Satellite Communications: Part 4

Signal Distortions & Errors

and their Relation to Communication
Channel Specifications
Howard Hausman
April 1, 2010
Satellite Communications: Part 4
Signal Distortions & Errors
and their Relation to Communication
Channel Specifications
Communications Problem
Signals Formats & Distortions
Signal Errors
Phase Noise
Group Delay Distortion
Amplitude Distortion
Combined Signal Distortions
Adjacent Channel Interference
Time Domain Effects
Summary -
2
Communications Problem
Communication is the
process of transfer of
information from a sender
to a receiver who
understands the message
from the sender. - from the sender. -
3
Process
Transmit an idea
Receiver the signal
Receive the idea
Each step is a point of error
Added medium or device will increase the likelihood of errors
Specifications are designed to bring the error to acceptable level
-
4
Vectors Modulation
Digital Communications has
almost universally replaced
Analog Communications
Analog required higher
S/N than digital
Digital Transmission
Efficiency
Maximized using
16 QAM
5
Maximized using
amplitude and phase
information - Vector
Vector location defines a
symbol
A Symbol is a collection of
Bits (1s & 0s) -
Error Vectors
Vector Errors (EV) distort
the original signal
EVM, (Error Vector
Measurements) common
term for defining vector
Error
Vector
Resultant
Received
Signal
term for defining vector
distortion
Can cause the resultant
vector to point to the
wrong symbol -
6
Transmitted
Signal
Decoded Vectors
Vectors are decoded into bits in the time domain
64 QAM - One Symbol
64QAM
7
64 QAM - One Symbol
location defines 6 bits
1 0 1 101
Bit rate is 6 times symbol rate
(64QAM)
Base band is 6 times the IF
bandwidth -
64QAM
Time Domain Measurements
Time domain symbols are superimposed on each other
Time domain errors are identified using Eye Diagrams -
8
Eye Diagram
1. Dont interfere with your
neighbor Frequency Domain
frequency
p
o
w
e
r
2. Recover the correct symbol
Vector Measurements 3. Recovery the bit information
Time Domain -
Equipment Specifications
Three Areas of Concern
9
Signals Formats & Distortions
Signal Areas of Concern
Large signal
Deterministic &
Random effects
(other than thermal
noise)
10
Average
Power
Operating
Region
Peak
Power
Distortion
Small
Signal -
Thermal
noise
Linear operating region must allow
for the signal peaks (AM) -
Primary Noise & Distortion
Elements
11
Noise Sources
Local Oscillators
Low Noise Amplifier
Distortion Sources
Power Amplifier
Filters
Mixers, etc. -
Constant Amplitude (CW) Transmission Formats
Binary Phase-Shift Keying
BPSK (2-QAM)
Used for low speed
communications
QPSK & 8PSK are used
for higher speed
communications
Q
I
BPSK
1
0
00 01
Q
12
11 10
I
8PSK
0101
I
Q
001
000
100
101
111
110
010
Note: Vector phase is the only
information needed to recover data -
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM)
64 QAM
Signal amplitude and phase must be
resolved
Used for much higher speed communication
where bandwidth is severely limited -
Q
16 QAM
256 QAM
13
I
0000
1111 1110 0101 0111
0100 0110 1100 1101
1010
1011
1000
1001 0010 0011
0001
Decision Regions - System Diagram
14
Transmit
Vector is on a
point
Receiver Vector
is in a decision
region -
CW Decision Regions
BPSK
Threshold
90
QPSK
Threshold
45
Acceptable
Region
Acceptable
Region
22.5
15
Vector Phase Only
Phase Thresholds
BPSK: 90
QPSK: 45
8PSK: 22.5
-
Decision
region
8PSK
0101
I
Q
001
000
100
101
111
110
010
22.5
Threshold
22.5
Lines between the
constellation points are the
threshold levels
Signals residing in the
square are assume to
reside at the discrete
QAM Decision
Region
16
reside at the discrete
vector location.
Note vector outside the
square - Wrong Code
Codes are set such that
all surrounding codes have
a 1 bit error -
QAM Geometric
Effects
Maximum angle error
is dependent on Symbol
Location
Outer Symbols Tolerate
the least angle error
17
the least angle error
Allowable Error
Window is smaller for
More Complex
Modulations -
Modulation Error
2QAM 90.0
4QAM 45.0
16QAM 16.9
32AM 10.9
64QAM 7.7
128QAM 5.1
16APSK & 16 QAM
I
Q
0000 1010
1011
1000
1001 0010 0011
0001
16 QAM
16 APSK Smaller peak to average
ratio than 16QAM
16APSK more immune to Phase
Noise than 16QAM ~
18
16APSK
1111 1110 0101 0111
0100 0110 1100 1101
16QAM 16.9
16APSK 22.5
Random Errors
Highly uncertain
Characterized by a probability
distribution
Signal Errors
19
distribution
Characterized by their standard deviation
Errors are statistical
Function of the number of standard
deviations to the threshold (Multiples of )
Thermal Noise Low Noise Amplifier
Phase Noise-Local Oscillators - -
Standard Deviation & RMS Noise
pdf is area under
Guassian curve from -
to a
1
P(a
1
<-1)=.159
P(a
2
>1)=1-
.841=.159
P(V<-1&V>+1)
0.8
0.9
1
Probability Density Function
1
Probability
density
function
is Average (Mean)
=standard deviation: Relates to
the function spreading
P(V<-1&V>+1)
=.682
P(>|1|) = .318
P(>|2|) = .046
P(>|3|) = 2.7x10
-3
P(>|4|) = 6.3x10
-5
P(>|5|) = 5.7x10
-7
-
20
4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
2.326 10
4

