body with 256 grey shades.
conduction
the process by which a temperature diference causes the
transfer of thermal energy from the hotter region of the
body to the colder region by particle collision without
there being any net movement of the substance itself.
conductor
have a low electrical resistance and are therefore able
to carry an electric current withour much energy
dissipation as heat.
cones
photoreceptors that have slow response rates, and are
insensitive at low light levels but are sensitive to particular
wavelengths of light, and give us our colour vision. Tere
are around 6.5 million of them. It is thought that the
cones can be divided into three colour groups - red cones
(64%), green cones (32%), and blue cones (2%).
Conservation of energy
states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but
only transformed into diferent forms. (See conservation
of mass-energy and frst law of thermodynamics)
Conservation of mass-energy
states that mass and energy are interchangeable and in
any interaction mass-energy is conserved.
constellation
a collection of stars that form a recognisable group as
viewed from Earth (e.g the Plough)
constructive interference
occurs when two or more waves overlap and their
individual displacements add to give a displacement that
is greater than any of the individual displacements.
control rods
the rate of nuclear fssion in the reactor core can be
controlled by inserting or removing the control rods.
Te control rods are constructed of materials that absorb
neutrons.
convection
the process in which a temperature diference causes
the mass movement of fuid particles from areas of high
thermal energy to areas of low thermal energy (the colder
region).
conventional current
fows from the positive to negative terminal.
coolant
a material that circulates through the reactor core and
removes thermal energy transferring it to where it can
do useful work by converting water into steam.
Coulombs Law
the force F between two point charges q
1
and q
2
was
directly proportional to the product of the two point
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them r
2
.
crest
the maximum displacement of a medium through which
a wave travels.
critical angle
the angle, measured to the normal, at which a ray incident
on a boundary between two media, will undergo total
internal refection in the more dense medium.
critical mass
the smallest possible amount of fssionable material that
will sustain a chain reaction.
crude oil
a product of the decomposition of marine plants and
animals that were rapidly buried in sedimentary basins
where there was a lack of oxygen.
cyclotron
basically like a linac that has been wrapped into a tight
spiral.
D
damping
the decrease with time of the amplitude of oscillations.
data transfer rate
the number of bits transmitted per second also called bit
rate.
DC amplifer
another name for an operational amplifer
070819 Physics Glossary FINAL.indd 554 12/6/09 11:06:07 AM
GLOSSARY
555
de Broglie hypothesis
Any particle with momentum can exhibit wave-like
properties and its wavelength is given by the de Broglie
formula .
degree of uncertainty
of a measurement is equal to half the limit of reading.
demodulator
removes the carrier wave leaving only the signal waves.
derived quantity
a quantity involving the measurement of two or more
fundamental quantities.
destructive interference
occurs when two or more waves overlap and their
individual displacements add to give a displacement that
is less than any of the individual displacements.
diferential amplifer
another term for an operational amplifer
difraction
the bending and/or spreading of waves when they meet
an obstruction or pass through an aperture.
difusion
a property observed in solids, liquids and gases as
something spreads out.
dioptre
the unit for the lens power is the dioptre D with the unit
m
-1
.
dispersion
when a narrow beam of white light undergoes refraction
on entering a prism, the light spreads out into a spectrum
of colours. Te colours range from red at one side of the
band, through orange, yellow, green, indigo, to violet at
the other side of the band. Te separation of the white
light into its component colours is due to dispersion.
displacement
distance traveled in a specifed direction
Doppler Efect
the phenomenon of the change in frequency that arises
from the relative motion between a source and observer.
dosimetry
the study of radiation.
drag force
see air resistance
drif velocity
electrons entering at one end of the metal cause a similar
number of electrons to be displaced from the other
end, and the metal conducts. Even though they are
accelerated along their path, it is estimated that the drif
velocity is only a small fraction of a metre each second
(about 10
-4
m s
-1
).
E
eccentricity
the earths orbit around the Sun is not circular but rather
elliptical and this will afect its orbit every 100 000 and
400 000 years which in turn leads to climate change.
eddy currents
any conductor that moves in a magnetic feld has emf
induced in it, and as such current, called eddy currents,
will also be induced in the conductor. Tis current has
a heating efect in the sof iron core of the transformer
which causes a power loss termed an iron loss.
efective half-life (T
E
) of the radioactive substance will be
less than the physical half-life due to the biological half-life
component.
efciency
of an energy conversion process is the ratio of the useful
energy output to the total energy input, usually expressed
as a percentage.
Einstein photoelectric equation
relates the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons, f is the frequency of the incident light, f
0
is the
threshold frequency and h is the Planck constant
Einstein Principle of Equivalence
states that it is impossible to distinguish between
gravitational and inertial efects.
elastic potential energy
the energy associated with a system subject to stress e.g.
a stretched spring
electric current
the rate at which charge fows past a given cross-section.
electric feld strength (electric feld intensity)
at any point in space, E is equal to the force per unit
charge exerted on a positive test charge, it is a vector
quantity.
electric potential diference
between two points in a conductor is defned as the
power dissipated per unit curretn in moving from one
point to another.
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GLOSSARY
556
electric potential energy
defned in terms of a point charge moving in an electric
feld as Te electric potential at a point in an electric
feld is defned as being the work done per unit charge
in bringing a small positive point charge from infnity
to that point.
electric potential energy
the energy associated with a particle due to its position
in an electric feld.
electrical energy
this is energy that is usually associated with an electric
current and that is sometimes referred to incorrectly as
electricity.
electrical resistance
the ratio of the potential diference across the material to
the current that fows through it. Te units of resistance
are volts per ampere (V A
-1
). However, a separate SI unit
called the ohm is defned as the resistance through
which a current of 1 A fows when a potential diference
of 1 V is applied.
electrical strain gauge
when a metal conducting wire is put under vertical
strain, it will become longer and thinner and as a result
its resistance will increase. An electrical strain gauge is a
device that employs this principle.
electromagnetic waves
waves that consist of oscillating electric and magnetic
felds. Tey are produced by the accelerated motion of
electric charge.
electromotive force (emf)
the work per unit charge made available by an electrical
source.
electron fow
fows from the negative to the positive terminal.
electron microscope
a microscope that utilizes the wave properties of
electrons.
electron-volt (eV)
the energy acquired by an electron as a result of moving
through a potential diference of one volt.
electrostatics
the study of stationary electric charges.
elementary particles
particles that have no internal structure, that is, they are
not made out of any smaller constituents. Te elementary
particles are the leptons, quarks and exchange particles.
emission spectra
the spectra produced by excited gaseous atoms or
molecules
emissivity
the ratio of the amount of energy radiated from a material
at a certain temperature and the energy that would come
from a blackbody at the same temperature and as such
would be a number between 0 and 1.
energy
the capacity to do work
energy balance climate model
the word balance infers that the system is in equilibrium
with no energy being accumulated in the earths surface
and atmosphere. Tis model attempts to account for the
diference between the incoming radiation intensity and
the outgoing radiation intensity, and the simplest energy
balance model chooses temperature as the only variable
to be considered.
energy degradation
when energy is transferred from one form to other forms,
the energy before the transformation is equal to the
energy afer (Law of conservation of energy). However,
some of the energy afer the transformation may be in a
less useful form, usually heat. We say that the energy has
been degraded.
energy density
the amount of potential energy stored in a fuel per unit
mass, or per unit volume depending on the fuel being
discussed.
entropy
a thermodynamic function of the state of the system and
can be interpreted as the amount of order or disorder of
a system.
equipotential lines
lines that join points of equal potential in a gravitational
or electric feld.
equipotential surface
all points on an equipotential surface at the same
potential.
equipotentials
regions in space where the electric potential of a charge
distribution has a constant value.
ether
a substance that was thought to permeate the whole of
space and that was at absolute rest.
evaporation
a change from the liquid state to the gaseous state that
occurs at a temperature below the boiling point.
