Siemens Simatic S7-400 system at

rack, left-to-right: power supply unit

PS407 4A, CPU 416-3, interface
module IM 460-0 and communication
processor CP 443-1.
Programmable logic controller
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A programmable logic controller, PLC or programmable controller is a digital computer used for automation of typically
industrial electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or light
fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines. PLCs are designed for multiple analogue and digital inputs and
output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact.
Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed-up or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an
example of a "hard" real-time system since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a limited
time, otherwise unintended operation will result.
Contents
1 History
2 Development
2.1 Programming
3 Functionality
3.1 Programmable logic relay (PLR)
4 PLC topics
4.1 Features
4.2 Scan time
4.3 System scale
4.4 User interface
4.5 Communications
4.6 Programming
4.7 Security
4.8 Simulation
4.9 Redundancy
5 PLC compared with other control systems
6 Discrete and analog signals
6.1 Example
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
History
Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing automobiles was mainly composed of relays, cam timers, drum sequencers, and
dedicated closed-loop controllers. Since these could number in the hundreds or even thousands, the process for updating such facilities for the yearly model
change-over was very time consuming and expensive, as electricians needed to individually rewire the relays to change their operational characteristics.
Digital computers, being general-purpose programmable devices, were soon applied to control of industrial processes. Early computers required specialist
programmers, and stringent operating environmental control for temperature, cleanliness, and power quality. Using a general-purpose computer for process control
required protecting the computer from the plant floor conditions. An industrial control computer would have several attributes: it would tolerate the shop-floor
environment, it would support discrete (bit-form) input and output in an easily extensible manner, it would not require years of training to use, and it would permit
its operation to be monitored. The response time of any computer system must be fast enough to be useful for control; the required speed varying according to the
nature of the process.
[1]
Since many industrial processes have timescales easily addressed by millisecond response times, modern (fast, small, reliable) electronics
greatly facilitate building reliable controllers, especially because performance can be traded off for reliability.
In 1968 GM Hydra-Matic (the automatic transmission division of General Motors) issued a request for proposals for an electronic replacement for hard-wired relay
systems based on a white paper written by engineer Edward R. Clark. The winning proposal came from Bedford Associates of Bedford, Massachusetts. The first
PLC, designated the 084 because it was Bedford Associates' eighty-fourth project, was the result.
[2]
Bedford Associates started a new company dedicated to
developing, manufacturing, selling, and servicing this new product: Modicon, which stood for MOdular DIgital CONtroller. One of the people who worked on that
project was Dick Morley, who is considered to be the "father" of the PLC.
[3]
The Modicon brand was sold in 1977 to Gould Electronics, and later acquired by
German Company AEG and then by French Schneider Electric, the current owner.
One of the very first 084 models built is now on display at Modicon's headquarters in North Andover, Massachusetts. It was presented to Modicon by GM, when the
unit was retired after nearly twenty years of uninterrupted service. Modicon used the 84 moniker at the end of its product range until the 984 made its appearance.
The automotive industry is still one of the largest users of PLCs.
Development
Early PLCs were designed to replace relay logic systems. These PLCs were programmed in "ladder logic", which strongly resembles a schematic diagram of relay
logic. This program notation was chosen to reduce training demands for the existing technicians. Other early PLCs used a form of instruction list programming,
based on a stack-based logic solver.
Modern PLCs can be programmed in a variety of ways, from the relay-derived ladder logic to programming languages such as specially adapted dialects of BASIC
and C. Another method is State Logic, a very high-level programming language designed to program PLCs based on state transition diagrams.
Many early PLCs did not have accompanying programming terminals that were capable of graphical representation of the logic, and so the logic was instead
represented as a series of logic expressions in some version of Boolean format, similar to Boolean algebra. As programming terminals evolved, it became more
common for ladder logic to be used, for the aforementioned reasons and because it was a familiar format used for electromechanical control panels. Newer formats
such as State Logic and Function Block (which is similar to the way logic is depicted when using digital integrated logic circuits) exist, but they are still not as
popular as ladder logic. A primary reason for this is that PLCs solve the logic in a predictable and repeating sequence, and ladder logic allows the programmer (the
person writing the logic) to see any issues with the timing of the logic sequence more easily than would be possible in other formats.
