Military Surface Deployment and Distribution Command Transportation Engineering Agency

Bldg. 661 Sheppard Place, Ft. Eustis, VA 23604

Traffic Engineering &
Highway Safety Bulletin
Traffic Engineering &
Highway Safety Bulletin
June 2008
Marki ngs
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Did You Know?
Most people understand the term pavement
markings, but trafc engineers generally use the
shorter but more encompassing term, markings.
Markings includes not only pavement markings
such as center lines, stop bars, pavement legends,
and arrows; but also curb markings, delineators,
and channelizing devices.
Like trafc signs and signals, markings should
always conform to the Federal Highway
Administrations (FHWAs) Manual on Uniform
Trafc Control Devices (MUTCD). Specically,
Part 3 of the MUTCD addresses markings,
and is available at http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/
pdfs/2003r1r2/ch3.pdf.
Markings frequently supplement signs or trafc
signals to provide guidance on roadway alignment,
no-passing zones,
turn restrictions, and
stopping locations.
And, like other types
of trafc control
devices, markings
should meet the
following ve basic
requirements:
Fulll a need;
Command
attention;
Convey
a clear, simple
meaning;
Command respect from road users; and
Give adequate time for proper response.
Pavement markings are the most common type
of markings and, as the name implies, they are
always on the physical surface of a roadway or
the shoulder. Unlike other trafc control devices,
pavement markings are visible to drivers without
requiring them to take their eyes off the roadway.
Pavement markings typically consist of waterborne
paints and thermoplastic tape. Inlaid blocks, bricks,
and metal strips should not be used as pavement
markings.
U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration
Did You Know? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Longitudinal Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Raised Pavement Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Transverse Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Word and Symbol Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Crosshatch Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Painted Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Crosswalks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Applying Pavement Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Channelizing Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Additional Types of Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Common Problems on Military Installations. . . . 11
IN THIS ISSUE:
2
Pavement markings may be categorized into two
primary groups:
Longitudinal markings help facilitate vehicle
guidance and location.
Transverse markings provide warning and
regulatory information to the motorist.
Both types of pavement markings provide vital
information to the vehicle operator. Therefore,
they must be uniform in design, position, and
application.
Longitudinal Markings
Longitudinal markings are the primary source
of information for positioning vehicles on the
roadway. It is important that markings be uniform
so they can be recognized and understood
instantly by all drivers. The MUTCD provides the
basic principles to which all pavement markings
should adhere.
Proper installation and maintenance of pavement
markings is important since longitudinal construction
joints can sometimes be falsely interpreted as
pavement markings. When markings become worn,
drivers tend to follow these joints, particularly in
adverse weather or at night.
Longitudinal markings should have a minimum
width of 4 inches, although wider lines are helpful
both day and night. Examples of pavement marking
dimensions are shown in the illustration below.
Exhibit 1 shows basic types of longitudinal markings.
Warrants for the use of pavement markings are
contained in the MUTCD. Exhibit 2 outlines the
MUTCD warrants for center lines and edge lines.
Center line pavement markings should be solid yellow
longitudinal lines unless passing is permitted for trafc
in the lane adjacent to the line. Moreover, passing is
only permitted if there is adequate sight distance in
accordance with the warrants in the MUTCD.
TYPICAL DIMENSIONS
No Scale
6" Broken Lane Line
30' 10'
2 2 2 4 4
10' 10' 30'
No Scale
No Scale
4" Double Yellow Line
4" Dotted Line
4

t
o

6

6
"
4
"
4

4
"
Common Nomenclature
W/xx - White Pavement Marking/Width
Y/xx - Yellow Pavement Marking/Width
BW/xx - Broken White Pavement Marking/Width
DY/xx - Double Yellow Pavement Marking/Width
What is Wrong with This Picture?
Answer on Page 10
3
Exhibit 1: Primary Longitudinal Pavement Markings
SOLID YELLOW LINE The solid yellow line indicates a no-passing zone applying to trafc with the
solid line to its immediate left.
Used alone, a single solid yellow line is only used to dene the median of a
freeway or divided roadway, or the left edge of a one-way roadway.