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GLOSSARY
557
evaporative cooling
as a substance evaporates, it needs thermal energy input
to replace its lost latent heat of vaporisation and this
thermal energy can be obtained from the remaining
liquid and its surroundings.
exchange particles
elementary particles that transmit the forces of nature.
exponential decay
when a quantity continuously halves in value in
equal intervals of time, the quantity is said to decay
exponentially.
exposure
is defned for X-radiation and -radiation as the total
charge (Q) of ions of one sign (either electrons or
positrons) produced in air when all the -particles
liberated by photons in a volume of air of mass m are
completely stopped in air.
extrapolation
extending the line of best ft outside the plotted points
of a graph.
F
far point
the position of the furthest object that can be brought
into focus by the unaided eye. Te far point of a normal
eye is at infnity.
Faradays Law
can be stated as the magnitude of the induced emf in a
circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magneitc fux of fux linkage.
feedback resistance
the value of the resistance that feeds the output signal of
a operational amplifer back to the input.
Feynman diagrams
so named for their inventor, the American physicist
Richard Feynman (19181988). Tey were developed
by Feynmann as a graphical tool to examine the
conservation laws that govern particle interactions
according to quantum electrodynamic theory.
flm badge
a double emulsion photographic flm that is placed inside
a holder with an area of 3 cm by 5 cm that contains
diferent thicknesses of plastic, an open window and 3
diferent metal plates. It is pinned to clothing and over
a period of time the exposure to radiation results in a
darkening of specifc areas of the photographic flm.
frst harmonic (also fundamental)
the frst possible mode of vibration of a stationary wave.
frst law of thermodynamics
a statement of the Law of Conservation of Energy in
which the equivalence of work and thermal energy
transfer is taken into account. It can be stated as the
heat added to a closed system equals the change in the
internal energy of the system plus the work done by the
system.
fux linkage ()
If is the fux density through a cross-sectional area of a
conductor with coils
focal length (f)
the distance between the principal focus and the centre
of the refractingsurface.
forced oscillations
oscillations resulting from the application of an external,
usually periodic force.
fossil fuels
naturally occurring fuels that have been formed from
the remains of plants and animals over millions of years.
Te common fossil fuels are peat, coal, crude oil, oil
shale, oil tar and natural gas.
fractional uncertainty
see relative uncertainty.
frame of reference
a set of coordinates used to defne position
Fraunhofer difraction
difraction resulting from the source of light and the
screen on which the difraction pattern is produced
being an infnite distance from the difracting aperture.
frequency
linear frequency (f ) is the number of complete oscillations
a system makes in unit time.
frequency modulation (FM)
the encoding of information on to a carrier wave by
producing variations in the frequency of the carrier
wave.
Fresnel difraction
difraction resulting from either or both the source of
light and the screen on which the difraction pattern is
produced being a fnite distance from the difracting
aperture.
frictional force
the force that arises between two bodies in contact.
fundamental
(see frst harmonic)
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GLOSSARY
558
fundamental interactions/forces
all forces that appear in nature may be identifed as one of
four fundamental interactions, either the gravitational,
weak, electromagnetic or strong interaction.
fundamental units
kilogram, metre, second, ampere, mole and Kelvin.
G
galaxies
A collection of stars held together by gravity.
gamma ray bursters
astronomical objects that emit intense bursts of gamma
radiation thought to be due to the collapse of a rapidly
rotating neutron star
gamma ray(s)
high frequency electromagnetic radiation, that is high
energy photons.
generator
is essentially a device for producing electrical energy
from mechanical energy.
geodesic
the shortest path followed by an object moving in space-
time
geostationary satellite
a satellite that orbits Earth in a circular orbit above the
equator and has an orbital period of one sidereal day
gluons
the exchange particle that is responsible the quark colour.
Just as the positive and negative charges are associated
with the electromagnetic force, a three colour charge are
associated with quarks and gluons that bind the quarks
together.
gravitational lensing
the bending of light by a gravitational feld
gravitational mass
the mass that gives rise to the gravitational attraction
between bodies as defned by Newtons law of gravity.
gravitational potential
the gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational
feld is defned as the work done per unit mass in moving
a point mass from infnity to the point.
gravitational potential energy
the energy associated with a particle due to its position
in a gravitational feld.
gravitational red-shif
the observed frequency of light emitted from a source
depends upon the position of the source in a gravitational
feld.
gravitational time dilation
the slowing of time due to a gravitational feld
graviton
the exchange particle for the gravitational force. It is an
inverse square force with an infnite range that afects
all particles and acts on all mass/energy and it has a rest
mass of zero.
H
hadrons
are not elementary particles because they are composed
of quarks. Mesons consist of a quark and an antiquark.
Baryons have three quarks. A proton has 2 up and 1
down quarks - uud, and the neutron has 2 down and I up
quarks ddu. Hadrons interact predominantly via the
strong nuclear force, although they can also interact via
the other forces.
half-life
see radioactive half-life
half-value thickness
is the thickness of a material that reduces the intensity of
a monoenergetic X-ray beam to half its original value.
harmonic series
a series of musical notes arising from a particular
fundamental frequency.
harmonics
the diferent possible modes of vibration of a stationary
wave.
heat
the thermal energy that is absorbed, given up or
transferred from one object to another.
heat capacity
see thermal capacity
heat engine
any device that converts thermal energy into work.
heat exchanger
a system basically acting as a heat engine driven by
chemical reactions (the combustion of fossil fuels) or by
nuclear reactions. Te working fuid is water heated in a
boiler that is converted to steam at high pressure.
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GLOSSARY
559
heat pump
any device that can pump heat from a low-temperature
reservoir to a high-temperature reservoir is called a heat
pump.
heat
the non-mechanical transfer of energy between a system
and its surroundings
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Te Uncertainty Principle was proposed by Werner
Heisenberg in 1927 as explained in the text
Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams
a plot of the luminosity (or absolute magnitude) against
temperature (or spectral class).
Hubbles law
Te law states that the relative recession speed between
galaxies is proportional to their separation.
I
ideal gas
a theoretical gas that obeys the equation of state of an
ideal gas exactly.
ideal gases
obey the equation pV = nRT when there are no forces
between molecules at all pressures, volumes and
temperatures.
induced current
if the conductor is moved across the magnetic feld, then
a defection occurs in the needle of the galvanometer
in one direction. Afer a very short period of time, the
needle returns to zero on the scale. Te current produced
is called an induced current.
inertia
a bodys reluctance to change its state of motion.
inertial mass
the mass referred to in Newtons second law
inertial reference frame
a reference frame in which Newtons frst law holds true
insolation
incoming solar radiation, it is mainly in the visible region
of the electromagnetic spectrum (0.4 m to 0.7 m) and
short-wave infra-red radiation.
instantaneous acceleration
the rate of change of velocity with time
instantaneous speed
the rate of change of distance with time
instantaneous velocity
the rate of change of displacement with time
insulator
the electrons are held tightly by the atomic nuclei and
are not as free to move through a material. Tey can
accumulate on the surface of the insulator but they are
not conducting.
intensity
the energy that a wave transports per unit time across
unit area of the medium through which it is travelling
interference pattern
the overall pattern produced by interfering waves
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
in the 1980s, the United Nations Environment
Programme in conjunction with the World
Meteorological Organization set up a panel of
government representatives and scientists to determine
the factors that may contribute to climate change. Te
panel was known as the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC).
internal energy
the sum total of the potential energy and the random
kinetic energy of the molecules of the substance making
up the system.
internal resistance
the resistance inside a source of electrical energy.
interpolation
drawing the line of best ft between the plotted points of
a graph.
inverting amplifer
an operational amplifer in which the non-inverting
input is connected to earth.
ionising radiation
when radiation causes ions to form it is called ionising
radiation.
ionization current
the current in a gas that results from the ionization of the
atoms or molecules of the gas.
ionization
the removal of an electron or electrons from an atom.
isobaric
a graph of pressure as a function of volume change when
the pressure is kept constant. Such a process is said to be
isobaric. Note that the work done by the gas is equal to
the area under the curve.
