Index

1. Mass Society Theory

2. Propaganda Theory
3. Limited Effects Theory
4. Attitde !hange Theory
". !atharsis
#. $ses and %ratification Theory
&. !'ti(ation Ana'ysis
). Marsha'' McLhan * Techno'ogica' +eterminism
,. The -no.'edge %ap
1/. Agenda Setting
11. Spira' of Si'ence
12. Media and Adiences
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13. MASS S0!IET1 T2E031
The mass society theory attributes an influential yet negative role to the media.
Media is viewed to profoundly shape our perceptions of the social world.
It manipulates our actions in subtle but highly effective ways.
The theory assumes that media influence must be controlled.
Beginning of the Mass Society Theory:
18!" #illiam $andolph %earst" a newspaper publisher produced the concept of
&ellow 'ournalism with his fa(e story on the war in Spain. This triggered a harsh
critical response.
The first theories of mass media developed as a result of these e)cesses in a rapidly
maturing" highly competitive media industry.
*ew technology was driving the need for new media. By the mid and late 1
th
century
popular demand for cheap media drove the devlp of several new media li(e the
penny press" nic(el maga+ine and dime novel.
#ith the high speed printing press" it led to &ellow 'ournalism" which is a
sensational often irresponsible form of ,ournalism.
-i(e most yellow ,ournalists" %earst had no respect for reporting accuracy. .vents
were routinely over dramati+ed.
#henever new media appears on the scene" it destabili+es e)isting media industries
forcing large scale and rapid restructuring. -arge corporations relying on old
technology face a decline and are forced into cut throat competition for new
technology. This process is called functional displacement. The functional
displacement theory argues that for a media to survive" it must find functions that it
can serve better than any of the new media can.
The success of new media is often met with criticism" especially when the media
adopts dubious competitive strategies to attract consumers. *ew media industries do
specialise in giving people what they want / even if the impact can be negative.
0ssumptions of the Mass Society Theory:
Scenario: mass society theory appeared in the late 1
th
century as elites struggled to
ma(e sense of the disruptive effects of moderni+ation. The mass media became
symbolic of all that was going wrong with society. Mass newspapers and yellow
,ournalism were viewed as monopolistic enterprises that employed unethical
practices.
The rise of the mass press after 1812 was a direct threat to established political and
business establishment.
3olitical newspapers were swept aside by the 3enny 3ress of 1812452" and &ellow
'ournalism of 188242.
2 | P a g e
%earst was a man behind the yellow ,ournalism scenario. %e was a man in pursuit of
popularity" and a real threat to politicians and business men.
.nvy" discontent and fear lead the mass society theory. It feared the emergence of a
new type of social order / a mass society / that would fundamentally and tragically
transform the social world. To prevent this" changes in media must be stopped.
Mass Society Theory made some assumptions:
The media are a malignant" cancerous force in society and must be purged or
totally restructured: most e)treme critics wanted to dismantle all media
industries" but some proposed turning them over to the elites. This won out in
.urope in 1627s and control was handed over to the government.
The media has the ability to reach out and directly influence the minds of the
average person. This is also (nown as the 8irect .ffects assumption 9which
has been hotly debated since 112:. There are different versions in the mass
society theory regarding the type of influence the media will have but the
common thread is that they all believe that the impact will be negative.
0verage citi+ens are portrayed as helpless before the manipulative power of
the media.
;nce the media corrupts people7s minds" all sorts of bad" long term
conse<uences result / not only bringing ruin to individual people7s lives but
also creating social problems on a large scale. #hile there are many problems
li(e drug abuse" teenage promiscuity etc that can be attributed in some way to
media" the media is not the only factor involved.
0verage people are vulnerable to the media because they have been cut off
from traditional social institutions that previously protected them from
manipulation. The argument is compelling because of the notion that once
traditional community is removed" the media becomes the source of trusted
and valued messages regarding politics" religion" entertainment etc.
The social chaos initiated by the media will inevitably be resolved by the
establishment of a totalitarian social order. Mass society is envisioned to be a
chaotic" highly unstable form of social order that will inevitably collapse and
be replaced by totalitarianism.
