NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: MBA 801

OURSE CODE: PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS

MANAGEMENT

COURSE GUIDE
801

COURSE
GUIDE
MBA 801
PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
Course Developer
Dr. K. O. Osotimehin
Obafemi Awolowo University,
Ife
Course Writer
Dr. K. O. Osotimehin
Obafemi Awolowo University,
Ife
Programme Leader

Dr. O. J. Onwe
National Open University of Nigeria
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos

Course Coordinator

Mrs. C.A. Aghedo

National Open University of Nigeria
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

COURSE GUIDE
801

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Street
Abuja
e-mail:
URL:

[email protected]
www.nou.edu.ng

National Open University of Nigeria 2006

First Printed 2006
ISBN: 978-058-027-1
All Rights Reserved
Printed By ..
For
National Open University of Nigeria

MBA

COURSE GUIDE
801

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Introduction .. 1
What you will learn in this course . 1
Course aims .. 1
Course objectives ... 2
Working through this course... 3
Course materials 3
Study Units .. 3
Set Textbooks. 4
Assessments .. 4
Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs) . 4
Final Examination and Grading . 4
Course Marking Scheme 4
How to get the most from this course 5
Tutors and tutorials ... 5
Summary . 6

Introduction
MBA 801 Production and Operations Management (POM), is a one semester,
two credit unit course. It is available to all MBA students in the School of
Business and Human Resource Management.
The course consists of 20 study units, covering such general areas as
introduction to Production and Operations Management, Design of Production
Systems, Operating Decisions. The material has been carefully developed to
serve as an introductory text for students just coming in contact with POM for
the first time.
This Course Guide tells you briefly with the course is about, relevant texts to
consult, and how you can work your way through these materials. It also
contains some guidelines on your tutor-marked assignments.

What you will learn in this Course

The major aim of MBA 801: Production and Operations Management (POM)
is to introduce you to the field of production and Operations Management. The
field of POM is dynamic, and very much a part of many of the good things that
are happening in business organizations.
Generally, the subject matter represents a blend of concepts from industrial
engineering, cost accounting, general management, marketing, quantitative
methods and statistics.
Production and Operations Management activities, such as forecasting,
choosing a location for an office or plant, allocating resources, quality are core
activities of most business organisations.

Course Aims
The course aims to give you a broad frame-work for the management of the
operations functions of organizations, and how this is used in planning,
coordinating, and executing all the necessary activities that create goods and
services.
This will be achieved by aiming to:
Introduce you to the principles and concepts of POM;
Demonstrate how to determine an organisations strategies and
competitive priorities;
Explain how managers make decisions about the type of work to be
done in-house, the amount of automation to use, and methods of
improving existing process;

MBA 801

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Explain the technologies to pursue and ways to provide leadership in

technological change;
Outline how to structure the organization, foster teamwork, the degree
of specialization, or enlargement of the jobs created by the process, and
methods of making time estimates for work requirement;
Demonstrate how to coordinate the various parts of the internal and
external supply chain, forecast demand, manage inventory and control
output and staffing levels over time.

Course Objectives
In order to achieve the aims set out above, the course sets overall objectives.
You will also realize that each course unit objectives are always included at the
beginning of each unit. It is advisable to read through there specific objectives
before studying through the unit.
The following are the broad objectives of the course. By striving to meet these
objectives, you should have achieved the aims of the course as a whole.
On successful completion of the course, you should be able to:
1. Describe the nature and scope of POM and how it relates to other parts
of the organization.
2. Understand the importance of operations function relative to the goals of
a business organisation.
3. Appreciate why the entire business community is stressing quality.
4. Discuss the importance of product and service design.
5. Explain the need for management of technology.
6. Formulate a linear programming model from a description of a problem.
7. Explain the importance of work design.
8. Discuss and compare time study methods.
9. Explain the concept of a Learning Curve (LC) use LC take to making
activity time projections.
10. Evaluate location alternatives.
11. Outline the steps in the forecasting process.
12. Demonstrate an understanding of the management of finished goods,
raw materials, purchased parts and retail items.
13. Prepare aggregate plans and compute their costs.
14. Discuss the conditions under which Material Requirements Planning is
most appropriate.
15. Outline the consideration important in a traditional mode of production
to a Just-in-Time system.
16. Construct simple network diagrams.
17. Explain the importance of maintenance in production systems.

Working through this Course

MBA 801

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

It will be very essential that you thoroughly read the study units, consult the
suggested texts and other relevant materials at your disposal. Most of the units
contain self-assignment, which will be assessed by your tutor.