DOUBLE SOLID YELLOW LINE
A double solid yellow line divides lanes of trafc ow in opposing directions
where passing is prohibited in both directions.
BROKEN YELLOW LINES
A broken yellow line denes the center of a two-lane, two-way roadway
where passing is permitted in both directions.
COMBINATION SINGLE
SOLID/BROKEN YELLOW LINE This combination is used when passing is permitted in one direction
(adjacent the broken yellow), and prohibited in the other (adjacent the
single solid).
BROKEN WHITE LINES
A broken white line is used to delineate lanes for travel in the same
directions. Lane changing is permitted.
SOLID WHITE LINE
A solid white line is used to mark the right edge of the roadway, and to mark
lanes for travel in the same direction where lane changing is discouraged.
Its normal application is as a lane line on multilane approaches to
intersections and, particularly, to delineate left- and right-turn lanes.
DOUBLE SOLID WHITE LINE
The double solid white line is used for travel in the same direction, but
crossing the double line is prohibited. For example, a double solid white line
may be used on a bridge to prevent lane changing.
DOTTED LINES
The dotted line delineates the extension of pavement markings through an
intersection or interchange area. It should be the same width and color as
the line it extends.
Source: FHWA, MUTCD
4
Exhibit 2: Warrants for Pavement Markings
TYPE, PURPOSE, AND
APPLICATION
MUTCD CRITERIA BENEFITS
CENTER LINES
Center Lines
Provides separation of trafc traveling
in opposite directions
Provides delineation of separation
Standards:
Mandatory for all paved urban arterials and collectors
with a travel way width of 20 feet or more and an ADT
of 6,000 or more
Mandatory for all paved two-way streets or highways
that have three or more trafc lanes
Guidance:
Should be placed on all urban arterials and collectors
with a travel way of 20 feet or more and ADT of 4,000 or
more
Should be placed on all paved rural arterials with a
travel way width of 18 feet or more and an ADT of 3,000
or more
May be placed on paved travel ways less than 16 feet
wide if a trafc engineering assessment indicates
30%
reduction
in head-on
crashes
EDGE LINES
Edge Lines
Provides an edge of pavement guide
for drivers
May result in lower speeds since travel
lanes appear narrower
Standard:
Mandatory for freeways, expressways and paved rural
arterials with travel way widths of 20 feet or more and
an ADT of 6,000 or more
Guidance:
Should be placed on all rural arterials and collectors
with a travel way of 20 feet or more and an ADT of
3,000 or more
Options:
May be placed where center lines are not present
May be used to minimize driving on shoulders
11 to 25%
reduction in
run-off-the-
road crashes
Source: FHWA, MUTCD
Raised Pavement Markers
Raised Pavement Markers (RPMs) can be used to
increase the visibility of pavement markings. They
should be the same color as the pavement markings
they supplement (except on divided roadways, where
the backside facing wrong-way trafc may be red).
RPMs can be used in snow zones, but it is necessary
to specify a more expensive snowplowable model
that is partially embedded into the road surface. To
protect the retroreective surfaces, these special
RPMs have metal rails on both sides of the unit to lift
the snowplow blade up and over the retroreectors.
5
Transverse Markings
Transverse markings may indicate a command
to stop at an intersection, to advise caution for
pedestrians in a crosswalk, or to advise against
travel within boundaries dened by crosshatching or
painted islands. Transverse markings include:
Stop lines and yield lines
Word and symbol markings
Crosshatch lines
Crosswalks
Stop lines supplement STOP signs and trafc signals.
When used, the location of the stop line is determined
primarily by the geometry of the intersection, road
width, sight distance, and the design-vehicle turn
radius. This is illustrated in the gure below. The
stopping point should be positioned on the approach
leg such that it will not conict with vehicles turning
left from the cross street.
STOP LINE PLACEMENT
4 MIN
15
10
28 MIN R.
28 MIN R.
22 to 24
20
22
to
24
20
Although stop lines are not necessary at all stop
locations, they should be provided where crosswalks
are present, and at signalized intersections.