=or defenders of mass culture" mass society represented a corrosive force within
society. In Britain" the government assumed responsibility for giving the people info
on the media that would advance culture and provide public service content. Media
was supposed to give people what they needed" not what they wanted.
>emeinschaft and >esellschaft:
0mong the originators of the mass society theory was >erman sociologist" =erninand
Tonnies. %e tried to e)plain the difference between earlier forms of social
organisation" and what e)isted in the 1
th
century. %e proposed 6 branches:
>emeinschaft / a fol( community 9people were bound together by strong familial
ties" rigid social roles / basic social institutions were very normal:.
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>esellschaft / modern industrial society 9people are bound by wea( social
institutions bound by rational choice rather than tradition. Social relationships are
more formal and impersonal.
;ver the years" media has been accused of brea(ing down fol( community
9gemeinschaft: and encouraging the development of amoral" wea( social institutions
9>esellschaft:
Mechanical and ;rganic Solidarity:
=rench sociologist .mile 8ur(heim offered a similar dichotomy. 3eople are bound by
a consensus to each other li(e parts of a great engine / mechanical solidarity.
8ur(heim compared modern social orders to animals rather than engines.
%e said that as animals go through life" growing in a process of development"
similarly modern social orders go through changes" and the people that e)ist within
them change along with the society 9modern society:. 8ur(heim views this as an
organic solidarity.
#hen 8ur(heim spea(s of mechanical solidarity he is spea(ing of fol( culture.
Mass society theory in contemporary times:
0lthough the theory has very little support from contemporary researchers" the basic
assumptions of a corrupting media and helpless audience have never really
disappeared.
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P30PA%A4+A5
3ropaganda refers to the no4holds4barred use of communication to propagate
specific beliefs and e)pectations. The ultimate goal of propaganda is to change the
way people act and leave them believing that those actions are voluntary" that the
newly adopted behaviours and opinions underlying them are their own.
3ropaganda theorists specifically analy+ed media content and speculated about its
influence. They wanted to understand and e)plain the ability of messages to
persuade and convert thousands or millions of individuals to e)treme viewpoints.
Initially people were optimistic that citi+ens could be educated to resist propaganda.
%owever" as the world wars and depression commenced there needed to be a fast
solution and educating citi+ens would simply ta(e too long.
It became necessary to harness the power of propaganda to promote good ideals to
build a better social order. This is what came to be called #hite 3ropaganda / a
strategy that used benign propaganda techni<ues to fight ?bad propaganda7
Blac( propaganda involves the deliberate and strategic transmission of lies.
>ray propaganda involves the transmission of ideas or information that may or may
not be false.
Most of the propaganda theories that developed in the 1@27s were strongly
influenced by two theories:
Behaviourism: 'ohn B. #atson said that all human action is a conditioned response
to e)ternal environmental stimuli. This theory is (nown as behaviourism.
They re,ected theories that a higher mental process governs actions and that it comes
down to e)ternal stimuli from the environment producing certain behaviour.
In the conte)t of media" the theorists saw the media as providing the e)ternal stimuli
that triggered an immediate response.
=reudianism: Sigmund =reud developed the concept of the self being divided into:
Id / the egocentric pleasure see(ing part of the mind
.go / The rational mind
Superego / Internali+ed set of cultural rules
3ropaganda theorists believed that if the .go could be overwhelmed and the Id was
appealed to" the propaganda would be effective.
M0>IA BB--.T T%.;$&:
By the 1@27s Behaviorism and =reudianism were combined to produce a simplistic
propaganda theory. %ere the media stimuli was seen to act as magic bullets that
penetrated peoples lives and created associations between strong emotions and
specific concepts. By carefully controlling these magic bullets propagandists believed
that they could condition people to feel and believe a certain way.
Magic bullet theory believed what behaviourism was unable to ade<uately
demonstrate. .)ternal stimuli li(e the media can condition people to behave in any
way that the propagandist wants. $egardless of social standing etc" all people are
powerless against manipulation is the belief.
