Chapter 3

NATURAL
HAZARDS IN
AUSTRALIA
Australia faces a range of effects from the
physical environment some of which develop
into serious hazards and disasters. Crops can
be destroyed by drought, beaches savagely
eroded by storms, towns drowned by floods,
lives and forests lost through bushfires, and
buildings destroyed by earthquakes. In this
chapter, we increase our understanding of the
physical environment, its hazards and its
impact on our activities.

A student:
5.1 identifies, gathers and evaluates geographical
information
5.2 analyses, organises and synthesises
geographical information
5.3 selects and uses appropriate written, oral and
graphic forms to communicate geographical
information
5.4 selects and applies appropriate geographical
tools
5.5 demonstrates a sense of place about Australian
environments
5.6 explains the geographical processes that form
and transform Australian environments
5.10 applies geographical knowledge, understanding
and skills with knowledge of civics to
demonstrate informed and active citizenship.

Comparing satellite images (page 51)

Interpreting a newspaper article (page 55)
Interpreting a satellite image (page 61)
Interpreting a newspaper article (page 65)
Working with choropleth maps (page 67)

Chain lightning indicates the power and ferocity

of natural hazards in Sydney.

46
GEO active 2

alluvium: the loose material brought down by a river

and deposited in its bed, flood plain or delta
bushfire: fire burning out of control in the open; also
called a wildfire
cold front: boundary between warm air and advancing
cold air
drought: a period of below average precipitation
earthquake: series of shock waves that are generated by
a disturbance in the Earths crust
El Nio event: the reversal (every few years) of the more
usual direction of winds and surface currents across the
Pacific Ocean. This change causes drought in Australia
and heavy rain in South America. (Normally Australia
has the rain and South America has the dry conditions.)
epicentre: the point on the Earths surface directly
above the focus of an earthquake
fire front: the edge of the fire that spreads at the fastest
rate
firebrand: aerial burning fuel that blows ahead of the
fire front
firestorm: an intense fire, which may generate strong
convection currents and violent winds that cause longrange spotting and flame spirals
flash flooding: sudden and destructive rush of water
usually downhill following heavy rains on higher land
flood: an unusual accumulation of water that overflows
from rivers, lakes or the ocean onto land that is not
normally covered by water
flood mitigation: measures aimed at preparing for
floods and trying to reduce their effects, such as
constructing artificial levees, strengthening bridges,
raising road levels and enlarging drains
flood plain: part of a river valley covered by water
during floods
fuel: any material that burns
heatwave: a short period (usually a few days) of well
above average temperatures
La Nia event: a period of well above average rainfall in
eastern Australia, which often brings floods
natural disaster: occurs as a result of a hazardous
natural event that dramatically affects a community
natural hazard: a natural event or object that is a
potential source of harm to a community
Richter scale: used to measure the energy of earthquakes
sclerophyll: plants found in low rainfall areas; their
leathery leaves help reduce water loss
Southern Oscillation: a major air pressure shift between
the Asian and east Pacific regions. Its most commonly
known extremes are those referred to as El Nio events.
stubble: the stumps or stalks left in the ground when a
crop, such as wheat, is harvested
subsidy: direct financial aid given by a government to an
individual or group to reduce the price of a good or
service
tropical cyclone: severe weather event that occurs
when warm, moist rising air begins to spiral upwards.
Tropical cyclones are often accompanied by very strong
winds, heavy rain and rough seas.

47
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

3.1
NATURAL HAZARDS AND
NATURAL DISASTERS
There is a difference between natural hazards
and natural disasters. A hazard is an event or
object that is a potential source of harm to a community. A disaster occurs as the result of a
hazardous event that dramatically affects a community. There are six broad types of hazards:
1. Atmospheric for example, cyclones, hailstorms, blizzards or bushfires
2. Hydrological for example, flooding, wave
action or glaciers
3. Geological for example, earthquakes or
volcanoes
4. Biological for example, disease epidemics
and plagues
5. Technological for example, accidents, explosions or hazardous materials
6. Human for example, war, crowd stampede
and terrorism.
The first four groupings are generally referred
to as natural hazards and the last two as human
hazards. It should be noted that some natural
hazards are influenced by the actions and
locations of people. For example, the severity of
bushfires depends not only on the amount of fuel
available or the strength and humidity of the
wind. Humans influence bushfires through carelessness in the use of fire, inadequate preparation
of their property in the event of a bushfire and
poor disaster planning.

ASSESSING THE RISK

UNDERSTANDING AND
COPING WITH DISASTERS
Few Australian communities are free of the risk of
natural disasters, but some are more vulnerable
than others. Vulnerability varies according to:
the location of the community and the
hazardous event
the magnitude of the hazardous event
the potential amount of damage.
When disasters occur in unpopulated areas, people
are rarely killed or injured, and the damage to
property is small. However, when hazardous events
take place in populated areas, a disaster can occur.

Managing hazards
Effective management of hazards requires that
individuals, communities and governments:
prepare for hazards for example, by clearing
vegetation around homes in bushfire-prone areas
prevent hazards for example, by avoiding
establishing settlements on flood plains
recognise and respond to hazards quickly so
they do not turn into disasters.
Emergency management procedures involve
gathering information, pre-disaster planning,
responding, recovery and reconstruction. A disaster involves the coordination of voluntary
organisations (such as the State Emergency
Service), charities (such as the Salvation Army),
financial assistance and donations, and government support (such as the army).

Risk analysis is concerned with the chance of a

hazardous event occurring and whether or not it
could result in a disaster. The map opposite
shows those areas of Australia that are vulnerable to the threat of natural disaster. It shows
that different types of hazards and disasters are
prevalent in different parts of Australia. For
example, cyclones located to the north of Australia are associated with the warm tropical
ocean; bushfires to the south of Australia are
associated with dry vegetation. People who move
to an area are usually aware if it is located in a
natural hazard zone. For example, though Cairns
is subject to cyclones, the people of that community have decided that the benefits of living and
working there outweigh the risk factor.

Australias worst natural disasters

Cyclone: Cyclone Tracy, Darwin 1974
65 deaths, 10 800 buildings destroyed,
$4180 million cost
Hailstorm: Sydney 1999 1 death, 24 800
buildings damaged, $2000 million cost
Bushfire: Ash Wednesday, Victoria and
South Australia 1983 75 deaths, 2500
buildings destroyed, $950 million cost
Earthquake: Newcastle 1989 13 deaths,
50 000 buildings damaged, more than
$4000 million cost
Landslide: Thredbo, 1997 18 deaths, 2
buildings destroyed, $40 million cost

48
GEO active 2

1. What is the difference between a natural hazard and

a natural disaster?
2. Explain how a bushfire can be both a natural and
human hazard.
3. Observe the map of natural hazards and disasters.
(a) What type of natural disasters occur most often in
Australia?
(b) Describe the location of Australias cyclone
hazard zone.
(c) Describe the areas of Australia that are subject to
disaster fires.
(d) Give one example of a community that suffered a
bushfire disaster.
(e) What type of hazards are communities around
Newcastle subject to?
(f) What would be the likely impact of a large
earthquake occurring in the earthquake hazard
zone of central Australia?
4. Why does the risk of experiencing a natural disaster
depend on the geographical location of a community?
5. Answer the key geographical questions in relation to
the Katherine flood disaster.
(a) Where was the disaster?
(b) What was the impact of the disaster on the
community?
(c) Why do people risk living there?
6. Go to www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2
and click on the Managing Disasters weblink for
this chapter. Create a document or web page
containing weblinks that explains how one
type of disaster can be managed.

The Katherine and Daly rivers communities in the Northern

Territory are in a natural hazard zone where flash flooding can
occur with little warning. In January 1998 the hazard became
a disaster after Cyclone Les dumped 435 mm of rain within
a couple of days. The Katherine River rose to a record
20.3 metres and the impact on the community was devastating
three people died, property and businesses were destroyed,
hospitals evacuated, schools and roads closed, food supplies
ran out and water supplies were contaminated. A crocodile
was even seen in the main street. Emergency assistance
involved the police, Northern Territory Emergency Service,
Tindall RAAF air base and charitable organisations.
Australias natural hazards
and disasters

Tracy 1974

Thelma 1998

Teresa 1992

Orson 1989

Worksheets
3.1 Extreme weather report

Chloe 1995
Vance
1999
Ian
1992

Floods

Annette 1994
Bobby 1995

Potential flash flooding

Kathy 1984

Les
1998

Darwin

Katherine
1998

Winifred 1984

Barry
1996

Rona 1999
Aivu 1989
Cairns 1999

Potential flash flooding

(greater frequency)

Steve 2000

Cairns

Lena
1983

Major flood

Tennant Creek

Cyclones
Approximate number of coastal
crossings since 1959
6 to 10

Pilbara 1980

11 to 16

Alice Springs

Major cyclone
Severe storms
At least one recorded severe
thunderstorm (non-tornadic)

1990
Gympie 1999

Charleville 1990
Dalby 1981

At least one recorded tornado

Brisbane
Brisbane 1974

At least one severe thunderstorm

per year (on average)

Nyngan 1990

At least one severe thunderstorm

per year (on average) and at least
one recorded tornado

Perth
Bushfires

Areas subject to forest,

grass and scrub fires
of moderate risk to people

Newcastle 1989
Blue Mountains 1994
Sydney

Ash Wednesday 1983

Adelaide

Earthquakes

Areas subject to
disaster fires

Risk area

Major bushfire

Major earthquake

250

500 km

Canberra 2003 Canberra

Wangaratta 1993
Gippsland 1998
Melbourne
Ash Wednesday 1983
Dandenongs 1997

Ash Wednesday 1983

49

Gunnedah 2000

CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

Hobart

3.2
NATURAL HAZARDS:
DROUGHTS
WHAT IS A DROUGHT?
A drought is a prolonged period of below
average rainfall. It is a period of continuous dry
weather when there is not enough water for
users normal needs. Because people use water in
so many different ways and in such different
quantities, there is no universal definition of a
drought in terms of amounts of rainfall.
The term drought should not be confused with
low rainfall. Sydney could experience a drought
and have more rainfall during the period than
Alice Springs, which could be experiencing above
average rainfall. If low rainfall meant drought,
then most of Australia would be in drought most
of the time. Because different parts of Australia
are affected by different weather systems, there
is little chance that all of Australia would be in
drought at the same time.
The Australian Bureau of Meteorology has historical records to show what is normal rainfall for
an area and the areas risk of drought. Droughts
affect all parts of Australia over a period of time.
Intervals between severe droughts have varied
from 4 to 38 years. Some droughts can be localised

while other parts of the country receive good rain.

Others, such as the drought of 198283, can affect
more than half of the country. Droughts can be
short and intense, such as the drought that lasted
from 1 April 1982 to 28 February 1983; or they can
be long lived, such as the drought from 1 March
1991 to 31 December 1995.