Locate the stop line a minimum of 4 feet in advance
of the nearest crosswalk marking. In the absence of a
marked crosswalk, locate the stop line at the desired
stopping point, but in no case less than 4 feet or
more than 30 feet from the edge of the intersecting
roadway. The location of the stop line is independent
of the location of the STOP sign.
The stop line is retroreective white and is no less
than 12 nor more than 24 inches wide. The width
depends on the speed of the roadway and/or the
presence of hazardous conditions.
STOP LINE PLACEMENT
4 min.
.
'
30' max
12 min.
24" max.
"
4' min.
Similarly, yield lines may supplement YIELD signs or
Yield Here To Pedestrian signs. Determining their
location is similar to determining the location of stop
lines. When used, yield lines consist of a row of solid
white isosceles triangles pointing toward approaching
vehicles extending across lanes to indicate the point
at which drivers are to yield. Yield line placement
examples are illustrated on page 6. The individual
triangles should have a base of 12 to 24 inches, and
a height equal to 1.5 times the base. The space
between the triangles should be 3 to 12 inches.
6
TYPICAL YIELD LINE PLACEMENT
3 to 12 in
Direction
of Travel
Minimum Dimensions
12 in
18 in
Maximum Dimensions
24 in
36 in
Note: Triangle height is equal to 1.5 times the base dimension.
YIELD
OPTIONAL USE OF YIELD LINES AT UNSIGNALIZED MID-BLOCK CROSSWALKS
20 to 50 ft
20 to 50 ft
R1-5
R1-5
A common mistake is placing stop or yield lines too far away from the intersecting road where drivers do not
have a clear view of trafc on the crossing road. As a result, drivers sometimes enter the intersection without
proper clearance because they had inadequate sight distance.
Therefore, it is very important to check sight distance to both the left and the right before nalizing the
location of a stop or yield line. Keep in mind that a drivers eyes will typically be about 10 feet behind the line
and at an elevation about 3.5 feet above the pavement.
7
Word and Symbol Markings
Pavement word and symbol markings may be used
for guiding, warning, or regulating trafc. They are
generally used at intersections for lane assignment,
or on roadways when special situations exist where
additional guidance to the motorist is required. In
such cases, they should be limited to no more than
three lines of information and shall be white with
retroreective properties.
Although multiple lane approaches
to intersections may be marked with
lane-use arrows, it can often be
difcult for motorists to determine
which lane to use at an intersection.
This can become more difcult at
nighttime, in wet conditions, and
when pavement markings become
worn. To supplement pavement
markings, lane-use control signs
should be installed on multiple lane
approaches. The MUTCD provides
guidelines for the installation of these
signs.
Crosshatch Lines
Crosshatch lines indicate an area,
within dened boundaries, over
which vehicular trafc should
not travel. They may be used in
conjunction with divisional and
channelizing islands, on approaches
to obstructions, and on paved
shoulders. However, prudent use
of these lines is recommended.
Crosshatch lines should be sloped in
the direction of trafc ow. Within
a particular area they may all slant in
one direction, or, if trafc passes on
more than one side, they may slope
in various directions.
Crosshatch lines are commonly used at the following
locations:
Wide medians (yellow lines)
Channelization islands at intersections (white or
yellow lines)
Shoulders (white lines, except yellow on the left
side of one-way roads)
ECF areas, around ID check islands (white or
yellow lines)
TYPICAL CROSSHATCHING
8
Painted Islands
Islands may be formed with pavement markings
to channelize trafc. Where travel in the same
direction is permitted on both sides, an 8-inch-wide
or double solid white line should be used to mark the
channelizing island. Where islands separate travel
in opposite directions, double yellow lines should be
used. For added emphasis, painted crosshatching
may be placed within the island, in which case the
crosshatch markings should be the same color as the
lines that outline the island.