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%0$;-8 -0SS#.--7S 3$;30>0*80 T%.;$&:
This theory combines Behaviorism and =reudianism into a pessimistic vision of
media and their role. The power of the propaganda is not so much in the substance
or appeal of the message" but in the vulnerable frame of mind of the recipient.
-asswell argued that economic depression and escalating political conflicts had made
people e)posed to even crude forms of propaganda.
%e re,ected the Magic Bullet theory. %e believed propaganda was more than using
the media to lie to people in order to control them. %e said that people had to be
prepared to accept radically different ideas and actions. Aampaigners need a well
developed" long term strategy" in which new ideas are carefully introduced and
cultivated. Symbols must be created and people must be gradually taught to associate
specific emotions with the symbols.
*oam Ahoms(y and .dward %erman developed 5 filters through which they believe
that propaganda passes: ;wnership" 0dvertising" Source" =lac(" 0nti communism.
0SSI>*M.*T 8.T0I-I*> *;0M A%;MSC& 0*8 .8#0$8 %.$M0*7S
3$;30>0*80 M;8.-:
3ropaganda refers to particular doctrines or principles deliberately spread widely by
an organi+ation or a movement.
0ny form of propaganda has some inherent characteristics. These are over
simplification of the message" repetition of the message" use of covert means to
spread the propaganda" orchestration of communication and an understanding that
the end ,ustifies the means.
In order to study this concept of 3ropaganda" several theories have been developed.
;ne such theory is the propaganda model as developed by *oam Ahoms(y and
.dward %erman. In their boo( Manufacturing Aonsent: The 3olitical .conomy of
Mass Media" written in 188" they say Dthe private media business is the sale of
readers and audiences to other businesses 90dvertisers: and not the sale of <uality
news to the public.E
*oam Ahoms(y and .dward %erman put forward the following five filters as part of
this theory: ;wnership" 0dvertising" Source" =la( and 0nti Aommunism.
0n e)cellent e)ample of the use of propaganda is the Bnited States war against Ira<"
which has been e)amined below in the conte)t of the five filters of the propaganda
model
0.nership5 0ccording to the theory" many media houses and outlets are part of
large corporations. These media houses will lend their loyalty to these conglomerates
and avoid e)posing any sensitive information that they do not want shared with the
public. Therefore" these media houses face a great deal of restriction and censorship
over news that might be damaging to the owning corporations.
In the case of the war against Ira<" while the government did not e)plicitly own the
media houses" the Bnited States government had a great deal of control over the
6 | P a g e
media" and the (ind of news that was portrayed.
#hen the government was planning to go to war against Ira<" they were aware of the
fact that they were doing it in the light of news channels" some of which could be pro
government and could be utilised in their communication strategy with the world.
0side from this" the government developed a website called Ira<: 0 8ecade of
8eception and 8efiance. This acted as a media face through which the government
could control the information being sent out about the war.
#hen the reporters were in the conflict +one" they were dependent on the BS soldiers
for their protection" thereby lending an e)tremely s(ewed perception to their
reporting.
Ad(ertising5 0ccording to the theory" in order to maintain their cost of production"
without increasing the price of their newspaper" media houses are heavily dependent
on advertisers. Therefore" stories that conflict with the consumer7s ?buying mood7 or
the mood the advertiser wants to set will not be run.
In this case" the mood the advertiser 9the B.S. government: wants to set is a pro war
mood.
In order to mobilise public support for the war on Ira<" the government used the
media to sto(e the sentiments of the already worried people by insinuating a
relationship between Saddam %ussein and 0l Faeda" painting a picture of immediate
victory etc.
The communication activities of the government were managed through a public
relations firm headed by .leanor Benador" and she would aggressively pitch to have
members of the government ma(e appearances on news channels in the time before
the war began.
In 622@" a study by =airness and 0ccuracy In $eporting showed that !1G of total
news reports were pro4war" while only 12G was anti4war. In the BS only @G was anti4
war.
The study showed that a viewer was si) times more li(ely to see a pro4war news
source than an anti war source.
The media presented the first few days of the B.S. bombing and invasion of Ira< as a
?military spectacle7 inspiring awe to the public.