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isochoric
a graph of pressure as a function of volume change when
the volume is kept constant. Such a process is said to be
isochoric. When the volume is kept fxed, the curve of
the transformation is said to be an isochore.
isolated system
a system where no energy of any kind enters or leaves
the system.
isothermal process
a thermodynamic process in which the pressure and
the volume are varied while the temperature is kept
constant. In other words, when an ideal gas expands or is
compressed at constant temperature, then the gas is said
to undergo an isothermal expansion or compression.
isotopes
atoms of the same element with diferent numbers of
neutrons in their nuclei.
K
Kelvin temperature
a fundamental quantity. It is the SI unit of thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water. One degree
Celsius is equal to 1 + 273 = 274 K.
Keplers third law
this is the law of periods and states that that the average
orbital radius R of a planet about the Sun is related to the
period T of rotation of the plane by R
3
= kT
2
where k is
a constant.
kilogram
the mass of a particular piece of platinum-iridium alloy
that is kept in Svres, France.
kilowatt-hour (kW h)
the energy consumed when 1 kW of power is used for
one hour.
kinetic energy
energy associated with motion
kinetic theory of a gas
when the moving particle theory is applied to gases it is
generally called the kinetic theory of gases.
Kirchofs current law junction rule
the sum of the currents fowing into a point in a circuit
equals the sum of the currents fowing out at that point.
Kirchofs voltage law loop rule
in a closed loop the sum of the emfs equals the sum of
the potential drops.
Kyoto Protocol
this agreement required industrialized countries to
reduce their emissions by 2012 to an average of 5 percent
below 1990 levels. A system was developed to allow
countries who had met this target to sell or trade their
extra quota to countries having difculty meeting their
reduction deadlines.
L
laminations
to reduce the heating efect due to eddy currents, the
sof-iron core is made of sheets of iron called laminations
that are insulated from each other by an oxide layer on
each lamination. Tis insulation prevents currents from
moving from one lamination to the next.
laser
is actually an acronym light amplifcation by stimulated
emission of radiation. A laser is an instrument that has
a power source and a light-amplifying substance. Tere
are a variety of solid, liquid and gas lasers available on
the market. Te common laser used in the laboratory
uses a helium- neon gas mixture as the light-amplifying
substance.
latent heat of fusion
the quantiy of thermal energy required to change a
substance from a solid at its melting point completely to
a liquid at its melting point.
latent heat of vaporisation
the quantiy of thermal energy required to change a
substance from a liquid at its boiling point completely to
a gas at its boiling point.
Law of conservation of electric charge
in a closed system, the amount of charge is constant.
laws of refection
the angle at which the waves are refected from a barrier
is equal to the angle at which they are incident on the
barrier (the angles are measured to the normal to the
barrier). All waves, including light, sound, water obey
this rule. Te normal and the rays associated with the
incident and refected rays all lie in the same plane.
lens
a transparent object with at least one curved surface
but more commonly two curved faces. Most lenses are
made of glass but perspex (lucite) and quartz lenses are
common. Tey are used to correct defects of vision using
spectacles and in optical instruments such as cameras,
microscopes and refracting telescopes.
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561
Lenzs Law
also known as the Second Law of Electromagnetic
Induction and it can be stated as the direction of the
induced emf is such that the current it causes to fow
opposes the change producing it.
leptons
particles that can travel on their own meaning that
they are not trapped inside larger particles. Six distinct
types called favors have been identifed along with their
antiparticles.
light dependant resistor (LDR)
is a photo-condutive cell whose resistance changes with
the intensity of the incident light.
light year
the distance that light travels in one year. 1 light year (ly)
= 9.46 10
15
m
limit of reading
of a measurement is equal to the smallest graduation of
the scale of an instrument.
line spectrum
produced when the spectrum produced by excited
gaseous atoms or molecules is passed through a slit
and then through a dispersive medium such as a prism
of difraction grating and then brought to a focus on a
screen.
linear accelerator (linac)
is a device that accelerates charged particles in a straight
line inside a long evacuated tube.
linear attenuation coefcient
a beam of homogeneous, monoenergetic X-rays
contains photons of only one energy and thus only one
wavelength.
linear or lateral magnifcation m
(of a lens) is given by the ratio of the height of an image
to the height of its object or the ratio of the image
distance to the object distance. Linear magnifcation has
no units.
longitudinal waves
in these types of wave, the source that produces the
wave vibrates in the same direction as the direction of
travel of the wave i.e. the direction in which the energy
carried by the wave is propagated. Te particles of the
medium through which the wave travels vibrate in the
same direction of travel of the wave (direction of energy
propagation).
loudspeaker
a transducer that converts an amplifed electrical signal
into sound.
luminosity (L)
the total power radiated by a star.
M
Machs Principle
states that inertial and gravitational mass are identical
macroscopic property
a property that can be observed. Physical properties
such as melting point, boiling point, density, thermal
conductivity, thermal expansion and electrical
conductivity can be observed and measured.
magnetic fux ()
through a small plane surface is the product of the fux
density normal to the surface and the area of the surface.
Te unit of magnetic fux is the weber Wb.
magnetic force
a force experienced when a moving charge or a beam of
moving charges is placed in a magnetic feld.
magnifying power
see angular magnifcation.
main sequence stars
a grouping of stars on a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
that extends diagonally across the graph from high
temperature, high luminosity to low temperature low
luminosity. Stars on the main sequence derive the energy
from hydrogen burning in the core of the star.
Malus law
when light of intensity I
0
is incident on an analyzer
whose transmission axis makes angle to the electric
feld vector, the intensity I of the transmitted light is
given by I = I
0
cos
2

mass
see gravitational mass and inertial mass
mass defect
Te diference in mass between a nucleus and the sum
of the mass of its constituent nucleons. Te mass of a
nucleus is always less than the sum of the mass of its
constituent nucleons.
material dispersion
the spreading out of pulses as they travel along an optic
fbre
matter waves
See de Broglie hypothesis
070819 Physics Glossary FINAL.indd 561 12/6/09 11:06:08 AM
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562
Maxwells theory
states that electromagnetic radiation consists of
oscillating electric and magnetic felds.
mesons
hadrons that can mediate the strong nuclear force. Like
the frst and second generation leptons, mesons only
exist for a short time and they are thus very unstable.
metal structure
positive ions in a sea of delocalised electrons.
method of mixtures
a common indirect method to determine the specifc
heat capacity of a solid and liquids is called the method
of mixtures.
metre
the length of path traveled by light in a vacuum during a
time interval of 1/299 792 453 second.
minimum angle of resolution
see Rayleigh criterion
mobile phone
a phone that is not connected by a landline to a telephone
exchange
modal dispersion
a situation in which pulses associated with diferent
waves in an optic fbre arrive at the detector at diferent
times
moderator
a material that will slow down the fast neutrons to the
speed of the slow thermal neutrons needed for a self-
sustained reaction without absorbing the neutrons when
they collide with the moderator material.
modes
the name given to the diferent paths followed by diferent
waves in an optic fbre
modulation
the alteration of a wave form
mole
is the amount of substance that contains as many
elementary particles as there are in 0.012 kg of carbon
12. Te mole is a fundamental unit.
momentum
the product of mass and velocity
monochromatic
source of radiation is that has a extremely narrow band
of frequencies or extremely small narrow wavelength
band (or colour in the case of visible light). Most sources
of light emit many diferent wavelengths. Laser light is
monochromatic.
monomode fbres
a fbre in which there is only one transmission axis
thereby eliminating modal dispersion
Morse code
an electronic communication system that used individual
groups electrical pulses to represent letters and that were
transmitted along wires
multiplexing
a means of increasing the bit rate by sending diferent
sets of data apparently simultaneously.