Programming
Early PLCs, up to the mid-1990s, were programmed using proprietary programming panels or special-purpose programming terminals, which often had dedicated
function keys representing the various logical elements of PLC programs.
[2]
Some proprietary programming terminals displayed the elements of PLC programs as
graphic symbols, but plain ASCII character representations of contacts, coils, and wires were common. Programs were stored on cassette tape cartridges. Facilities
for printing and documentation were minimal due to lack of memory capacity. The very oldest PLCs used non-volatile magnetic core memory.
More recently, PLCs are programmed using application software on personal computers, which now represent the logic in graphic form instead of character
symbols. The computer is connected to the PLC through Ethernet, RS-232, RS-485 or RS-422 cabling. The programming software allows entry and editing of the
ladder-style logic. Generally the software provides functions for debugging and troubleshooting the PLC software, for example, by highlighting portions of the logic
to show current status during operation or via simulation. The software will upload and download the PLC program, for backup and restoration purposes. In some
models of programmable controller, the program is transferred from a personal computer to the PLC through a programming board which writes the program into a
removable chip such as an EEPROM or EPROM.
Functionality
The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the years to include sequential relay control, motion control, process control, distributed control systems and
networking. The data handling, storage, processing power and communication capabilities of some modern PLCs are approximately equivalent to desktop
computers. PLC-like programming combined with remote I/O hardware, allow a general-purpose desktop computer to overlap some PLCs in certain applications.
Regarding the practicality of these desktop computer based logic controllers, it is important to note that they have not been generally accepted in heavy industry
because the desktop computers run on less stable operating systems than do PLCs, and because the desktop computer hardware is typically not designed to the same
levels of tolerance to temperature, humidity, vibration, and longevity as the processors used in PLCs. In addition to the hardware limitations of desktop based logic,
operating systems such as Windows do not lend themselves to deterministic logic execution, with the result that the logic may not always respond to changes in
logic state or input status with the extreme consistency in timing as is expected from PLCs. Still, such desktop logic applications find use in less critical situations,
such as laboratory automation and use in small facilities where the application is less demanding and critical, because they are generally much less expensive than
PLCs.
Programmable logic relay (PLR)
In more recent years, small products called PLRs (programmable logic relays), and also by similar names, have become more common and accepted. These are very
much like PLCs, and are used in light industry where only a few points of I/O (i.e. a few signals coming in from the real world and a few going out) are involved,
and low cost is desired. These small devices are typically made in a common physical size and shape by several manufacturers, and branded by the makers of larger
PLCs to fill out their low end product range. Popular names include PICO Controller, NANO PLC, and other names implying very small controllers. Most of these
have between 8 and 12 discrete inputs, 4 and 8 discrete outputs, and up to 2 analog inputs. Size is usually about 4" wide, 3" high, and 3" deep. Most such devices
Control panel with PLC (grey
elements in the center). The unit
consists of separate elements, from
left to right; power supply, controller,
relay units for in- and output
include a tiny postage stamp sized LCD screen for viewing simplified ladder logic (only a very small portion of the program being visible at a given time) and status
of I/O points, and typically these screens are accompanied by a 4-way rocker push-button plus four more separate push-buttons, similar to the key buttons on a VCR
remote control, and used to navigate and edit the logic. Most have a small plug for connecting via RS-232 or RS-485 to a personal computer so that programmers
can use simple Windows applications for programming instead of being forced to use the tiny LCD and push-button set for this purpose. Unlike regular PLCs that
are usually modular and greatly expandable, the PLRs are usually not modular or expandable, but their price can be two orders of magnitude less than a PLC and
they still offer robust design and deterministic execution of the logic.