Course Materials
Major components of the course are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Course Guide
Study units
Assignment File
Presentation schedule

Study Units
There are 20 study units in this course, which have been compartmentalized
into four modules as follows:
Module Title
1 POM: Introduction and
Overview

2 Design of Production
Systems

Unit Topic
1 POM- An Introduction
2 Operations Strategy
3 Forecasting in POM
4 Process Management

5 Job Design
6 Management of Technology
7 Site Selection
3 Operating Decisions 8 Supply-Chain Management
9 Inventory Management
10 Aggregate Planning
11 Linear Programming
12 Materials Requirements
Planning
13 Just-In-Time Systems
14 Project Management
4 Control Decisions 15 Productivity
16 Work Methods
17 Work Measurement
18 Learning Curves
19 Total Quality Management
20 Maintenance and Reliability.

Set Textbooks

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

There are no compulsory books for the course. However, you are encouraged to
consult some of those listed for further reading at the end of each unit.

Assessment
Your performance in this course will be based on two major approaches. First
are the tutor-marked assignments (TMAs). The second method is through a
written examination.

Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)

With respect to TMAs, you are expected to apply the information, knowledge
and techniques gathered during the course. The assignments must be submitted
to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with the laid down rules. The
total secure obtained in the TMAs will account for 50% of your overall course
mark.
There are many TMAs in the course. You should submit any eight to your tutor
for assessment. The highest five of the eight assessments will be counted and
this credited to your overall course mark.

Final Examination and Grading

At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written examination of
three hours duration. This examination will also count for 50% of your overall
course mark. The examination will consist of questions, which reflect the types
of self-testing, practice exercises and TMAs you have previously encountered.
You are advised to prepare adequately for the examination. Since the general
broad area of the course will be assessed.

Course Marking Scheme

The following table lays out how the actual course marking is broken down:
Assessment
Marks
Eight assignment Submitted Best five marks of the eight count @
10% each = 50% of course marks
Final Examination 50% of overall course marks.
TOTAL

100% of course marks.

How to get the most from this course

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

The distance learning system of education is quite different from the traditional
University system. Here, the study units replace the University lecturer, thus
conferring unique advantages to you. For instance, you can read and work
through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and at a time and
place that suit you best. Hence, instead of listening to a lecturer, all you need to
do is reading.
You should understand right from the on-set that the contents of the course are
to be worked at, and understood step by step, and not to be read like a novel.
The best way is to read a unit quickly in order to see the general run of the
content and to re-read it carefully, making sure that the content is understood
step by step. You should be prepared at this stage to spend a very long time on
some units that may look difficult. A paper and pencil is a piece of equipment
in your reading.

Tutors and Tutorials

Detailed information about the number of tutorial contact hours provided in
support of this course will be communicated to you. You will also be notified
of the dates, times, and location of these tutorials, together with the name and
phone number of your tutor as soon as you are allocated to a tutorial group.
Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments. Keep a close watch on
your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter, and provide
assistance to you during the course.
Please do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone or e-mail if you need
help. The following might be circumstances in which you would find help
necessary:
You do not understand any part of the study units.
You have difficulty with the self-test or exercises.
You have a question or problem with an assignment or with the grading
of assignment.
You should endeavour to attend tutorial classes, since this is the only
opportunity at your disposal to experience a physical and personal contact with
your tutor, and to ask questions which are promptly answered. Before attending
tutorial classes, you are advised to thoroughly go through the study units, and
then prepare a question list.
This will afford you the opportunity of participating very actively in the
discussions.

Summary

MBA 801

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Management of the operations function is the focus of this course. Together

with you, we explore the role of operations within the total organization. The
explanation of what operations managers do, as well as some of the tools and
concepts they use to support key business decisions are given.
At the end of the course, you will appreciate operations management as a
competitive weapon, which is important to:
Accounting, prepares financial and cost accounting information that aids
operations managers in designing and operating production systems.
Finance, which manages the cash flows and capital investment
requirements that are created by the operations function.
Human resources, which hired and trains employees to match process
needs, location decisions, and planned production levels.
Management information systems, which develops information systems
and decision support systems for operations managers.
Marketing, which helps create the demand that operations must satisfy,
link customer demand with staffing and production plans, and keep the
operations function focused on satisfying customers needs.
Operations, which designs and operates production systems to give the
firm a sustainable competitive advantage.

MBA 801

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Course Code

MBA 801

Course Title Production and Operations Management

Course Developer

Course Writer

Dr. K.O. Osotimehin

Obafemi Awolowo University,
Ife.
Dr. K.O. Osotimehin
Obafemi Awolowo University,
Ife.

