Topic 1.

4
PERIODICITY
The Periodic Table
Trends in Period 3
THE PERIODIC TABLE
The periodic table is a list of all known elements arranged in order of increasing atomic
number, from 1 to 106. In addition to this, the elements are arranged in such a way that
atoms with the same number of shells are placed together, and atoms with similar
electronic configurations in the outer shell are also placed together. This is achieved as
follows:
The elements are arranged in rows and columns. lements with one shell are placed in
the first row !ie " and "e#, lements with two shells are placed in the second row !$i to
%e# and so on.
& row of elements thus arranged is called a period.
In addition, the elements are aligned vertically !in columns# with other elements in
different rows, if they share a similar outer'shell electronic configuration. (or e)ample,
elements with outer'shell configuration ns
1
are all placed in the same column ! $i, %a, *,
+b, ,s, (r#.
& column of elements thus arranged is called a group.
&ccording to these principles, the periodic table can be constructed as follows:
I II III I- - -I -II 0
" "e
$i .e . , % / ( %e
%a 0g &l 1i 2 1 ,l &r
* ,a 1c Ti - ,r 0n (e ,o %i ,u 3n 4a 4e &s 1e .r *r
+b 1r 5 3r %b 0o Tc +u +h 2d &g ,d In 1n 1b Te I 6e
,s .a $a ,e ' $u "f Ta 7 +e /s Ir 2t &u "g Tl 2b .i 2o &t +n
(r +a &c Th ' $w
1ince the electronic configurations of " and "e are unusual, they do not fit comfortably
into any group. They are thus allocated a group based on similarities in physical and
chemical properties with other members of the group.
"e is placed in group 0 on this basis, but hydrogen does not behave like any other
element and so is placed in a group of its own.
The elements ,e ' $u and Th ' $w belong in the periodic table as shown above. "owever
if they are placed there periods 6 and 8 do not fit onto a page of &9, so they are placed
below the other elements in most tables.
&ll elements belong to one of four main blocks: the s'block, the p'block, the d'block and
the f'block.
The s-block elements re ll those !ith onl" s electrons in the outer shell.
The p-block elements re ll those !ith t lest one p-electron in the outer shell.
The d-block elements re ll those !ith t lest one d-electron nd t lest one s-
electron but no # or p electrons in the outer shell.
The f'block elements are all those with at least one f'electron and at least one s'electron
but no d or p electrons in the outer shell.
I II III I- - -I -II 0
" "e
$i .e . , % / ( %e
%a 0g &l 1i 2 1 ,l &r
* ,a 1c Ti - ,r 0n (e ,o %i ,u 3n 4a 4e &s 1e .r *r
+b 1r 5 3r %b 0o Tc +u +h 2d &g ,d In 1n 1b Te I 6e
,s .a $a ,e ' $u "f Ta 7 +e /s Ir 2t &u "g Tl 2b .i 2o &t +n
(r +a &c Th ' $w
lements coloured green are in the s'block
lements coloured blue are in the p'block
lements coloured red are in the d'block
lements coloured black are in the f'block
The physical and chemical properties of elements in the 2eriodic Table show clear
patterns related to the position of each element in the 2eriodic Table. lements in the
same group show similar properties, and properties change gradually on crossing a
2eriod.
&s atomic number increases, the properties of the elements show trends which repeat
themselves in each 2eriod of the 2eriodic Table. These trends are known as Periodic
Trends and the study of these trends in known as Periodicit".
TRE$D% I$ PERIOD &
1. Properties o# indi'idul toms
a# atomic si:e
/n moving across 2eriod ; from left to right, the nuclear charge increases but the
shielding stays the same. The attraction of the outer electrons to the nucleus thus
increases and the outer electrons are pulled in closer. The si:e of the atoms <ust decreases
on crossing a period = i.e. sodium is the largest atom in 2eriod ; and argon is the
smallest.
b# ioni:ation energies
Ionisation energy generally increases across period ; but decreases between groups II and
III and also between groups - and -I.
Ionisation energy increases across period ; because the nuclear charge increases but the
shielding remains the same, making the electrons harder to remove.
Ionisation energy decreases from group II to group III because the outer electron in &l is
in a ;p orbital, but the outer electron in 0g is in a ;s orbital. The ;p orbital is better
shielded from its nucleus making it easier to remove.
Ionisation energy decreases from group - to group -I because the outermost ;p electron
in 1 is paired, so there is repulsion in the orbital and the electron is easier to remove. The
outermost ;p electron in 2 is unpaired, so e)periences less repulsion and is harder to
remove.
c# electronegativity
lectronegativity increases across period ;. &s the nuclear charge increases but the
shielding remains the same, the electrons are attracted more strongly to the atom, so that
atom will have a larger share of the electrons in a covalent bond.
>. %tructure nd Bonding
The structure and bonding of the elements in period ; of the 2eriodic Table varies widely.
There is grdul decrese in metllic chrcter in crossing period.
/n crossing a period the ionisation energies increase so it becomes more difficult to
remove electrons and form metallic structures. Thus covalent bonding becomes more
common on crossing a period from left to right.
