The complex

plane
Re
Im
a = 2
b = 1
1.5
1
z = a + ib
= 2 + i
z = 1 1.5i
r = |z| = (a
2
+ b
2
)
r sin( )
r cos( )

Fig. 2.1 The Argand diagram showing two complex numbers in the form z = a + ib, r is the modulus of
the complex number z and the argument measured anticlockwise from the real axis.
Complex Numbers
2.1 Motivation and concept
Complex numbers arise naturally in mathematics, often when solving quadratic equa-
tions such as x
2
+ x + 1 = 0, which has the solutions x = = 1. Because
the negative square root cannot be evaluated, as no ordinary number can be negative
when squared, a new number conventionally called i (although engineers call this j)
was invented with the property i
2
= 1 or i = 1. The solution to the equation becomes
x = 1/2 i. This new number is one of a new class called complex numbers. These are not
numbers in the elementary sense used in counting or measuring, but constitute new math-
ematical objects and have an existence of their own. These numbers are called complex
only because they contain two parts and can always be written in the form
z = a + ib (2.1)
where a is called the real (Re) part and b the imaginary (Im) part of the number. The
complex number z = i, if written in the form of equation (2.1), has a real part a = 0 and an
imaginary part b = 1. The latter is rather a misnomer as b is just as real as is a; it is just a
number and perhaps, therefore, the best way to view a complex number is to consider it a
number in two dimensions with amounts a and b in each of these dimensions. In that case,
a complex number can be represented as a point on a graph rather than being a point on a
line, as a normal number may be considered to be. The graph is called an Argand diagram,
if drawn with the real part a along the conventional x-axis and b along the y; the area
dened by a and b is also called the Argand or Gauss plane. The imaginary number i has a
real part that is 0 and an imaginary part that is 1, and is represented by the point {0, 1} on
the y-axis of an Argand diagram.
1
2
1 4
2
2
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The Argand diagram is not like a normal graph in which a function such as y = x
3
is
plotted, because the value of y on the graph normally shows how large the function is at a
given value of x. The Argand diagram shows one point in the real and imaginary plane for
each complex number so is more like a map that locates a place with latitude or longitude.
Performing algebra with complex numbers is no more difcult than with normal
numbers, because the prime rule of algebra still applies:
Whatever I do to one side of an equation I do to the other side.
The normal rules for addition and multiplication apply but with the additional rule that
additions and subtractions are kept separate for the real and imaginary parts, as is done for
components of vectors. A complex number can be divided in the usual way by a real
number. Dividing by a complex number has the additional step that the top and bottom
of the expression are rst multiplied by the complex conjugate of the denominator. This
is explained below. Although i is a complex number, i
2
= 1 and is a real number:
i = 1, i = 1, i
2
= 1, i = .
2.2 Complex conjugate
Complex numbers possess a new property compared to real numbers and this is the com-
plex conjugate. If z = a + ib then the complex conjugate is dened as
z* = a ib, (2.2)
where, by convention, an asterisk is added and every i is replaced with i; the result is that
z*z is always a real number;
1
z*z = (a + ib)*(a + ib) = (a ib)(a + ib) = a
2
+ b
2
. (2.3)
In geometrical terms, forming the complex conjugate is
equivalent to a reection in the real axis because only the ima-
ginary part is inverted.
In quantum mechanics, the wavefunction is often found
to be a complex quantity and, therefore, the complex con-
jugate is always used to calculate expectation values such as
x =

*xdx and probabilities p =

*dx because only a
mathematically real quantity is measured in an experiment,
not an imaginary one.
The quantity z + z* is always a real number equal to 2Re(z) or
2Re(z*) which is the same. It is worth remembering the rules
(z
1
+ z
2
)* = z
1
* + z
2
*, (z
1
z
2
)* = z
1
*z
2
*.
In some textbooks and some scientic papers, formulae
involving complex numbers are written in a form that does not
include the complex conjugate but instead has the notation
+c.c. at the end of the equation to indicate that the complex
conjugate is to be added. This is primarily a method of increas-
ing the readability of formulae. An electric eld describing lin-
early polarized light could be written as
E(t, x) = E
0
(e
i(tkx)
+ c.c.)
instead of E(t, x) = E
0
(e
i(tkx)
+ e
i(tkx)
). Similarly,
(t) = E
0
+ c.c
represents
(t) = E
0
+
D
F
e
it