Programme Leader

Dr. O. J. Onwe
National Open University of Nigeria
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos

Course Coordinator

Mrs. C.A. Aghedo

National Open University of Nigeria
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

MBA 801

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos.
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Street
Abuja
e-mail:
URL:

[email protected]
www.nou.edu.ng

National Open University of Nigeria 2006

First Printed 2006
ISBN: 978-058-027-1
All Rights Reserved
Printed By ..
For
National Open University of Nigeria

MBA 801

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Module 1 .. 1

Unit 1

Production and Operations Management ... 1 - 16

Unit 2 Operations Strategy .... 17 - 32

Unit 3 Forecasting in Production and Operations
Management ... 33 - 50
Unit 4 Process Management .. 51 - 62
Unit 5 Job Design .. 63 - 68
Module 2 ... 69
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5

Management of Technology .. 69 - 85
Site Selection . 86 - 99
Supply Chain Management . 100-116
Inventory Management .. 117-143
Aggregate Planning 144-160

Module 3 .. 161
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5

Linear Programming (LP) ..

Material Requirements Planning
Just-In-Time System ..
Project Management ..
Productivity

161-176
177-192
193-204
205-224
225-234

Module 4 . 235
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5

Work Methods 235-243

Work Measurement 244-255
Learning Curves . 256-269
Total Quality Management 270-285
Maintenance and Reliability .. 286-294

MBA 801

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

MODULE 1
Unit 1

Production and Operations Management

Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5

Operations Strategy
Forecasting in Production and Operations Management
Process Management
Job Design

UNIT 1 PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS
1.0
Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Introduction to Production and Operations
Management
3.1.1 Function within Business Organisations
3.1.2 Operations
3.1.3 Finance
3.1.4 Marketing
3.1.5 Other Functions
3.2 Manufacturing and Service Operations
3.2.1 Differences Between Manufacturing
and Services
3.2.2 Similarities between Manufacturing
and Service Operations
3.3 The Historical Evolution of Production and
Operations Management
3.3.1 The Industrial Revolution
3.3.2 Scientific Management
3.3.3 Human Relations and Behaviouralism
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This first unit introduces you to the field of operations management. Generally,
it describes the nature and scope of operations management, and how it relates
to the other parts of the organisation.

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
(i) Define the term production/operations management (POM)
(ii) Identify the three major functional areas of organisations and describe
how they interrelate
(iii) Compare and contrast service and manufacturing operations
(iv) Briefly describe the historical evolution of POM

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Introduction to Production and Operations Management
Operations management deals with the production of goods and services that
people buy and use everyday. It is the function that enables organisations to
achieve their goals through efficient acquisition and utilization of resources.
Manufacturers of steel, food, vehicles, computer
(i.e. physical goods) need
operations management. So do health care providers, banks, schools, retailers
etc.
Every organisation, whether public or private, manufacturing or service, has an
operations function.
To some people, the term production conjures up images of factories, machines
and assembly hires. Interestingly enough, the field of production management
in the past focused almost exclusively on manufacturing management, with a
heavy emphasis on the methods and techniques used in operating a factory. In
recent years, however, the scope of production management has broadened
considerably. Production concept and technologies are applied to a wide range
of activities and situations; that is, in services such as health care, food service,
recreation, banking, hotel management, retail sales, education, transportation
and government. This broadened scope has given the field the name
production/operations management or more simply operations management a
term that more closely reflects the diverse nature of activities to which its
concepts and techniques are applied.
Formally stated, therefore, production and operations management (POM) is
the management of an organisations production system, which converts inputs
into the organisations products and services. (or the direction and control of
the processes that transform inputs into finished goods and services). This
function is essential to systems producing goods and services in both profit and
nonprofit organisations.

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

3.1.1 Function within Business Organisations

A typical business organisations has three basic function: finance, marketing
and production/operations. (see Figure 1.1)
Organisation

Finance

Production / operations Marketing

Figure 1.1: The three basic functions of business organizations

Production
Operation

Marketin g

Finance

Figure 1.2: The 3 major functions of business organisation overlap

These three functions, and other supporting functions, perform different but
related activities necessary for the operation of the organisation. The
interdependency of the major functions is depicted by overlapping circles in
figure 1.2. These functions must interact to achieve the goals and objectives of
the organisation, and each makes an important contribution. Very often, the
success of our organisation depends not only on how well each area performs
but also on how well the areas interface with each other. For instance in
manufacturing, it is essential that production and marketing work together.
Otherwise, marketing may promote goods that production cannot profitably
produce, or production may turn out items that have no demand. Similarly,
unless finance and production people work closely, funds for expansion or new
equipment may not be available when needed in addition to the three primary
functions, many organisations have a number of supporting functions, such as
personnel, accounting, engineering, purchasing, public relations, distribution
etc. the existence of these functions and the emphasis placed on each depend on
the type of business a firm is engaged in. We will take a closer look at these
functions:

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

3.1.2 Operations
The operational function consists of all activities directly related to producing
goods or providing services. Table 1.1 provides illustrations of the diversity of
operations management settings.
Table 1.1 Examples of types of operations
Type of operations Examples
Goods producing Farming, mining, construction, manufacturing,
power generation.
Storage/transportation Warehousing, trucking, mail service, moving
taxis, buses, hotels, airlines.
Exchange Retailing, wholesaling, banking, renting, or
leasing, library loans.
Communications Newspapers, radio and TV newscasts,
telephone, satellites.
Entertainment Films, radio & television, plays concerts,
recording.
The operations function is the core of most business organisations; it is
responsible for the creation of an organisations goods or services. Inputs are
used to obtain finished goods or services using one or more transformation
process (e.g. storing, transporting, cutting, and cleaning). To ensure that the
desired outputs are obtained, measurements are taken at various points in the
transformation process (Feedback) and then compared with previously
established standards to determine whether corrective action is needed
(control). Fig 1.3 shows the conversion process.

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Value
Added
Input
Workers

Transformation/
conversion

Managers

process

Equipment

Goods
Services

3
5

Facilities
Materials

Outputs

Services
Land
Energy
Money

Control

Figure 1.3: The conversion process of the operations function

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Table 1.2: Provides some examples of inputs, transformation processes, and outputs

Inputs
Land
Human
Physical
Intellectual
Raw materials
Energy
Water
Chemicals
Metals
Wood
Equipment
Machines
Computers
Trucks
Facilities
Hospitals
Factories
Offices
Retail stores
Information
Time
Others

Transformation Outputs
Processes
Goods
Cutting, drilling
Houses
Transportation
Automobiles
Teaching
Clothing
Farming
Computers
Mixing
Machines
Packing
TV
Canning
Food products
Consulting
Textbooks
Copying, faxing
Magazines
Shoes
CD players
Services
Health care
Entertainment
Car repair
Delivery
Crift wrapping
Legal
Banking
Communication

The essence of the operations function is to add value during the transformation
process: The term value added is used to describe the difference between the
cost of inputs and the value or price of outputs. In non-profit organisations, the
value of outputs (e.g. highway construction, police and five protection services
is their value to society; the greater the value added, the greater the
effectiveness of these operations. In the case of profit making organisations, the
value of outputs is measured by the prices that customers are willing to pay for
these goods or services.
Firms use the money generated by value-added for Research and Development
(R&D), investment in new plants and equipment, and profits. Consequently,
the greater the value added the greater the amount of funds available for these
purposes.
It is obvious that one sure way businesses can attempt to become more
productive is to examine critically whether the operations performed by their
workers add value. Those operations that do not add value are considered
wasteful. By eliminating or improving such operations, firms can reduce the
cost of inputs or processing, thereby increasing the value added. Let us use an
example to buttress this point: suppose a firm discovers that it is producing an

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

item much earlier than the scheduled delivery dates to a customer. This firm
evidently requires the storage of the item without adding to the value of the
item. Reducing storage time would reduce the transformation cost and, hence,
increase the value added.

3.1.3 Finance
The finance function is made up of activities related to securing resources at
favourable prices and allocating those resources throughout the organisation.
Generally, the finance and operations management personnel cooperate by
exchanging information and expertise in such activities as budgeting, economic
analysis of investment proposals and provision of funds. For instance, budgets
must necessarily and periodically prepared for the planning of financial
requirements. These budgets must sometimes be adjusted, and performance
relative to a budget must be evaluated. In addition, evaluation of alternative
investment in plant and equipment requires inputs from both operations and
finance people. Furthermore, the necessary funding of operations and the
amount and timing of such funding can be important and even critical when
funds are tight. Therefore, careful planning can help avoid cash flow problems.