pdf
i
p
i
3.5 3.5 V
i
a
1
a
2
function
(pdf)
Guassian
probability
Curve
Standard Deviation & RMS Noise
=1 RMS
Noise
is the ideal signal
point
Error Probability =
from

-a +a
Error Probability =
number of from
to a (>0)
Example
P(a=|4|) Bit Error
= 6.3x10
-5
-
21
Noise Vector
Rotates
Signal Vector
Deterministic Errors
Deterministic know everything with
complete certainty
Examples: Filter ripple
Causes Side Band amplitude
errors
May change with frequency &
Temperature
Undistorted
Signal
22
Temperature
Characteristics are completely
known
Knowing the signal spectrum
transmitted
Possible to correct the distortion
Distorted
Signal due to
gain ripple
Gain
ripple
-
Deterministic Effects:
Predictable & Correctable
AM/AM Distortion-Power Amplifier,
ADC Quantization
AM/PM Distortion-Power Amplifier
Group Delay Distortion-Filters
Interference-Spurious, Power
Examples of Deterministic Errors
23
Interference-Spurious, Power
Supply, 3rd Order Interference
At set-up & periodically thereafter
Learning codes are sent
Distortion is compensated the
improve BER -
Deterministic effects add directly: A + B = C
Probabilistic (Noise) effects add RMS: SQRT(A
2
+ B
2
) = C
A, B, & C are standard deviations
Large number of deterministic effects add as noise
Gaussian Theorem -
Random & Deterministic Effects
24
-
Random Noise in a Boundary
Bit Error: Received Vector
Falls Outside Boundary
Signal Vector (Red)
Random Noise (Yellow)
Rotates around signal
vector (360)
Threshold
1
3
25
vector (360)
Gaussian Amplitude
Distribution
BER is related to the number
of s to the threshold -
Noise Vector
Rotates
Signal
Vector
1
Random Noise + Deterministic Errors
in a Boundary
Bit Error: Received
Vector Falls Outside
Boundary
Signal Vector (Red)
Random Noise (Yellow)
Rotates around
signal vector (360)
Noise Vector
Rotates &
Adds with
Deterministic
vector
Threshold
1
2
26
signal vector (360)
Deterministic vector
(Green) adds an error to
the signal vector
BER is the number of s
to the threshold
Number of s went
from 3 to 2
Signal
Vector
Noise
Amplitude
0
p(n)
Gaussian
distribution is
offset -
Long Term Frequency Stability
Time frame: Typically hours to years
Temperature variations are long term
Data: F / Fo Parts Per Million (PPM)
Phase Noise
Oscillator Stability
Data: F / Fo Parts Per Million (PPM)
Short Term Frequency Stability
Residual FM F Large: Change in frequency F is
much greater than the rate of frequency change, fm
(F/fm = >> 1)
Allen Variance - F small: Rate of change : t >1
Second
Phase Noise: F small: Rate of Change: t < 0.1 sec.-
-
27
Phase Noise - Short Term Stability
Measures oscillator Stability over short periods of time
Typically 0.1 Second to 0.1 microsecond
Noise varies the oscillator phase/frequency
Not amplitude related
Noise level increases close to the carrier
Typical offset frequencies of interest: 10Hz to 10MHz
Stability closer to the carrier is measured using Allen Variance
f ff f
Howard Hausman August 2009 28
Stability closer to the carrier is measured using Allen Variance
Noise further from the carrier is usually masked by AM
thermal noise
Phase Noise cannot be eliminated or affected by filtering
Phase & Frequency are related:
Frequency is the change in phase with respect to time
/ t d/dt as t 0 -
Phase (Frequency) Noise
Specified and measured as a spectral density function in a 1 Hz
bandwidth
dBc/Hz at a given offset from the carrier
Level in dBc = 20 Log (/2) where is in radians
Modulation index () of noise in a 1 Hz bandwidth
Measurement at Frequency offset from the carrier is the time interval
of phase variation
1 kHz offset is a 1 millisecond measurement time
29
1 kHz offset is a 1 millisecond measurement time
Measurement bandwidth or
Resolution Bandwidth is the dwell
time of the measurement
1Hz resolution bandwidth is a 1
second measurement time -
Resolution
BW
Total RMS Phase Noise
Each 1 Hz bandwidth
(dBc/Hz) is the result of
narrow band modulation (
<< 1)
Convert SSB (dBc/Hz) to
Degrees RMS (
RMS
)
Total Phase Noise (
Total
)
-
1 Hz BW