2
a

2
2i/T
e
it

2
a

2
+ 2i/T
A
C
D
F
e
it

2
a

2
+ 2i/T
A
C
1
i
54
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1
Some texts use a bar over the number to represent the complex conjugate although this rare.
Re
z
Im
z*
Fig. 2.2 The complex number z and its complex
conjugate z*.
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Oxford University Press 2009. Godfrey Beddard: Applying Maths in the Chemical and Biomolecular Sciences
Im
Re
z
1
z
1
z
2
z
1
*
z
1
+ z
2
Im
Re
z
1
+ z*
1
= 2Re(z)
r
Fig. 2.3 Left: Adding two complex numbers together to form z
1
+ z
2
, dashed line. Right:
Adding z
1
+ z
1
*.
2.2.1 Adding complex numbers
The real and imaginary parts are added separately as shown in Fig. 2.3. This is somewhat
like adding two vectors.
2.2.2 Multiplying and dividing complex numbers
Multiplying complex numbers is straightforward using the normal rules of algebra but
remembering to use i
2
= 1 where necessary.
(3 + 5i)(1 2i) = 3 6i + 5i 10i
2
= 13 i.
Dividing numbers is a little more difcult. Always multiply top and bottom of the whole
expression by the complex conjugate of the denominator, because this makes the denom-
inator a real number, and is equivalent to multiplying by 1. An example makes this clearer.
= = = .
2.2.3 Modulus and Argument
The second new property held by complex numbers is variously called the modulus,
magnitude, absolute talue, or normof the complex number. This is calculated in a similar
way to that of a vector and is the length of the complex number measured from the origin,
Figs 2.12.4.
The modulus r of the complex number z = a + ib is
r = + a
2
+ b
2
. (2.4)
It is variously written as
r = | z | = | a + ib | = + z*z = | z* |. (2.5)
The square of a complex number is the square of the modulus;
| a + ib |
2
= (a + ib)*(a + ib) = (a ib)(a + ib) = a
2
+ b
2
= z*z = | z |
2
and is always a positive number.
In Fig. 2.1 and Fig. 2.4 the line from the origin to the complex number is at an angle
given by
tan() = b/a, = tan
1
(b/a) (2.6)
measured anticlockwise from the real axis. This angle is called the argument, amplitude,
polar angle, or phase of the complex number and is measured in radians, a full circle being
13 i
5
D
F
1 + 2i
1 + 2i
A
C
D
F
3 + 5i
1 2i
A
C
(1 2i)*
(1 2i)*
D
F
3 + 5i
1 2i
A
C
3 + 5i
1 2i
55
2
.
2
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U
G
A
T
E
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sin( )
e
i
unit circle


e
3i/2
= i
e
i/2
= i
e
0
= 1
e
i
= 1
Im
r
Re

cos( )