N
natural frequency
the frequency of oscillation of a system that is not
subjected to a periodic external force.
natural gas
a product of the decomposition of marine plants and
animals that were rapidly buried in sedimentary basins
where there was a lack of oxygen.
natural greenhouse efect
a phenomenon in which the natural greenhouse gases
absorb the outgoing long wave radiation from the earth
and re-radiate some of it back to the earth.
natural radioactivity
a property associated with certain naturally occurring
elements in which they emit ionizing radiations.
near point
the position of the closest object that can be brought into
focus by the unaided eye. Te near point varies from
person to person but it has been given an arbitrary value
of 25 cm.
nebulae
a cloud of interstellar dust and gas.
nematic liquid crystal
a liquid crystal whose molecules are in the shape of a
twisted helix.
neutron number
the number of neutrons in a nucleus
neutrons
an uncharged nucleon
nibble
a 4-bit binary word
node
a point on a stationary wave where the displacement is
a maximum.
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non-renewable source
one that is considered to be a temporary source that is
depleted when it is used.
NTC thermistor
(negative temperature coefcient) the resistance
decreases when the temperature rises and they therefore
pass more current.
nuclear binding energy
the energy required to separate the nucleus into it
individual nucleons or the energy that would be released
in assembling a nucleus from its individual nucleons.
nuclear energy
energy associated with nuclear reactions
nuclear fssion
the splitting of a nucleus into two other nuclei.
nuclear fusion
the combining of two nuclei into a single nucleus
nuclear magnetic resonance
the basis of the diagnostic tool known as magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI). It is a technique used for
imaging blood fow and sof tissue in the body and is
the preferred diagnostic imaging technique for studying
the brain and the central nervous system. Rather than
using X-rays as the source of radiation, it uses radiation
in the radio region of the electromagnetic spectrum and
magnetic energy to create cross-sectional slices of the
body.
nucleon
a proton or a neutron.
nucleon number
the number of nucleons in a nucleus
nucleosynthesis
the diferent nuclear processes that take place in stars.
nuclide
the general term for a unique nucleus
numerical aperture
is related to the resolution of a lens, and the wavelength
of the light (see text for formula)
Nyquist Teorem
states that the sampling signal must be equal to or
greater than twice the signal frequency.
O
Ohms Law
provided the physical conditions such as temperature
are kept constant, the resistance is constant over a wide
range of applied potential diferences, and therefore
the potential diference is directly proportional to the
current fowing.
Olbers paradox
if Newtons model of a uniform, infnite Universe were
correct, then the sky would always be bright. Tis
paradox was frst proposed by Henrich Olber in 1823.
operational amplifer
an amplifer with two inputs, very high input impedance
and very high gain.
OppenheimerVolkof limit
the maximum mass of a neutron star beyond which it
will collapse to a black hole
optic fbres
a fbre in which the carrier wave is light.
optical microscope
a microscope using visible light and lenses to magnify
small objects (usually used in biology and medicine)
order of magnitude
the power of ten closest to a number.
oscillating water column (OWC)
wave energy devices that convert wave energy to electrical
energy. Tese can be moored to the ocean foor or built
into clifs or ocean retainer walls.
oscillations
another word for vibrations.
ossicles
a chain of three bones in the ear that transmit vibration
form the ear drum to the cochlea. Tey are called the
malleus, incus and stapes, more commonly known as
the hammer, anvil and stirrup.
P
pair annihilation
when matter (such as an electron) collides with its
corresponding antimatter (such as a positron), both
particles are annihilated, and 2 gamma rays with the
same energy but with a direction at 180
0
to each other
are produced. Tis is called pair annihilation.
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GLOSSARY
564
pair production
particleantiparticle pairs can also be produced when
a gamma ray with sufcient energy passes close by a
nucleus. Te process is the reverse of annihilation and is
called pair production.
parallax
the apparent displacement of an object due to the motion
of the observer.
parsec
a line of length1 AU subtends an angle of 1 arcsecond
(one second of arc /4.8 10
-6
rad) at a distance of one
parsec.
Pauli exclusion principle
states that an orbital can only contain a maximum of
two electrons and when the 2 electrons occupy an orbital
they have opposite spin.
peak current
an alternating current varies sinusoidally and the
maximum current called the peak current.
peat
a brownish material that looks like wood. Although it
can be burnt as a fuel, it contains a lot of water, and is
very smoky when burnt. Under pressure and over time it
will be converted to other forms of coal.
percentage uncertainty
is the relative uncertainty multiplied by 100 to produce
a percentage.
period
the time taken for an oscillating system to make one
complete oscillation.
periodicity
repetition of motion both in space and in time
phase change
a substance can undergo changes of state or phase
changes at diferent temperatures. Pure substances
(elements and compounds) have defnite melting and
boiling points which are characteristic of the particular
pure substance being examined.
phase diference
the time interval or phase angle by which one wave leads
or lags another.
photo-electric efect
Te emission of electrons from a metal surface that is
illuminated with light above a certain frequency
photoelectric work function
Te minimum energy required to remove an electron
from the surface of a metal by photo-emission. It is
related to the threshold frequency by = hf
0
.
photon
Te existence of the photon was postulated by Einstein
in 1905 as being a quantum of electromagnetic energy,
regarded as a discrete particle having zero mass, no
electric charge, and an indefnitely long lifetime. Te
energy E of a photon associated with light of frequency f
is given by the Planck equation E = hf.
photopic vision
cones are responsible for photopic vision or high light-
level vision, that is, colour vision under normal light
conditions during the day. Te pigments of the cones are
of three types long wavelength red, medium wavelength
green and short wavelength blue.
photovoltaic devices
use the photoelectric efect. Photons from radiant energy
excite electrons in a doped semi-conducting material
such as silicon or germanium, and the element becomes
conducting allowing electrons to fow in an external
circuit to produce electrical energy.
physical half-life (T
R
)
of a radioactive nuclide is the time taken for half the
nuclei present to disintegrate radioactively.
pixels
the smallest element of an image on a LCD or CCD
Planck constant
Max Planck postulated that energy associated with
oscillating atoms is proportional to the frequency of
oscillation of the atom. Te constant (h) relates the
energy (E) of a photon to its associated frequency (f ).
(E = hf ) (h = 6.2660693 10
-34
J s)
plasma
a super heated gas.
plasma confnement
plasma has to be confned for 1 second with a density of
about 500 trillion atoms per cubic centimetre. Because
fusion is not a chain reaction, thes temperature and
density conditions have to be maintained for future
fusions to occur.
polarimeter
essentially a tube that is bounded at both ends with
polarizing materials.
polarization
the rotation of the plane of vibration of the electric vector
of an electromagnetic wave.
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GLOSSARY
565
pole (P)
central point of the refracting surface.
pollutants
substances that have undesirable efects on living things
and property. Air pollution occurs when these pollutants
are introduced into the atmosphere.
population inversion
in the ruby laser, light of energy equivalent to 2.25 eV is
absorbed from the fash tube, and this raises the electrons
of chromium from the ground state E
1
to an excited
state E
3
. Tese electrons quickly undergo spontaneous
emission and fall to level E
2
known as the metastable
energy state. If the incident radiation from the fash
tube is intense enough more electrons are transferred to
the E
2
energy level than remain in the ground state a
condition known as population inversion.
positron
a positively charged electron
potential divider
a device that produces the required voltage for a
component from a larger voltage.
potential energy
see elastic potential energy, electric potential energy and
gravitational potential energy
potential gradient
the rate of change of potential V at a point with respect
to distance x in the direction in which the change is
maximum is called the potential gradient.
power
the rate of working
power of a convex lens (P)
is the reciprocal of the focal length. It is a measure of
the strength of a lens as used by optometrists and
opthalmologists.
power stations
usually rely on thermal energy, gravitational potential
energy or wind power to supply the kinetic energy to
rotate a turbine. Te turbine contains blades that are
made to rotate by the force of water, gas, steam or wind.