8onald $umsfeld claimed that the bombings were e)tremely precise" and were aimed
at military groups. This was captured by the B.S media" but the 0rab and other global
news networ(s captured the civilian casualties.
They used various newspapers as mediums through which to spread their
propaganda. 0n e)ample is below:
=ollowing the two presentations of Bush at the State of the Bnion address" and Aolin
3owell to the B*" the #ashington 3ost ran an editorial titled ?Irrefutable7 saying DIt7s
hard to imagine how anyone could doubt that Ira< possesses weapons of mass
destruction.E
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Sorce5 The media is dependent on their sources for a steady supply of fresh news.
0s a result" their e)ecution of their duties may be biased for fear of ,eopardi+ing a
valued relationship.
In the conte)t of the Ira< war" the media was highly dependent on the B.S.
government for information and the Ira<i dissidents and e)iles" who had their own
agendas" while the Ira<i media was under a great deal of control by the Ira<i
government.
The president7s top advisers would appear on the media as a source of information
on the war. ;n 8
th
September" 8ic( Aheney" Aondolee++a $ice" Aolin 3owell and
$umsfeld all appeared on Sunday morning tal( shows" all spreading the same
propaganda message.
6'a75 This refers to the negative lash bac( to a media statement" or even to the
media7s coverage.
In the conte)t of the war" media critic Michael Massing found consistent e)amples of
biased" distorted reporting with regard to the war. %e believed that this could have
been due to their reluctance to ,eopardi+e their relationship with their sources" their
relationships with the Ira<i dissidents and finally" their feelings of patriotism post
H11.
0 September 622@ poll showed that 82G of =;I *ews viewers believed there was a
lin( between Saddam %ussein and the H11 attac(s. Ted Turner" the founder of A**
accused $upert Murdoch of utilising =;I *ews to promote the invasion.
Anti !ommnism5 0t the time this theory was developed" the focus was on anti
communism" and since the media has the ability to influence people7s thoughts" ideas
and opinions" they were not allowed to propagate communism in any way.
In the conte)t of the war" anti communism was not practiced" but pro capitalism was.
The whole war was a money ma(ing scheme" with profits involved. Therefore" the
concept of 3ro Aapitalism was adopted.
Many common aspects of propaganda li(e repetition" consistency and orchestration
of communication can be seen throughout the process of selling the war to the
0merican public and to the world. Some other theories of propaganda can be seen as
well.
In the post invasion evidence it can be seen that much information was distorted or
selectively disclosed to the public" thereby molding their perceptions. This is an
e)ample of the cancerous effects media has on society according to the mass
society theory.
%owever" in contrast" it is unclear whether the ne)t pre emptive war will be able to
utilise these strategies to garner public support. Therefore" as time passes and
e)periences change" these have less impact. This is an e)ample of the 'imited
effects paradigm.
Therefore" the Ira< war serves as an e)cellent e)ample of the use of propaganda in its
various forms.
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3eferences5
#i(ipedia.com
Spectacle and Media 3ropaganda in the #ar on Ira<: 0 Ariti<ue of B.S. Broadcasting
*etwor(s / 8ouglas Cellner

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LIMITE+ E66E!TS T2E0315
Stated that people who were easily influenced by propaganda and the effect of the
media were those who showed the following characteristics:
.motional insecurity
3hobic personality
lac( of self confidence
=atalism
9#ell structured shift 9something that has a pattern to follow: from mass society
theory:: By around the 1!27s" the media began to be seen as something not so
threatening" it was seen as a more benign force with the potential to do a lot of social
good. The media7s power over the people was seen as limited / to the e)tent that they
said that there was no need for government supervision of media content.
It was believed that only a small group of people carried the traits that made them
susceptible to influence by the media" and that the media did not have the power to
shape people7s perceptions in light of stronger factors li(e individual differences and
group memberships.
3aul -a+arsfeld pioneered the use of sophisticated research to measure the media
influence on how people thought and behaved. These surveys provided definite
evidence that the media rarely had the power to directly influence individuals.
The effects of the media were limited in scope" affecting only a few people or affecting
only trivial thoughts and actions.