Fig. 2.4 As the angle (argument) varies anticlockwise from 0 to 2, the complex number changes
from 1 to i to 1 to i according to Eulers theorem, equation (2.19). A unit circle has radius of 1.
2radians. The use of the word amplitude to mean an angle is very confusing, and should
probably be avoided.
The location of any complex number is {a, b} in Cartesian type coordinates, or alterna-
tively, in polar type coordinates is {r, }. The complex number is then described as
z = r[cos() + i sin()].
This interpretation is also illustrated in Fig. 2.1 for a point z = a + ib where r is the distance
of the point from the origin. The distance along the real axis is a = r cos() and along the
imaginary axis, b = r sin(). Equating the real and imaginary parts gives
z = a + ib = r[cos() + i sin()]. (2.7)
For example, if the complex number is z =i, it has a real part that is 0 and an imaginary part
of 1, and is represented by a point {0, 1} which is on the imaginary axis. Its modulus is 1
and its argument /2. If the number is z = 1 i then the point is found at {1, 1} on the
Argand diagram. Its argument is 5/4 (225) and its modulus = 2. (1 i)(1 + i)
56
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2.3 Summary
If the complex number is z = a + ib = r[cos() + i sin()] where a and b are real numbers, then
a = Re(z) is the real part of z
b = lm(z) is the imaginary part of z
r = | z | = z*z is the modulus of z, or absolute value, magnitude or norm.
= tan
1
(b/a) is the argument of z, also called the polar angle or phase.
z* = a ib = r[cos() i sin()] is the complex conjugate of z.
zz* = | z |
2
= | z* |
2
is the absolute value is always a positive real number.
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2.4 Using Maple
When using Maple to perform calculations with complex numbers, a non-conventional
notation is used, and I (capital i) represents i in mathematical notation. Also, to evaluate
expressions with complex numbers, it is necessary to use evalc(..) to force a calcula-
tion to happen. For example,
> evalc( exp(I*Pi)); 1
The real Re(..) imaginary, Im(..) and absolute (modulus) abs(..) values are next
calculated with a function dened as f. Notice how evalc(..)has to be used to force the
result.
> f:= exp(-I*x/2)*I*Pi/2;
f := I e
> real_part:= Re(f); value:= evalc(Re(f));
Imaginary_part:= Im(f); value:= evalc(Im(f));
absolute_value:= abs(f); value:= evalc(abs(f));
real_part := e value := sin x
Imaginary_part := e value := cos x
absolute_value := e value :=
In Section 2.8, it is shown how easy it is to evaluate these apparently complicated expressions.
1
2
1

2
(x) 1
2
D
F
1
2
A
C
1
2
D
F

2
I x
A
C
1
2
D
F
1
2
A
C
1
2
D
F

2
I x
A
C
1
2

2
I x 1
2
57
2
.
5
Q
U
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T
I
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S
2.5 Questions
Full solutions are available at www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/beddard.
Q2.1 If z
1
= 2 + i and z
2
= 1 3i/2,
(a) calculate z
1
+ z
2
and (b) z
1
z
2
. (c) What is iz
1
z
2
?
Q2.2 (a) If i
2
= 1, what are i
3
, i
4
, i
5
, and i
6
?
(b) What relationship links positive powers of i?
Q2.3 If z = a ib what is i
3
z?
Q2.4 If z = 3 + 4i nd z
2
and the modulus and argument of z
2
.
Q2.5 Calculate z = (2 5i)(3 + i) + 3i, and nd the modulus and argument of the result.
Q2.6 Express the number in the form z = a + ib and nd its modulus and argument.
Q2.7 Simplify z = (2 5i)(3 + i)/(3 i) and nd the modulus and argument of the result.
Q2.8 Find the modulus and argument of
(a) cos() i sin(), and
(b) 1 i tan(), where 0 < < /2 in both cases.
Q2.9 If w = z
2
and z = x + iy and w = u + it, nd u and t.
5 i
2 3i
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2.6 DeMoivres theorem and powers of complex numbers
A complex number z can be written as
z = r[cos() + i sin()],
and if n is any number, what is z
n
= r
n
[cos() + i sin()]
n
? The trigonometric part can be
shown to have the simple form,
[cos() + i sin()]
n
= cos(n) + i sin(n), (2.8)
therefore,
z
n
= r
n
[cos(n) + i sin(n)] (2.9)
which is called DeMoivres theorem and is essential to calculating powers of complex
numbers. One of the unexpected things that can be done is to nd the n
th
root of 1, i, 3 or
any other number for that matter.
To demonstrate that DeMoivres theorem is correct, calculate the product of two com-
plex numbers expressed in angular form, and then let
1
=
2
. Suppose, for simplicity, that
r
1
= r
2
= 1, then the product of two numbers is
[cos(
1
) + i sin(
1
)][cos(
2
) + i sin(
2
)]
= cos(
1
)cos(
2
) + i cos(
1
)sin(
2
) + i sin(
1
)cos(
2
) sin(
1
)sin(
2
)
= cos(
1
+
2
) + i sin(
1
+
2
).
The double angle formula (Chapter 1.5.1) was used in the last step, and letting
1
=
2
produces
[cos() + i sin()]
2
= cos(2) + i sin(2).
as predicted by DeMoivres theorem. This result can be generalized to any power of a real
or complex value n.
The product z
1
z
2
and quotient z
1
/z
2
of two complex numbers
are written in this form as
z
1
z
2
= r
1
r
2
[cos(
1
+
2
) + i sin(
1
+
2
)], (2.10)
where the angles add, and provided that z
2
0,
= [cos(
1