THE IMPACT OF DROUGHT

When drought comes to Australia, agriculture
suffers first and most severely and eventually
everyone feels the impact.

Economic impacts
Drought affects farmers through a decline in, or
a loss of, the production of crops and livestock.
This in turn affects the level of economic activity
in rural towns and even large cities. The drought
of 196368 affected large parts of the continent
and was the longest drought ever in arid central
Australia. The last two years of this drought saw
a 40 per cent decrease in the wheat harvest, the
loss of 20 million sheep and a decrease in farm
income of around $500 million.

Aerial photograph of Warragamba

Dam, June 2004. The dam is the main
source of Sydneys water supply. As
can be seen, the water level in the dam
became alarmingly low as drought
conditions persisted in Australia
during 2004.

50
GEO active 2

The drought of 199195, one of the most severe

droughts of the twentieth century over northeastern Australia, resulted in total economic
losses estimated in excess of $5 billion. Even big
cities such as Sydney and Melbourne are forced to
implement water restrictions when they are
affected by droughts. Sydney stores more water
than any other city of comparable size in the
world because it is frequently affected by drought.

9. Explain how the loss of income from a drought can

have social impacts.
10. Imagine you are a wheat farmer in New South
Wales on a property that has been affected by
drought for over 18 months.
(a) Describe the impacts of this drought on your
life.
(b) What steps could you take in the future to
reduce the impact of possible droughts?

Social impacts
The greatest social impact is the loss of income.
This loss affects not only the farmers, but also
communities. In rural towns, for example, jobs
may be lost and businesses may fail. People may
be forced to leave drought-affected areas in
search of other work. Many never return. Prolonged drought and the heartbreak associated
with it can result in the breakup of families and
severe depression in individuals.

Environmental impacts
Droughts have a large impact on topsoil in
Australia. During drought conditions, millions of
tonnes of topsoil are blown away. This loss takes
many years to replace naturally, if it is ever
replaced. This loss of topsoil can result in large
areas that are far less productive. Many crop
cultivation methods in Australia are not suitable
in a country that is often affected by drought.
Prolonged droughts are usually associated with
the outbreak of serious bushfires. These bushfires can have severe environmental impacts,
even though much natural vegetation can benefit
from fires.

1. What is meant by the term drought?

2. What is the difference between drought and low
rainfall?
3. Explain why there is little chance that all of
Australia would be affected by drought at the same
time.
4. How often might droughts be expected to occur in
Australia?
5. What are the two main types of drought that occur
in Australia in terms of duration?
6. Describe the economic impacts of two droughts in
Australia.
7. Why does Sydney store more water than any other
comparable size city in the world?
8. Explain how droughts can result in decreased soil
fertility.

TOOLBOX
Comparing satellite images
Satellite images often use false colours to highlight
particular features. These two satellite images show
how drought is spreading in Australia. Red areas
indicate healthy vegetation.
1. About what proportion of Australia had healthy
vegetation in September 2000?
2. Describe the location of the main areas with
healthy vegetation in September 2002.
3. About what proportion of Australia was affected
by drought in September 2002?
September 2000

September 2002

Source: 2002 CNES/SPOT Imaging

Services/Analysis by Agrecon

51
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

3.3
CAUSES OF DROUGHT
IN AUSTRALIA
SOUTHERN OSCILLATION
Australia experiences considerable variation in its
rainfall. If we could take a typical ten-year period
we would have about four years of above average
rainfall, three average years and three below
average years. These fluctuations in rainfall have
several causes, many of which are not fully understood. Probably the main cause of major rainfall
fluctuations in Australia is the Southern
Oscillation, which is a major air pressure shift
between the Asian and east Pacific regions. The
strength and direction of the Southern Oscillation
is measured by a simple index called the Southern
Oscillation Index (SOI). The SOI is calculated
from the monthly or seasonal fluctuations in air
pressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin.
When there are typical pressure patterns
prevailing, the SOI is close to zero. If the SOI
becomes strongly positive this means that the
sea-level air pressure at Darwin is much lower
than normal and a La Nia event occurs. La
Nia is a period of well above average rainfall in
eastern Australia, which often brings floods.
Warm rising air
causes thunderstorms
and floods.

During an El Nio event, the SOI is strongly

negative and the sea-level air pressure at
Darwin is higher than at Tahiti. An average year
occurs when the SOI is between 10 and +10. A
La Nia event occurs when the SOI is above +10;
an El Nio event occurs when it is below 10.

EL NIO
Probably the main cause of drought in eastern Australia is El Nio a warm ocean current in the
Pacific. At irregular intervals, it spreads further
south and the water in the central and eastern
Pacific becomes much warmer, bringing heavy rainfall and floods to arid parts of South America.
At the same time, normally warm water in the
oceans to the east and north of Australia are
replaced by much cooler water as the warm water
spreads east. As well, the easterly trade winds
that normally blow across the Pacific Ocean
bringing warm, moist air to Australia reverse
their direction. There is an accompanying reversal
of air pressure across the Pacific, resulting in
strong high pressure systems building up over

Atmosphere

Dry sinking air causes

droughts.

Trade winds blow towards Australia.

Australia

South
America
Strong surface currents
Warm surface water
Ocean

Typical

(a)

Upwelling of cold
deep water
Warm rising air causes
thunderstorms and
floods.

Atmosphere

Dry sinking air

causes droughts.

Trade winds reverse direction.

South
America

Australia
Warm surface currents reverse.
Cold deep water
(b)

El Nio

Ocean

Weather conditions in (a) a typical year, and (b) an El Nio year

52
GEO active 2

Cold upwelling
ceases.

Areas affected by El Nio

most of Australia. The result is

stable and drier air dominating
Australia with below average
rainfall
and
often
severe
droughts. El Nio brings significant climatic change, not only to Tropic of Cancer
Australia but to other parts of
the world.
Equator
In recent years scientists have
made great advances in understanding and forecasting El Tropic of Capricorn
Nio and Southern Oscillation
events. The National Climate
0
2500 5000 7500 km
Centre in Australia offers outlooks on rainfall three months
ahead. These outlooks are proving to be of great
value to farmers and especially valuable for ecologically sustainable development in rural areas.

Southern Oscillation Index

negative
positive

La Nia

Month

J F M A M J

J A S O N D J F M A M J

El Nio
low
autumn
winter
dry
conditions rainfall
commence

low
spring
rainfall

monsoon drought
often
late and
generally broken
by heavy
poor
rains/
floods

Dry

Warm

During an El Nio event, the normally

sea
in the oceans to the
and
of
Australia are replaced by much
water. The
air pressure at
begins to fall relative to the
air pressure at
. The normal
easterly trade winds change their direction. The
result is
and
air and severe
.

The SOI, El Nio and La Nia (eastern and northern Australia)

El Nio is a Spanish term that translates

as the boy child. Peruvian anchovy
fishermen traditionally use the term
an obvious reference to the Christ
Child because El Nio usually
appears around Christmas.
The study of corals from the Great Barrier Reef shows that El Nio first turned
on between 4000 and 5000 years ago.
The first settlement in Australia was
established in Sydney during the bonedry years of 178793. The Tank Stream,
the most reliable source of water, ran dry.

Wet

1. What is the Southern Oscillation?

2. How is the SOI calculated?
3. What do the following SOIs indicate?
(a) Between +10 and 10
(b) > +10
(c) < 10
4. Observe the diagram The SOI, El Nio and La Nia.
(a) Describe the seasonal rainfall conditions that
prevail over the period of the El Nio event.
(b) What happens to the SOI when the drought
breaks?
(c) What would be happening to the air pressure at
Darwin as the SOI rises?
5. Observe the diagram comparing a typical year and
an El Nio year and study the text. Fill in the missing
words from the list below.

Typical pattern of eastern and northern Australian rainfall

and the SOI during an El Nio and La Nia episode

stable
Tahiti

moist
drier

cooler
warm

east
north

droughts
Darwin

6. Observe the map showing the areas affected by

El Nio. Describe the areas that become (a) wetter,
(b) drier and (c) warmer.
7. Go to www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2
and click on the Drought weblinks for this chapter.
What long-term weather conditions are indicated by
the latest SOI graph? How does the Bureau of
Meteorology contribute to drought management?

53
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

3.4
THE DROUGHT OF
199195
Australias drought of March 1991 to December
1995 was a long-lived, El Nio related drought.
It was one of the longest of the twentieth century
and one of the most destructive in terms of
damage to the physical environment. Large
areas of topsoil were lost and there was some
damage to vegetation and wildlife.
As droughts occur frequently in Australia,
most native plants and animals are usually well
equipped to deal with them. However, introduced
crops and animals can be severely affected,
leading to crop failures, minimal planting of new
crops and the death of introduced stock, such as
sheep and cattle. Consequently, droughts have
the most impact on areas given over to cropping
or intensive grazing. The drought of 199195 had
a devastating impact on such areas.
As the map opposite shows, the drought had its
greatest impact on north-eastern Australia, particularly Queensland. Most of eastern Australia
experienced below average rainfall for much of the
period of the drought.
The cause of the drought was clearly El Nio
related, as the graph of the SOI for the period
shows. For nearly all of the period, the SOI was
below zero and for many months it was in the
range >10.

Southern Oscillation

20
10
0
10
20
SOI
5 month mean

30
40

1989

1990

1991

1992
Year

1993

1994

1995

Southern Oscillation Index, 198995

One of the most dramatic consequences of

severe drought is the dust storm. When the soil
lacks moisture and dries out, plants and tree
roots that normally hold the soil together wither
and die. The dry soil particles on the surface are
easily lifted into the air by strong winds, and topsoil can be carried across huge distances.

RESPONSE TO THE DROUGHT

Farmers reduced their stock numbers and
decreased the amount of land under crops. Some
left drought-affected areas permanently. Farmers
attempted to reduce the impact of drought by
improving their farming methods, including the
use of conservation techniques and fodder production systems. Community-based groups such
as farming organisations lobbied for financial
assistance from governments and provided assistance for individual farmers. The Commonwealth
Government provided $590 million in drought
relief from 1992 to 1995. The government has
now developed the National Drought Policy,
which provides a range of subsidies and direct
financial assistance.

1. What were some of the main effects of the 199195

drought?
2. Observe the graph of the Southern Oscillation Index,
19891995.
(a) What indications were there that a drought
would occur in 1991?
(b) According to the SOI, which were the two worst
drought years?
(c) Describe the movement in the five-month mean
for the SOI over the period shown on the graph.
3. Observe the map. Describe the areas affected by
drought. Use the map scale to estimate the size of
the area that experienced the lowest rainfall on
record.
4. In small teams, investigate how Australians respond
to droughts. Decide which one of the following
groups your team will focus on:
(a) individuals
(b) community-based organisations
(c) governments.
Summarise your findings in a poster, PowerPoint
display or report and present it to the class. After the
presentations, explain how the response of two of
these groups demonstrates active citizenship. To get
started, go to www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/
geoactive2 and click on the Drought Response
weblink for this chapter.