As the turbine rotates, it turns the shaf of a generator.
Te electrical energy can be produced by rotating coils
in a magnetic feld.
precision
is an indication of the agreement among a number of
measurements made in the same way indicated by the
absolute error. A precise experiment has a low random
error.
preferential absorption
the phenomenon in which certain crystals only transmit
the vertical or horizontal component of the electric
vector of an electromagnetic wave.
pressure
it is defned as the force exerted over an area. Te SI unit
of pressure is the pascal (Pa).
principal axis
line that passes through the centre of curvature and the
centre of the refracting surface.
principal focal plane
the plane that passes through the principal focus and is
perpendicular to the principal axis.
principal focus (F)
point through which rays parallel and close to the
principal axis pass afer refraction if the lens is convex,
or appear to come from if the lens is concave.
principle of superposition
the principle of superposition as applied to wave motion
states the displacement at a point where two or more wave
meet is the vector sum of the individual displacements of
each wave at that point.
proper length
the length of an object as measured by an observer at rest
with respect to the object
proper time
the time interval between two events as measured by an
observer that sees the events take place at the same point
in space.
proton number
the number of protons in a nucleus
protostar
a stage in the formation of a star in which the star is self-
luminous but in which nuclear fusion as not yet started.
public switched telephone network (PSTN)
land based telephone exchange
pulsar(s)
a pulsating radio source believed to be a rapidly rotating
neutron star.
pulse oximetry
a non-invasive technique used to monitor the oxygen
content of haemoglobin.
pump storage systems
used in of-peak electicity demand periods. Te water is
pumped from low resevoirs to higher resevoirs during
this period.
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566
Q
quality
of an X-ray beam is a term used to describe its penetrating
power.
quality factor
this is approximately equal in value to the number
of oscillations that occur before all the energy of an
oscillator is dissipated.
quantum
A discrete packet of energy associated with
electromagnetic radiation. (see photon). Literally from
the Latin how much.
quantum mechanics
Te theory proposed in 1926/7 that replaced Newtonian
physics.
quantum numbers
the diferent states in which an electron can exist are
determined by four quantum numbers: principal, orbital,
magnetic and spin
quark confnement
the property that quarks are always found in groups that
are colourless is called quark confnement.
quarks
with a size of less than 10
-18
m can never be found in
isolation as they are trapped inside other composite
particles called hadrons of which the proton, the neutron
and mesons are examples.
quasars
very distant and very luminous stellar like objects.
R
r.f (radio frequency) amplifer
an amplifer that amplifes signals in the radio frequency
range (several kHz to about 100 Mhz)
radiation
the energy produced by a source because of its
temperature that travels as electromagnetic waves. It
does not need the presence of matter for its transfer.
radiation shielding
ensures the safety of personnel working inside and
around the reactor from sufering the ill efects of
radiation exposure. Tere are usually two shields:
several metres of high-density concrete to protect the
walls of the reactor core from radiation leakage and to
help refect neutrons back into the core and a biological
shield to protect personnel made of several centimetres
of high density concrete.
radioactive decay
Te spontaneous emission by the nuclei of certain
atoms, of radiation in the form of alpha particles or beta
particles and/or gamma radiation. Te decay process
cannot be controlled by chemical and physical means.
radioactivity
see natural radioactivity
radius of curvature (R)
the radius of the sphere from which the lens is made.
random uncertainties
are due to variations in the performance of the instrument
and the operator. Even when systematic errors have been
allowed for, there exists error.
rank advance
as peat became buried beneath more plant matter, the
pressure and temperature increased and the water was
squeezed out of it. As the material became compacted
the peat is converted to lignite, then to sub-bituminous
coal and fnally bituminous coal. At each stage in the
rank advance, the coal has a higher carbon content and a
higher energy content per unit mass.
rarefaction
in a sound wave this refers to regions of minimum
pressure.
Rayleigh criterion
the images of two sources will be just be resolved by an
image forming system if the central maximum of one
difraction pattern image coincides with the frst minima
of the other difraction pattern image.
real image
an image that can be seen on a screen that has been put at
the point where the rays intersect at a single point.
red giant star
An evolutionary phase of main sequence stars usually
with mass less than about 4M
Sun
characterized by low
temperature and high luminosity.
red-shif
the Doppler shif of light observed from receding
objects.
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GLOSSARY
567
refection
occurs when a wave is incident at a boundary between
two diferent media and results in some of the energy of
the wave being returned into the medium in which it is
travelling before incidence.
refraction
occurs when a wave is incident at a boundary between
two diferent media and results in some of the energy of
the incident wave being transmitted across the boundary.
If the wavefronts are not parallel to the boundary, the
direction of travel of the wave is changed.
refractive index (n)
Tis is defned using the angle of incidence of light in
a vacuum and the angle of refraction in the medium
whose refractive index is n.
relative uncertainty
equals the absolute uncertainty divided by the
measurement. It has no units.
renewable energy source
one that is permanent or one that can be replenished
as it is used. Renewable sources being developed for
commercial use include solar energy, biomass, wind
energy, tidal energy, wave energy, hydro-electric energy
and geothermal energy.
reshapers
a device used to re-shape pulses in an optic fbre
resolving power
the minimum angle of resolution
resonance
this occurs when the frequency of forced oscillations is
equal to the natural frequency of the system that is being
forced.
rest mass-energy
the energy that is equivalent to a bodys rest mass
rest mass
the mass of an object as measured by an observer at rest
with respect to the object.
rods
photoreceptors that have fast response rates, and are
sensitive at low light levels but they are insensitive to
colour. Tere are around 120 million of them.
root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value
the current dissipated in a resistor in an a.c. circuit that
varies between I
0
and - I
0
would be equal to a current
I
0
/2 dissipated in a d.c circuit. Tis d.c current is known
as r.m.s. equivalent current to the alternating current.
S
Sankey diagram
in a Sankey diagram, the thickness of each arrow gives
an indication of the scale of each energy transformation.
Te total energy before the energy transfer is equal to
the total energy afer the transfer otherwise the Law of
conservation of energy would be violated.
scalar
a quantity that has only magnitude
scattering
the defection of EM radiation from its original path due
to its collisions with particles in a medium.
Schmitt trigger
a circuit designed to re-shape digital electrical signals
scientifc notation
expressing numbers to the power of ten
scotopic vision
rods are responsible for scotopic vision which is the
ability to see at low light levels or vision in the dark
or light levels below 0.034 candela per square metre.
Tey do not mediate colour and are sometimes termed
colour blind. Because they do not mediate colour, they
are said to have low spatial resolution (acuity).
second
the time for 9 192 631 770 vibrations of the cesium-133
atom.
second law of thermodynamics
implies that thermal energy cannot spontaneously
transfer from a region of low temperature to a region of
high temperature.
sensors
an input transducers that allows for the transfer of
energy from one form to another.
SI unit
an international system of units including the metric
system. SI units are those of Le Systme International
dUnits adopted in 1960 by the Confrence Gnrale
des Poids et Mesures.
sideband frequencies
a modulated wave consists of the carrier wave plus two
waves one of frequency (f
c
- f
s
) and the other of frequency
(f
c
+ f
s
). Te frequencies are called the sideband
frequencies.