3.1.4 Marketing
Marketing is concerned with sensing, serving, and satisfying the needs and
wants of the present and potential customers of the organisation. It consists of
selling and /or promoting the goods or services of the firm Advertising and
pricing decisions are made by the marketing people. It has been said that
marketing is responsible for assessing customer needs and wants, and for
communicating such to operations people (short term) and to design people
(long term). Hence, operations department needs information about demand
over the short to intermediate term so that it can plan accordingly (e.g
purchasers raw materials or schedule work). In addition, the design department
also needs information that relates to improving current products and services
and designing new ones.
In essence therefore, departments of marketing, design and production must
work closely to successfully implement design changes and to develop and
produce new products. Marketing usually supplies information on consumer
preferences so that the design department will know the kinds of products and
features needed . Operations department often supplies information about
capacities, as well as assess operationality of designs. Operations department
will also have advance warming if new equipment or skills will be needed for
new products or services.
It is
necessary to include the finance people in these exchanges so as to
provide information on what funds might be available (short term), and to learn
what funds might be needed for new products or services (intermediate to long

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

term). The marketing department needs information on lead time from the
operations department, so that customers can be given realistic estimates of
how long it will take to fill their orders.
From our treatment of sections 3.1.1, 3.1.2 and 3.1.3, it is clear that department
of marketing, operations and finance must interface on product and process
design, forecasting, setting realistic schedules, quality and quantity decisions
and keeping each other informed on the others strengths and weaknesses.

3.1.1 Other Functions

Apart from the three core functions, there are a host of other supporting
functions that interface with these core functional areas of operations, finance,
and marketing. These are illustrated in figure 1.4.
Accounting has responsibility for preparing the financial statements, such as
income statement and balance sheet. In addition, it supplies to management
costs of labour, materials, and overhead, it may also provide reports on scrap,
downtime and inventories. Furthermore, it must keep track of receivables,
payables, and insurance costs, as well as prepare tax statements for the firm.
It is the responsibility of the purchasing department to procure materials,
suppliers and equipment. The department is usually asked to evaluate vendors
for quality, reliability, service, force, and ability to adjust to changing demand.
In addition, the department is responsible for receiving and inspecting the
purchased goods.
The personnel department is concerned with recruitment and training of
personnel, labour relations, contract negotiations, wage and salary
administration, assisting in manpower projections.
It is the responsibility of public relations department to
positioned public image for the organisation. Very often,
sponsoring events in sports, donating to actual events in
actual events, and sponsoring community affairs.
Industrial engineering has the responsibility of scheduling,
standards, work methods, quality control and materials handling.

build and maintain a

this might involve
sports, donating to
performance

Distribution is concerned with the movement of goods to warehouses, retail

outlets or to customers.

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Industrial
engineering
Maintenance

Distribution

Purchasing

OPERATIONS

Accounting

Public
Relations

Personnel

Figure 1.4: Interface of operations with supporting functions.

Last, but by no means the least, the maintenance department is responsible for
general upkeep and repair of equipment, building and grounds, heating and airconditioners removing wastes; parking and, at times security.

3.2 Manufacturing and Service Operations

Manufacturing implies production of a tangible output (i.e. something that can
be seen or touched) such as a car, tyre, bread, knife, etc. Service on the other
hand, generally implies an act. Examples here include a doctors examination,
TV and auto repair, lawn care and lodging in a hotel. The majority of service
jobs fall into the following categories:
Education (schools, colleges, universities, etc.)
Business services (data processing, delivery, employment agencies, etc.)
Personal services (laundry, dry cleaning, hair/ beauty, gardening etc)
Health care (doctors, dentists, hospital care, etc)
Financial services (banking, stock brokerages, insurance, etc)
Wholesale / retail (clothing, food, appliances, stationeries, toys, etc)
Government (federal, state, local)

3.2.1 Differences between Manufacturing and Services

The differences between manufacturing and service operations fall into the
eight categories show in figure 1.5. You should however note that these
distinctions actually represent the ends of a continuum. The first distinction
arises from the physical nature of the product: manufactured goods are

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

physical, durable products. Services on the other hand are intangible,

perishable product- they are usually ideas, concept, or information.
The second area of difference also relates to the physical nature of the product.
For instance, manufactured goods are outputs that can be produced, stored, and
transported in anticipation of future demand. This way, creating inventories
allows manager to cope with fluctuations in demand by smoothing output level.
On the other hand, services cant be pre-produced. To this end, service
operations do not have the luxury of using finished goods inventories as a
cushion against erratic customer demand.
Customer contract is the third distinction between manufacturing and service
operations. Most customers for manufactured products have little or no contact
with the production system. The primary customer contract is normally left to
distributors and retailers. However, in the case of service firms, the customers
themselves are inputs, and thus, are active participant in the process.
Another distinction is response time to customer demand. For instance,
manufacturers generally have days or even weeks to meet customer demand.
However, many services must be offered within minutes of customer arrival.
The purchaser of a generator may be willing to wait for four weeks for
delivery. By contrast, a grocery store customer may grow inpatient after
waiting five minutes in a checkout line. Since customers for services usually
arrive at times convenient to them, service operations may have difficulty
matching capacity with demand. In addition, arrival patterns may vary daily or
hourly, thus creating even more short-term demand uncertainty.
There are two distinctions with respect to location and size of an operation.
Manufacturing facilities usually serve regional, national, or even international
markets. Therefore, they generally require larger facilities, more automation,
and greater capital investments than for service facilities. On the other hand,
services can not be moved to distant locations. Hence, service organisation
requiring direct customer contact must locate relatively near the customer

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

More like
manufacturing

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

more like a
service

Physical, durable product * Intangible, perishable product

Output can be inventoried * Output cannot be inventoried
Low customer contact
* High customer contact
Long response time
* Short response time
Large facilities
* Small facilities
Capital intensive
* Labour intensive
Quality easily measured
* Quality not easily measured
Regional, national, or
* Local markets
International markets.