54
GEO active 2

Darwin

Dust storm approaching the town of

Griffith, New South Wales. The dust was
picked up by 90-kilometre winds from
drought-affected farms. Dust storms carry
away millions of tonnes of precious topsoil.

Cairns

Tropic of

Capricorn

Alice Springs
N

Brisbane
500

1000 km

Perth

Sydney

Adelaide
Serious rainfall deficiency
Severe rainfall deficiency

Canberra
Melbourne

TOOLBOX

Lowest rainfall on record

Areas of Australia most affected

by the drought of 199195

Interpreting a newspaper article

Newspapers often provide valuable information on
contemporary geographical issues. Daily
newspapers are usually up to date and accurate,
and we can obtain additional information from
them in the form of photographs, graphs, diagrams
and maps. Read the article about the dust storms of
1994, which were an important geographical issue
and a strong reminder of the destructive power of
droughts on the physical environment. Then
answer the following questions.
1. What is the estimated cost to grain growers of
the wind storm? How was this figure calculated?
2. Why was so much soil eroded during the storm?
3. What part of the soil was most affected by the
storm?
4. What is the estimated value of soil nutrients
lost?
5. With the aid of the diagram and the text of the
article, describe the passage of the dust storm
across south-eastern Australia.

Hobart

Dust disaster to cost hundreds

of millions
by Asa Wahlquist and Sonya Sandham

The massive wind storm that has blown millions of tonnes of dust
across south-eastern Australia this week was a natural disaster that
could cost grain growers hundreds of millions of dollars in lost production, a senior CSIRO scientist has warned.
The estimated lost production value runs to perhaps 10 per cent of
the value of the crops, Dr Michael Raupach, an environmental scientist, said. Grain crops grown in south-eastern Australia were worth
about $2 billion last year.
A thick cloud of dust hung over Sydney yesterday morning as
gale-force winds carried more than one million tonnes of topsoil over
the city. At dawn the cloud was 500 kilometres long, 300 kilometres
wide and 1.3 kilometres deep but by 11 am it had dissipated to a
depth of 2.5 kilometres.
A senior research officer with the Department of Conservation and
Land Management, Mr John Leys, said between 1 million and 1.5 million
tonnes of topsoil blew over the city, enough to fill 42 000 semi-trailers.
He estimated that the dust storm in South Australia would have filled
600 000 semi-trailers, enough to form a line from Sydney to London.
Farmers have already had to delay crop planting because of
dry conditions and now fear a drought. Its a combination of
strong winds, both north-westerly and westerlies, with dry conditions which make the surface layer of the soil friable and easy HIGH
to lift off and the fact this has occurred just before sowing time,
when a lot of farmers have their fields open and exposed and
ready to sow, Dr Raupach said. The other factor that has aggra- Winds from SA pick
10 to 20 million
vated the situation is that some farmers have been burning off up
tonnes of topsoil
stubble, because of the mouse plagues in north-western
Victoria. The combination has left us pretty vulnerable.
Dr Rapauch said the dust lifted into the storm comprised
the finer particles. They preferentially contain the nutrients,
especially nitrogen and phosphorus, and have a lot to do
with the water-holding capacity of the soil. That means that
when we lose a tonne of dust from the soil we are in fact
losing nutrient from between two and three tonnes of soil;
we are winnowing the soil of its nutrients.
LOW
One tonne of dust carries nutrients worth $1.50. So if we
have lost 20 million tonnes we have lost $30 million of
nutrients
Source: The Sydney Morning Herald, 27 May 1994

HIGH
Brisbane
Moree
Broken Hill

Cobar

Adelaide

55
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

Newcastle
Sydney
Melbourne

1 to 1.5 million
tonnes of topsoil
blow over Sydney

3.5
BUSHFIRES AS
NATURAL HAZARDS
BUSHFIRES

Crowns of trees may

overlap, encouraging
the rapid spread of fire.

A bushfire is a fire burning out of control in

the open. Bushfires can burn using grass,
scrub or forest (or a combination of these) for
fuel. Unless quickly controlled, bushfires
can become large, spreading to affect forests,
Leaf litter
wildlife, crops, houses and other buildings,
Trees contain
builds up,
and human life. In Australia, some bushfires
highly
providing
Fibrous
inflammable
have become major disasters.
fuel for
bark burns
oil in
surface
Fires are not a recent occurrence in Australia.
readily.
branches.
fires.
Since the last Ice Age, bushfires have influenced
the development of the Australian land. Fires are
an essential element in some Australian ecosysEucalypts and bushfires
tems, which need the intense heat of bushfires to
release the seeds from plants and replenish
There are two main types of bushfires:
growth. Australian Aborigines used fires to assist
Surface bushfires burn in grass, low shrubs and
them in their hunting activities. It is believed
ground litter. They can travel at high speed but
that the fire activities of Aborigines contributed
are relatively easy to control.
to the development of an open woodland eco Crown bushfires occur when heat and flames
system in parts of south-eastern Australia.
from a surface fire ignite the crowns of trees.
Early European settlers used fire to assist in
Crown fires spread rapidly if there are strong,
the clearing of land for crops and as a means of
hot winds and very dry vegetation. Huge
removing stubble following cropping. However, in
amounts of flammable eucalyptus vapour,
more recent times, laws have been passed
transpired from leaves, can create firebrands
restricting the lighting of fires for these purposes.
that engulf the tree crowns ahead of the fire
This has led to a more dense vegetation in many
front. This makes crown fires very dangerous
rural areas and a greater accumulation of leaf and
and difficult to control.
bark litter on the ground. The litter
Birth of a fire tornado. Tornadoes usually form in the updraughts of
provides a significant amount of fuel
thunderstorms. Winds interacting with the rapidly rising heat generated by
for fires if they do start.
bushfires can produce a similar result.

WHAT CAUSES
BUSHFIRES?
Bushfires are one of the most destructive forces of nature. Firefighters risk
their lives each year to control and
eventually extinguish them. Even
though bushfires can occur naturally,
mainly as a result of lightning strikes
and spontaneous combustion, most are
started by the activities of people. This
includes cigarettes and matches being
carelessly discarded, electricity cables,
sparks from machinery and tools, and
burning off. Arson has been the cause
of some of the worst bushfires.

3. The rotation
intensifies as
super-heated
air rises
higher.
2. The vortices
tilt upward
creating a
fire whirl or
tornado.
1. The rising
heat of the
fire creates
vortices.

56
GEO active 2

Fire tornadoes can hurl flaming

logs and burning debris over
considerable distances.
Rotation speeds can reach
300 kilometres per hour.
Fire tornadoes increase wind speeds
by up to 10 times.
Spinning columns of air are most likely created
when rapidly rising heated air combines with the
effects of winds encountering obstacles and
topographic features.
Lightning in the smoke columns forms in much
the same way as lightning in storm clouds
through the building up of electrical charges caused
by friction with rising air and smoke.

WHERE DO BUSHFIRES
OCCUR?
As the map shows, bushfires usually occur
in the less arid parts of Australia. Arid
areas tend not to have enough fuel to sustain fires for any length of time. Southeastern Australia is particularly subject to
bushfires. There are several reasons for this,
including the following:
1. Large areas are covered with sclerophyll vegetation. The dominant trees are eucalypts,
which have highly flammable oil in their
branches. Eucalypts burn readily and can
become so hot during fires that their sap boils
and the whole tree or shrub can explode in
flames. This is not a problem for the plant
species as most eucalypt varieties burn hot
and fast as a means of releasing seeds onto the
fire-cleared ground. Some burnt trees simply
send up new shoots from their stumps or roots
and grow to full-size trees again.
2. The area is also subject to prolonged periods of
below average rainfall and droughts. Many of
the most severe bushfires have occurred
during droughts and El Nio events. Bushfires
and drought often occur together.
3. South-eastern Australia is also subject to
heatwaves and strong northerly winds during
the summer months. Two or three days of
heatwave weather can often provide conditions
suitable for bushfires to occur.

RESPONSE TO BUSHFIRES
Bushfires can bring massive destruction, loss of
life and personal hardship to families and communities. Individuals, community-based groups
and governments have responded to this hazard
in many ways.
There are over 70 000 individuals who are volunteer members of bushfire brigades. They do
most of the fighting of bushfires. During times of
severe bushfires they can be on duty for days at a
time, sometimes facing extreme danger. They
make a highly significant contribution to making
our communities safer.
The government has set up many agencies
that work to protect the community when bushfires occur. These include fire brigades, police and
ambulance services, welfare agencies and the
State Emergency Service. Governments can provide emergency financial assistance in severe
bushfires. The Bureau of Meteorology provides
short- and long-term weather forecasts to warn
of bushfire dangers.

Bushfire brigade volunteers risk their lives to save people,

animals and property from bushfires.

1. What is a bushfire?
2. How have bushfires been an essential input into
some Australian ecosystems?
3. How did the activities of Aboriginal people affect
ecosystems?
4. How have fire restriction laws affected vegetation
in rural areas?
5. What is arson? How could arson be the cause of
some of the worst bushfires?
6. How could very strong, hot winds affect crown
fires and make them very dangerous?
7. Observe the map showing the risk of bushfires in
Australia. Describe the distribution of the risk
areas. Why is south-eastern Australia particularly
subject to bushfires?
8. Explain how a fire tornado could develop during a
bushfire. How would a fire tornado affect the rapid
spread of a bushfire?
9. Go to www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2
and click on the Bushfire weblink for this chapter.
Explain the links between El Nio and bushfires in
Eastern Australia.
10. Using the resources in your library and/or the
Internet, write a brief report on the work of bushfire
brigades.
Worksheets
3.2 Survivor scavenger hunt
Risk of bushfires
in Australia

Darwin
Wildfire risk
Subject to fires;
little risk to people
Subject to forest,
grass and scrub fires;
moderate r
Subject to disaster fires

icorn

pr
Tropic of Ca

Brisbane

Perth
Adelaide
0

250 500 km

57
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

Sydney
Canberra
Melbourne

Hobart

3.6
FROM HAZARD TO
DISASTER
Bushfires are one of the most common
natural disasters faced by Australians. Along
with floods and droughts, they are part of the
way our natural environment functions. But
bushfires can and do kill. In 1983, Australias
worst bushfire disaster, known as Ash
Wednesday, left 75 people dead as well as
2500 buildings and 520 000 hectares of forest
and farmland destroyed in South Australia
and Victoria.

Dry conditions caused

by drought, searing
temperatures and
strong, hot northerly
winds cure the bush,
making it so dry that a
spark can ignite a major
bushfire. Grasses die off
and the soil is easily
blown away.

Many animals perish, as

fire fronts often move too
quickly for them to
escape.