These findings eventually led to a perspective on media called the limited effects
perspective.
0nother person who propagated this school of thought was Aarl %ovland
The limited effects paradigm utilised an impressive array of empirical studies to
develop these conclusions. The reason that this theory caught on was because they
were able to conclusively prove through empirical research that media did not have
the impact that it was believed to" in contrast to the mass society theory" which was at
its base ,ust a belief.
-a+arsfeld conducted his research using peoples voting decisions. 0s people were
interviewed each month" the choice of candidate was compared with the previous
month.8uring the si) months several (inds of changes were possible.
-a+arsfeld had titles for each:
.arly deciders / chose their candidates in May and did not change it for the entire
campaign
#averers / Ahose one candidate" then were undecided and changed to another
candidate" but eventually voted for the one they chose first
Aonverts / Ahose one candidate and then voted for his opponent
Arystalli+ers / had not chosen a candidate in May but had made a choice by
*ovember
10 | P a g e
-a+arsfeld developed a detailed survey giving considerable e)posure to specific mass
media content. If the mass society theory was true" and people were swayed by the
media" then most people should have either been waverers or converts" and those
that showed the most change should have been the heaviest users of media.
%owever the research showed that only 15G were waverers and 8G were converts.
0nd the media usage of both those groups were below average and very few reported
being specifically influenced by the media message.
They said that they were influenced by other people"were politically apathetic" had
low interest etc
%owever what -a+arsfeld found was that the people who were the early deciders were
people who had the highest media usage. 0nd the people who were waverers or
converts had the lowest media usage and would rely on others for information.
-a+arsfeld reasoned that the people that the converts and waverers listened to were
the early deciders for their sophisticated (nowledge and well developed political
views etc. So -a+arsfeld termed these people as ;pinion leaders.
.ventually he found through further empirical research that opinion leaders tended
to influence people in a hori+ontal manner " rather than those above or below them
in the social order.
%owever" there were some limitations to -a+arsfeld7s model:
Surveys cannot measure how people use the media on a daily basis
Surveys are a very cumbersome and e)pensive method to analyse people7s use
of specific media content
Surveys can be used to measure changes over time but they7re a relatively
crude techni<ue
Surveys omit potentially important variables by focusing only on what can be
easily and reliably measured using e)isting techni<ues
The features of the limited effectsHindirect effects theory are as follows:
The media rarely directly influences the individuals 9They don7t believe
everything they hear in the media" they turn to family" friends and peer groups
for advice and critical interpretation:
There is a two step flow to media influence 9media will only influence on a
large scale if opinion leaders are influenced first. Because opinion leaders are
sophisticated" critical media users" they act as a barrier to media influence:
By the time most people become adults they have developed strong group
commitments li(e religious affiliations" or commitments to political parties etc
that the media finds difficult to overcome.
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#hen media effects do occur they will be modest or isolated 9huge numbers
are not converted / it is only small poc(ets of people who will be influenced:
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ATTIT$+E !2A4%E T2E03IES5
0round the time of the world wars" there came a need to be able to influence the
attitude of people 9to recruit them for war etc:. The research was led by Aarl
%ovland. They discovered that there are some important factors that lead to a
change in attitude:
Time / it is over a gradual period of time that attitudes change and not as an
immediate result of propaganda as mass society theorists had assumed.
;ne Side / %ovland discovered that if people were e)posed to one side of an
argument" their attitude would shift mote perceptibly than if they were e)posed to
both sides.
;ne tenet of the attitude change theory that was widely accepted was that of
cognitive consistency / the concept that people either consciously or
unconsciously wor( to preserve their e)isting views" by avoiding messages that
challenged them.
%owever" it is -eon =estinger7s theory of cognitive dissonance that gathered more
interest. It is the belief that information that is inconsistent with a persons
already held attitude creates psychological discomfort or dissonance that must be
relieved.
If people (now things that are psychologically inconsistent with each other he will
find ways in order to ma(e them consistent. These ?ways7 are called selective
processes that act as a means to filter through data and ma(e it useful and
understandable to us.