2
) + i sin(
1

2
)]
where the angles subtract. There is a geometrical interpretation
to multiplying two complex numbers. If their moduluses are
unity, z
1
= cos(
1
) + i sin(
1
) and z
2
= cos(
2
) + i sin(
2
), then
multiplication results in rotation about the origin, equation
(2.10). Geometrically this is shown in Fig. 2.5.
2.6.1 Roots of a complex number
Suppose that w is a real or complex number whose roots we need to nd, then mathe-
maticians have shown that, in general, the answer will be a complex number. If the n roots
of a number z are expressed as w = z
1/n
, then the equation to examine is w
n
= z.
We will let both sides of this equation be different complex numbers. Expressing the
left-hand side in angular form using DeMoivres theorem with a polar angle gives
w
n
= R
n
[cos(n) + i sin(n)]. (2.11)
The right-hand side of the equation is
z = r[cos() + i sin()] (2.12)
r
1
r
2
z
1
z
2
58
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Im
Re
z
1
z
2
z
2
z
1
2

Fig. 2.5 Geometrical interpretation of the

multiplication of two complex numbers.
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since any complex number can be written in this way. Therefore,
R
n
= r
where both R and r are real numbers. The angles and are related in the most general
way as
n = + 2k (2.13)
where k = 0, 1, 2, n 1 because sine and cosine are cyclic functions; sin() = sin( + 2)
= sin( + 4) and so forth, therefore there will be more than one root to the equation.
Using n = only allows one root to be found. Using equations (2.11) and (2.13), gives
w = R
1/n
cos + i sin . (2.14)
In the special case of calculating the n
th
root of unity, w
n
= 1 and z = 1, then from equa-
tion (2.12), r = 1, = 0 and therefore,
w = cos + i sin . (2.15)
There is always one real root and the other roots fall on the vertices of a polygon which is
formed inside a circle of unit radius and touches the circle at its vertices.
To illustrate the method, w
5
= 1 is solved to nd the ve fth roots of unity. The equa-
tion to solve is w
n
=z with n =5 and z =1. The roots are the solution of equation (2.15) with
n = 5,
z = 1
1/5
= cos(2k/5) i sin(2k/5)
where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. The principal talue of the equation is the one solved with k = 0. The
ve roots are then
w = 1, cos(2/5) + i sin(2/5), cos(4/5) + i sin(4/5),
cos(6/5) + i sin(6/5), cos(8/5) + i sin(8/5),
and as sin(2/5) = sin(8/5) and so forth, only the positive
terms need be used. Only one of the roots is not a complex
number and as this rst root lies on the real axis, the angle to the
next root is
= tan
1
[sin(2/5)/cos(2/5)] 72
and the other roots are separated from each other by the same
angle as expected for a pentagon.
In the Maple calculation, the sequence command seq
is used to generate pairs of numbers, which are plotted with
the pointplot procedure. The circle function is used and
display plots both curves together. To do this, each plot
is given a name, c1 and p1. The constrained instruction
ensures that the x- and y-axes are the same size on the page and
so produce a circle. The code here can be used to nd and plot
any root by dening n with theta:=0.
Algorithm 2.1 n roots of unity
> with(plottools): with(plots):
c1:= circle([0,0],1): # name for plot circle
n:= 5: theta:= 0: # define values; n>0
s1:= seq([cos((theta+2*Pi*k)/n ),sin((theta+2*Pi*k)/n )],
k = 0..n-1): # pairs of points
p1:= pointplot([s1], symbol=BOX, scaling = constrained ):
display([ p1, c1 ]); # plot both p1 and c1
J
L
D
F
2k
n
A
C
D
F
2k
n
A
C
G
I
J
L
D
F
+ 2k
n
A
C
D
F
+ 2k
n
A
C
G
I
59
2
.
6
D
E
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O
I
V
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E