Figure 1.5:
operations.

Continuum of characteristics of manufacturing and service

The final distinction between manufacturing and service operations relates to

the measurement of quality. Since manufacturing systems tend to have tangible
products and less customer contact, quality is relatively easy to measure.
However, the quality of service systems, which generally produce intangibles,
is often very difficult to measure. Coupled with this, the subjective nature of
individual preferences further makes the measurement of services difficult.

3.2.2 Similarities between Manufacturing and Service Operations

In spite of the differences already discussed there are compelling similarities
between manufacturing and service operation: firstly both have processes that
must be designed and managed effectively. Secondly, some type of technology
be it manual or computerized, must be used in each process. Thirdly, both of
them are usually concerned about quality, productivity and the timely response
to customers. Fourthly they must make choices about capacity, location, and
layout of their facilities. Fifthly, both deal with suppliers of outside services
and materials, as well as scheduling problems. Sixthly, matching staffing levels
and capacities with forecasted demand is a universal problem.

3.3 The Historical Evolution of Production and Operations

Management
Systems for production have existed since ancient times. The Egyptian
pyramids, the Greek Parthenon, the Great Wall of China, and the aqua ducts
and roads of the Roman Empire provide examples of the human ability to
organise for production. But the ways that these ancient peoples produced

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products were quite different from the production methods of today. The
production of goods for sale, at least in the modern sense, and the factory
system had their roots in the industrial revolution.

3.3.1 The Industrial Revolution

The industrial Revolution started in the 1770s in England and spread to the rest
of Europe as well to the United States during the nineteenth century. Before
this time, product systems were often referred to as the cottage system, because
the production of products took place in homes or cottages where craftsmen
directed apprentices in performing handwork on products.
Under the cottage system, it was usual for one person to be responsible for
making a product, such as a horse drawn wagon or a piece of furniture, for the
beginning to the end. Only simple tools were available. Products were made of
parts that were custom fitted to other parts. Because of this, the parts were not
interchangeable. Generally, production was slow and labour- intensive.
However, the industrial revolution changed the face of production forever with
two principal elements: the widespread substitution of machine power for
human and water power and the establishment of the factory system. The steam
engine, invented by James Watt in 1764, provided machine power for factories
and stimulated other inventions of the time. For example, the availability of the
steam engine and production machines allowed the gathering of workers into
factories away from rivers. The large number of workers assembled into
factories created the need for organising them in logical ways to produce
products.
It was around this period, that Adam Smith wrote his book, the Wealth of
Nationals in 1776, which touted the economic benefits of the division of
labour. This meant breaking up a production process unto a series of small
tasks, each of which were assigned to different workers.

Another important milestone occurred in 1790 when Eli Whitney, an American

inventor, developed the concept of interchangeable parts. Whitney designed
rifles to be manufactured for the U.S government on an assembly line such that
parts were produced to tolerances allowing every part to fit right the very first
time. This method of production ensured that the parts did not have to be
custom made, they were standardised.
Consequent upon these various developments, factories began to spring up and
grow rapidly, thereby providing jobs for many people who were attracted in
large numbers from rural areas. Unfortunately however, working conditions
were very poor in those times, and many workers actually suffered injury or
death.

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In spite of the major changes that took place, management theory and practice
had not progressed much from early days.

