K.

INTRODUCTION TO TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

Introduction
When volumes and densities of traffic increase, there is increased probability of collision
and delays to vehicles travelling on the roads. Under traffic engineering, every effort must be made
to prevent traffic accidents from occurring and to minimize the injuries and economic losses from
those crashes that do occur.
Traffic engineers promote operational efficiency and safety through the use of traffic-control
devices.

1. TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
Traffic-control devices include all signs, marking, and signals placed on or adjacent to a street
or highway by public agencies in order to regulate, warn, or guide traffic. Any traffic control
device, to be effective, should
Fulfill a need.
Command attention.
Convey a clear, simple meaning.
Command respect of road users.
Give adequate time for proper response.

There are varieties of highway traffic control devices and some of these include:
a. Pavement markings
b. Object markings
c. Delineators
d. Studs
e. Traffic signs
f. Channelization
g. Traffic signals.

A. PAVEMENT MARKINGS
Markings consist of paint (or more durable materials such as thermoplastics, epoxies, and
polyesters) placed on the pavement, kerb, or object to convey traffic regulations and warnings to
drivers. Markings may be used alone or in combination with traffic signs or signals.

Advantages of pavement markings include:
i. Their lack of physical obstruction to the path of traffic, thus permitting their use on the
travelled way itself,
ii. Their low cost,
iii. The ease of removal when required.

Disadvantages include:
i. Pavement markings are obliterated easily in snow conditions.
ii. They are less effective under reduced visibility.
iii. They can wear out rapidly under heavy traffic conditions.
iv. They provide no positive restraint against conflicting movements.

There are many forms of pavement markings and some of these are:
a. Center lines - Broken or unbroken yellow lines used to separate opposing traffic
flows. On multilane roads with undivided pavements of four or more lanes, center
lines may be composed of two unbroken yellow lines.
b. Lane lines These are broken white lines or solid lines for a short distance.
c. Pavement Edge lines Solid white lines that show pavement edges especially in the
rain and at night.
d. Stop Lines These extend across the full width of intersection approaches.

B. OBJECT MARKINGS
Some objects have close physical proximity to moving vehicles and if not clearly marked,
may increase traffic hazard. These objects include low bridges, underpass piers, traffic islands,
signal and sign supports.
These obstructing objects are marked by reflectorized hazard markers and, where possible,
are painted in diagonal black and white stripes facing the flow of traffic.

C. DELINEATORS
These are light reflecting devices mounted at the roadside to indicate roadway alignment and
thus aid the driver under the reduced visibility of night driving conditions. They are guidance rather
than warning devices, and can be used on long continuous stretches of highway, etc.

D. STUDS
The use of studs can improve night driving conditions greatly, especially during poor
weather conditions. Reflectorized pavement studs, sometimes called cats eyes, can be used as
center, lane line and pavement edge markings. Studs can also be used in urban areas to discourage
weaving in high volume areas.

E. TRAFFIC SIGNS
The most common and oldest method of traffic control is by the means of the traffic signs.
The functions of traffic signs include:
i) To control the movement of vehicles,
ii) to reduce the hazard of traffic operation, and
iii) to improve the quality of flow.

There are three classifications of traffic signs and these are:
1. Regulatory signs.
2. Warning signs.
3. Guide signs.

1. Regulatory Signs
Regulatory signs inform the driver of the applicability of specific laws and regulations along
indicated sections of road. In the absence of these regulatory signs, enforcement would not be
possible. Regulatory signs are posted where they can be seen clearly.
Regulatory signs can be sub-classified into:
a. Right-of-way Signs Stop and Yield signs are placed at the junctions of traffic
flows to indicate which stream of traffic has right-of way.
b. Speed signs indicate both daytime and nighttime speed limits and, in addition,
delimit the beginning and end of speed zones.
c. Movement Signs indicate legal, mandatory, and prohibited movements.
d. Parking Signs state regulations governing the stopping and standing of
vehicles.
e. Pedestrian Signs are signs directed principally at pedestrian movements both in
urban and rural areas.