PLC topics
Features
The main difference from other computers is that PLCs are armored for severe conditions (such as dust, moisture, heat, cold)
and have the facility for extensive input/output (I/O) arrangements. These connect the PLC to sensors and actuators. PLCs
read limit switches, analog process variables (such as temperature and pressure), and the positions of complex positioning
systems. Some use machine vision.
[4]
On the actuator side, PLCs operate electric motors, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders,
magnetic relays, solenoids, or analog outputs. The input/output arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the PLC
may have external I/O modules attached to a computer network that plugs into the PLC.
Scan time
A PLC program is generally executed repeatedly as long as the controlled system is running. The status of physical input
points is copied to an area of memory accessible to the processor, sometimes called the "I/O Image Table". The program is
then run from its first instruction rung down to the last rung. It takes some time for the processor of the PLC to evaluate all
the rungs and update the I/O image table with the status of outputs.
[5]
This scan time may be a few milliseconds for a small
program or on a fast processor, but older PLCs running very large programs could take much longer (say, up to 100 ms) to
execute the program. If the scan time were too long, the response of the PLC to process conditions would be too slow to be
useful.
As PLCs became more advanced, methods were developed to change the sequence of ladder execution, and subroutines were
implemented.
[6]
This simplified programming could be used to save scan time for high-speed processes; for example, parts
of the program used only for setting up the machine could be segregated from those parts required to operate at higher speed.
Special-purpose I/O modules, such as timer modules or counter modules such as encoders, can be used where the scan time
of the processor is too long to reliably pick up, for example, counting pulses and interpreting quadrature from a shaft
encoder. The relatively slow PLC can still interpret the counted values to control a machine, but the accumulation of pulses is
done by a dedicated module that is unaffected by the speed of the program execution...
System scale
A small PLC will have a fixed number of connections built in for inputs and outputs. Typically, expansions are available if the base model has insufficient I/O.
Modular PLCs have a chassis (also called a rack) into which are placed modules with different functions. The processor and selection of I/O modules are
customized for the particular application. Several racks can be administered by a single processor, and may have thousands of inputs and outputs. A special high
speed serial I/O link is used so that racks can be distributed away from the processor, reducing the wiring costs for large plants.
User interface
PLCs may need to interact with people for the purpose of configuration, alarm reporting or everyday control. A human-machine interface (HMI) is employed for
this purpose. HMIs are also referred to as man-machine interfaces (MMIs) and graphical user interfaces (GUIs). A simple system may use buttons and lights to
interact with the user. Text displays are available as well as graphical touch screens. More complex systems use programming and monitoring software installed on a
computer, with the PLC connected via a communication interface.
Communications
PLCs have built in communications ports, usually 9-pin RS-232, but optionally EIA-485 or Ethernet. Modbus, BACnet or DF1 is usually included as one of the
communications protocols. Other options include various fieldbuses such as DeviceNet or Profibus. Other communications protocols that may be used are listed in
the List of automation protocols.
Most modern PLCs can communicate over a network to some other system, such as a computer running a SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition)
system or web browser.
PLCs used in larger I/O systems may have peer-to-peer (P2P) communication between processors. This allows separate parts of a complex process to have
individual control while allowing the subsystems to co-ordinate over the communication link. These communication links are also often used for HMI devices such
as keypads or PC-type workstations.
Programming
PLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal computer, then downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a network to the PLC.
The program is stored in the PLC either in battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory. Often, a single PLC can be programmed to replace
thousands of relays.
[7]
Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be programmed using standards-based programming languages. A graphical programming notation called Sequential
Function Charts is available on certain programmable controllers. Initially most PLCs utilized Ladder Logic Diagram Programming, a model which emulated
electromechanical control panel devices (such as the contact and coils of relays) which PLCs replaced. This model remains common today.
IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming languages for programmable control systems: function block diagram (FBD), ladder diagram (LD), structured text
(ST; similar to the Pascal programming language), instruction list (IL; similar to assembly language) and sequential function chart (SFC).
[8]
These techniques
emphasize logical organization of operations.
[7]
While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and instruction sets
mean that PLC programs are never perfectly interchangeable between different makers. Even within the same product line of a single manufacturer, different models
may not be directly compatible.