3.3.2 Scientific Management

The scientific-management era brought widespread changes to the management
of factories.
Table 1.3 presents the main characters of the scientific
management era.
The movement was spearheaded by Frederick Winslow
Taylor, who is often referred to as the father of scientific management. Taylor
was born in 1856 in Pennsylvania, the son of a prosperous attorney. In 1878, he
took a job in philadelphia at the Midvale Steel Company, whose president
believed in experimentation to improve factory work methods. Taylor began as
a labourer, but within six years he rose from labourer to clerk, to machinist, to
gang boss of mechanist, to foreman, to master mechanic of maintenance, and
finally to chief engineer of the works.
Taylors belief in scientific management was based on observation,
measurement, analysis and improvement of work methods, and economics
incentives.
Taylors shop system, a systematic approach to improving worker efficiency,
employed the following steps.
1. Skill, strength and learning ability were determined for each worker so
that individuals could be placed in jobs for which they were best suited.
2. Stopwatch studies were used to precisely set standard of output per
worker on each task. The expected output on each job was used for
planning and scheduling work and for comparing different methods of
performing tasks.
3. Instruction cards, routing sequences, and materials specifications were
used to coordinate and organise the shop so that work methods and work
flow could be standardised and labour output standard could be met.
4. Supervision was improved through careful selection and training. Taylor
frequently pointed out that management was indeed negligent in the
performance of its functions. He strongly believed that management had
to accept planning, organising, controlling, and methods determination
responsibilities, rather than leave these important functions to the
workers.
5. Incentive pay systems were initiated to increase efficiency and to relieve
foremen of their traditional responsibility or driving workers.
Each of the scientific management pioneers listed in Table 1.3 took
active parts in spreading the gospel of efficiency. All of them
contributed valuable techniques and approaches that eventually shaped
scientific management into a powerful force to facilitate mass
production.

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There is no doubt that scientific management has dramatically affected

todays management practices. For instance, the movements struggle to
find the one best way to operate factories leads logically to a questioning
attitude on the part of managers in every phase of production systems.
This questioning attitude encourages managers to attempt to build
factories that operates with clockwork efficiency.
Table 1.3: Scientific Management: The Players and Their Parts
Contributor Life span Contributions
Fredrick Winslow
1856 -1915 Scientific management principles,
Taylor
exception principle, time study, method
analysis, standards, planning, control
Frank B. Gilbreth 1868-1934 Motion study, methods, therbligs,
construction contracting, consulting
Lillian M. Gilbreth 1878- 1973 Fatigue studies, human factor in work,
employee selection and training
Henry L. Gantt 1961 -1919 Gantt charts, incentive pay system,
humanistic approach to labor, training
Carl G. Barth 1860-1939 Mathematical analysis, slide rule, feeds
and speeds studies, consulting to
automobile industry
Harrington Emerson 1885-1931 Principles of efficiency, million dollars
day savings in railroads, methods of
control
Morris L. Cooke 1872-1960 Scientific management application to
education and government

3.3.3 Human Relations and Behaviouralism

During the industrial Revolution, factory workers were largely uneducated,
unskilled, and undisciplined, having come fresh from farms. These workers
generally had a basic dislike for factory work. They were however forced by
circumstances to take to the jobs, since there was nothing for them to live on.
Factory managers often had to develop stringent controls to force them to work
hard. This practice of stringent controls continued into the 1800s and early
1900s. Basic to this management method was the assumption that workers have
to be placed in jobs designed to ensure that they would work hard and
efficiently.
However, between World War 1 and World War II, there began to emerge in
the United States a philosophy among managers that workers were human
beings and should be treated with dignity while on the job. The human relations
movement began in Illinois with the work of Elton Mayo, F. J Roethlisberger,
T.N. Whitehead, and W.J Dickson at the Hawthorne, Illinois, plant of the
western electric company in the 1927-1932 periods.

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These Harwthorne studies were initially started by industrial engineers. The

objectives of the studies were to determine the optimal level of lighting to get
the most products from workers. The studies produced confusing results about
the relationship between
physical environment and worker efficiency. The
researchers were to later realise that human factor must be affecting production.
This was about the first time that researchers and managers alike recognized
that psychological and sociological factors affected not only human motivation
and attitude, but production as well. In this regard therefore, operations
managers need to create an organisational climate that encourages employees
to devote their energy, ingenuity, and skill to the achievement of organisational
objectives.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE (SAE)
1. Define POM
2. What was the industrial Revolution? When did it happen?
3. List five important differences between manufacturing and service
operations.

4.0

CONCLUSION

Unit one has thrown light on an understanding of the term Production and
Operations Management. You have been able to identify the three major
functional areas of an organization, as well as how these functions interrelate.
The unit has also enabled you to compare and contrast services and
manufacturing operations. A special emphasis was placed on the historical
evolution of Production and Operations Management.