2. Warning Signs
Warning signs are erected to alert the motorist to certain conditions or change in road
conditions ahead in order to avoid accidents. Warning signs may be erected under the following
conditions:
a. To indicate changes in horizontal alignment.
b. To indicate intersections, entrances, and crossings.
c. To warn of converging traffic lanes.
d. To indicate narrow roadways.
e. To give warning of location of at-grade railway crossing ahead.
f. To warn of unexpected or unusual grades.
g. To indicate sudden changes in surface condition, or poor pavement condition.
h. To give an advance warning of control devices.

Warning signs are customarily yellow and diamond-shaped with black edging and lettering.

3. Guide Signs
Guide signs are erected along highways to enable the traveller to find and follow routes in
rural and urban areas, and to identify and locate items of need and interest.

F. TRAFFIC SIGNALS
Intersections that carry large vehicular volumes cannot be controlled safely and satisfactorily
without traffic signals. Power-operated traffic signals are installed at intersections to separate
effectively all or most conflicting flows. This helps to bring about a degree of orderliness and
safety that would otherwise be impossible at higher traffic volumes.
When designed and located properly, traffic signals have several advantages.
1. They provide for orderly movement of traffic. They can increase the traffic-
handling capacity of the intersection.
2. They reduce the frequency of certain types of accidents (particularly right-angle
collisions and pedestrian accidents).
3. Under favourable conditions, they can be coordinated to provide for continuous
or nearly continuous movement of traffic at a definite speed along a given route.
4. They can be used to interrupt heavy traffic at intervals to permit light vehicular
traffic and pedestrians to cross.
5. They are economical when compared with manual method of control (i.e. using
traffic officers).

Signal Indications
The common practice is to use circular red, amber and green signals, though in certain
circumstances green-arrow signals are also used. When the red signal is displayed, the right of
way is denied to the traffic from entering the intersection. The red/amber signifies an alert to
the drivers that the signal aspect is about to change to green so that they can be in readiness to
go.
The green signal aspect denotes that the right of way is given to the drivers to enter the
intersection. The amber signal alerts the drivers that the red signal aspect is about to commence
shortly and the green aspect is about to be terminated. A green-arrow aspect permits the drivers
to enter the intersection to make the movement indicated by the arrow.
Depending on their location and the type of traffic which they are designed to
accommodate, individual traffic signals can be pretimed, semi-actuated, fully actuated, or
volume-density signals.
L. AIRPORT PLANNING AND LAYOUT

1. Introduction
The airport has grown to be an important part of the total transportation system. No
community development plan is complete without adequate provision for present and future airport
requirements. Airport needs will increase as the community grows and expands both in population
and in economic functions, and the size and number of aircraft will be to a large extent reflected by
the size and economic characteristics of the community, which the airport is to serve.
Airport planning must be integrated with highway, rail, and other ground transportation
planning for the community that the airport is to serve, considering not only present needs but also
transportation needs in the foreseeable future.
It is important that the airport occupy an easily accessible site located close to the population
center or centers that it is to serve a position favourable to coordination with other modes of
transportation viz: highways, railways, and navigation.

2. Selection Of Airport Site
There are at least ten (10) factors that should be considered when analyzing potential airport sites:
i) Convenience to users
If is to be successful, an airport must be conveniently located to those who use it. Thus,
the airport ideally would be located near the center of most cities. However, because of the
problems of air obstructions and high costs of land, airports might have to be located several
kilometers from the city center.

ii) Availability of land and land costs
Vast hectares of land are usually required to site an airport. The amount of land required
will depend on the length and number of runways, areas required for buildings, aprons,
automobile parking, etc. Land costs for desirable airport site are high and may often amount
to hundreds of millions of the currency.
It is important that sufficient land be acquired for future expansion.

iii) Design and layout of the airport
The basic layout and design of the proposed airport should be constant. Runways should
be oriented so at to take advantage of prevailing winds, etc.
iv) Airspace obstructions
Adjacent airports must be located so that traffic using one in no way interferes with
traffic using the other. Also, physical objects such as towers, poles, buildings, mountain
ranges, etc., must not penetrate navigable airspace.

v) Engineering factors
An airport site should have fairly level topography and be free of mountains, hills, and
so on. Further, the terrain should have sufficient slope that adequate drainage can be
provided. Areas that require extensive rock excavation should be avoided. Sites containing
peat, muck, and other undesirable foundation materials should also be avoided.
An adequate supply of aggregates and other construction materials should be located
within a reasonable distance of the site.