PLCLogix Simulation Software
Allen-Bradley PLC installed in a
control panel
Security
Prior to the discovery of the Stuxnet computer virus in June 2010, security of PLCs received little attention. PLCs generally contain a real-time operating system
such as OS-9 or VxWorks and exploits for these systems exist much as they do for desktop computer operating systems such as Microsoft Windows. PLCs can also
be attacked by gaining control of a computer they communicate with.
[9]
Simulation
In order to properly understand the operation of a PLC, it is necessary to spend considerable time programming, testing, and
debugging PLC programs. PLC systems are inherently expensive, and down-time is often very costly. In addition, if a PLC is
programmed incorrectly it can result in lost productivity and dangerous conditions. PLC simulation software is a valuable
tool in the understanding and learning of PLCs and to keep this knowledge refreshed and up to date. The advantages of using
PLC simulation tools such as PLCLogix are that they save time in the design of automated control applications and they can
also increase the level of safety associated with equipment since various "what if" scenarios can be tried and tested before the
system is activated.
[10]
Redundancy
Some special processes need to work permanently with minimum unwanted stopping. Therefore, it is necessary to design a system which is fault tolerant and
capable of handling the process with faulty modules. In such cases to increase the system availability in the event of hardware component failure, redundant CPU or
I/O modules with the same functionality can be added to hardware configuration for preventing total or partial process shutdown due to hardware failure from any
kind.
PLC compared with other control systems
PLCs are well adapted to a range of automation tasks. These are typically industrial processes in manufacturing where the cost
of developing and maintaining the automation system is high relative to the total cost of the automation, and where changes to
the system would be expected during its operational life. PLCs contain input and output devices compatible with industrial pilot
devices and controls; little electrical design is required, and the design problem centers on expressing the desired sequence of
operations. PLC applications are typically highly customized systems, so the cost of a packaged PLC is low compared to the
cost of a specific custom-built controller design. On the other hand, in the case of mass-produced goods, customized control
systems are economical. This is due to the lower cost of the components, which can be optimally chosen instead of a "generic"
solution, and where the non-recurring engineering charges are spread over thousands or millions of units.
For high volume or very simple fixed automation tasks, different techniques are used. For example, a consumer dishwasher
would be controlled by an electromechanical cam timer costing only a few dollars in production quantities.
A microcontroller-based design would be appropriate where hundreds or thousands of units will be produced and so the development cost (design of power supplies,
input/output hardware and necessary testing and certification) can be spread over many sales, and where the end-user would not need to alter the control.
Automotive applications are an example; millions of units are built each year, and very few end-users alter the programming of these controllers. However, some
specialty vehicles such as transit buses economically use PLCs instead of custom-designed controls, because the volumes are low and the development cost would
be uneconomical.
[11]
Very complex process control, such as used in the chemical industry, may require algorithms and performance beyond the capability of even high-performance
PLCs. Very high-speed or precision controls may also require customized solutions; for example, aircraft flight controls. Single-board computers using
semi-customized or fully proprietary hardware may be chosen for very demanding control applications where the high development and maintenance cost can be
supported. "Soft PLCs" running on desktop-type computers can interface with industrial I/O hardware while executing programs within a version of commercial
operating systems adapted for process control needs.
[11]
Programmable controllers are widely used in motion control, positioning control and torque control. Some manufacturers produce motion control units to be
integrated with PLC so that G-code (involving a CNC machine) can be used to instruct machine movements.
PLCs may include logic for single-variable feedback analog control loop, a proportional, integral, derivative (PID) controller. A PID loop could be used to control
the temperature of a manufacturing process, for example. Historically PLCs were usually configured with only a few analog control loops; where processes required
hundreds or thousands of loops, a distributed control system (DCS) would instead be used. As PLCs have become more powerful, the boundary between DCS and
PLC applications has become less distinct.
