ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

The subject of economic geology deals principally with the mode of occurrence,
distribution, origin, classification and association of all minerals and rocks of economic
importance and systematic studies in this direction are scheduled to lead to the discovery of
new deposits and further extension of the exsisting ones.
Georgius Agricola formulated a solid base for modern theories of ore deposits in the
sixteenth century considered as father of economic geology. He wrote many treatises on
geology and mining, most pioneering of his works is e !e "etallica #$%%&'. (resent day
fundamentals of ore deposits bear the stamp of his influence.
Classification and types of Ore deposits
A mineral deposit #or an ore deposit' may be defined as a rock body that contains one or more
elements #or minerals' sufficiently above the average crustal abundance to have potential
economic value. The mineral deposit can be broadly categorised into
$' metallic ore mineral deposit from which one or more metal can be extracted and
)' non*metallic or industrial mineral deposits.
Geologists classify mineral deposits in many different ways, according to the+
$' ,ommodity being mined
)' Tectonic setting in which the deposit occurs
-' Geological setting of the mineral deposit
.' Genetic model for the origin of the ore deposit
Scope:
/cope of this subject is vast and includes the study of metalliferous ores of iron,
manganese, copper, gold etc and non*metalliferous deposits of mica, limestone, gemstones
etc. ,lassification of metallic and non*metallic minerals+
"etallic "inerals
$. 0errous "etals #0e, Ti, ,r, "n etc'
). 1on*0errous "etals #,u, (b, 2n, /b, 1i etc'
-. 1oble3(recious "etals #Au, Ag, (t, 4s, 5r etc'
.. 6ight "etals #Al, 6i, 7e, "g etc'
%. !are earths and dispersed "etals #6a, ,e to 6u' and #/c, Ga, !b, ,d etc'
&. !are and /carce "etals #8, "o, /n, ,o, Hg, 7i, 2r, ,s, 1b, Ta etc'
1on "etallic "aterials
$.0ossil 0uels #,oal, (etroleum and natural gas'
)./tructural and building material #Granite, 9hondalite, olerite, /late, Gypsum, etc'
-.,eramic materials #,lays, 0eldspar, 7auxite, "agnesite, 7arite etc'
.."etallurgical and !efractory materials #0luorspar, Graphite, "agnesite, dolomite,
7auxite,
2ircon etc'
%.5ndustrial and manufacturing materials #Asbestos, "ica, Talc, 7arite etc'
&.,hemical materials #/alt, 7orates, ,a,"g,,l
)
, 7romine, 1itrates etc'
:.Abrasives and abrasive materials #,orundum, ;mery, Garnet etc'
Economic Geology and relation with other branches
;conomic geologists determine the location, extent, <uality and value of deposits of ore
and non*metallic substances while mining engineers explore these deposits. ;conomic
geologists can successfully cooperate with mining engineers in predicting the probable
difficulties during mining operations and in solving unforeseen problems.
"etallurgists and mineral engineers are concerned primarily with the convenient
recovery of metals and alloys from their ores, which are in turn, contain useful as well as
useless minerals. /tudies on the location, mineralogical composition, texture and structure of
deposits, which come within the domain of economic geology are, however are of great use
to the metallurgists and mineral engineers in adopting suitable and economic methods for the
beneficiation of ores and for extraction of metals #alloys' form them by the way of+ $'
6iberation of wanted particles from the unwanted particles by means of si=e reduction and )'
,oncentration of the valuable part #as concentrate' and rejection of the gangue # tailings'.
;conomic evaluation of mineral deposits
Ore Mineral:
A mineral from which one or more metals or metallic compounds can be extracted
economically is known as ore mineral. ;g. ,halcopyrite, hematite, galena, sphalerite etc.
Gange minerals:
Gangue minerals include any minerals in an ore deposit that have no economic value.
Gangue minerals are normally non*metallic minerals. The gangue minerals are principally
silicates and carbonates. Thus <uart= is a common gangue mineral associated with galena. /o
gangue minerals are associated, usually worthless, non metallic materials of a deposit usually
discarded in treatment of ores. /ome gangue minerals considered worthless today may prove
to be of economic value tomorrow. eg. A big fluorite vein encountered during mining of
copper ores.
,ommon gangue minerals+
4xides* <uart=, hematite etc
,arbonates* calcite, dolomite
/ulphates* 7arite, Gypsum
/ilicates* 0eldspar, clays
"iscellaneous* 0lourite, pyrite, pyrrhotite etc.