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GLOSSARY
568
signal wave
the name given to the wave that carries information
signifcant fgures/digits
(sf/sd) are those digits that are known with certainty
followed by the frst digit which is uncertain.
simple harmonic motion
occurs when the force acting on a system is directed
towards the equilibrium position of the system and is
proportional to the displacement of the system from
equilibrium
Snells law
is usually applied to light waves and states that when
light travels from one medium into another
solar constant
the average radiant power radiated to an area placed
perpendicular to the outer surface of the earths
atmosphere while the earth is at its mean distance from
the Sun.
SONAR (sound navigation and ranging)
the use of sound waves to detect and estimate the range
of submerged objects. In the 1930s it had its applications
in medical therapy.
sound intensity
the average power per unit area of a sound wave that is
incident perpendicular to the direction of propagation is
called the sound intensity. Te units of sound intensity
are watts per square metre, W m
-2
. As the sound intensity
spreads out from its source, the intensity I is reduced as
the inverse square of the distance d from the source.
source independence
the name given to the phenomenon in which audio and
visual digital data can be transmitted using the same
channel.
space-time
a coordinate system consisting of three dimensions of
space and one of time
spacetime diagram
the representation of the motion of an object in space-
time
specifc heat
see specifc heat capacity.
specifc heat capacity
is the heat capacity per unit mass. It is defned as
the quantity of thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of one kilogram of a substance by one
degree Kelvin.
spectral classes
a classifcation of stars according to their observed
spectrum
speed
see average speed and instantaneous speed
spherical aberration
occurs because the rays that refract at the outer edges of
a lens will have a diferent focal length to those rays that
refract near the principal focus. To put it another way,
spherical aberration occurs because the rays incident
near the edges of a converging lens are refracted more
than the paraxial rays
spring constant
the constant k relating the extension x of a spring to the
force F causing the extension F = kx
standard form
see scientifc notation.
standard notation
see scientifc notation.
stationary waves
sometimes also referred to as standing waves. Waves in
which there is no propagation of energy between points
along the wave. Te amplitude of a stationary wave varies
with position along the wave.
steam engine
an example of external combustion engines. Te fuel
is burnt outside the engine and the thermal energy is
transferred to a piston or a turbine chamber by means
of steam.
Stefans law
the total area under a spectral emission curve for a certain
temperature T represents the total energy radiated per
metre
2
per unit time E and for that assigned temperature
it has been found to be directly proportional to the
fourth power T
4
.
Stefan-Boltzmann law
A law that relates the luminosity of an object to its
absolute temperature and area
Stellar cluster
this is a number of stars that were all created about
the same time and that is held together in a group by
gravitational attraction.
stellar interferometer
a radio telescope that consists of two or more parabolic
receiving dishes
step-down transformer
a transformer that if N
s
is less than N
p
it will be a step-
down transformer.
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GLOSSARY
569
step-index fbre
an optic fbre in which the refractive index of the
diferent materials comprising the fbre change by
discrete amounts.
step-up transformer
a transformer that if N
s
is greater than N
p
then the
transformer is a step-up transformer.
strain viewer
a device that use polarized light to view the stress
produced in materials subject to strain. It consists of two
polaroids with the material under strain placed between
them.
string theory
an alternative to quantum theory that proposes that each
fundamental particle consists of an oscillating string
of a small size compared with the proton. Rather than
talking about mathematical particles, string theory talks
about oscillating strings that are lines or loops of about
10
-35
m, and membranes in small dimensions other than
the three dimensions that we presently use.
strong nuclear interaction
the short range force of attraction between nucleons.
super red-giant star
an evolutionary phase of main sequence stars usually
with mass greater than about 8M
Sun
characterized by low
temperature and very high luminosity
surface heat capacity C
s
the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit
area of a planets surface by one degree Kelvin and is
measured in J m
-2
K
-1
.
synchrotrons
the most powerful members of the accelerator family
system
any object or set of objects that is being investigated. Te
surroundings will then be everything in the Universe
apart from the system.
systematic error
causes a random set of measurements to be spread about
a value rather than being spread about the accepted
value. It is a system or instrument error.
T
temperature
a scalar quantity that gives an indication of the degree of
hotness or coldness of a body. Alternatively, temperature
is a macroscopic property that measures the average
kinetic energy of particles on a defned scale such as
the Celsius or Kelvin scales. At the microscopic level,
temperature is regarded as the measure of the average
random kinetic energy per molecule associated with its
movements.
tension force
this arises when a system is subjected to two equal and
opposite forces.
terminal velocity
the velocity reached when the magnitude of the frictional
force acting on a body is equal to the magnitude of the
driving force.
thermal (heat) capacity
the change in thermal energy for a given change in
temperature.
thermal energy (heat)
If a system and its surroundings are at diferent
temperatures and the system undergoes a process, the
energy transferred by non-mechanical means is referred
to as thermal energy (heat). It is measured in joules.
thermistors
resistors that change resistance with temperature (word
derived from thermal resistors).
thermodynamic cycle
a process in which the system is returned to the same
state from which it started. Tat is, the initial and fnal
states are the same in the cyclic process.
thermodynamic engine
device that transforms thermal energy to mechanical
energy (work) as in an engine, or mechanical energy
to thermal energy such as in refrigeration and air-
conditioning systems.
thermodynamics
the name given to the study of processes in which thermal
energy is transferred as heat and as work.
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570
three phase power
Tere are 3 conductors on a transmission line to
maximize the amount of power that can be generated.
Each high voltage circuit has three phases. Te generators
at the power station supplying the power system have
their coils connected through terminals at 120 to each
other. When each generator at the power station rotates
through a full rotation, the voltages and the currents rise
and fall in each terminal in a synchronized manner.
threshold frequency
Te frequency below which photoelectric emission will
not take place.
threshold intensity of hearing
the minimum detectable intensity for a given frequency
is called the threshold intensity of hearing.
time dilation
the slowing of time as observed by an inertial observer
who assumes to be at rest with respect to another, moving
inertial reference system
total internal refection
refection in which all the light incident at a boundary
between two media undergoes refection
transmission rate
another name for bit-rate
transmutation
see artifcial transmutation
transverse waves
in these types of wave the source that produces the wave
vibrates at right angles to the direction of travel of the
wave i.e. the direction in which the energy carried by
the wave is propagated. Te particles of the medium
through which the wave travels vibrate at right angles
to the direction of travel of the wave (direction of energy
propagation).
travelling wave
a wave that propagates energy
trough
the minimum displacement of a medium through which
a wave travels.
tuning circuit
a circuit designed to respond to signals of a certain
frequency
U
Uncertainty principle
See Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
unit of current
is the coulomb per second C s
-1
and this unit is called the
ampere (A).
V
variable
a quantity that varies when another quantity is changed.
A variable can be an independent variable, a dependent
variable or a controlled variable. An independent variable
is altered while the dependent variable is measured.
Controlled variables are the other variables that may be
present but are kept constant.
vector
a quantity that has both magnitude and direction
vector resolution
giving the x and y components of a vector.
velocity
see average velocity and instantaneous velocity
virtual earth
a point in a circuit that is efectively at earth potential
(zero volts)
virtual image
an image that appears to come from a single point when
rays are extrapolated to that point.
virtual particle
a particle that cannot be observed during an interaction.
A virtual photon is said to be the carrier of the
electromagnetic force.
voltmeter
is used to measure the voltage drop across part of an
electric circuit and is always connected in parallel.