PLCs have similar functionality as remote terminal units (RTU). An RTU, however, usually does not support control algorithms or control loops. As hardware
rapidly becomes more powerful and cheaper, RTUs, PLCs and DCSs are increasingly beginning to overlap in responsibilities, and many vendors sell RTUs with
PLC-like features and vice versa. The industry has standardized on the IEC 61131-3 functional block language for creating programs to run on RTUs and PLCs,
although nearly all vendors also offer proprietary alternatives and associated development environments.
In recent years "safety" PLCs have started to become popular, either as standalone models or as functionality and safety-rated hardware added to existing controller
architectures (Allen Bradley Guardlogix, Siemens F-series etc.). These differ from conventional PLC types as being suitable for use in safety-critical applications
for which PLCs have traditionally been supplemented with hard-wired safety relays. For example, a safety PLC might be used to control access to a robot cell with
trapped-key access, or perhaps to manage the shutdown response to an emergency stop on a conveyor production line. Such PLCs typically have a restricted regular
instruction set augmented with safety-specific instructions designed to interface with emergency stops, light screens and so forth. The flexibility that such systems
offer has resulted in rapid growth of demand for these controllers.
Discrete and analog signals
Discrete signals behave as binary switches, yielding simply an On or Off signal (1 or 0, True or False, respectively). Push buttons, Limit switches, and photoelectric
sensors are examples of devices providing a discrete signal. Discrete signals are sent using either voltage or current, where a specific range is designated as On and
another as Off. For example, a PLC might use 24 V DC I/O, with values above 22 V DC representing On, values below 2VDC representing Off, and intermediate
values undefined. Initially, PLCs had only discrete I/O.
Analog signals are like volume controls, with a range of values between zero and full-scale. These are typically interpreted as integer values (counts) by the PLC,
with various ranges of accuracy depending on the device and the number of bits available to store the data. As PLCs typically use 16-bit signed binary processors,
the integer values are limited between -32,768 and +32,767. Pressure, temperature, flow, and weight are often represented by analog signals. Analog signals can use
voltage or current with a magnitude proportional to the value of the process signal. For example, an analog 0 - 10 V input or 4-20 mA would be converted into an
integer value of 0 - 32767.
Current inputs are less sensitive to electrical noise (i.e. from welders or electric motor starts) than voltage inputs.
Example
As an example, say a facility needs to store water in a tank. The water is drawn from the tank by another system, as needed, and our example system must manage
the water level in the tank by controlling the valve that refills the tank. Shown is a "ladder diagram" which shows the control system. A ladder diagram is a method
of drawing control circuits which pre-dates PLCs. The ladder diagram resembles the schematic diagram of a system built with electromechanical relays. Shown are:
Two inputs (from the low and high level switches) represented by contacts of the float switches
An output to the fill valve, labelled as the fill valve which it controls
An "internal" contact, representing the output signal to the fill valve which is created in the program.
A logical control scheme created by the interconnection of these items in software
In ladder diagram, the contact symbols represent the state of bits in processor memory, which corresponds to the state of physical inputs to the system. If a discrete
input is energized, the memory bit is a 1, and a "normally open" contact controlled by that bit will pass a logic "true" signal on to the next element of the ladder.
Therefore, the contacts in the PLC program that "read" or look at the physical switch contacts in this case must be "opposite" or open in order to return a
TRUE for the closed physical switches. Internal status bits, corresponding to the state of discrete outputs, are also available to the program.
In the example, the physical state of the float switch contacts must be considered when choosing "normally open" or "normally closed" symbols in the ladder
diagram. The PLC has two discrete inputs from float switches (Low Level and High Level). Both float switches (normally closed) open their contacts when the
water level in the tank is above the physical location of the switch.