1. What is a crown bushfire?

2. List the fire-fighting techniques shown
here.
3. Why do many animals die in
bushfires?
4. Why do bushfires often occur in
times of drought?
5. How do eucalypt trees help
bushfires spread?
6. Imagine a small fire front with a
long flank. The fire is being
pushed by winds from the
north. Suddenly the wind
changes and starts blowing from
the west. Will the people on the
west or on the east of the
original fire now be in danger?
7. Write a news report of the
scene shown on these pages.
Outline the effects on people
and wildlife. Include
interviews and describe the fire
using key terms explained in this
chapter.
8. How could you make your home and
community safer in a bushfire? Think
about terrain, climate, vegetation, access to
water and fire-fighting resources, and so on.
Design a poster outlining one of your ideas.
It should be eye-catching and contain a short,
clever message. Use information in this spread
to help you, and go to www.jaconline.com.au/
geoactive/geoactive2 and click on the Fire Prevention
weblinks for this chapter.

58
GEO active 2

High temperatures, low

relative humidity, and strong
winds combine to create
high fire danger days.

Crown bushfires spread

through the treetops or
crowns of forests. Before
long, a wide blanket of
forest is fully ablaze.

Australias eucalypt forests not only tolerate fire but also

need it in order to survive! The seeds of some eucalypts
need the heat of a bushfire to be able to open and grow.
The low moisture content of eucalypts means they ignite
and burn easily. Their fibrous bark is highly combustible.

What was the flank or side of a

bushfire can become the new fire
front if there is a wind change.
Special helicopters can
scoop up to 9500 litres
of water in 45 seconds
and dump the whole lot
in just 3 seconds.

A firebrand is burning fuel that is

pushed ahead of the fire front by the
wind. Firebrands have been known to
travel kilometres from their original
source. A spot fire is a new bushfire
started by firebrands.

By using the wrong

building materials,
planting eucalypts close
to the house and stacking
firewood against the
house, people can actively
contribute to the spread
of a bushfire.

Dry forests
provide plenty
of fuel. Surface
bushfires
quickly ignite
dry, flammable
grass, twigs and
branches on the
ground.

Properties are more likely to

survive if gutters are clear of
leaves, lawns and shrubs are
trimmed, and there is access
to water and hoses. People
who defend their house must
cover up with cotton or
woollen clothing.

59
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

3.7
NEW SOUTH WALES
BUSHFIRES, 1994

PAC I F I C
OCEAN

Fires

South

W
ar

From Saturday 1 January to Saturday 15 January

1994, New South Wales experienced its most
devastating bushfires on record. There had been a
Wal
prolonged El Nio event much of the coast of
New South Wales had endured an extended period
of below average rainfall. This had resulted in
drought conditions in many areas and a build-up
of very dry fuel. There were repeated warnings
that the fire potential was the worst for more than
20 years.
Fires flared and receded and entire towns
were evacuated some more than once. More
than 200 fires raged over large areas of coastal
New South Wales, from Tweed Heads in the
Distribution of the New South Wales fires, 1994
north to Ulladulla in the south, and many of
these were started by arsonists. The
Winds at the top of the hill carry
bushfires were particularly large North
Smoke clouds
firebrands to other areas,
and dangerous around Sydney. The
starting spot fires.
Ku-ring-gai and Lane Cove national
Convection
parks were ablaze and several
currents
homes on Sydneys north shore were
lost.
Hot winds
pe
The fires were eventually brought
slo
ly
under control, but only after a
er
th
massive firefighting effort. There were
r
no
over 10 000 firefighters involved,
er
m
Sandstone rock
14 000 fire units and water tankers,
dries out quickly.
51 helicopters and five fixed-wing,
water-bombing aircraft.

DANGER ZONES

Air movements created

Spot fires started as burning

in gaps and valleys help force

debris falls down the hillside.
There are some parts of Sydney and
the fire uphill.
nearby areas where fires can spread
Sandstone plateaus and the spread of bushfires
quickly due to the landforms. These are the
sandstone plateau areas where sandstone rock
overlies shale rock. In dry periods the vegetation
7 JANUARY 1994
on the plateau dries out rapidly making it ideal
We will examine one of the 15 days, 7 January
fuel if a bushfire starts in the valleys below. The
1994 a day described by the Police Minister
northward-facing slope and upper valley also
Terry Griffiths as catastrophic and analyse
tend to dry out rapidly as they are under the
the main fire events.
influence of northerly winds and more direct
The weather situation was typical of those
solar radiation (see the diagram). Fires can
associated with bushfires. The synoptic chart for
spread very quickly and engulf the plateau area,
7 January 1994 shows strong and gusty west to
placing houses at severe risk. Many national
north-westerly winds of up to 50 km/h ahead of an
parks around Sydney are also very vulnerable
eastward-moving cold front. In Sydney, the
because they have large areas of these landmaximum temperature was 37.8C and the relaforms, as are suburbs such as Terrey Hills and
tive humidity dropped to 8 per cent by 3.00 pm.
Lane Cove.

60
GEO active 2

10
Darwin

L 1008
20
1012

130

120

110

140

150

1016

1004 1000

Brisbane16
0

1008 17
0

30
Perth

1012

Adelaide Canberra Sydney

Melbourne

1020
1024

(c) Why do you think houses are built on the flat

sandstone plateau? Why is this a very dangerous
location in times of bushfires?
2. Observe the weather map for 7 January 1994 and
read the information in the text.
(a) Describe the weather situation over New South
Wales.
(b) Why was the situation favourable for the
development of bushfires?
3. Imagine you were able to observe an area of
sandstone plateau where the bushfire occurred.
Describe what you might see.

40
1016
1004
1012
1008 1000
996
SOSE GEOG2 8.3.2

M.S.L. ANALYSIS
0000UTC 07 JAN 94

988

1016

Hobart

984
980

1008

996
992

992

1004

1012

1000

Synoptic chart for 7 January 1994

From the early afternoon a disastrous series of

events unfold.
At 1.00 pm a bushfire breaks out in the Blue
Mountains area to the west of Sydney. This is
a typical sandstone plateau area. The fire
heads towards the town of Springwood and
threatens many homes.
A fire at Mangrove Mountain, on a sandstone
plateau to the north of Sydney, forces the
evacuation of several thousand homes in the
Gosford area. The fire is believed to be the
work of an arsonist.
A state of emergency is declared in the Cessnock area as a fire, again thought to be the work
of an arsonist, forces 200 residents to evacuate.
Several serious fires, many the work of arsonists,
threaten property and forests on the south coast.
Firestorms sweep through several northern
Sydney sandstone plateau suburbs, destroying
20 homes.
Many other fires break out during the day and
night, several burning out of control.

Newcastle

Sydney

IMPACTS OF THE FIRES

Wollongong

The major impacts were economic, environmental and social.

Economic impacts: 205 homes and 20 other
buildings destroyed, $167 million cost
Environmental impacts: 800 000 hectares burnt,
including sections of suburbs and national
parks; thousands of native animals perished
The main social impacts were: 4 deaths, 120
people injured and 800 people left homeless.

Satellite image of Sydney and the central coast of New South

Wales on 7 January 1994

1. Observe the diagram Sandstone plateaus and the

spread of bushfires and read the text on landforms.
(a) Why is a fire more likely to start and spread on
the northward-facing slope?
(b) How is the fire forced uphill?

TOOLBOX
Interpreting a satellite image
Satellite images allow large areas of the Earth to be
shown in one image. In the satellite image above,
the red areas are fires and the fine white line is the
coastline.
1. Describe the location of the main fires. Is there
any pattern to their location?
2. Where are the fires in relation to the main
populated areas? Locate each of the places
mentioned on page 61.
3. Estimate the proportion of the maps land area
that shows fires burning.

61
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

3.8
BLACK SATURDAY,
CANBERRA 2003
HOW DID IT HAPPEN?
On 18 January 2003, Canberra was hit by the most
devastating bushfire in its history. Canberras
firestorm had its beginnings on 8 January, when
lightning strikes in adjacent national parks
ignited a number of bushfires. Shifting winds
widened the fire fronts of these fires, joining some
together. Eight days later, strong south-westerly
winds drove the bushfire towards the national
capital.
The fierce winds blew burning embers ahead of
the fire front, igniting spot fires in and around
houses on the capitals south-western edge. At
times, the shower of embers blew horizontally.
There was little the 500 firefighters and 100
police could do to stop such a massive blaze.
Their work was made more difficult by the

ANATOMY OF AUSTRALIAS MOST

DEVASTATING ONE-DAY FIRE

billowing black smoke (which reduced visibility),

by power and water-pressure failures, and by the
rapid spread of the fires.

PERFECT FIRESTORM
CONDITIONS
The conditions in and around Canberra on 18 January were perfect for a firestorm. There was a
huge supply of fuel. (Canberra is sometimes called
the bush capital, as it is virtually surrounded by
bushland and pine plantations and has a number
of bush/pine corridors.) This fuel was tinder dry
due to the prolonged drought. On the day of the
fire, very high temperatures, strong winds and
extremely low relative humidity turned the
advancing bushfire into a fireball.

100 km/h winds pick up on

January 18 and change
the fires behaviour.

The difference between January 8 and January 18 was a few percentage

points in humidity and slightly warmer temperatures plus cyclonic winds.

Humidity at 20%
Warm conditions of 3035C
Moderate intensity bushfire
started by lightning strikes

Cumulus clouds of smoke up to 6000 m

high, carrying embers and fuel

Humidity drops to 10%

Temperature rises to 48C
Wind gusts of 60100 km/h
Fire temperatures reach 1000C
Crowning 60 m into the air 3 times
higher than the trees.

Crowning fires
up to 60 m high

Embers
spotting 2 km
ahead of
main fire.

Embers

23 m high flames

TUESDAY, JANUARY 8:
Brindabella a moderate fire is started by
lightning strikes in bushland on January 8.
A normal bushfire fuelled by warm conditions,
low humidity and drought conditions, with
23 m flames spotting 100 m ahead. It is
contained by firefighters.

Grasslands
and paddocks
Fires open up on three
fronts north, west and south
of Canberra. Fire crews are
stretched and fire builds.

Firefighters build containment

lines to stop fire along a
35 km front.
Bulldozers unable to enter
rugged terrain.

62
GEO active 2

SATURDAY, JANUARY 18:

Wind gusts of up to 100 km/h
turn fire into an inferno. At this
stage it becomes almost
unstoppable.

Fire front
catches up to
spot fires ahead
and creates
massive fireball.

IMPACTS OF THE FIRE

ru

ur

The firestorm destroyed 530 homes some

in little more than 10 minutes and about
30 farms. Four people lost their lives, as did
hundreds of cattle, thousands of sheep and
many thousands of native animals. About
12 million trees were destroyed by the fire.
Powerlines exploded and the famous Mount
Stromlo Observatory was burnt down. As
well as destroying lives, homes and livelihoods, the damage bill was expected to top
$280 million.

ee

dg

bi

River

Embers carried by high level

winds start fires up to 12 km
ahead of main fire.