Ore:
4re is an aggregation of ore minerals and gangue from which one or more metals may
be extracted at a profit. Thus, copper ores of /inghbhum are made up of chalcopyrite,
pyrrhotite, cuprite which constitute the important ore minerals and are associated with
gangue. The lead*=inc ores of 2awar, !ajasthan are composed of two important ore minerals
i.e galena and sphalerite which are associated with dolomitic, <uart=itic and phyllitic gangue.
4res must allow profitable extraction of metals or metallic compounds and should be
therefore be payable to the desired extent. The extent to which a metalliferous deposit is
payable depends on its location, accessibility, <uantity and <uality as well as on the price of
the metal.
A simple ore is one from which a single metal can be extracted. ;.g. Hematite. ,omplex
ores on the other hand yield several metals. e.g., chalcopyrite #Au may be recovered' galena #
in addition to (b, ,d , Ag etc may be recovered', sphalerite etc. /ome of common association
of metals in ores are Au>Ag, Ag > (b, (b,2n>,u, ,u > Au, 0e>"n, 0e>Ti, 1i >,u, 1i
>,o, ,r >1i, ,r >(t, "o> ,u, 2n >,d, 8>/n etc.
(rotore is minerali=ed rock that is too lean to yield a profit. ;conomically mineable
aggregates of ore minerals.
4re* Gangue relationships+
The study of ore*gangue relationships is especially important to the engineers and
geologists who determine how to concentrate ore minerals. The grain si=e of both ore and
gangue will establish how finely the ore must be ground. !elative wetting abilities, specific
gravities and magnetic properties between the ore and gangue minerals limit the mechanisms
by which ore can be separated from the gangue after crushing.
"ineral economics
0or the purpose of recognition as an ore, a deposit must contain atleast a certain
percentage of metal in it.
Grade > Tenor+ The lowest admissible limit of metallic content of an ore is known as its
tenor.
The metal content of an ore is called the tenor or grade, which is generally expressed as ?,
ppm, in case of precious metals, ounces per ton. These two terms are almost synonymous in
the way that the tenor represents the metal content of ore while grade represents the
concentration of metal in an ore body which depends upon the chemical composition and
nature of ore mineral.
0or costly metals like gold, platinum etc., the tenor is very low while in case of metals
like iron, the tenor is naturally much higher. The tenor varies with the price of the metal, with
the cost of production, availability of a particular metalliferous deposit as well as on the
industrial set up of the country. 0or eg. 5n 5ndia, resources of high*grade iron ore are
abundant and, as a conse<uence, the tenor of this ore is high. eposits containing -% to .@ ?
of iron, are therefore not ordinarily used. 5f high*grade ores exhaust in course of time, it is
necessary to use inferior <uality and in that case the tenor of iron ore will be lowered down
considerably. "ost iron ore to be profitable must have a tenor of &@ ? in 5ndia, where as
copper ore need only @.. ? #general cut* off grade at "alanjkhand ' or gold ores, % gm3ton or
even - gm 3ton will do.The tenor of ore has no upper limit, the richer the better, the lower
limit is fixed by economic considerations and varies according to the nature and si=e of a
deposit.
,ut*off grade+ The minimum most acceptable grade in deposit. ;g. At "alanjkhand cu
deposit, the average grade is $.)A ? and cut*off grade is @..A ?.
(rotore+ "ineral that may further natural processes be upgraded to the level of ore.
Assaying+ The determination of grade and concentration of a particular metal in a mineral
deposit is known as assaying. Buantitatively, the chemical grades of various ores will be
determined to assess its profitability and therefore the projectCs viability may be worked out
based on these parameters.
0or economic consideration in the ores, the metallic content of desired constituents is
determined by chemical analysis, such as Atomic Absorption /pectrometry # AA/', D*!ay
0luorescence /pectrometry #D!0', 5nductively ,oupled (lasma * "ass /pectrometry or
Atomic ;mission /pectrometry # 5,(*"/ or 5,(*A;/' etc. The results would be expressed
in terms of 8t?, 4unces per ton, ppm or ppb.
0or the mineral seperation purposes and for various industrial uses, <uanitities of other
in gradients #like gangue, oxides of /i, 0e, ,a, "g etc' particularly those that affect the
metallurgical treatment need to be estimated. 5n the case of non*metallic products, the
materials are determined by chemical analyses, physical tests, visual inspection and
microscopic examination. The various tests are ,hemical+ D* !ay and thermal analysis.
(hysical+ /trength, grain si=e, hardness, specific gravity, plasticity, fusibility, electrical
conductivity etc are determined.
"ineral deposit can be mined at profit depends upon shape, depth, location and si=e and
also on transport, cost etc.