When the water level is below both switches, the float switch physical contacts are both closed, and a true (logic 1) value is passed to the Fill Valve output. Water
begins to fill the tank. The internal "Fill Valve" contact latches the circuit so that even when the "Low Level" contact opens (as the water passes the lower switch),
the fill valve remains on. Since the High Level is also normally closed, water continues to flow as the water level remains between the two switch levels. Once the
water level rises enough so that the "High Level" switch is off (opened), the PLC will shut the inlet to stop the water from overflowing; this is an example of seal-in
(latching) logic. The output is sealed in until a high level condition breaks the circuit. After that the fill valve remains off until the level drops so low that the Low
Level switch is activated, and the process repeats again.
| (N.C. physical (N.C. physical |
| Switch) Switch) |
| Low Level High Level Fill Valve |
|------[ ]------|------[ ]----------------------(OUT)---------|
| | |
| | |
| | |
| Fill Valve | |
|------[ ]------| |
| |
| |
A complete program may contain thousands of rungs, evaluated in sequence. Typically the PLC processor will alternately scan all its inputs and update outputs, then
evaluate the ladder logic; input changes during a program scan will not be effective until the next I/O update. A complete program scan may take only a few
milliseconds, much faster than changes in the controlled process.
Programmable controllers vary in their capabilities for a "rung" of a ladder diagram. Some only allow a single output bit. There are typically limits to the number of
series contacts in line, and the number of branches that can be used. Each element of the rung is evaluated sequentially. If elements change their state during
evaluation of a rung, hard-to-diagnose faults can be generated, although sometimes (as above) the technique is useful. Some implementations forced evaluation from
left-to-right as displayed and did not allow reverse flow of a logic signal (in multi-branched rungs) to affect the output.
See also
Industrial control systems
Industrial safety systems
References
^ E. A. Parr, Industrial Control Handbook, Industrial Press Inc., 1999 ISBN 0-8311-3085-7 1.
^
a

b
M. A. Laughton, D. J. Warne (ed), Electrical Engineer's Reference book, 16th edition,Newnes, 2003 Chapter 16 Programmable Controller 2.
^ "The father of invention: Dick Morley looks back on the 40th anniversary of the PLC" (http://www.automationmag.com/programable-control/features/the-father-
of-invention-dick-morley-looks-back-on-the-40th-anniversary-of-the-plc.html). Manufacturing Automation. 12 September 2008.
3.
^ Harms, Toni M. & Kinner, Russell H. P.E., Enhancing PLC Performance with Vision Systems. 18th Annual ESD/HMI International Programmable Controllers Conference
Proceedings, 1989, p. 387-399.
4.
^ Maher, Michael J. Real-Time Control and Communications. 18th Annual ESD/SMI International Programmable Controllers Conference Proceedings, 1989, p. 431-436. 5.
^ Kinner, Russell H., P.E. Designing Programable Controller Application Programs Using More than One Designer. 14th Annual International Programmable Controllers
Conference Proceedings, 1985, p. 97-110.
6.
^
a

b
W. Bolton, Programmable Logic Controllers, Fifth Edition, Newnes, 2009 ISBN 978-1-85617-751-1, Chapter 1 7.
^ Keller, William L Jr. Grafcet, A Functional Chart for Sequential Processes, 14th Annual International Programmable Controllers Conference Proceedings, 1984, p. 71-96. 8.
^ [1] (http://www.tofinosecurity.com/blog/plc-security-risk-controller-operating-systems) 9.
^ PLC simulation reference (http://books.google.ca/books?id=CHYlTBxqrM8C&pg=PA553&dq=plc+simulation+software&hl=en&sa=X&ei=kVAVU-
yDB6OOyAG02oDoAg&ved=0CEIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=plc%20simulation%20software&f=false)
10.
^
a

b
Gregory K. McMillan, Douglas M. Considine (ed), Process/Industrial Instruments and Controls Handbook Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1999 ISBN 0-07-012582-1
Section 3 Controllers
11.
Further reading
Daniel Kandray, Programmable Automation Technologies, Industrial Press, 2010 ISBN 978-0-8311-3346-7, Chapter 8 Introduction to Programmable Logic
Controllers
External links
Wikiversity has learning
materials about
Programmable logic
controller (basics)
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media related to
Programmable logic
controller.
PLC Complete Tutorial (http://www.mbcurl.me/6MDE)
PLC FAQ's (http://support.automationdirect.com/faq/index.html)
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