Fire travels faster uphill, as its able

to preheat the fuel in front of it from
the hot air rising up the slope,
bringing convection currents and
burning embers rising on the hot air.

Pine
plantation and
observatory
Scientists call this
propagation.
This fire displayed
an impressive
ability to feed itself.

Fire front races up Mt Stromlo

and unleashes its force onto
suburbs of Duffy, Chapman and
Holder.

Artwork/News Limited/Will Pearce and Paul Leigh/Daily Telegraph

Path of the Canberra firestorm

1. What started the Black Saturday bushfires?

2. From which direction was the wind blowing
when the firestorm reached Canberras urban
edge?
3. Describe how spot fires played a role in the
growth of this disaster.
4. Explain why conditions in
Canberra on 18 January 2003
were perfect for a firestorm.
Use examples and refer to the
diagram.
5. Describe the spread of the fire
from 8 January to 18 January.
What action did the
firefighters take?
6. List the main impacts of the
bushfire.
7. Imagine that you are a news
reporter for a Canberra
television station. Write (and
be prepared to deliver to the
class) a three-minute news
segment on the Canberra
bushfire disaster.
Trees uprooted and sparks sent
8. Discuss as a class what
flying into houses due to wind and
actions you think should be
fire.
taken by Canberra
Damage across the grassland was
astounding according to scientists.
government bodies and
private citizens to ensure a
Grasslands
disaster such as Black
and reserves
Saturday never happens again.
9. To find out more about the
Canberra bushfires of January
2003, go to www.jaconline.
CANBERRA Fire hits suburbs
com.au/geoactive/geoactive2
and housing and begins to run out
of fuel but manages to destroy
and click on the Canberra
hundreds of homes. Firefighters
Bushfire weblink for this
efforts also manage to help stop its
chapter.
spread as conditions ease.

63
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

3.9
NATURAL HAZARDS:
STORMS
A storm is any violent disturbance of the atmosphere and the effects associated with it. The
main types of storms are thunderstorms, tropical
cyclones, cold fronts and tornadoes (twisters). In
this section, we look at thunderstorms and their
effect on peoples activities.

The time between a lightning flash and the

crash of thunder tells you how far away the
lightning is (5 seconds = 1.6 kilometres).

Some 1000 years or so ago,

the Vikings thought
thunder was the rumbling
of Thors chariot.
(He was their god of
thunder and lightning.)
Lightning marked
the path of his
mighty hammer,
Mjllnir, when he
threw it across the
sky at his enemies.
An average of
about 100 severe
thunderstorms are reported
in Australia each year.

WHAT IS A THUNDERSTORM?
A thunderstorm is a storm associated with lightning and thunder and occurs with cumulonimbus clouds. Cumulonimbus clouds can occur
singly or extend over an area of 100 kilometres
or more. Thunderstorms occur when cumulonimbus clouds build up enough static electricity
to produce lightning. Lightning instantly heats
the air through which it travels to about 20 000
Celsius more than three times as hot as the
surface of the sun. This causes the air to expand
so quickly that it causes an explosion (thunder).

As air currents in a cumulonimbus

cloud become more violent, they
fling ice crystals and water droplets
around faster. The more these
crystals and droplets smash into one
another, the more friction builds up.
This creates huge energy stores of
static electricity in the cloud.

Lighter particles with a positive

electric charge drift upwards.
Heavier particles with a negative
charge sink.

+ + +
+

+ +
+
+

+ +
+
+
+

Cold

A bolt of lightning
actually consists of a
number of fl
travel up and down
between the cloud
and the ground. This
happens so quickly w
cant see it.

The difference in energy

between the positive charge on
the ground and the massive
negative charge at the bottom
of the cloud becomes huge.
A lightning bolt corrects some
of this difference.

downdraft
Warm updraft

How a thunderstorm works

+ + +
+ +

+
+
+

The ground
below the
cloud has a
positive charge.

64
GEO active 2

Lightning travels to the ground

via the shortest route. This is
why it sometimes strikes
buildings or tall trees.

++
+

SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS
Severe thunderstorms can be a serious natural
hazard because they can bring one or more of the
following features:
Hailstones, which are two centimetres or more
in diameter
Wind gusts of 90 kilometres or more per hour
Tornadoes, which are rapidly rotating columns
of air that descend in a funnel-shape from
thunderstorm clouds
Very heavy rain, which can result in flash
flooding. A thunderstorm often moves slowly,
dropping a lot of precipitation in one area. The
rain or hail may be too heavy and prolonged
for the ground to absorb the moisture. The
water runs off, quickly flooding local areas.

TOOLBOX

Strike three: hail lashes

farm after flood and
crop disease
By Andrew Clennell
Farmers around Gunnedah and Boggabri in north-western
NSW, reeling from recent flood damage and blighted crops,
awoke yesterday to find hailstorms had shattered their hopes
again a week before harvest time.
Mr Jock Jamieson, who lives 13 kilometres south-west of
Boggabri, said yesterday his entire wheat crop of more than
200 acres worth between $25 000 and $30 000 had been
ruined by hail.
The storms on Tuesday
night follow the destruction of
Narrabri
Barraba
many crops by floods in July.
Its bad news. The year
Hail damage
before we couldnt get a crop
in because it didnt rain, Mr
Manilla
Jamieson said. And now, this Boggabri
year, half of it was ruined
already because of the floods.
Gunnedah
Now this has topped it off.
Tamworth

Interpreting a newspaper article

In late 1998, storms in wheat-growing
areas were an important contemporary
geographical issue. Read the newspaper
article on the right and answer the
following questions:
1. Describe the location of Boggabri.
2. What three natural hazards had
affected Mr Jamiesons crops in the
previous two years?
3. How much money did Mr Jamieson
lose because of the hailstorm?
4. Why do you think that Mr Jamieson
was stoic (calm and resigned)?
5. How does heavy rain and hail affect
a wheat crop?

20

40 km

Bitter harvest . . . Mr Jock Jamieson surveys his ruined crop,

near Boggabri.
But Mr Jamieson was stoic.
Its part of farming, isnt it, he said. We have just got to
keep working.
The district agronomist for the Department of Agriculture
in Gunnedah, Mr Tony Dale, said there had been hail and
heavy rain damage to crops south of Gunnedah between
Mullaley and Coonabarabran.
I dont think its been that widespread, but its been
enough to do damage, he said.
Most of the crops were a week away from harvesting . . .
Mr Xavier Martin, chairman of the NSW Farmers Association grains committee, said the hail and rain may prevent
some wheat and barley from being harvested for at least a week
because heavy machinery could not move into the paddocks.
The harvest was just getting under way and now this happens, he said.
Heavy rain flattens the crop so the plant cant be picked up
by the headers. Hail knocks the grain right out of the head,
leaving it to rot on the ground. . .
Source: The Sydney Morning Herald, 19 November 1998

1. Explain what is meant by (a) a storm,

(b) a thunderstorm and (c) a severe thunderstorm.
2. Observe the diagram on page 64 and use
information from the text to explain:
(a) what causes static electricity in a cloud
(b) what causes thunder and lightning
(c) why a lightning bolt travels between the clouds
and the ground.
3. Go to www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2
and click on the Storm weblink for this chapter.
(a) Describe the ideal conditions for a severe
thunderstorm.
(b) Outline the periods of the year when severe
thunderstorms are most likely to occur.

65
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

3.10
THE SYDNEY
HAILSTORM, 1999
At about 7.30 pm on 14 April 1999, a freak hailstorm hit Sydney. It affected more houses and
people than any other natural disaster in Australias history. With a ferocity that shocked the
unsuspecting residents and in the space of only
45 minutes, more than 500 000 tonnes of hailstones some the size of cricket balls
destroyed homes and property. One person was
killed. More than 24 000 buildings were damaged. About 60 000 cars were damaged, with onethird so badly damaged they were written off by
the insurance companies. The total cost of the
hailstorm was $2000 million.

Mosman
Vaucluse
Potts Point
Point Piper
Rose Bay
Double Bay
Bellevue Hill
Woollahra
Bondi
Bondi Junction
Bronte
Kensington
Randwick
Coogee
Kingsford
Rosebery
Maroubra
Botany
Mascot
La Perouse

Edgecliff
Kings Cross
Sydney
Broadway
Surry Hills
Camperdown
Paddington
Newtown
Erskineville
Marrickville
Sydenham
Redfern
Alexandria
Waterloo
Arncliffe
Rockdale

ANATOMY OF A HAILSTORM
In thunderstorms, when warm air rises above
freezing level, water droplets can freeze and fall
as hail. However, the hailstorm that hit Sydney
in April 1999 was caused by a much more
powerful thunderstorm known as a super cell.
The very strong updraft of air in a super-cell
storm keeps hailstones suspended inside the
cloud for a much longer time than in regular
storms. The smaller hailstones join together and
grow before becoming too heavy and falling.

Number of claims
790 to 1720
Miranda
Caringbah
Cronulla

350 to 790

110 to 350
40 to 110

6 km

0 to 40

Suburbs from which car insurance claims were lodged with

NRMA Insurance by 20 April 1999

Stormtroopers cover Sydney

Tropopause (top layer of atmosphere)

Army troops have been called in belatedly to help protect the

homes of Sydneys distressed residents from further damage
after the disastrous hailstorm. They will join the State
Emergency Service and relief workers from the Rural Fire
Service and New South Wales Fire Brigade, almost doubling
the number of workers to 5000 over the weekend.
The premier conceded that his government may not have
acted quickly enough to help storm victims deal with
Sydneys biggest-ever storm disaster. The finger has also
been pointed at forecasters at the Bureau of Meteorology.
By the time the direction and intensity of the storm cell was
identified, it was already battering Sydneys eastern
suburbs. A new radar warning system designed to issue
alerts to forecasters was installed at Kurnell one month ago,
but meteorologists at the Weather Bureau had not been fully
trained to use it.
Many homes will need to be revisited in a month to have
tarpaulins replaced as hundreds of tarpaulins ordered from
China have been found to be below standard. Shortages of
terracotta tiles and skilled labour mean that many families
face at least a six-month delay for permanent roof repairs
and possibly a wait of several weeks for glass and carpet
replacement

Strong updrafts keep hailstones

suspended much longer than regular
storms, allowing the hail to gain size.

Hailstones rise and fall, getting bigger

as they gather moisture and refreeze.
Hailstones
leave the
updraft at
speeds of
150 km/h
and fall
12 km to
Earth.
Strong updraft of 1015 km/h
lifts moist air into freezing zone.

Storm movement

Development of a super-cell hailstorm

66
GEO active 2

The dramatic aerial view of Kensington suggests the extent of the impact on the lives of residents. The patchwork of coloured
tarpaulins over Sydney suburbs exceeded 90 000. More than 20 000 homes as well as schools and businesses suffered damage
in an area concentrated on the eastern suburbs but stretching from Bundeena (south of the city centre) to the north shore.