0ttitude researchers studies three selective processes:
Selective e)posure / people only e)pose themselves to messages that are
consistent with their e)isting attitudes and beliefs
Selective retention / people tend to remember best and longest only those
messages that are the most meaningful to them
Selective perception / people will alter the meaning of messages so they become
consistent with pre4e)istent attitudes and beliefs.
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!AT2A3SIS5
Aatharsis 9also called sublimation: is the idea that viewing mediated aggression
sates or reduces people7s natural aggressive drives. Aatharsis suggests that
television violence has a social utility" providing young people with an outlet for
pent up hostility and aggression.
$esearch has shown that presentation of mediated violence and aggression can
reduce the li(elihood of subse<uent viewer aggression but not because of
catharsis but because viewers learn that violence may not be appropriate in a
given situation. Therefore their aggressive drive may not have been purged but
they7ve learnt that aggression is not acceptable.
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$SES A4+ %3ATI6I!ATI04 T2E0315
There were two revivals in the study of audience use of media and the
gratification it receives.
The reason for this revival of interest was due to the following:
*ew research methods and data analysis techni<ues allowed the
development of new strategies for studying and interpreting audience uses
and gratification
8uring the J27s some researchers developed increasing awareness that
people7s active use of the media might be an important mediating aspect
that made effects more or less li(ely.
$esearchers were e)pressing views that research was focusing too much on
the negative impact of media and not enough on the positive.
The benefits of the uses and gratification theory are:
=ocuses attention on the individual in the mass communication process
$espects intellect and the ability of media consumers
3rovides insightful analysis on how people e)perience media content
8ifferentiates active use of media from the passive
Studies the use of media as part of everyday interaction
3rovides useful insight into the adoption of new media
The wea(nesses of the uses and gratification theory are:
$eliance on functional analysis can create an orientation towards the
status <uo
Aannot easily address the presence or absence of effects
Measurements of (ey concepts is critici+ed
Too oriented towards the micro level
15 | P a g e
!$LTI8ATI04 A4AL1SIS5
8eveloped by >eorge >erbner and his colleagues" they state that the television
?cultivates7 or creates a world view that although possibly inaccurate becomes reality
because we as people believe it to be the reality and base our own ,udgements about
our own everyday worlds on that ?reality7
To scientifically demonstrate their view of television as a culturally influential
medium" cultivation researchers depended on a four step process:
Message system analysis / detailed analysis of television programming to
assess recurring and consistent presentation of themes" images" values and
portrayals.
=ormulation of <uestions about viewers social realities
Survey the audience / posing the <uestions of step two to the members of
the audience and as(ing them about their amount of television
consumption.
Aomparing the social realities of light and heavy viewers
To cultivation analysts" the term cultivation refers to television7s contribution to the
creation of a culture7s framewor( or (nowledge or underlying general concepts /
cultivated by e)posure to the total and organically related world of television" rather
than e)posure to individual programs and selections.
This cultivation ta(es place in two ways:
Mainstreaming / especially for heavy users" television symbols monopoli+e
and dominate other sources of information and ideas about the world.
3eople7s internali+ed social realities eventually move towards the
mainstream / ie towards a more culturally dominant reality that7s more
closely aligned to television7s reality than ob,ective reality.
$esonance / #hen viewers see things on television that are congruent
with their own everyday realities. 3eople get a ?double dose7 of reality
because what they see on television resonates with their actual lives.
The strengths and wea(nesses of the cultivation analysis are:
Strengths:
3rovides a detailed analysis of television7s uni<ue role
0pplies empirical study to widely held humanistic assumptions
$edefines KeffectK as more than observable behaviour change
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0pplies to a wide variety of effects issues
3rovides the basis for social change
#ea(nesses:
It is methodologically troubling to many
0ssumes the homogeneity of television content
=ocuses on heavy users of television
It is difficult to apply to media used less heavily than television
>erbner devised the concept of the @ B7s of television. %e said that television 9'rs
the traditional distinction of people7s views of their world" it 9'ends their realities
into television7s mainstream and :ends that mainstream to the institutional
interests of television and its sponsors
;ne of the most controversial things about the cultivation theory was that there was
a focus on the heavy users of television without ta(ing into account the specific
programs they were watching.