Two groups of mineral deposits may be established, syngenetic and epigenetic depending on
their time*relationship to the rocks enclosing or associated with them.
Syngenetic
A syngenetic mineral deposit is a deposit that is formed at the same time as the rocks
that enclose it. "agmatic deposits are syngenetic in that the ore minerals crystalli=e from the
same li<uid that produces the silicate minerals which form the bulk of the intrusive * they
crystalli=e more or less simultaneously as the melt cools.
eposits which form on the earthCs surface in the form of a sedimentary layer are also
syngenetic. The rocks which they lie upon were deposited just prior to the minerali=ing event,
while the overlying rocks were deposited just after * all three layers being deposited at
essentially the same time in terms of the geological time frame.
(rocess+ "agmatic intrusion and later transported by hydrothermal fluids, E"/,
(orphyry, /;;D
Epigenetic
5f a mineral deposit formed much later than the rocks which enclose it, it is said to be
epigenetic. An example is a vein. The first step in the formation of a vein is the
fracturing or breaking of rock along a fault =one, at a depth ranging from surface to
several kilometers below surface. The rock must be solid #lithified' and brittle, creating
open spaces when it breaks. Hydrothermal solutions pass along the fault =one and
deposit or precipitate the ore and gangue minerals within the open spaces. Thus, the vein
is necessarily younger than the rocks that contain it.
/ince we are fairly certain which deposits are syngenetic and which are epigenetic
#although there will always be some degree of uncertainty and overlap', it is convenient
to begin the classification with this discrimination. 7eyond this, the various categories
are based on their physical description, including si=e and shape. A third level of
subdivision is usually based on the metals contained.
!rocess of "ormation of ore #eposits
The most commonly used scheme is the genetic classification scheme. 4re genesis deals with
various attributes that provide direct or indirect evidence related to formation of ore deposits.
These deposits include+
Orthomagmatic
$% C&Ni #eposits
a' 9omatiite #ultramafic lava*hosted'
b' 5mpact "elt
c' "afic intrusive rocks
'% !GE(s
a' /tratiform in mafic intrusions
b' "afic magmatic breccias
)% #iamond #eposits
a' 9imberlites
b' 6amprolites and lamprophyres
*% Chromite #eposits
a' 6ayered intrusion*hosted
b' 4phiolite*hosted
*a+ Magnetite&apatite&,anadim deposits
-% #eposits .elated to granites
a' (egmatites
b' Franium
/ydrothermal Ore #eposits
0% !orphyry C&type deposits
a' (orphyry copper in <uart= diorite*granitic host rocks
b' (orphyry copper in tonalite to granodiorite host rocks
c' (orphyry copper in mon=onite*syenodiorite host rocks
1% !orphyry Molybdenm #eposits
a' (orphyry "olybdenum in <uart=*mon=onite*granite host rocks
2% !orphyry Gold #eposits
3% !orphyry 4in and 4ngsten #eposits
$5% Epithermal Gold #eposits
a' 6ow sulfidation in felsic volcanic rocks
b' High sulfidation in felsic volcanic rocks
c' /ediment hosted deposits
$$% Orogenic Gold #eposits
a' "esothermal #meso=onal'*brittle*ductile'
b' Hypothermal #hypo=onal'*#ductile'
$'% 6olcanogenic Massi,e Slfide #eposits
a' "afic volcanic rocks dominant
4re hosted by felsic volcanic rocks
4re hosted by mafic volcanic rocks
4re hosted by sedimentary rocks
b' 0elsic volcanic rocks dominant
4re hosted by volcanoclastic rocks
low sulfidation deposits
high sulfidation deposits
$' 4re hosted by felsic lava flows
)' high sulfidation deposits
-' low sulfidation deposits
$)% Sedimentary /osted #eposits
$. "ississippi Ealley leadG=inc
). /edimentary*;xhalative
-. ;vaporite eposits*/alt and (otash
.. /edimentary hosted copper
%. /edimentary hosted uranium deposits
$*+ Iron Ore #eposits
a' Eolcanic hosted
b' /edimentary hosted #750'
$-% S7arn #eposits
$0% Iron O8ide&Copper&Gold #eposits
a' ,alc Alkalic type
b' Alkalic type
$1% #eposits .elated to Srface 9eathering
a' "echanical 8eathering*(lacers #including 8itswaterrand'
b' ,hemical 8eathering
$' 7auxite
)' 1ickel laterites
-' "anganese
.' (hosphates
$% M:GM:4IC CONCEN4.:4ION
uring consolidation of magmas, the constituent minerals solidify in descending
order of their meting points. "inerals with high meting points crystalli=e earliest while the
minerals with lower meting points follow. 5n the process, under favourable conditions some
minerals of economic value concentrate. 0or eg. 8hile still in molten condition, ,r, 0e >4 in
the. magma may combine to form chromite. ,r crystals are heavy and therefore sink to the
bottom of magma chamber and accumulate as a concentrate.