PAINTED ISLANDS
Y E L L OW L I NE S
ME RGI NG T RA F F I C
S A ME DI RE CT I ON
WHI T E L I NE S
Y E L L OW L I NE S
WHI T E L I NE S
DI V E RGI NG T RA F F I C
S A ME DI RE CT I ON
RA I S E D I S L A ND
Y E L L OW L I NE S
T RA F F I C F L OW
OP P OS I T E DI RE CT I ON
Crosswalks
When crosswalk lines are used, they should be solid
white lines and should not be less than 6 inches nor
greater than 24 inches in width (OPTION 1). For
added visibility, the area of the crosswalk may be
marked with white diagonal lines at a 45-degree
angle to the line of the crosswalk (OPTION 2) or
with white longitudinal lines parallel to trafc ow
(OPTION 3).
CROSSWALK MARKING OPTIONS
OPTION 1
OPTION 2
OPTION 3
6 to 24 inches
6 feet (min)
4 feet (min)
If used, the diagonal or longitudinal lines should be 12
to 24 inches wide and spaced 12 to 60 inches apart.
These types of markings may be used at locations
where:
Substantial numbers of pedestrians cross without
any other trafc control device.
Physical conditions are such that added visibility
of the crosswalk is desired.
A pedestrian crosswalk might not be expected.
Crosswalks should be at least 6 feet wide, with wider
crosswalks where pedestrian demand is high.
Most people believe that marked crosswalks improve
safety. However, research indicates that adding
marked crosswalks generally increases the number
of pedestrian crashes unless at an intersection where
trafc is controlled by a trafc signal or a STOP sign,
or at a location where additional safety precautions
were implemented. Therefore, before installing
new crosswalks, an engineering study is needed
to determine whether the location is suitable for a
marked crosswalk.
The study should consider trafc and pedestrian
volumes, vehicle mix, vehicle speeds, sight distance,
and other factors. The engineer should also consider
providing raised medians or islands, reducing the street
width, adding other trafc calming measures, and
installing pedestrian-type signs, street lighting, etc.
9
As a general rule, marked crosswalks should not be
considered on uncontrolled roadways that have any
of the following:
A speed limit greater than 45 mph.
Four or more travel lanes without a raised
median.
Trafc volume greater than 15,000 vehicles a day.
Applying Pavement Markings
The most common pavement marking material
is waterborne paint, which is really a latex paint.
During the past few years, there were signicant
improvements in the quality and durability of
waterborne paint; and in most cases, the better
paints will now last at least 2 years.
Waterborne paints are generally applied at a
wet thickness of 15 mils (i.e., 0.015 inch), which
translates to one gallon of paint for every 321 linear
feet of 4-inch wide line. These paints will generally
dry within about 2 minutes.
All pavement markings need to be retroreective,
since non-retroreective markings are useless at night.
Almost without exception, all pavement-marking
materials rely on round glass beads embedded
into the surface of the pavement marking material
to make them retroreective. When a vehicles
headlights illuminate a glass bead, the light:
Refracts or bends as it enters the bead;
Reects off the backside of the bead if this
part of the bead is embedded in the pavement
marking material;
The reected light becomes the color of the
pavement marking material;
Refracts again as it leaves the glass bead; and
Returns to the general vicinity of the headlights
and the driver.
PAVEMENT MARKING RETROREFLECTIVITY
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Pavement Marking Material
Glass Bead
It is essential that the proper type and
quantity of glass beads are added to the paint
before it solidies. Specify at least 7 pounds
of glass beads for every gallon of paint.
Pavement markings should be inspected
annually to ensure they are in acceptable
condition.
The performance of pavement marking
materials is dependant on the type of road
surface, the quality of the application, and
winter maintenance. Therefore, in order
to specify the best materials, military
installations are encouraged to review
material specications with the local highway
department.
Contact Us
Phone: DSN: 826-7418
Richard Quesenberry, P.E., PTOE
Telephone: (757) 878-8654
E-mail: [email protected]
Rick Sumrak
Telephone: (757) 878-7418
E-mail: [email protected]
Fax: Commercial: (757) 878-7885
E-mail: [email protected]
Mailing
Address:
SDDCTEA
Attn: SDTE-SA
Bldg. 661 Sheppard Place
Fort Eustis, VA 23604
10
Channelizing Devices
Trafc cones or vertical panels can be used
effectively for temporary channelization of trafc
during lane reversal and lane closures. And if struck,
they generally cause no damage.