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MA3S2ALL M!L$2A4 * TE!240L0%I!AL +ETE3MI4ISM5
Marshall Mc-uhan said that media is the message.. and the massage. %e meant to
say that different forms of media transform 9massage: our e)perience of ourselves
and our society. This influence is ultimately more important than the content being
transmitted in the specific messages.
%e used the term global village to refer to the new form of social organi+ation that
will emerge as a result of the instantaneous electronic media tying the entire world
into one great social" political and cultural system.
%e proclaimed the media to be an e)tension of man. %e said that the media <uite
literally e)tended sight" hearing and touch through time and space. .lectronic media
would open up new vistas for average people and enable us to be everywhere
instantaneously.
Mc-uhan7s ideas achieved enormous public popularity / he became one of the first
pop culture guru7s of the 1!27s.
%e believed that television was the ne)t big thing. So what if people did not read and
were illiterate. Boo(s were doomed anyway. Soon" people would be part of a global
village that cancelled the need for literacy.
%is greatest criticism came from members of the academia who found his ideas too
diverse and inconsistent.
.mpirical researchers also found his theories to be nonsensical as it could not be
empirically proven.
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T2E -40;LE+%E %AP5
There developed a theory that news media systematically informs some sections of
the population" particularly those of higher socioeconomic groups" better than they
do others. ;ver time" the difference between the better informed and less informed
segments tends to grow ie the (nowledge gap between them gets larger and larger.
The research showed that in larger social systems" the smaller rural communities
were dominated by large urban centres.
Most conflicts were not resolved through local negotiations.
Cnowledge gap research also shows that social institutions are constantly evolving.
Social institutions that manage conflicts can and do change.
The strengths of the Cnowledge gap theory are:
It identifies potentially troublesome gaps between groups
3rovides ideas for overcoming the gaps
3resumes reciprocity and audience activity in communication
The wea(nesses of the theory are:
0ssumes the gap is dysfunctional 4 not all people agree
-imits focus to gaps involving news and social conflicts
Aant address the fundamental reasons for the gaps.
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A%E4+A SETTI4%5
Bernard Aohen is generally credited with refining #alter -ippman7s 3ublic ;pinion
theory into the theory of agenda setting. It is the concept that the media doesn7t tell
people what to thin(" but what to thin( about.
This theory was empirically confirmed through the research of Ma)well. .. McAombs
and 8onald Shaw. 0ccording to them" DThe mass media may well determine the
important issues / that is" the media may set the ?agenda7 of the campaignE
But one drawbac( of the theory is that it may be that its not the media setting the
agenda" but the public sets the media7s agenda and then the media merely reinforces
it.
In research conducted by Iyengar and Cinder in 18J" they found that there is a
definite causality between the media and the audience ie they proved the e)istence of
agenda setting.
They also established that the more vivid the presentation" the agenda setting power
of the media was damaged. This could be due to the fact that it focuses too much
attention on the individual rather than the issue at hand.
3osition of the story is also important. -ead stories show a greater agenda setting
effect. This could be due to the natural attention people pay to stories coming in early
without falling prey to household distractions etc. It is also because people respond
to the implicit suggestion that a lead story is the most newsworthy.
The concept of priming also goes hand in hand with agenda setting. It refers to the
idea that the media draws the attention of the audience to some aspects of a story or
topic at the e)pense of others. It positions the perspective of the audience.
=raming that is part of the scenario is that the media will tell the audience how to
thin( about a topic. That subtle changes in words etc will change how an audience
interprets a situation
;n a macro level" agenda setting moves into the sphere or agenda building. This is a
collective process by which the media" government and citi+enry reciprocally
influence one another in matters of public policy.
0genda building presumes the e)istence of cognitive effects 9increase in (nowledge:"
active audience and societal level effects. Its basic premise that the media can
profoundly affect how a society 9or nation or culture: determines what is important"
and therefore can mobilise various institutions toward meeting them" is what has
allowed this line of in<uiry to flourish.