4re minerals crystalli=e earlier than silicate minerals and some ore minerals
crystalli=e laterH and in still others they remained as immiscible li<uids until the
crystalli=ation of the host rocks.
Classification of magmatic deposits:
$% Early Magmatic:
a. issemination+ isseminated crystalli=ation without concentration+ eg.
iamond, (anna, ".(.
b. /egregation+ ,rystallisation, differentiation and accumulation+ eg.
,hromite, /inghbhum dt., Iharkhand.
'% Late Magmatic:
a% Gra,itati,e li;id accmlation
i. !esidual li<uid segregation+ ,rystallisation, differentiation and residual
magma accumulation+ eg. ,hromites > Eanadiferous, Titanomagnetite of
"ayurbhanj t. 4rissa.
ii. !esidual li<uid injection+ ,rystallisation, differentiation. !esidual magma
accumulation with filter pressing and3or injection+ eg. (egmatites hosted mica
deposits, Giridih, Iharkhand.
b% Immiscible Li;id accmlation
i. 5mmiscible li<uid segregation+ 5mmiscible li<uid segregation and
accumulation+ eg. $. "agmatic ilmenite deposits H ). 1i*/ulphide deposits.
ii. 5mmiscible li<uid injection+ 5mmiscible li<uid segregation, accumulation
with injection. + eg. /ame as above.
#efinitions: $' ;arly "agmatic eposits+ ;arly magmatic deposits resulted from straight
magmatic processes. )' 6ate "agmatic eposits consist of igneous ore minerals that have
crystalli=ed from a residual magma toward the close of the magmatic period.
Early Magmatic #eposits:
The ore minerals crystalli=ed earlier than the rock silicates and in part presumably have
separated by crystalli=ation and differentiation.
#issemination: /imple crystalli=ation of a deep*seated magma insitu will yield a granular
igneous rock in which earlier formed crystals may be disseminated throughout. The diamond
pipes of /outh Africa are examples. The diamonds are sparsely disseminated throughout
9imberlitic rocks. They crystalli=ed #phenocrysts' in a former deep magma chamber #in high
pressures' and were transported with enclosing magma and perhaps even continued to grow
before final consolidation occurred in the present pipes. The resulting deposits of this class
have the shape of the intrusive, may be a dyke, and pipe. ;g. The disseminated ,orundum in
nepheline syenite in 4ntario, ,anada. 5f the differentiation during cooling and consolidation
is not possible, the grains of ore minerals may crystalli=e in various parts of the host rocks
resulting in the formation of JdisseminatedJ deposits. ;g. "ajhgavan pipes #(anna t'.
iamond pipes occur in ultrabasic intrusive pipe rocks.
Segregation: The ;arly formed ultramafic and mafic crystals separate out from the main
melt and differentiate or settle down due to high specific gravities. /uch a process is called as
magmatic segregation. The segregation may takes place by the sinking of heavy early formed
crystals to the lower parts of magma chamber by marginal accumulation or by constrictive
flowage.
The mineral deposits formed by early magmatic segregation are generally lenticular and
relatively small si=e. ;g. 7ushweld igneous complex of /outh Africa. /tratified bands of
chromite, chromite and chromite*platinum reefs. The mechanisms proposed for such
segregation are + $' /orting out of crystals by movement within the magma. )' 5mmiscible
sulphide or oxide segregation from the main silicate melt. Good examples of such segregated
deposits are ,r, ,u, 0e #5lmenite', 1i and (latinum deposits in mafic and ultramafic rocks.
5ndian examples+ chromite deposits around Iojohatu in /inghbhum dt., Iharkhand occur in
layered form within the dunitesm peridotites and serpentinites.
Late Magmatic #eposits:
They are consolidated fractions of the magma left after crystalli=ation of the early*formed
rock silicates. ,onse<uently, the ore minerals of late magmatic deposits are later than the rock
silicates and cut across them embay #enclose' them and yield reaction rims of alteration
products around the margins of enclosed silicate minerals. They are resulted from variations
of crystalli=ation, differentiation, gravitative accumulation of heavy residual li<uid and li<uid
separation of sulphide droplets #called as immiscibility', like droplets of oil out of water.