Total

1
( )
2

2
( )
2
+
3
( )
2
+ :=
Total
-
30
-
dBc/Hz
Noise
Around
The
carrier
Thermal Noise: Random in all
directions
Relevant at Low Power
-a
Phase Noise vs Thermal Noise
31
Relevant at Low Power
Phase Noise: Random on the
Angular Axis
Independent of Signal
Power
Errors occur on Both Symbol
Boundaries -
+a
Error
Error
Phase Noise & Error Probability
Gaussian Function
= Average angle
Standard Deviation

RMS
= 1 (Standard
Deviation)
Probability of Error (BER) is related
to the number of s to the boundary
32
to the number of s to the boundary
s are in degrees RMS
Probability
Density
Function
P(>|1|) = .318
P(>|2|) = .046
P(>|3|) = 2.7x10
-3
P(>|4|) = 6.3x10
-5
P(>|5|) = 5.7x10
-7
-
System Phase
Noise
Constant Amplitude
Modulation (e.g. 8PSK)
Phase Noise threshold
is constant )
0101
I
Q
001
000
100
101
111
110
010
22.5
22.5
Threshold
22.5
8PSK
33

is constant (22.5 )
QAM Modulation
Allowable Phase Noise
is a function of Bit
Position
Figure shows allowable
phase error for 64QAM -
RMS Phase Noise Integration Limits
Sum ONLY over Applicable
Frequencies
Typically 1/50 Symbol Rate
to 1 Symbol Rate ( f
1
to f
2
)
Ex: For 5Msymbols/sec
Typical integrated BW
34
Typical integrated BW
100kHz to 5 MHz
Integrate in segments <= 1
decade

RMS
( )
Total

RMS
( )
1

RMS
( )
2

2
+
RMS
( )
3

2
+ :=
RMS
( )
Total

RMS
( )
1

RMS
( )
2

2
+
RMS
( )
3

2
+ :=

RMS
is the Root Mean Square (1 Standard Deviation, 1 ) -
Intelsat Phase Noise Specification
-60
-50
-40
-30
d
B
c
/
H
z
Phase Spec / IESS-308/309
dBc/Hz, Single Side Band
35
Dont make symbol rate too low
Phase Noise close to the carrier is higher
See why low data rate modulators use BPSK -
-90
-80
-70
d
B
c
/
H
z
10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M
Offset Freq.: Hz
Phase errors reduces the
number of standard deviations to
threshold
Maximum Angular error
MAX
Random + Deterministic Phase
Distortion
36
Distortion Error 3=
Distortion