TOOLBOX
Working with choropleth maps
The choropleth map of car insurance claims
resulting from the Sydney hailstorm gives a good
picture of the path and severity of the storm. The
map has been coloured to show the number of
claims in each suburb. The darker shades show the
highest number of claims and the lighter colours
show the least number of claims. The colours have
been carefully selected so that the observer can
instantly see a pattern. Observe the map then
complete the following paragraph to describe the
number of insurance claims made in Sydneys
eastern suburbs.

1. Why was the Sydney hailstorm rated as Australias

worst natural disaster? List the types of damage it
caused.
2. Read the text and observe the diagram of the
development of a super-cell storm. Write a
paragraph explaining why the hailstones were larger
than normal.
3. Observe the aerial photograph of Kensington.
(a) How many roofs are not covered by tarpaulins?
(b) What other features in the photograph are likely
to be hail-damaged?
4. Read the report, Stormtroopers cover Sydney.
(a) Explain what is meant by the title of the article.
(b) What change did the storm bring to the affected
communities of Sydney?
(c) Which community groups were involved in the
disaster relief?
(d) What problems were faced in repairing the
damage?
(e) What lessons do you think organisations such as
insurance companies and community groups
would have learnt from the Sydney hailstorm?
(f) Imagine you are premier of New South Wales.
What action would you take to change the way
disasters are handled?

More than 790 claims were made in a corridor

of suburbs stretching from M
in the
south to P
in the north. Between
and
claims were made in the
suburbs either side of this corridor, with the
exception of W
which had only 110 to
350 claims. Fewer claims were made in the
coastal suburbs of L
,C
, and
V
, along with the southern suburb of
M
, the inner western suburb of
A
, and the north shore suburb of
M
.

67
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

3.11
NATURAL HAZARDS:
TROPICAL CYCLONES
A tropical cyclone is a particular type of low
pressure system. It is called a hurricane in the
United States and a typhoon in Asia. Tropical
cyclones are areas of warm, moist air rising
rapidly. The upward flow of air is deflected by the
Coriolis effect (winds deflected by the Earths
rotation), creating a rotation around a central
core, known as the eye. Tropical cyclones are
often accompanied by very strong winds (gusts of
over 300 kilometres per hour have been recorded),
torrential rain (1800 millimetres in 24 hours have
been recorded) and very rough seas.
A storm surge can occur when a tropical
cyclone approaches or crosses a coastline. The
very low atmospheric pressure and the stress of
strong winds on the sea surface produce a rise in
sea level above the normal tide level (see the diagram). Among the destructive and death-dealing
features of tropical cyclones, sea action and
floods are ranked as more significant than winds.
Tropical cyclones need the energy provided by
warm water vapour (sea waters of at least 27
Celsius). Usually they die out if they move inland
away from the water vapour, or out of the tropics,
away from the warmth. This is why tropical coastal
areas, such as the Caribbean Sea (Central
America), the north-west Pacific and north-east
Australia, between 5 and 15 north and south, are
commonly affected by tropical cyclones.

The amount of energy released in a tropical

cyclone in one day is about the equivalent of the
energy released by 400 twenty-megatonne
hydrogen bombs. If tropical cyclones occur near
large population centres, they can cause extensive damage to property and the loss of life.
A tropical cyclone may exist for only a few days
or as long as a few weeks. It can behave unpredictably, moving forward, hardly moving, changing
direction, and even doubling back on itself.

Mean sea level

Normal high tide
(a) Normal conditions before a storm

4 m storm tide
Mean sea level

3 m surge
1 m normal high tide

(b) Changes that occur during a storm surge

A moderate storm surge accompanied cyclone Aivu when it

crossed the Queensland coast in 1989 causing severe
damage to the village of Wunjunga.

Outflow

Huge
cumulonimbus
clouds form.

Warm air
spirals up
quickly.

Cool air flows into the central

area to replace rising air.
The formation of a tropical cyclone

Eye of the
cyclone

Warm sea
water is
evaporated
and rises up.

Strong winds and high seas are among the effects of

tropical cyclones.

68
GEO active 2

The map shows the paths of major Australian

cyclones since 1970. Tropical cyclones occur in
northern Australia between December and April,
with the greatest activity usually occurring
between January and March. The number of
cyclones varies considerably from year to year, the
frequency usually determined by the temperature
of the oceans in the tropical waters around northern
Australia. The Australian Bureau of Meteorology
tracks an average of ten cyclones per year in the
Australian region. Of these, six may be expected to
cross the Australian coast. We will examine two
major tropical cyclones that have hit different parts
of Australia and their effects on people.
Major Australian cyclones since 1970
Thelma 1998
Teresa 1992
Tracy 1974
Hal 1978
Joan 1975
Ted 1976
Orson 1989
Vance 1999 Chloe 1995
Darwin
Annette 1994
Ian 1992

Barry 1996

Bobby 1995

Lena 1983
Trixie 1975
Hazel 1979

Cairns
Tennant Creek

Alice Springs

Alby 1978
Perth
Adelaide
Canberra

TROPICAL CYCLONE TRACY,

NORTHERN TERRITORY,
DECEMBER 1974

On 20 December 1974, a low pressure system

several hundred kilometres north of Darwin was
noticed by the Bureau of Meteorology. By late the
next day, satellite pictures indicated that it had
developed into a tropical cyclone. It was named
Tracy, and a warning was issued by the Tropical
Cyclone Centre in Darwin. Tracy intensified over
the next two days as it moved south-west and
then curved south-east towards Darwin. The
cyclone was tracked continuously by the Bureau
of Meteorology at Darwin Airport.
Soon after midnight on Christmas Day, the
cyclone approached the city with wind gusts in
excess of 100 kilometres per hour, and the
Kathy 1984
destruction of the city began. Tracy passed
Winifred 1986
directly over Darwin. It had wind gusts ranging
Rona 1999
Aivu 1989
from 217 to 240 kilometres per hour.
Steve 2000
Winds were abating in Darwin by 6.30 am
Althea 1971
as the cyclone weakened and moved furAda 1970
ther inland and degenerated into a rain
David 1976
Wanda 1974
depression.
Tracy was a small cyclone in area but
Nancy 1990
very intense, with a central pressure of
950 hectopascals. Its destructive effect was
Brisbane
total, because it passed directly over
Darwin and hit just as the residents of the
city were preparing to enjoy themselves at
Sydney
Christmas.

Melbourne
0

500

1000 km

Some of the destruction

caused by Tropical
Cyclone Tracy

Average number of coastal crossings since 1959

(Zones indicate approximate frequency, not severity)
1 to 5

11 to 16

6 to 10

Cyclone path

Hobart

69
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

TROPICAL CYCLONE JUSTIN,

QUEENSLAND, MARCH 1997

TROPICAL CYCLONE
ALERT NO. 4
Issued by the Darwin Tropical
Cyclone Warning Centre at 10.30 am
CST on 22/12/1974

One of the largest tropical cyclones to threaten

Queensland in more recent times was Tropical
Cyclone Justin, which formed off the coast of
north Queensland in March 1997. It brought
winds of up to 150 kilometres per hour, large
waves, heavy rain and flooding. The cyclone
stayed in the area for over two weeks with some
changes of position. It was unusual in that it
remained almost stationary for up to five consecutive days.

Tropical Cyclone Tracy was centred

180 km NW of Cape Don at 9.00 am and
moving WSW at 13 km per hour. Gales are
not expected on the coast within 24 hours
but communities within Cape Don and
Bathurst Island are alerted.
Next advice at 4 pm
today.

Tropical Cyclone Justin data

Eye (light winds)

Band of extremely high winds
(average 140 km/h with gusts to 250 km/h)
Boundary of wind damage
9.00 pm
Limit of the most
destructive winds

Midnight
3.00 am
Darwin 4.00 am

25

50 km

Path of Tracys eye

The size and structure of Tropical Cyclone Tracy and its path
over Darwin on 25 December 1974

Impacts and responses

Tracy was Australias most destructive cyclone. It
caused the deaths of 65 people of these, 16 were
reported missing at sea. As well, there were
145 serious injuries and over 500 minor
injuries. Between 50 and 60 per cent of
buildings were damaged beyond repair.
1012
Damage from the cyclone was over $4180
million. Following the cyclone, more than
35 000 people had to be evacuated few of
them still had homes, there were no essential services and the threat of disease was a
major problem.
Many people reacted heroically, working
1016
at great risk to rescue trapped people. Gov110
ernment response included the provision of
emergency services and the building of a
new Darwin one that should be better
able to withstand any future tropical
cyclones. After Tropical Cyclone Tracy, new
building codes were introduced. Roofs for
new houses had to be tied to the foundations, and cladding was required to protect homes from flying debris.

Date

Time

Latitude

6 March
7 March
8 March
9 March
10 March
11 March
12 March
13 March
14 March
15 March
16 March
17 March
18 March
19 March
20 March
21 March
22 March
23 March

6 pm
6 am
6 am
6 am
6 am
6 am
6 am
6 am
6 am
6 am
6 am
6 am
6 am
6 am
6 am
6 am
6 am
6 am

17.0 S
16.5 S
17.0 S
17.3 S
16.6 S
16.6 S
16.1 S
14.9 S
12.6 S
11.3 S
12.3 S
12.5 S
11.9 S
12.5 S
14.6 S
15.6 S
16.9 S
18.1 S

Cyclone Pressure Wind

Longitude category
(hPa)
(km/h)
153.5
152.5
151.9
151.2
151.6
151.9
151.8
152.5
152.6
154.6
155.9
155.5
155.2
153.6
150.6
147.3
145.3
145.5

E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E

0
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
0
1
1
3
3
3
2
1
2
0

990
983
978
975
978
982
990
985
980
980
975
960
955
970
985
995
995
1000

83
93
111
111
93
83
74
83
83
120
148
148
102
83
93

Synoptic chart for Australia on 9 March 1997

PT MORESBY

TROPICAL
CYCLONE
JUSTIN 10

DARWIN

1000

1004

[970]

996

TOWNSVILLE

10O8

PT HEDLAND

ALICE SPRINGS

20

1012
1004
996

1016

BRISBANE

ADELAIDE

130

[1024]

SYDNEY
CANBERRA

MELBOURNE

140

[1021]
1020

HOBART

[1010]

70
GEO active 2

160

1016

1008
1004
996

1016
40

150

1020

[1006]

992

1012
30

1020

PERTH

120

1008

50

1000
992
988

170

Satellite image of Tropical Cyclone Justin, 9 March 1997

Impacts and responses

Tropical Cyclone Justin left a path of destruction,
including the devastation of sugar, pawpaw and
banana crops and severe damage to roads, bridges
and powerlines. Some buildings were also damaged including the destruction of a $5 million
marina in Cairns. Large areas of beach were
eroded by the huge waves and heavy swell. There
was also some damage to parts of the Great Barrier
Reef. This is not unusual and not necessarily
serious, as the breakup of hard corals is seen by
many scientists as part of the natural build-up and
break-down cycle of reef and island development.
The total cost of the damage to Queensland was
$150 million. Tragically, the cyclone also caused
the deaths of 33 people, 26 in Papua New Guinea
and 7 in north Queensland.