The late magmatic group now includes most magmatic deposits of 0e> Ti, chromites
showing cross cutting relationship and platinum pipes of 7ushweld complex. A residual
magma li<uid enriched in 0e, Ti and volatiles could collect in the interstices of previously
formed rock grains. 5f free=ing occurred at this stage, the result would be late disseminated
grains of magnetite. 4r alternatively, the residual ore li<uid may forcefully be s<uee=ed out,
or it may <uietly be drain out to settle on an underlying solid layer. There it may solidify, or
while still as fluid it may be subjected to pressure that may cause it to be injected as an
injection in to fractures.
:+ Gra,itati,e li;id accmlation:
.esidal li;id segregation: This is a process mainly occurs as crystalli=ation,
differentiation and residual magma accumulation. ;g. 7ushweld Titanomagnetite layers,
(latinum. 5n 5ndia+ Ha=aribagh "agnetite, Iharkhand. 5n certain mafic magmas at a certain
stage, the residual part becomes enriched in iron, Ti > volatiles. "agnetite was the last to
crystalli=e in mafic magmas, it lies moulded around or fills the interstices between early
formed grains of ,a plagioclase or other mafic #darker' minerals. 8ith advancing
crystalllisation, there will be a mush of crystals in diminishing li<uid in which the crystals
will be growing riches in excess of iron. Any of the two possibilities occur at this stage+ $'. 5f
the silicate crystals #,a*plagioclase and others' grow to touch each other and free=ing occurs,
the result would be granular igneous rock with intersticial magnetite. ;g. "afic sills of
,onnecticut, F/A iron ores.)'. The heavy iron rich residual li<uid drain downward to collect
below as a segregation resting on a solid floor of early formed sunken crystals.
.esidal li;id in<ection: The iron rich residual li<uid accumulated in the manner as above
may be subjected to movement. A gentle tilting of the host rock may cause it to be decanted
and move laterlly. The s<uee=ing out of a residual li<uid from the silicate interstices termed
as filter pressing. However, if a late gravitative li<uid accumulation were subjected to
pressure, the mobile li<uid already collected as a concentrated body could be forced out en
massse to to a place of less pressure. 5t might be injected along the primary structure of the
already consolidated parent intrusive to give rise condordant bodies of oxides. ;g. 9iruna
iron ore deposits, /weden.
.esidal li;id !egmatitic in<ection: The formation of pegmatites, results from the
injection of late magmatic fluids containing the ingredients of the late rock forming minerals
#more acidic silicate minerals' along with much water, ,4
)
, concentration of rare elements
and metals. "any such pegmatites are valuable mineral deposits and mined for industrial
minerals. These form irregular bodies of intrusives. (egmatites of economic importance are
associated with felsic igneous rocks such as highly differentiated granitic or <uart= dioritc
rocks. The chief industrial minerals in complex pegmatites are feldspar, mica, <uart=,
gemstones, rare earths etc and the economic metals are tin, tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum,
uranium etc.
=% Immiscible li;id segregation:
This is a process concerns immiscible li<uid separation, accumulation and injection.
5n other works this is a process of immiscible sulphide melt in a late stage of cooling magma.
;nrichment of sulphides upon consolidation gives rise to a mafic igneous rock with sulphide
segregation. The deposits formed in the magma consist of pyrrhotite*chalcopyrite*pentlandite,
nickel copper ores with accompanying platinum, gold, silver and others. ;g. 1i*sulphide
deposits of 5nsi=wa, /outh Africa. 5f a sulphide rich fraction accumulated and subjected to
disturbance before consolidation, it might be s<uirted out toward places of less pressure, such
as sheared or weak =ones. They intrude older rocks. ;g. Elack fontain mine, /outh Africa,
1ickel deposits of 1orway.
Smmary: Magmatic minerals and associated economic minerals
(latinum+ mafic and ultramafic rocks # eg. 1orite, peridotite etc.'
,hromium+ (eridotite, anorthosite etc.
Titanomagnetite and 5lmenite+ Gabbro, anorthosite.
"agnetite+ /yenite etc.
1ickel*,opper associations+ 1orite etc.
,orundum+ 1epheline syenite etc.
iamonds+ 9imberlite.
(egmatitic minerals+ ifferentiated granites.
S>=LIM:4ION: A very minor process of formation of minerals of economic importance.
/ublimation applies only to compounds that are volatili=ed and subse<uently redeposited
from vapour at low temperatures or pressures. irect transition from solid to gas or vice*
versa associated with volcanism and fumeroles. ;g. /ulphur deposits, Iapan, 5taly etc.
0ig+ iamond bearing kimberlite