RMS
=1.0

MAX
= 5

MAX
= 2 [P(>|2|) = .046 ]
Should be 5 [P(>|5|) = 5.7x10
-7
]
-
Phase Noise Allocation Budget
Total Phase noise budget is the RMS sum of all the
components
Oscillators have the highest phase noise
37
Power Amplifier phase errors are caused when signal peaks -
Group
Quadrature of
the initial vectors
are effected
Fixed Offset of
Vectors
Group Delay
Group Delay Distortion
38
Group
Delay
Error
Group Delay
Distortion is
deterministic
Distortion is a
function of
frequency -
Amplitude Distortion
3
rd
Order
Intercept Point
Signal increases
Amplitude
compresses:
AM/AM
Distortion
Phase
changes:
Power at 1 dB
Compression
39
Gain
Compression
changes:
AM/PM
Distortion
Create Two Tone
Intermodulation
(IMD) distortion
3
rd
and 5
th
Order Products
Compression
Saturated
Power
AM/AM Mechanism
(Non-Random Effect)
Gain vs.
Amplitude
is Non-
Linear
Clipping
Reduces
Amplitude
40
Linear
Gain Compression
results in AM/AM
Distortion
Amplitude
variation is Non-
Linear -
AM/PM Mechanism
(Non-Random Effect)
Offset Creates
AM/PM (Phase
changes with
amplitude)
Clipping Amplitude
Changes Zero
Crossing
Typical Spec
AM/PM CONVERSION,
maximum 2.5/dB
41
AM/PM occurs
before AM/AM
AM/PM Distortion is more
pronounced at the outer symbols
Peak to Average ratio has a
pronounced effect on phase
distortion -
Two Tone Intermods
INTERMODULATION -22 dBc maximum
with two equal signals at 6 dB total output
Typical Spec
42
o 1
st
, 2
nd
, & 3
rd
Harmonics Mix
Together Forming IMD
o Level of Compression Determines
Harmonics Amplitudes & IMD Tones
IMD is a Rotating
Spurious at the end of the
signal vector -
Combined Signal Distortions
Thermal Noise
+ Phase Noise
+ Group
Delay
Thermal Noise
Phase Noise
AM/PM
43
AM/AM
Group Delay
Intermodulation
Symbol Error Probability
Each Symbol has a
different probability of Error
(P
iq
)
Assume all symbols are
44
iq
Assume all symbols are
equally likely
Calculate Expected Symbol
Error Probability
is the Random (RMS)
variation
is the deterministic
offset -
Spectral Re-
Growth
Modulated Spectrum is
pre filtered to provided
less than -40dBc of side
band interference
Adjacent Channel Interference
band interference
Non-linearities increase
the side lobe level
Typical maximum
allowable spectral re-
growth is 30dBc -
45
Spurious Signal
Spurious signals are discrete non-signal related
interference
Individual spurious signals occur from multiple sources
Add non-coherently
Typical Specification is 60dBc for the entire
Transmitter chain Transmitter chain
In band interference is controlled: -20 dBc
interference effects C/N < 0.04dB
-60dBc protects small carriers
Carrier power is a function of Bandwidth -
46
Out of Band Noise Power Output
Transmitters have high C/N
Noise Figure is usually not an issue
Output noise power can interfere with adjacent
carriers
Maximum output noise is given in dBm/Hz
Noise Power output = Noise Figure (dB) + Gain from
signal generator (primary oscillator) to final output
(dB) -174dBm/Hz (thermal noise)
Low Noise Figure and High Gain High output noise
power -
47
Time Domain Effects
Recovered
Data
Eye Diagrams
A means of assessing Received signal quality
48
Fold Data 1s & 0s Overlap
Establish an Area of
Known Good Data in Time
and Voltage
Larger the EYE less
errors -
Eye Diagram Specifications
Noise +
Distortion
Noise
Inter-Symbol
Interference
Acceptable
Recovered Pulse must avoid the RED area
RED area is an error in the amplitude or time
49
Optimum Threshold
Voltage
Optimum Sampling Time -
Noise
Margin
Zero
Crossing
Jitter
Acceptable
sampling
area
Data in the Time & Frequency Domain
Ideal Received
Data
20Msymbols/Sec
NRZ
IF Frequency
Spectrum of BPSK NRZ
50
Spectrum of BPSK NRZ
data alternate 1s &
0s