Strengths of the 0genda setting theory:
=ocuses attention on audience interaction with the media
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.mpirically demonstrates lin(s between media e)posure" audience motivation
to see( orientation and audience perception of public issues.
Integrates a number of similar ideas including priming" story positioning and
story vividness
#ea(nesses of the theory:
%as roots in the mass society theory
Too situational to news and political campaigns
8irection of agenda setting is <uestioned by some
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T2E SPI3AL 06 SILE4!E5
This can be regarded as a form of agenda setting but one that7s focused on more
macro level rather than micro level conse<uences.
It refers to the idea that people holding views that are contrary to those dominant in
the media are moved to (eep them to themselves for fear of re,ection.
0ccording to the theory there are 6 social processes ta(ing place simultaneously at
the macro and micro level to produce effects. 0udience members due to their desire
to be accepted remain silent on sub,ects where they e)pect to receive counter
opinion. *ewspeople also present a restricted selection of news" due to the dynamics
of their news gathering function" further forcing into silence those in the audience
that wish to avoid isolation.
The theory is criticised saying that the effect of the audience being silenced could
easily be e)plained as the ?band wagon effect7 where everyone wants to ,oin the
winner" individual effects li(e the involvement of the persons ego in the issue etc
should be considered as well.
Strengths of the Spiral of silence theory:
%as a macro and micro level e)planatory power
Is dynamic
0ccounts for shifts in public opinion" especially during campaigns
$aises important <uestions regarding the role and responsibility of the news
media
#ea(nesses of the theory include:
%as an overly pessimistic view of the media
Ignores rather simpler e)planations of silencing
Ignores possible demographic and cultural differences in the silencing effect
8iscounts the power of the community to counteract the silencing effect
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ME+IA A4+ A$+IE4!ES5
3eople today have become very involved with the media / especially with the
popularity of the internet.
Media is available with people all the time" on the go.
0ctive audience theory does not analyse what the media does to people" but rather"
what people do with the media.
Therefore this theory is considered to be an audience4centred rather than a source4
dominated theory.
Some reasons why the early audience centred research was limited was due to:
They should have ideally replaced the limited effects theory" unfortunately the idea of
?effects7 was much easier measured than the media uses could be measured.
3eople also believed that cataloguing the e)planations of the conse<uences of media
use made more sense than trying to capture people7s sub,ective reasons for using the
media.
There was also a great deal of confusion over classifying what media uses were" as
opposed to media functions.
0udience activity can be defined in several ways /
Btility 4 Media has uses for the people" and people put the media to those use
intentionality / Aonsumption by media content can be directed by peoples prior
motivation
Selectivity / 3eoples use of media might reflect their e)isting interests and
preferences imperviousness to influence / 0udiences are stubborn. They may not
want to be controlled by anything" even mass media. 0udience members actively
avoid certain types of media influences
But activity is a relative concept. Some are more active than others.
0udience theories:
%erta %er+og 9a colleague of -a+arsfeld: is credited with the originator of the uses
and gratification theory which is an approach to media that focuses on the uses to
which people put the media and the gratification they see( from that use.
0uthor #ilbur Schramm" in his boo( ?The process and effects of mass
communication7 gave a graphic description of how individuals ma(e media and
content choices based on the e)pectation of reward and effort re<uired. It is :
.)pectation of $eward
.ffort $e<uired
$eception studies focuses on peoples abilities to ma(e sense of specific forms of
content. $eaders of media te)ts often apply their own meanings to the readings.
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=rame analysis assumes that people use their e)pectations of situations to ma(e
sense of them and determine their actions in them. The people use the cues inherent
in the situation to determine how to frame" or understand the situation. Media7s
contribution to this framing is in influencing people7s readings or e)pectations of
those cues.
Information processing theory describes how people process and ma(e sense of the
overwhelming amount of information present even in the simplest media message
and has been applied to the situation.
.ach of the theories has met with criticism. The uses and gratification method is
based on surveys but how should the data be interpretedL .ven the reception
analysis uses a <ualitative interview method that is difficult to properly analyse.
%owever" the audience centred theories place the audience at a more central role in
the understanding of mass communication.
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