W
W
+
, W

and Z
0
the exchange particles involved in the weak nuclear
interaction.
wave number
the number of waves per centimeter (cm
-1
)
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571
wave speed
is the speed with which energy is carried in the medium
by the wave. A very important fact is that wave speed
depends only on the nature and properties of the
medium
wavelength
is the distance along the medium between two successive
particles that have the same displacement
wave-mechanics
another name for quantum mechanics
weight
another term for the force of gravity acting on an object
weightlessness
if the weight of an object is defned in terms of a weighing
process such as the reading on a set of bathroom scales,
which in efect measures the contact force between
the object and the scales, then objects in free fall are
weightless
Wien Displacement Law
a law that relates the maximum wavelength in the
blackbody spectrum of an object to the absolute
temperature of the object
work
the product of force and displacement in the direction
of the force
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572
INDEX
INDEX
A
a.f (audio frequency) amplifer 397
aberration 437
absolute magnitude 369
absolute temperature 289
absolute zero 77, 274
absorbed dose 506
absorption spectrum 363
acceleration 33
accommodation 354, 432
accuracy 7
achromatic doublet 438
acoustic impedance 480, 498
adiabatic 279
aerial 397
Airey George 303
air resistance 38
albedo 229
AM 396
ampere 129
Ampre Andre Marie 129
amplifer 404
amplitude 115
amplitude modulation 393
analogue 346
Anderson Carl 177
angular magnifcation 433
antineutrino 178
antinodes 123, 294
antiparticles 521
aperture 428
apparent brightness 362
apparent magnitude 369
Aristotle 73
ASCII code 348
astronomical unit 367
asymptotic freedom 547
atomic mass unit 183
attenuation 403, 490, 499
audiogram 487
audiology 487
auditory canal 479
Avogadros hypothesis 273
Avogadro Amadeo 80
Avogadro number 80
B
bandwidth 395
baryon number 540
baryons 518
beam line 537
becquerel 181
Bell Jocelyn 382
big bang 375, 515
binary stars 365
binary system 345
biological half-life 509
black-body radiation 233
black hole 383
black holes 472
Bohr Neils 175
Boltzmanns constant 549
Boltzmann Ludwig 290
Boyle Robert 97
brachytherapy 510
Bragg scattering equation 446
Bragg William 446
breeder reactors 214
bremsstrahlung radiation 490, 534
Brewsters law 309
Brewster angle 309
Brewster David 309
Broglie Louis de 336
Brownian motion 88
C
capacitance 349
capacitor 349
Carnot engine 284
Carnot Nicolas Lonard Sadi 284
carrier wave 392
cell phones 413
Celsius Anders 77
centre of curvature (C) 428
centrifugal force 67
centripetal acceleration 67
centripetal force 67
cepheid variables 372
Chadwick James 176
Chandrasekhar limit 381
charge-coupled device (CCD) 349
Charles Jacques 97
chemical energy 62
chemical potential energy 78
Chernobyl 210
chromatic aberration 438
circle of least confusion 437
circular motion 66
coal 196
coaxial cable 406
cochlea 480
coherent sources 123
collisions 62
colour 541
colour blindness 355
colour charge 541
colour force 541
compact disc 346
compact discs (CDs) 427
complimentary metal oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) 349
compression 115, 398
computed tomography 496
conduction 79
conductive hearing loss 486
conductor 155
conservation of energy 253
conservation of mass-energy 465
constellation 359
constructive interference. 123
contrast-enhancing media 494
convection 79
conventional current 165
convex lens 429
cosmic rays 515
coulomb 157
Coulombs Law 157
Coulomb Charles Augustin 156
crest 115
Crick Francis 447
critical angle 402
critical mass 210
crossed felds 531
crude oil 196
Curie Pierre and Marie 177
cyclotron 532
cyclotron frequency 533
D
damping 109
data transfer rate 399
Davisson Clinton 337
Davy Humphry 313
de Brahe Tycho 268
de Broglie equation 530
demodulator 397
derived quantity 5
destructive interference. 123
Diesel Rudolf 191
diferential amplifer 408
difraction 121, 301
index.indd 572 22/05/2009 12:14:00 PM
573
INDEX
difraction grating 443
difusion 79
digital information 346
digital versatile disc 346
digital video discs (DVDs) 427
dioptre 429
Dirac Paul 177, 521
dispersion 403, 422
displacement 33
Doppler C. J. 297
Doppler efect 297
dose equivalent 506
dosimetry 504
drag force 38
drif tube accelerator 531
drif tubes 531
drif velocity 125
E
ear-drum 479
Eddington Arthur 47
efective half-life 509
efective resistance 140
efciency 63, 191
Einstein Albert 210, 417
Einstein photoelectric equation 335
Einstein principle of equivalence 470
electrical energy 62
electrical resistance 130
electrical strain gauge 146
electric current 128
electric feld strength 157
electric potential energy 259, 260
electrolysis 313
electromagnetic induction 314
electromagnetic spectrum 418
electromagnetic waves 117, 391
electron-volt 127
electron microscope 306
electrostatics 155
electroweak 516
electroweak theory 548
elementary particles 517
emission spectra 175
emissivity 235
EM spectrum 418
endoscopy 501
energy 56, 113, 189
energy balance climate model 237
energy band theory 156
energy density 197
enhanced greenhouse efect 231
entropy 289
equipotential lines 263
equipotential surface 257
equipotential surfaces 263
error bar 13
ether 455
ethernet 406
event horizon 472
exchange particle 523
exchange particles 518
exponential decay 181
exposure 505
eye 353
F
Faradays Law 317
Faraday Michael 157, 313
far point 432
feedback resistance 409
Fermi Enrico 178
Feynman diagrams 524
Feynman Richard 524
flm badge 507
flters 495
frst dynode 536
frst law of thermodynamics 278
Fizeau A.H.L. 416
favors 517
Fleming s lef -hand rule 167
fux density 228
fux linkage 317
FM 396
focal length 428
forced oscillations. 111
fossil fuels 195
Foucalt Jean 416
fovea 355
frame of reference 453
Fraunhofer difraction 301
free-body diagrams 45
frequency 115
frequency modulation 393
Fresnel difraction 302
fuels 200
fundamental 295
fundamental forces 45
fundamental interactions 522
G
galaxies 358, 384
Galilei Galileo 37, 73
gamma radiation 421
gamma ray bursters 467
Gay-Lussac 97
Geiger-Mller counter 421
Gell-Mann Murray 516, 539
generator 322
geodesic 472
geostationary satellite 407
Germer Lester 337
Glaser Donald 535
Glashow Sheldon 547
global warming 242
gluons 523
Goddard Robert 56
Goodricke John 372
graphs 14
gravitational Field 152
gravitational lensing 475
gravitational mass 469
gravitational potential, 255
graviton 523
greek symbols 30
Gross David 547
H
hadrons 518
Hahn Otto 210
half-life 181, 343
half-value thickness 492
harmonics 295
harmonic series 295
heat engine 281
heat pump 282
heavily damped 109
Heisenberg uncertainty principle 524
Heisenberg Werner 340, 524
Henry Joseph 313
Hertz Heinrich 416
Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams 366
Hertzsprung Ejnar 366
Higgs feld 545
Higgs particle (boson) 546
Hooke Robert 44
Hubbles law 386
Hubble Edwin 375
Humanson Milton 375
Huygens Christian 415
hydro-electric power 220
I
ideal gas 273
induced current, 314
induced emf 315
inertia 43
index.indd 573 22/05/2009 12:14:01 PM
574
INDEX
inertial mass 469
inertial reference frame 454
infra-red radiation 420
insolation 229
instantaneous speed 35
insulator 156
intensity 115
interference 449
interference pattern
two point sources 123
internal combustion engine 190, 282
internal energy 79, 277