S

T
H
E
O
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M

A
N
D

P
O
W
E
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S

O
F

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1.0
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0
0
Fig. 2.6 The five roots of the equation z
5
= 1.
The points form a pentagon.
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2.8 Eulers theorem
The exponential series is e
x
= 1 + x + + + Y, and similarly a series can be formed in
the complex number w,
e
w
= 1 + w + + + Y.
Now suppose that w= i, where is real, then rearrange into real and imaginary terms;
e
i
= 1 + i i + Y= 1 + Y + i + Y .
The real and imaginary parts are expansions of the cosine and sine functions respectively,
therefore, if z is a complex number
z = e
i
= cos() + i sin(). (2.16)
This equation was discovered in 1748 by the Swiss mathematician Euler, and is extremely
important as it crops up everywhere from quantum mechanics to X-ray crystallography
and other phenomena connected with waves.
Writing = produces
e
i
= cos() i sin()
and therefore, for a general complex number with (modulus) r as a real number,
re
z
= re
i
= r[cos() + i sin()].
DeMoivres theorem can be derived from these equations: the power of a complex
number w is
w
n
= r
n
e
in
= r
n
[cos(n) + i sin(n)]. (2.17)
Adding and subtracting e
i
and e
i
gives
cos() = and sin() = (2.18)
which are equations that prove most useful in manipulating trig functions.
e
i
e
i
2i
e
i
+ e
i
2
J
L

5
5!

3
3!
G
I
J
L

4
4!

2
2!
G
I

4
4!

3
3!