Carrier (RED) is
suppressed
Only Odd Harmonics
-
Fund 3
rd
5th
Upper
Side Band
Lower
Side Band -
Freq
Typical Gain Specification
Maximum Small Signal Gain Variation
Over:
Any Narrow Band 1.0 dB per 80 MHz
Full Band 2.5 dB
Slope, maximum + 0.04 dB/MHz
Stability, 24 Hr maximum + 0.25 dB
Stability, Temperature
+ /-1.0 dB maximum over temperature
range at any frequency
51
Stability, Temperature range at any frequency
Gain
Variation
Includes
Ripple
Gain: dB
Frequency
80 MHz
Slope
Amplitude Distortion
(Gain Ripple Specification)
Ideal Received
Signal
1 dB peak to peak
Amplitude Ripple
on 3
rd
Harmonic
52
Added Ringing 15% -
3
rd
1dB
Typical Group Delay Specification
GROUP DELAY, maximum 10.95 to 12.75 GHz
Bandwidth Any 80 MHz
Linear 0.01 nS/MHz
Parabolic 0.005 nS/MHz2
Group Delay is usually parabolic
Edges rise with the skirts of the filter
53
Parabolic 0.005 nS/MHz2
Ripple 0.5 nS/Pk-Pk
Linear
Symmetry of
the Parabola
Parabolic
Depth of
the Parabola
Ripple
-
Delay Distortion
Modulated Signal through a 70 MHz Filter
Side bands should not
change in amplitude or phase
(delay)
Delay curve & effect on
sidebands
Symmetry
Upper & Lower
sidebands
Typical Group Delay distortion in a
70MHz filter
6
n
S
e
c
/
D
i
v
5
d
B
/
D
i
v
Amplitude
Lower
3
rd
Upper 3
rd
5nSec
54
sidebands
Depth of Parabola
Side band harmonics
Ripple-All sidebands
effected
Upper 3
rd
Harmonic is
delayed 5 nSec
Lower 3
rd
Harmonic is
delayed 10 nsec -
6
n
S
e
c
/
D
i
v
70MHz
88MHz
52MHz
6MHz/Div
Group
Delay
Fund
3
rd
5th
Upper Side Band
Lower Side Band
Freq
3
rd
10nSec
5nSec
Effect of Delay / Phase Distortion on
20Msymbol/Sec Data
Added Ringing 30%
55
2nsec Delay of 3
rd
Harmonic on
Ringing 30%
Delay distortion can be more critical than Amplitude
Distortion -
20Msymbols/Sec Data
Amplitude & Phase Distortion
2nsec delay
at 3
rd
harmonic
+ 1dB Ripple on
the 3
rd
Added Ringing 37%
56
the 3
rd
Harmonic
Increased
pulse ripple to
37%
Judge how the
EYE is closing -
Thermal Noise Noise Figure
A Signal Level Related Function
Random effect in the time domain
Thermal noise is a concern at lower signal levels
Systems should have at least a 30dB Input signal
to internal noise ratio
57
to internal noise ratio
Typical effect on the system <= 0.14dB
Minimum input signal level is 174dBm + 30dB +
NF + 10Log[Bandwidth(Hz)] -
Clock Jitter
Delay
Clock
Signal with
noise
58
Clock
Jitter
Clock Jitter is the uncertainty related to
the start of the data
Caused by Zero crossing uncertainty on
the recovered signal
Thermal noise & Phase noise
contribute to clock jitter
Zero Crossing
Uncertainty -
Ideal Filter ( = 0) has
a poor pulse response
(SinX/X)
Filter shaping lowers
Inter-symbol Interference
Frequency
Response
= 0.0
= 0.5
= 1.0
Inter-pulse interference
Nyquist Filtering: Raised Cosine
Filter Response
59
Inter-symbol Interference
Characterized by
(Frequency Response)
Typically = 0.35)
Trade-Off is Frequency
selectivity vs Pulse
Response
Time Domain
Response
= 0.0
= 0.5
= 1.0
Ripple in
adjacent
pulses is
Inter-pulse
Interference -
Pulse
Width
Typical Data
Eye Diagrams
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Pulse Distortion
Zero
Crossing
Jitter
60
Time (T
b
)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Noise
Margin
b
T
Intersymbol
Interference
lOptimum
Sampling is
in the
center of
the Eye -
Summary
Satellite 2010 Convention in Washington
The good news for satellite is that it goes where
fiber and Wi-Fi dont go. Its the most versatile
communications technology available, and there is
not a substitute.
Quality of received signal relates to:
Modulator Modulator
Transmitter
Transmission medium
Receiver
Demodulator
Each segment requires has separate requirements &
individual concerns
61