internal resistance 138
interpolated resolution 351
inverse photoelectric efect. 444
inverting amplifer 409
ionising radiation 504
ionization current 179
isobaric 278
isochoric 278
isolated system 277
isothermal 279
isotopes 176
J
Joliot Frederic 177
Joule James Prescott 57, 74
K
KelvinPlanck statement 289
Keplers third law 268
Kepler Johannes 268
kinetic energy 59, 78
kinetic theory 88
Kirchof G.R. 139
L
laser light 424
lasers 501
latent heat 92
latent heat of transformation. 92
Lavoisier Antoine 73
Law of conservation of electric charge
155
law of conservation of energy 278
law of gravitation 151
law of refection 118
Lawrence Ernest 516
laws of Bergonie and Tribondeau 505
laws of mechanics 455
least signifcant bit 346
Leavitt Henrietta 372
lef-hand palm rule 315
lens 428
Lenzs Law 318
Lenz Heinrich 317
lepton number 543
leptons 517
light dependent resistor 145
light year 360
linear attenuation coefcient 491
line spectrum 175
liquid drop model 209
load factor 205
longitudinal waves 114
loudness 483
loudspeaker 397
luminosity 361
M
Machs Principle 469
macroscopic 79
magnetic feld 164, 165
magnetic fux 316
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
500
magnetron 531
magnifcation 429
magnifers 433
magnifying power 433
Malus law 311
Malus E.L. 308
Malus Etienne 311
mass 43
mass defect 184
material dispersion 403
matter waves 337
Max Planck 423
Maxwells theory 416, 455
Maxwell James Clerk 416, 455
meson 523
Michelson Albert A. 417
microwaves 420
middle ear 480
Millikan Robert 173
minimum angle of resolution 305
mobile phone 412
modal dispersion 403
moderator 212
modes 403
modulation 392
mole 80
molecular dipole moment 232
momentum 51
monochromatic 424
monomode fbres 404
Morse code 406
most signifcant bit 346
motor efect 167
moving particle theory 88
multiplexing 399
N
natural frequency 110
natural gas 196
Neeman Yuval 539
near point 354, 432
nebulae 358
nematic liquid crystal 312
neutral current reaction 548
neutron activation 209
neutron number 176
neutrons 176
Newton Sir Isaac 33, 73, 415
nibble 398
nodes 123, 294
non-renewable source 196
nuclear binding energy 184
nuclear energy 62
nuclear fssion 186, 215
nuclear fusion 187, 195
nuclear magnetic resonance 500
nuclear power 214
nucleon 176
nucleon number 176
nucleosynthesis 549
nuclide 176
numerical aperture 307
Nyquist theorem 399
O
Oersted 313
Oersted Hans Christian 165
Ohms Law 132
Ohm Georg Simon 132
oil shale 197
oil tar 197
Olbers paradox 374
Olber Henrich 374
Onnes H. Kammerlingh 132
operational amplifer 408
OppenheimerVolkof limit 381
optical microscope 306
optical path diference (opd) 449
optic fbres 406
order of magnitude 1
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575
INDEX
organ of Corti 481
oscillations 109
ossicles 480
Otto Nikolaus 191
outer ear 479
oval window 480
P
pair annihilation 527
pair production 527
parallax 367
parsec 367
Pauli exclusion principle 522
Payne David 404
peat 196
Penzias Arno 548
percentage error 10
period 115
periodicity 113
permeability of free space 129
permittivity constant 156
phase diference 101
phons 483
photo-electric efect 333
photomultiplier tube 536
photon 334, 523
photopic vision 355
photovoltaic devices 218
physical half-life 509
piezoelectric crystal 498
pinna 479
pixels 312, 350
Planck constant 175, 334, 335, 423
Planck Max 175
plasma 216
polarimeter 311
polarization 308
polaroid 308
pole (P) 428
Politzer David 547
pollutants 207
population inversion 426
positron 177
potential diference 125
potential energy 60
Powel Cecil Frank 523
power 62
power rating 133
power stations 192, 205
precision 7
preferential absorption. 308
principal axis 428
principal focal plane 428
principal focus 428
principle of superposition 118, 122
projectiles 251
proper length 460
proper time 458
proton number 176
protostar 379
public switched telephone network 413
pulsars 383
pulse oximetry 501
Q
quality factor 110, 506
quantum 334
quantum chromodynamics 516, 541
quantum efciency 351
quantum mechanics model 520
quantum numbers 520
quark confnement 543
quarks 518, 539
quasars 358, 383
R
r.f (radio frequency) amplifer 397
radiant power 228
radiation 79
radiation scattering 423
radioactive decay 173, 342
radioactive tracers 511
radioactivity 177
radio-isotopes 511
radio-pharmaceuticals 512
radiotherapy 510
radio waves 419
radius of curvature (R) 428
random errors 7
rarefaction 115
Rayleigh criterion 305
Rayleigh Lord 424
Rayleigh scattering 424
real image 429
Reber Grote 383
red-shif 375, 473
refection 118
refraction 119
refractive index 120
refractive indexes 422
refrigerator 283
relative biological efectiveness 507
relative error 10
renewable energy source 197
reshapers 405
resistance 131
resistivity 131
resistor 130
resolution 304, 499
resonance 112
resonance frequency 533
rest mass 464
rest mass energy 464
retina 354
right-hand palm rule 167, 315
Rmer Ole 415
Rontgen William 444
Roosevelt Franklin 210
Rumford Count 73
Russell Henry 366
Rutherford Ernest 173
S
Salam Abdus 547
Salter Duck 224
Sankey diagram 192
scalars 22
Schmitt trigger 411
Schrdinger Erwin 339
scientifc notation 5
scintillation counter 536
scotopic vision 355
seismic exploration 206
self-inductance 328
semi-circular canals 480
sensors 145
sideband 395
signal wave 392
signifcant fgures 8
simple harmonic motion 101, 107
singularity 548
SI units 4
Slipher Vesto 375
Snells law 120
Snell Willebrord 120
solar constant 219, 238
solar heating 218
SONAR 497
sound intensity 483
source independence 398
space-time 471
spacetime diagram 471
Special Teory 456
Specifc heat capacity 84
speed of light 416
spherical aberration 437
spin quantum number 521
spring constant 44
index.indd 575 22/05/2009 12:14:03 PM
576
INDEX
standard model 548
stars
G class 363
M class 363
O class 363
spectral classes 364
stationary waves 293
steam engine 202
Stefan-Boltzmann law 362
Stefans law 234
stellar cluster 359
stellar interferometer 306
step-index 403
strain viewer 311
strangeness 542
string theory 550
strong nuclear interaction 177
surface heat capacity 236
synchrotron 533
systematic errors 7
T
target material 495
teletherapy 511
tension force 44
terminal velocity 38
thermal capacity 83
thermal energy 61, 76, 79
thermal reactors 211
thermistors 146
thermodynamic cycle 190, 280
thermodynamics 277
thermoelectric converters 219
thermometric 76
Tird Law of Termodynamics 284
Tomson J. J. 154, 173
threshold frequency 333
time dilation 458, 459
total internal refection 402
transformer 326
transmission rate 398
transmutation 182, 209
transverse waves 114
travelling-wave accelerator 531
travelling wave 294
trough 115
tube curren 495
tube voltage 495
tuning circuit 397
twin paradox 462
types of star 364
U
ultra-violet radiation 420
ultrasound 497
uncertainties 4, 10
uncertainty principle 340
universal gas constant 273
V
van der Graaf Robert 515
vectors 22, 33
velocity 33
vertex 524
virtual earth 409
virtual image 429
virtual particle 525
visible light 420
W
Watson James 447
Watt James 63
wave-mechanics 339
wavelength 115
wave speed 115
wedge flms 451
weight 43
weightlessness 270
Weinberg Steven 547
Wien Displacement Law 362
Wilczek Frank 547
Wilson Robert 548
wind turbines 223
wire chamber 536
work 56, 277
work-function 334
working fuid 281
X
X-radiation 421
X-ray beam 494
X-ray crystallography 447
Y
Youngs double slit experiment 440
Young Tomas 440
Yukawa Hideki 523
index.indd 576 22/05/2009 12:14:04 PM