2
2!
w
3
3!
w
2
2!
x
3
3!
x
2
2!
60
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2.7 Questions
Full solutions are available at www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/beddard.
Q2.10 Find the four roots of (3)
1/4
.
Strategy: This problem is the same as solving the equation w
4
= 3 and as there are four roots they
must form a square on an Argand diagram whose corners lie on a circle of radius 3
1/4
. The roots of a
negative number are sought so these must all be complex with a zero real part; i.e. with an imaginary
part only.
Q2.11 Find the square roots of i, i.e. w
2
= i. Find their magnitude and plot them on an Argand diagram.
Q2.12 Solve w
4
= 16.
Strategy: Because the equation is fourth order, there are four solutions and not just the two real ones
w = 2. Use the method of previous questions.
Q2.13 Calculate the modulus and argument of 2 + 3i then calculate its square roots. What is the radius of the
circle on which the roots lie and at what angles?
Strategy: The complex number 2 + 3i is best converted into its trigonometric form to calculate the
modulus and argument.
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Re
Im
Fig. 2.7 Two visualizations of the complex number e
i
= cos() + i sin() illustrate that it has a
wavelike form.
Calculating e
i
with = and r = 1 produces
e
i
= 1 or e
i
+ 1 = 0 (2.19)
which some consider the most beautiful equation in mathematics, as it connects the most
important numbers of mathematics (0, 1, i, e, and ) and uses the most important opera-
tions (multiplication, exponentiation, negation, and addition). Furthermore, an integer is
produced by raising an irrational number times the imaginary unit i to the power of
another irrational number, e. It is not at all obvious why this connection exists from an
arithmetical standpoint, but from a geometrical one it is clearer. Consider a circle of unit
radius on an Argand diagram; as the angle increases from 0 to 2, the modulus (radius)
is 1 when = 0, and is i when is /2, and 1 when the angle is and so on; see Fig. 2.4.
Eulers formula is important in science, because it permits the description of a sinu-
soidally varying real quantity by means of complex exponentials. This change simplies
equations, because it is far easier to manipulate exponentials than trig functions. For
example, the general form of a sinusoidally varying quantity, such as a plane wave, is
f (t) = a
0
cos(t ), where a
0
is the amplitude, the frequency, and the phase. These are
all constants, and t is time and is a real variable. The equivalent complex function is
g(t) = a
0
e
i(t)
= a
0
[cos(t ) i sin(t )]
therefore f (t) = Re[g(t)]. Very often in chemistry and physics, the complex form is used
without explicitly stating that it is only the real part that represents the waveform. Fig. 2.7
compares various waveforms.
As an example of using Eulers equation, we will evaluate w = ln(1) even though it
doesnt existat least as a pure real number, then w = ln(i) and w = ln(z/3) are calculated
where z is any complex number. The strategy in problems of this type is to convert the
number 1, or i, or whatever it is into an exponential form using Eulers theorem.
(i) In the rst example, w= ln(1) or e
w
= 1 and whas to be found to solve this equation.
A general complex number can always be written as z = re
i
, therefore to nd w, let w= i.
The absolute value (modulus) r of e
w
is = 1. Because e
i
= cos() + i sin(), when
= , e
i
= 1 making the principal talue of ln(1) = ln(1e
i
) = i, which is a complex num-
ber. Note that there are other values of separated by 2ki, where k is an integer because
e
i
is a cyclic function.
(ii) In this example, w = ln(i) or e
w
= i and let w = i. As e
i
= cos() + i sin(), when
= /2 this equation produces e
i/2
= i or ln(i) = .
(iii) If w = ln(z/3), then 3e
w
= z, and if z is any complex number then we look for a value
of such that 3e
i
= z. Generally a complex number is represented by z = re
i
, then in this
example w = ln(z) = ln(3e
i
) = ln(3) + i( + 2k) and 2k is added because the function is
cyclic and k is any integer; recall that the Euler equation can be put into a cosine and sine
form, so it is a repetitive function. The principal value occurs when k = 0.
i
2
e
i
e
i
61
2
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8
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S

