Computer Architecture 3rd Class Eng.

Salam Hassan Mhesn

9
2. Hardwired and Microprogrammed Control
For each instruction, the control unit causes the CPU to execute a sequence of
steps correctly. In reality, there must be control signals to assert lines on various digital
components to make things happen. For example, when we perform an Add instruction in
assembly language, we assume the addition takes place because the control signals for
the ALU are set to "add" and the result is put into the AC. The ALU has various control
lines that determine which operation to perform. The question we need to answer is,
"How do these control lines actually become asserted?"
We can take one of two approaches to ensure control lines are set properly. The
first approach is to physically connect all of the control lines to the actual machine
instructions. The instructions are divided up into fields, and different bits in the
instruction are combined through various digital logic components to drive the control
lines. This is called hardwired control, and is illustrated in figure (1)






























Figure (1) Hardwired Control Organization
Instruction Decoder


Control Unit
(Combinational Circuit)
Instruction Register
Input from system bus
(such as interrupts)
Input from status/
flag register
Control Signals
(These signals go to register)
The bus and the ALU
Input from clock
Computer Architecture 3rd Class Eng. Salam Hassan Mhesn

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The control unit is implemented using hardware (for example: NAND
gates, flip-flops, and counters).We need a special digital circuit that uses , as inputs, the
bits from the Opcode field in our instructions, bits from the flag (or status) register,
signals from the bus, and signals from the clock. It should produce, as outputs, the
control signals to drive the various components in the computer.
The advantage of hardwired control is that is very fast. The disadvantage is that the
instruction set and the control logic are directly tied together by special circuits that are
complex and difficult to design or modify. If someone designs a hardwired computer
and later decides to extend the instruction set, the physical components in the computer
must be changed. This is prohibitively expensive, because not only must new chips be
fabricated but also the old ones must be located and replaced.
Microprogramming is a second alternative for designing control unit of digital
computer (uses software for control). A control unit whose binary control variables are
stored in memory is called a microprogrammed control unit. The control variables at
any given time can be represented by a string of 1's and 0's called a control word (which
can be programmed to perform various operations on the component of the system). Each
word in control memory contains within it a microinstruction. The microinstruction
specifies one or more microoperatiotins for the system. A sequence of microinstructions
constitutes a microprogram. A memory that is part of a control unit is referred to as a
control memory.
A more advanced development known as dynamic microprogramming permits a
microprogram to be loaded initially from an auxiliary memory such as a magnetic disk.
Control units that use dynamic microprogramming employ a writable control memory;
this type of memory can be used for writing (to change the microprogram) but is used
mostly for reading.
The general configuration of a microprogrammed control unit is demonstrated in
the block diagram of Figure (2). The control memory is assumed to be a ROM, within
which all control information is permanently stored.













Figure (2) Microprogrammed Control Organization
Next-Address
Generator
"Sequencer"
Control data
Register
Control Memory
"ROM" Control Address
Register
Control Word
External input
Computer Architecture 3rd Class Eng. Salam Hassan Mhesn

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The control memory address register specifies the address of the microinstruction and
the control data register holds the microinstruction read from memory the
microinstruction contains a control word that specifies one or more microoperations for
the data processor. Once these operations are executed, the control must determine the
next address. The location of the next microinstruction may be the one next in sequence,
or it may be locate somewhere else in the control memory. For this reason it is necessary
to use some bits of the present microinstruction to control the generation of the address of
the next microinstruction. The next address may also be a function of external input
conditions. While the microoperations are being executed, the next address is computed
in the next address generator circuit and then transferred into the control address register
to read the next microinstruction.
The next address generator is sometimes called a microprogram sequencer,
as it determines the address sequence that is read from control memory, the address of the
next microinstruction can be specified several ways, depending on the sequencer
inputs. Typical functions of a microprogram sequencer are incrementing the control
address register by one, loading into the control address register an address from control
memory, transferring an external address or loading an initial address to start the control
operations.
The main advantages of the microprogrammed control are the fact that once the
hardware configuration is established; there should be no need for further hardware or
wiring changes. If we want to establish are different control sequence for the system, all
we need to do is specify different set microinstructions for control memory. The
hardware configuration should not be changed for different operations; the only thing that
must be changed is the microprogram residing in control memory.
Microinstructions are stored in control memory in groups, with each group
specifying routine. Each computer instruction has microprogram routine in control
memory to generate the microoperations that execute the instruction. The hardware that
controls the address sequencing of the control memory must be capable of sequencing the
microinstructions within a routine and be to branch from one routine to another. The
address sequencing capabilities required in a control memory are:

1. Incrementing of the control address register.
2. Unconditional branch or conditional branch, depending on status bit conditions.
3. A mapping process from the bits of the instruction to an address for control memory.
4. A facility for subroutine call and return.
Figure (3) shows a block diagram of control memory and the associated hardware
needed for selecting the next microinstruction address. The microinstruction in control
memory contains a set of bits to initiate microoperations in computer registers and other
bits to specify the method by which the address is obtained. The diagram shows four
different paths from which the control address register (CAR) receives the address. The
incrementer increments the content of the control address register by one, to select the
next microinstruction in sequence. Branching is achieved by specifying the branch
address in one of the fields of the microinstruction. Conditional branching is obtained by
using part of the microinstruction to select a specific status bit in order to determine its
Computer Architecture 3rd Class Eng. Salam Hassan Mhesn

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condition. An external address is transferred into control memory via a mapping logic
circuit. The return address for a subroutine is stored in a special register whose value is
then used when the microprogram wishes to return from the subroutine.


































Figure (3) Selection address for control memory



Instruction Code
Mapping logic
Control Address Register
(CAR)
Subroutine register
(SBR)
Branch Logic
Incrementer
Control Memory
Status bits
Clock
Branch Address
Microoperations
Select a Status bit
Multiplexer