7.

8.

1. What is a tropical cyclone?

2. Why do tropical cyclones usually die out if they
move inland?
3. Make a simple drawing showing the movement of
winds in and around a tropical cyclone.
4. Why do you think tropical cyclones do not form
very close to the equator?
5. Observe the map showing major Australian
cyclones since 1970 (page 69) and briefly describe
the paths of the following three cyclones:
(a) Annette (b) Hal (c) Althea.
6. Observe the map of Tropical Cyclone Tracys size,
structure and path over Darwin.
(a) What was the general direction of Tracys path
over Darwin?

9.

10.

11.

(b) How wide was the belt of extremely high winds?

(c) About how far did Tracy travel from midnight to
4.00 am?
Prepare a multimedia presentation about Tropical
Cyclone Tracy. Search the Internet or go to
www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and
click on the Tropical Cyclone Tracy weblink for this
chapter. Choose one of the following topics for
your presentation:
Explain why Tropical Cyclone Tracy was so
destructive when it hit Darwin.
Describe the impacts of Tropical Cyclone Tracy.
Imagine you are a rescue worker and it is just on
dawn following the passage of Tropical Cyclone
Tracy. Describe the tasks ahead of you. What
would you do first?
Choose your own topic.
Describe how Australian governments responded
to Tropical Cyclone Tracy. To find out more, go to
www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and
click on the Cyclone Response weblink for this
chapter.
What were the main destructive forces associated
with Tropical Cyclone Justin? What were the main
impacts?
Observe the synoptic chart and satellite image for
9 March 1997. Describe the location of Tropical
Cyclone Justin and the appearance of the cyclone
from the satellite.
Using the information in the table of data, plot the
movement of Tropical Cyclone Justin on a map of
north Queensland using the following key:
category 0
category 1
category 2
category 3
Include information such as dates, locations,
direction, wind speeds and possible damage.

71
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

3.12
FLOODS AS
NATURAL HAZARDS
Even though Australia is the driest of all the
worlds inhabited continents and has the lowest
percentage of rainfall as run-off, there are
periods of very heavy rainfall and floods. A flood
is an unusual accumulation of water that overflows from rivers, lakes or the ocean onto land
that is not normally covered by water.

TYPES OF FLOODS
There are three main types of flood:
1. Slow-onset floods. These occur along the flood
plains of inland rivers, such as the Darling
and Namoi, and may last for weeks and even
months. They are caused by heavy rain and
run-off upstream, and the water can take
days and even weeks to affect farms and
towns downstream. The Great Floods of 1990
are an example of a slow-onset flood (see the
Geofacts).
2. Rapid-onset floods. These occur in mountain
headwater areas of larger inland rivers or
rivers flowing to the coast. The rivers are
steeper and the water flows more rapidly.
Rapid-onset floods are often more damaging
because there is less time to prepare.
3. Flash floods. These occur due to heavy rainfall
of short duration, such as in a severe thunderstorm. This type of flooding causes the greatest
risk of property damage and loss of life as it
can happen so quickly. It can be a serious
problem in urban areas where drainage
systems are inadequate.

250

500 km

Tropic of Capricorn

Charleville

Nyngan

Floods
Areas seriously affected by the Great Floods of 1990

Rivers begin
in mountains.
The force of
water rushing
down the
steep slopes
erodes
vertically and
carries the
material away.
Mountain
river valleys
are steepsided and
V-shaped.

A river is in the valley section when it reaches

lower land downstream from the mountains. The
valleys are deeper but wider as the river erodes
both the floor and sides of the valley.

The life of a river

The Great Floods of 1990 in eastern

Australia during April and May covered
more than one million square kilometres
of Queensland and New South Wales. In
both states there was extensive damage to
transport links and severe loss of stock.
Many towns were invaded by floodwaters,
and communities were isolated for long
periods.

On the flood plain, the stream erodes horizontally

causing a river valley that is broad and flat. The river
can no longer hold all the sediment it carries and
deposits material to form flood plains and deltas.

72
GEO active 2

FLOODS AND FLOOD PLAINS

Floods are a natural occurrence, but they are a
natural hazard to humans who have built farms,
towns and transport routes in areas, such as flood
plains, which are subject to flooding. A flood plain
is an area of relatively flat land that borders a
river and which is covered by water during a flood.
Flood plains are formed when the speed of the
water in the river slows down on flatter areas. The
river begins to meander and gradually deposits
alluvium. During this process, a flood plain and
other landforms such as deltas are built up by
the river. These fertile, flat areas have become
favoured for farming and settlement around the
world. In Australia many of our richest farming
areas are on flood plains. There are many towns in
Australia that have been built on flood plains close
to rivers. Parts of many towns are still located on
flood plains and are subject to flooding.
Watershed

Mountains
Tributary stream

Floods are not confined to flood plains. If there

is sufficient volume of water, they can occur in
the lower parts of valleys and even on hill slopes
during periods of torrential rain.

LA NIA AND FLOODS

A La Nia event in Australia is often associated
with floods. La Nia translates from Spanish as
the girl child. A La Nia event is indicated by a
rise in the Southern Oscillation Index to well into
the positive (see the diagram of El Nio and the
SOI, page 53). La Nia is virtually the opposite of
El Nio. Very cold waters dominate the eastern
Pacific, and the oceans off Australia are warmer
than normal. Large areas of low pressure extend
over much of Australia; warm, moist air moves in
and above average rainfall occurs. There can also
be torrential rain and widespread floods. Recent
La Nias in Australia have occurred in 199596
when there was flooding in many parts of the continent, particularly in western Queensland, and
in 1998 when many parts of Australia were
again flooded, particularly northwestern New South Wales.
Meander
Flood plain

Waterfall
The flat, fertile lands of the river flood
plain are favoured areas for farming and
settlement. The newer parts of towns are
often built above the flood plain.

Deposited
sediment

Delta

The town of Gympie in Queensland, during the record flood of February 1999. The commercial part of town was under
7 metres of water and the swollen Mary River peaked at 22 metres its highest level since 1898. Six people died in the floods
throughout south-east Queensland and the damage bill exceeded $20 million.

73
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

Cumulonimbus clouds form.

WEATHER SYSTEMS AND

FLOODS
The flooding of streams is caused by a
number of factors, the most important
being a high intensity of rainfall into a
catchment or drainage basin. High
intensity rains may occur as a result of:
storms thunderstorms, tropical
cyclones or rain depressions (the remains of
tropical cyclones after they have moved inland)
low pressure systems that cross Australia
in the cooler months, including those
associated with cold fronts and east
coast depressions.
Cold fronts can bring heavy rainfall to southern Australia, particularly
during winter and spring. East coast
depressions can bring heavy rain to
the coast of New South Wales in
autumn and winter.
1008

1008

Denser cold air

pushes under
the warm air.

Lighter
warm air
rises.

1008
1012

1012
Cold front

1008
1016
H
1012
1008

1012
1016
1020

1016
1012
8
100 4
100 0
10096
9

1004
1000

Light showers may

continue after the front
has passed through.

The front of a cold air mass is called a cold front. Cold fronts
are responsible for heavy rainfall and flooding in Australia in
winter and spring.

992

The possibility of flood is also increased when

vegetation in catchment areas has been cleared
or modified. Native vegetation can slow down the
run-off and reduce the chance of flooding.

Cold fronts move from west to east across southern

Australia, bringing cooler weather and rain.
1012

FLOODS AND COMMUNITIES

H
L 1008

1012

1012

L
1012

1000

1008
1004

1008

1004
1008

1012 1016

Heavy rain,
thunderstorms
and strong winds
may occur.

1000
996

L
992
1020
1024

East coast depressions form off the coast of New South

Wales and can bring heavy rain and flooding.

People could be discouraged from farming and

living on flood plains but this is not always
practical especially as flood plains provide
some of the best areas and soils for farming.
Communities can, however, prepare for floods
and try to reduce their effects. This is called
flood mitigation. Flood mitigation programs
include artificial levees (as built in Nyngan, see
page 80) to protect low-lying urban areas from
flooding, strengthening bridges, raising road
levels and constructing large drains to move
floodwaters more rapidly.

74
GEO active 2

in Octo
ber 199
3

SAMPLE STUDY

oods

Flooding in north-east Victoria,

October 1993
The floods that hit north-east Victoria in October 1993
were brought by rainfall that was a result of eastwardmoving cold fronts. Record levels of rainfall poured into
the catchment areas of many of the rivers of north-east
Victoria, swelling 12 major rivers to flood levels. Much
of the area received over 150 millimetres of rainfall in
24 hours. This resulted in the inundation of large
areas of flood plains and the houses and farms built
on them. The Victorian Government declared a state
of emergency as more than 4000 residents of lowlying areas were evacuated. In the town of Benalla,
2000 houses were inundated by floodwaters.

rV
Weather map fo

A flooded community in north-east Victoria, October 1993

1. Define a flood and describe the three main types of

floods.
2. Explain why floods occur on flood plains and deltas.
3. Describe the actions that can be taken by
communities to reduce the impacts of floods.
4. What is La Nia? Why are floods often associated
with La Nia? To find out more, go to
www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and
click on the Flood weblink for this chapter.

5. Observe the diagram of the life of a river.

(a) How are river valleys formed?
(b) How are flood plains and deltas formed?
6. Read the sample study on the floods in Victoria
in October 1993 and answer the following
questions:
(a) Observe the photograph of the flooded
community. Describe the scene.
(b) Observe the satellite image of the cloud mass and
the weather map. What type of weather system is
responsible for this cloud mass and heavy
rainfall? Where is this weather system located on
the weather map?

75
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

3.13
NATURAL HAZARDS:
EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes are shakings of the ground that are
generated by disturbances in the Earths crust.

radiate out like ripples in a pond (see the diagram).

The shocks are less intense the further they are
from the epicentre.

WHAT CAUSES EARTHQUAKES?

Scientists now believe that the Earth is made up
of a series of layers.
The mantle, which makes up the bulk of the
Earths interior, is semi-molten. This means that
it is a very slow-moving liquid. It circulates slowly
between the very hot inner core (3700 Celsius)
and the very cold outer crust (as cold as 0). The
crust on which we live is very thin and brittle.
Over the last few billion years it has broken up
into a series of huge plates (called tectonic plates).
These fit together like a giant jigsaw puzzle.
Because the plates float on the mantle, they move.
This movement is what scientists believe causes
an earthquake.
Trench

Convection
current

Outer core
of molten
metal

Ridge

Inner core
of solid
metal

Mantle

Crust
The structure of the Earth is a bit like an apple: it has a core
at the centre and a thin crust (skin) on the outside.