T
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Oxford University Press 2009. Godfrey Beddard: Applying Maths in the Chemical and Biomolecular Sciences
Returning to example (i), w = ln(1), if the 1 is treated as a complex number with an
imaginary part that is zero, then the answer can be written down directly as
w = ln(1) = ln(re
i
) = ln(1) + i( + 2k)
and, since r = 1 and ln(1) = 0, this gives the same result as in (i) ln(1) = i for the prin-
cipal value.
62
2
C
O
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B
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S
2.9 Questions
Full solutions are available at www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/beddard.
Q2.14 Calculate e
i
.
Q2.15 Find the real and imaginary parts of (a) ie
ix
, (b) e
in
, and (c) e
in/2
, where n is an integer.
Q2.16 Calculate (a) i
i
and (b) i
1/i
.
Strategy: Using different bases such as a
x
= e
x ln(a)
any number can be raised to any power. With
complex numbers always try to put the number in terms of Eulers equation.
Q2.17 The cosine function is dened as cos(x) = . What is cos
1
(x)?
Strategy: This is a case where x and y are swapped about. If cos
1
(x) then cos(y) = x. It is true also that
cos(y) = . Next eliminate the cosine and solve for y and so nd cos
1
(x).
Q2.18 Show that the identity (cos(x) + sin(x))
2
= 1 + sin(2x) can be (relatively easily) proved using complex
numbers.
Q2.19 Show that 2 sin cos = sin(a) + sin(b).
Q2.20 Starting with Eulers theorem and letting = a + b, calculate sin(a + b) and cos(a + b) by equating real
and imaginary parts.
Q2.21 Find sin() in exponential form then calculate | sin(i) |, and compare it with | sin() |. Plot values of
| sin(ix) | and | sin(x) | over the range x = 4 to 4.
Q2.22 (a) If z = cos(x) + i sin(x) show that = iz. (b) Integrate this result and prove Eulers theorem.
Q2.23 Calculate the real and imaginary parts of . This function is the Fourier transform of a
square wave of length t; see Chapter 9.5 and 9.6.
Strategy: use i = 1/i and multiply out the terms.
Q2.24 In an NMR experiment, the FID signal has the form s(t) = a
j
e
i
j
tt/
j
where is the frequency of the
transition, the average of the T1 and T2 lifetimes, and a the amplitude of each signal and there are j
parts to the total signal. For simplicity, assume that
j
has a constant value .
(a) Calculate the real, imaginary, and absolute value of s if j = 2.
(b) Plot the real part of the signal if a
1
= a
2
= 2 and 2= 1 Hz and 0.2 Hz and
1
=
2
= 50 s and also
when
1
=
2
= 500 s. Comment on the two results.
(c) Repeat (a) when a
1
= i, which means that the initial amplitude is complex, and a
2
= 1.
In spite of the fact that the signal from an experiment cannot be a complex number, this is what
appears to be the case here. The reason for this is that in a real NMR experiment two signals are
measured, one by a coil on the spectrometers x-axis and the other by a similar coil on the y-axis.
These are at right angles to the z-axis along which the permanent magnetic eld is directed. These x
and y signals are measured in quadrature, i.e. 90 out of phase to one another. One signal is taken to
be the real component, and one the imaginary. They are then combined to produce s(t) given above.

j
D
F
1 e
it
i
A
C
1
2
dz
dx
D
F
a b
2
A
C
D
F
a + b
2
A
C
e
iy
+ e
iy
2
e
ix
+ e
ix
2
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Oxford University Press 2009. Godfrey Beddard: Applying Maths in the Chemical and Biomolecular Sciences
63
2
.
9
Q
U
E
S
T
I
O
N
S
Strategy: The question asks you to nd the components which when combined make s(t). Use the
Euler formula to do this and to simplify the complex exponential. As the signal represents the FID
from an NMR experiment it oscillating in a sinusoidal way.
Q2.25 Derive the identities (a) 4 cos()sin
2
() = cos() cos(3) and
(b) 4 sin()cos
2
() = sin() + sin(3)
Strategy: Always use the exponential forms of sine and cosine wherever possible for complicated trig
functions. These are
cos() = , sin() = .
Q2.26 If C is the series whose n
th
term is cos(nx)/n!, and S the series sin(nx)/n!, calculate the sum from n = 1
to innity of C + iS, and hence nd the sum C.
Strategy: Convert to the exponential form using e
ix
= cos(x) + i sin(x), sum the terms then convert
back to trig form and separate out the real part of the result.
Q2.27 In the study of the dielectric properties of liquids and in electrochemical techniques that use
potentiometry, the response of the solution to different electrical frequencies is studied. The general
term for these experiments is impedance spectroscopy. In an experiment where a capacitor C and
resistor R are in parallel, the impedance Z, which is a complex quantity, is given by Z = (R
1
+ iC)
1
where is the frequency applied to the sample.
(a) Convert Z into the form Z = Z iZ.
(b) Plot Z as ordinate, and z as abscissa. Show that the resulting curve is a semicircle. Use R = 5 k
and C = 1 F. Decide where high frequency is on the plot. This is not obvious from the graph
because is not on one of the axes.
Strategy: Multiply top and bottom of the expression by the complex conjugate. Look up the
parametric method of plotting graphs in the Maple appendix.
e
i
e
i
2i
e
i
+ e
i
2
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Oxford University Press 2009. Godfrey Beddard: Applying Maths in the Chemical and Biomolecular Sciences