These devices are convenient since, unlike steel
drums, they can be quickly placed and removed.
Storage is also convenient, as trafc cones can
nest one on top of another, and vertical panels can
usually be collapsed or the top part can be removed
from their base.
Answer from Page 2
Although the pavement markings are in good
condition, the stop line is about 35 feet from the
near edge of the cross street. If drivers stop at the
stop line, their line of vision would be blocked by
the sign and the line of trees.
Therefore, it is important to review sight distance
when selecting the location of the stop line.
TYPICAL CHANNELIZING DEVICES

White and
Fluorescent Orange
Retroreflective Stripes
*Warning lights (optional)
Retroreflective
Band
Vertical Panel
Cones
11
Within transitions, the distance between these
devices in feet should equal the posted speed limit in
miles per hour. For example, if the posted speed limit
is 25 mph, the maximum spacing should be 25 feet.
At other locations, such as adjacent to closed lanes,
the distance between devices in feet may be double
the speed limit in miles per hour.
The use of trafc cones and vertical panels should
follow standard transition requirements and should
not result in an abrupt change in trafc patterns. As
a general rule, the taper length in feet should equal
WS
2
/60 for a speed limit of 40 mph or less, or WS
for speed limits greater than 40 mph (where W is the
width of the shift in feet and S is the posted speed
limit in miles per hour) or 100 feet, whichever is
greater.
Additional Types of Markings
The MUTCD also includes guidance for some other
less common markings, including the following:
Two-way left-turn lanes
Reversible lanes
Preferential lanes
Speed measurement markings
Speed humps
Roundabouts (i.e., trafc circles)
Highway-rail grade crossings
Common Problems on Military
Installations
Non-retroreective pavement markings 1.
because of improper application or inadequate
maintenance.
Installing wrong color markings. 2.
Installing stop lines too far away from an 3.
intersecting roadway.
Using a single broken or solid yellow line when a 4.
double solid yellow center line is proper.
Using trafc cones at night without white 5.
retroreective collars.
Using a substandard taper length for lane 6.
reduction tapers.
LANE REDUCTION TAPER LENGTHS
L = WS
(For S>40 mph)
(For S<40 mph)
W = Width of Shift (feet)
S = Posted Speed Limit (mph)
L = Length of Transition (feet)
D = Distance Between
Channelizing Devices (feet)
D = 2S
D
=
S
60
WS
2
L =
W
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. Manual on Uniform Trafc Control
Devices. Washington, D.C. 2003 Edition (www.mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov).
Surface Deployment and Distribution Command Transportation Engineering Agency, SDDCTEA. Pamphlet
55-14, Trafc Engineering for Better Signs and Markings. Newport News, VA July 1985 (http://www.tea.army.
mil/pubs/nr/dod/pmd/PAM_55-14.htm).
Institute of Transportation Engineers. Trafc Engineering Handbook. Washington D.C. 1999.
www.fhwa.dot.gov
www.tea.army.mil
www.ite.org
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
Military Surface Deployment and
Distribution Command Transportation
Engineering Agency
Bldg. 661 Sheppard Place
Ft. Eustis, VA 23604
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
Michael K. Williams
Director, SDDCTEA
Prepared with the assistance of
TRAINING
REFERENCE LIST
Continuing Education Phone Web Site
Penn State University;
The Pennsylvania Transportation Institute (814) 865-4700 www.pti.psu.edu
University of Maryland;
Md. Transportation Technology Transfer Center (301) 403-4623 www.ence.umd.edu/tttc
Georgia Institute of Technology (404) 385-3501 www.gatech.edu
Northwestern University Center for Public Safety (800) 323-4011 www.northwestern.edu/nucps/index.htm
Texas A&M University (979) 845-3211 www.tamu.edu
University of Washington; College of Engineering (206) 543-2100 www.engr.washington.edu/epp