About 95 per cent of all earthquakes occur

where two plates push together or rub past each
other. New Zealand, Japan and California sit on
the edge of two or more plates, while Australia
sits much more safely in the middle of a plate.
Earthquakes are unpredictable and strike
without warning. They range in strength from
slight tremors to severe shocks and can last from
just a few seconds to as long as several days. All
earthquakes have a focus, which is the area underground where the Earths crust has snapped,
sending shock waves to the surface. The point on
the Earths surface above the focus is called the
epicentre. This is where the greatest amount of
damage occurs. From the epicentre, shock waves

Epicentre

Strongest shock

Weakest shock

Focus

The focus and epicentre of an earthquake

MEASURING EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes are measured according to their
magnitude and intensity. Magnitude (or energy
released by an earthquake) is measured by the
Richter scale. This scale is open-ended as there
is no upper limit to the amount of energy an earthquake might release. The most severe earthquakes
so far have not exceeded 9.5 on this scale. An
increase of 1.0 on the scale indicates a 30 times
greater magnitude. For example, the energy
released at the magnitude of 6.0 is 30 times
greater than the energy released at 5.0.
The intensity of an earthquake is measured on
the Modified Mercalli scale. It rates the amount of
damage caused and uses Roman numerals at each
level (see the diagram). The intensity varies
according to such factors as the nature of buildings
and the time of day. Intensity can vary for any given
earthquake whereas magnitude does not.

Since the start of the twentieth century,

there have been only 18 earthquakes in
Australia measuring 6.0 or more on the
Richter scale. This rate of occurrence of
less than one every five years contrasts
with a world average of about 140 major
earthquakes per year.

76
GEO active 2

Modified
Mercalli
scale

Reaction
of people
and
buildings

II

III

Not felt by people

generally. Just
recordable by
seismograph.

IV

A few people
indoors notice a
slight vibration.

Sleeping persons
wake. Hanging
items like lamps
swing.

V VI

Things indoors fall

over.

Old buildings suffer

considerable damage
houses generally
some damage.

VI

Houses suffer
damage. A few
collapse.

VII VIII

Most houses
damaged heavily
or collapse.

IX XII

Houses everywhere
collapse. Complete
destruction.

The Modified Mercalli scale

IMPACT OF EARTHQUAKES
An earthquake can cause massive damage.
Buildings can be demolished; electricity and telephone lines cut; and gas, sewer and water mains
can be damaged. Landslides, subsidence and tsunamis can also be triggered. Most injuries and
deaths result from falling objects and debris in
and around buildings.

AUSTRALIAS RISK AREAS

Earthquakes happen a lot in some places, and
hardly at all in other places. We are fortunate in
Australia because, unlike many other countries
in the world, earthquake activity here is low. In
fact, until the Newcastle earthquake in 1989,
most people thought that earthquakes were not a
serious natural hazard in Australia.
Darwin

Cairns

Tennant Creek

Tropic of

Capricorn

Alice Springs

C
Brisbane

D
Newcastle

Perth

Sydney

Adelaide

Canberra
Figures indicate peak ground velocity (mms-1).
The higher the contour value, the greater the
risk of earthquake within that area.

Melbourne

120
60
40

Launceston
0

500

Australian earthquake risk areas

1000 km

Hobart

The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 killed over 3000

people and made more than half the population homeless, as
28 000 buildings were destroyed mainly by fire.

Our most severe earthquakes have usually

occurred in unpopulated areas, but several have
caused damage in urban areas and others have
come very close. For example, an earthquake
occurred near Sydney on 17 March 1999. The
epicentre was near the town of Wilton, in the
Southern Highlands between Sydney and
Goulburn. The earthquake measured 4.7 on the
Richter scale, not quite strong enough to cause
structural damage. However, power was cut for
over an hour, dams and pipelines were inspected
for cracks, and coalmines were evacuated.

1. What are the focus and the epicentre of an

earthquake?
2. How are earthquakes measured?
3. What does the Richter scale measure?
4. How much greater is the magnitude of an
earthquake of 8.0 than one of 7.0?
5. Describe the damage caused by earthquakes with
the following measurements on a Modified Mercalli
scale: (a) II
(b) V
(c) VI
(d) IXX.
6. Observe the map of Australian earthquake risk areas
and the locations marked A, B, C and D on the map.
(a) List these letters in terms of the greatest
earthquake risk (that is, the highest risk area first).
(b) Locate where you live on the map. How great is
the risk where you live?

77
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

SAMPLE STUDY
Newcastle earthquake, 28 December 1989
A killer earthquake occurred in Australia without
warning at 10.27 am on 28 December 1989,
smashing into the city of Newcastle. Although it
was only a moderate earthquake, with a magnitude
of 5.6 on the Richter scale, the shock waves were
felt up to 500 kilometres away, across more than
one-quarter of New South Wales. In Sydney, 160
kilometres to the south, there were reports of house
wall cracks and computer screens trembling in city
skyscrapers.

Response to the earthquake

Due to the extent of the damage in such a low
seismic risk area, seismic activity is now closely
monitored. Since 1994, regulations have required
that all buildings must be constructed to resist
earthquakes.

Impacts of the earthquake

The epicentre and
It was the first earthquake since
seismic aftershocks
European settlement in Australia
to cause fatalities. There were
13 deaths. Nine people were
Tamworth
crushed when a large section of the Newcastle
Port Macquarie
Workers Club collapsed,
Muswellbrook
three were killed when
shopfronts collapsed in
Newcastle
Beaumont Street, and one
Lithgow
Gosford
person died from shock.
Sydney
More than 160 people were
N
injured. The loss of life
s Nowra Wollongong
could have been much
0
100 200 km
greater if the earthquake had
Canberra
struck during school term and
Batemans Bay
not the Christmas holidays. More
than 40 schools suffered structural damage, some so
badly that they had to be demolished. More than
50 000 buildings were moderately to seriously damaged. The total cost of damage was more than four
billion dollars, and the event caused the largest
insured loss due to disasters in Australian history.
There was unusually extensive damage for such a
relatively small magnitude earthquake. This unusual damage was due to an underlying thin layer of
silt and sand, covering a former course of the
Hunter River and a swamp. This appeared to mag- The earthquake caused irreparable damage to storefronts
nify the shaking or ground motion.
and other commercial buildings.

1. Read the sample study on the Newcastle earthquake

and answer the following questions.
(a) How would you rate the Newcastle earthquake
on the Modified Mercalli scale? Give reasons for
your answer.
(b) Why was there so much damage when the
earthquake measured only 5.6 on the Richter
scale?
(c) What were the main government responses to the
Newcastle earthquake?

(d) Using information in the sample study and the

photograph, describe the impact of the
Newcastle earthquake.
2. Databases are available on many natural
disasters, for you to access information. Imagine
you are revisiting the earthquake area and want
to write your own brief story to describe it.
To access information for your story, go to
www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and
click on the Newcastle Regional Library weblink for
this chapter.
Worksheets
3.3 Design a board game

78
GEO active 2

Broadsheet: Nyngan flood

Use the rainfall graph below to answer the following
questions.
1. In which month does Nyngan normally experience
its highest rainfall?
a. January
c. April
b. February
d. October
2. How much rain was recorded at Nyngan in April
1990?
a. 30 millimetres
c. 375 millimetres
b. 60 millimetres
d. 600 millimetres

4. In April 1990 how much rainfall did the town of

Tottenham receive?
a. 350 millimetres
b. Between 300 and 350 millimetres
c. 300 millimetres
d. Between 250 and 300 millimetres
Use the map of flood warning stations and table of
peak discharges to answer the following questions.
5. Where was the flood volume greatest?
a. Nyngan
b. Neurie Plains
c. Dandaloo
d. Peak Hill
6. A discharge of 1610 m3/sec was recorded
a. at Nyngan.
b. 90 kilometres from Nyngan.
c. 155 kilometres from Nyngan.
d. 370 kilometres from Nyngan.

400

Average rainfall
1990 rainfall

Trangie
250

Nyngan

Cr

ee
k

350
300

ow

arr
itb
Wh

350

300
l
wa
Co

400

0
35

Bogan

e
Pange

250

Riv
er

Tottenham

ck
llo

Bu

200

lbo

dn

Cr

Burrill Ck

ey

Creek

ee

150

Creek

300

250

100
50

Nymagee

250

200

0 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Graph of Nyngan rainfall

gR

rlin

20

40 km

Rainfall in millimetres

Nyngan catchment rainfall depths, April 1990

Macquarie R

Mulia

Cr
arr
itb
Wh

ow

al
Cow

al
Cow
Bo

Br
ad
ys

ee

Da

Peak Hill

Bu

Rainfall (mm)

l
wa
Co

Mulia

Narromine

Br
ad
ys

Use the map showing rainfall depths in the Nyngan

catchment to answer the following questions.
3. The highest rainfall during April 1990 was
recorded to the
a. east of Nyngan.
b. west of Nyngan.
c. south-west of Nyngan.
d. south-east of Nyngan.

ee

g
Pan

gan

lbo

dn

ey

k
ee

Cr

Creek

ck
Bullo Creek

Bu

River

Burrill Ck

Peak discharges (cubic metres

per second), April 1990
Peak Hill

344

Dandaloo

1610

Neurie Plains
Nyngan

Location of flood warning stations in the Nyngan catchment

79
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

678
2080

Riv
er

Ny

ma

gee

Hospital
S t.

Pan
ge

t.

Post Office

Ho

on
Ter
ang
i

eS

n da
loo
St.

S t.

Da

gan

S t.

Bo

skin
s St
.

an
Tottenham Rd.

Use the map of Nyngan on page

81 and other resources to
answer the following questions.
9. Describe the area subject to
flooding shown on the map.
10. Suggest two reasons why
Nyngan received the worst
flooding in the region.
11. Find two examples of
transport routes cut by the
April 1990 floods in
Nyngan.

Map of levee breaches in Nyngan

Railway
Levee breaches
Low sections of levee
Existing levee
Flow path

Bo
g

Use the aerial photograph and

map of levee breaches to
answer the following questions.
7. A levee is a bank that
protects an area from
flooding. Most floodwater
flowed over or through
levees to the
a. north of Nyngan.
b. south of Nyngan.
c. east of Nyngan.
d. west of Nyngan.
8. Which feature runs along
the top of one levee?
a. The railway line
b. Dandaloo Street
c. The airport
d. The racecourse

Wheat
silos
Racecourse

Showground

200 400 600 800 1000 m

Department of Lands, Panorama Avenue, Bathurst 2795, www.lands.nsw.gov.au

Electricity sub-station

Aerial photograph
of Nyngan in flood,
24 April 1990

80
GEO active 2

Topographic map of Nyngan

81

CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS IN AUSTRALIA

Department of Lands, Panorama Avenue, Bathurst 2795, www.lands.nsw.gov.au