The noble gases form neither metallic nor covalent bonds with each other. The ionisation
energies are very high so metallic bonding is not possible. There are no unpaired
electrons so covalent bonding is not possible. Thus they form no bonds and e)ist as free
gaseous atoms.
The trends in intramolecular bond type can be seen in the following table:
%a
metallic
0g
metallic
&l
metallic
1i
covalent
2
covalent
1
covalent
,l
covalent
&r
'
The variation on bond type causes a number of differences in the structures of the 2eriod
; elements which in turn causes significant differences in physical properties.
a# 1odium, 0agnesium and &luminium
1odium, 0agnesium and &luminium are metals. They consist of an infinite lattice of
cations held together by a sea of delocalised electrons. There is a fairly strong attraction
between the cations and the delocalised electrons and as a result metals tend to have fairly
high melting points and boiling points.
The melting points increase with increasing charge and decreasing si:e and thus increase
across a period.
lement 1odium 0agnesium &luminium
0pt?
o
, @A 66@ 6A0
.pt?
o
, AA; 1108 >968
The delocalised electrons in the metal structure are free to move throughout the metal
lattice and can thus behave as charge carriers. 7hen a potential difference is applied, the
electrons can move towards the positive electrode. Thus metals are good conductors of
electricity.
lectrical conductivity increases from sodium to aluminium as the number of delocali:ed
electrons per atom increases. &luminium has three electrons per atom in the sea,
magnesium two per atom and sodium only one per atom.
b# 1ilicon
1ilicon is a giant covalent macromolecule. 1ilicon atoms form infinite lattices in which
all the atoms are held together by strong covalent bonds. 1ince the structure cannot be
broken up without breaking these strong covalent bonds, it follows that silicon has a very
high melting and boiling point. The structure of silicon is tetrahedral, identical to
diamond:
1I$I,/%:
1tructure
0pt?
o
, 1906
.pt?
o
, >;BB
1ilicon does not conduct electricity well as it has no free electrons and no free ions.
c# 2hosphorus, sulphur, chlorine and argon
2hosphorus, sulphur, chlorine and argon form simple molecular structures.There are
strong, covalent bonds within the molecule but the different molecules are only held
together by weak -an der 7aalCs forces. 1eparating these molecules thus reDuires little
energy and the melting and boiling points of these elements are relatively low.
The larger the molecule, the greater the magnitude of the temporary and induced dipoles
and the higher the melting and boiling points.
lement 2hosphorus 1ulphur ,hlorine &rgon
1tructure
P P
P
P
P P
P
P
P P
P
P
P P
P
P S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
Ar
Ar
Ar
Ar
Ar
Ar
0pt?
o
, 99 11@ '101 '1A@
.pt?
o
, >A0 99B ';B '1A6
(ormula 29 !or 2# 1A !or 1# ,l> &r

1ulphur has the highest melting point as it e)ists as 1A molecules. These molecules are
Duite large, so the number of electrons in the molecule is high and the -an der 7aalEs
forces are Duite strong. 2hosphorus e)ists as 29 molecules, which have fewer electrons in
them and so have weaker -an der 7aalEs forces. 1o phosphorus has a lower melting point
than sulphur. ,hlorine e)ists as molecules, which have even fewer electrons in them so
the -an der 7aalEs forces are lower and chlorine has a lower melting point than sulphur
and phosphorus. &rgon has the lowest melting and boiling point of all, as it e)ists as
single &r atoms which have even less electrons and so only form very weak -an der
7aalEs forces.
These elements do not conduct electricity well as they have no free electrons and no free
ions.
;. %ummr" o# properties o# period & elements
&tomic si:e = decreases across the period
(irst ioni:ation energy = increases across the period
e)cept between 0g and &l
and between 2 and 1
lectronegativity = increases across the period
0elting and boiling point = increases from %a to &l
= increases from &l to 1i
= decreases from 1i to 2
= increases from 2 to 1
= decreases from 1 to &r
lectrical conductivity = increases from %a to &l
= is :ero from 1i to &r
lement: 1odium 0agnesium &luminium 1ilicon 2hosphorus
!white#
1ulphur
.onding: 0etallic 0etallic metallic covalent ,ovalent covalent
1tructure:
Na
+
Na
+
Na
+
Na
+
e
e
e
e
Mg
2+
Mg
2+
Mg
2+
Mg
2+
e
e
e e
e
e e
e
Al
3+
Al
3+
Al
3+
Al
3+
e
e
e e e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
P P
P
P
P P
P
P
P P
P
P
P P
P
P S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
Type: 0etallic 0etallic 0etallic 4iant
covalent
1imple
molecular
1imple
molecular
0elting
point?
o
,:
@A 66@ 6A0 1910 99 11@
.oiling
point?
o
,:
AA; 1108 >968 >;BB >A0 99B
(irst I?
kFmol
'1
:
9@6 8;A B8A 8A@ 101> 1000
'negativity 0.@ 1.> 1.B 1.A >.1 >.B
lectrical
conductivity
!)10
'A
G
'1
m
'1
#
0.>1 0.>6 0.91 0 0 0
%. 5ou do not need to know the e)act figures, <ust know the trends and be able to
e)plain them.