vi) Social and environmental factors
One of the most difficult social problems associated with airport location is that of noise.
Aircraft noise, especially that of jet aircraft engine, is too loud for residential areas.
In selecting an airport site, proximity to residential areas, schools, and churches should
be avoided.

vii) Availability of utilities
The airport site should be accessible to water, electrical service, telephones, gas lines,
and so on, and these utilities should be of proper type and size.

viii) Atmospheric conditions
Peculiar atmospheric conditions, such as fog, smoke, snow, or glare may rule out the use
of some potential airport sites.

ix) Hazards due to birds
Aircraft impacts with birds and bird ingestion into turbine engines have caused
numerous air disasters. Airports should not be situated near bird habitats or natural
preserves and feeding grounds.


x) Coordination with other airports
Where two or more large cities are closely spaced, individual airport requirements must
be determined in relation to the needs of the entire metropolitan area and each airport must
be considered as a part of a total system.

AIRPORT DESIGN STANDARDS AND PROCEDURES

1. Runway Length
The runway is a paved, load-bearing roadway upon which an aircraft will travel, gather
enough momentum to take off into the air. It is also the roadway upon which an incoming aircraft
will touchdown, and gradually reduces its speed to come to a halt or usually roll onto a taxiway.
One of the most important design features for an airport is runway length. Design runway
length is influenced most by the performance requirements of the aircraft using the airport,
especially when operated with its maximum landing and take-off loads. Variations in required
runway length are caused by:
a) Elevation of the airport.
b) Average maximum air temperature at the airport.
c) Runway gradient.

2. Longitudinal Grade Design for Runways and Taxiways
For safe and efficient aircraft operations, runway grades should be flat, and grade changes
should be avoided. A maximum longitudinal grade of 1.5 is specified for air carrier airports and a
2.0 percent maximum is recommended for utility airports.
Sight distance should be provided preferably for the full length of the runway in order to
minimize any hazard associated with objects on the runway.
Vertical curves should be provided where there is a change in grade as great as 0.4 percent.
The length of vertical curve should be at least 1000ft for each 1 percent of grade change at air
carrier airports and 300 ft for each 1 percent of grade change at other airports.

3. Runway and Taxiway Cross-section
A runway cross-section resemble that of a highway, although much larger in scale. The
runway is typically 50 ft wide at small airports and 150 ft wide at large airports.
Graded border areas are provide along each side of the runway as a safety measure should
an aircraft lose control and veer from the runway. The border areas, which are typically stabilized
earth with grass cover, vary in width from 25 ft at the smallest airports to 175 ft at the largest
airports.
A shoulder is provided adjacent to a runway or taxiway to resist jet erosion and/or to
accommodate maintenance equipment. The shoulder is usually a relatively narrow paved or
otherwise treated area.
A typical runway and taxiway cross-section is shown in Fig. 1 below.














4. Taxiways and Turnarounds
Taxiways are used to facilitate the movement of aircraft to and from the runways. At large
airports, the usual procedure is to provide a taxiway parallel to the runway centerline for the entire
length of the runway.
At smaller airports, air traffic may not be sufficient to justify the construction of a parallel
taxiway. In this case, taxiing is done on the runway itself and turnarounds should be constructed at
the ends of the runways. A typical taxiway turnaround is shown in the Fig. 2 below.




















The following general guidelines are helpful in designing the taxiway system:
i) Taxiway routes should be direct and uncomplicated. Generally, taxiways should follow
straight lines, and curves of long radius should be used when curves are required.
ii) Whenever possible, taxiways should be designed so as not to cross active runways or
other taxiways.
iii) A sufficient number of taxiways should be provided in order to avoid congestion and
complicated routes between runway exit points and the apron area.

5. Holding Apron
A holding apron is an area provided adjacent to the taxiway near the runway entrance for aircraft to
park briefly while the cockpit checks and engine runups are made preparatory to takeoff. The use
of holding aprons gives two principal benefits:
i) it reduces interference between departing aircraft and
ii) it minimizes delays at this portion of the runway system.
A sketch of a typical holding apron is shown in Fig. 3 below.