5.0

SUMMARY

This unit has introduced Operations Management as a function that enables

organizations to achieve goals through efficient acquisition and utilization of
resources. The unit points out that a typical business organization has three
basic functions, including: Finance; production/operations; and marketing. It
also point out that, apart from these three core functions, there are other
functions, including: distribution, maintenance purchasing, accounting,
personnel, public relations, and the like.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Briefly discuss each of these terms related to the historical evolution of

POM:
(a) Industrial Revolution
(b) Scientific management
(c) Interchangeable parts

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(d) Division of labour

2. Describe Frederick W. Taylor shop management Approach.

7.0

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Cohen, S.S. and J. Z ysman (1987) Manufacturing matters. The Myth of

post-Industrial Economy. New York: Basic Books.

the

George, C.S.., Jr. (1968):

The History of Management Thought
Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice. Hall.
Collier, D.A. (1987): Service Management: Operating Decisions.
Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice-Hall
Porter, L.W and L.E. Mckibbin

(1988):

Management Education and

Development: Drift or thrust into 21st century?. New York;

McGraw-

Hill.
Womack, J.P; D.T. James and D. Roos (1991): The Machine That
the World. New York, Harper perennial.

changed

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UNIT 2

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

OPERATIONS STRATEGY

CONTENTS
1.0
Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Operations Strategy
3.2 Relationship between Operations and Strategy
and Corporate Strategy
3.2.1 Strategic Alternatives
3.3 Strategies and Tactics
3.4 Operations Strategy
3.4.1 Elements of Operations Strategy
3.4.1.1
Focus of Production
3.4.1.2
Product/Service Plans
3.4.1.3
Production Process and Technology Plans
3.4.1.4 Allocation of Resources to Strategic
Alternative
3.4.1.5 Facility Plans: Capacity, Location and Layout
3.4.2 Market Analysis
3.4.2.1 Market Segmentation
3.4.3 Needs Assessment
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0

INTRODUCTION

There is an increasing recognition that operations should assist the firm achieve
a competitive position in the market place. Hence, apart from being a place to
make the firms products and services, operations should also lead to some
competitive strength to the business as well. This realization is being
encouraged by increased foreign competition, the need for improved
productivity and increased customer demands for improved quality. Gaining a
competitive advantage through improved operations performance requires a
strategic response on the part of the operations function. The focus of this unit
is therefore on operations strategy, which specifies how operations can help
implement the firms corporate strategy. Here, you will see how operations
strategy links long and short operations decision.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(i) Define the term strategy, and explain why it is important for
competitiveness.
(ii) Explain how to link marketing strategy to operations strategy, through
the use of competitive priorities.
(iii) Provide example of how firms use competitive priorities for competitive
advantage.
(iv) Compare organisation strategy and operations strategy and explain why
it is important to link them

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Operations Strategy
Let us start by giving a working definition of operations strategy as follows:
Operations strategy is a vision for the operations function that
sets an overall direction or thrust for decision making. This
vision should be integrated with the business strategy and is
often, but not always, reflected in a formed plan. The operations
strategy showed result in a consistent pattern of decision making
in operations and a competitive advantage for the company
(Shroeder, 1993)
There are many definitions of operations strategy in the literature, and these
help to amplify and expand on the above definition. We will examine three of
such definitions: The first, by Shroeder, Anderson, and Cleveland (1986)
define operations strategy as consisting of four components: Mission,
distinctive competence, objectives and policies. These four components assist
us in defining what goals operations should accomplish and how it should
achieve those goals. The resulting strategy should then guide decision making
in all phases of operations.
The second definition we shall examine is given by Hayes and Wheelwright
(1984). They define operations strategy as a consistent pattern in operations
decision. The more consistent those decision are, and the greater the degree to
which they support the business strategy, the better. They go on to define how
major decisions in operations should be made and integrated with each other.
While Hayes and Wheelwright emphasize the result of operations strategy i.e a
consistent pattern in decision making, Schroader et al, emphasize operations
strategy as an antecedent to decision making. However, both agree that a
consistent pattern of decision making must be the result.

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In our third definition, Skinner (1985) defines operations strategy in term of the
linkage between decision in operations and corporate strategy. He observes that
when operations are out of step with the corporate strategy, operations
decisions are often inconsistent and short range in nature. Consequently,
operations are divorced from the business and the linkage with corporate
strategy is weak. To remedy this unpleasant situation, Skinner recommends the
development of an operations strategy, derived from the corporate strategy,
which defines a primary task (i.e. what operations must do well for the business
to succeed), and a consistent set of operations policies to guide decision
making.
In addition to the three definitions just examined, Hill (1989) has also
developed an innovative approach to defining and developing operations
strategy. He shows how to link operations decisions. This is a
customer-driven approach to focus operations on what the customer requires.
From this perspective, quality, process, capacity, inventory and work-force
decisions then follow from the customer requirement.
These various approaches we just examined should give us some insight into
what operations strategy is, and how the strategy can be developed or
improved.

3.2 Relationship Between Operations Strategy and Corporate

Strategy
Developing a customer driven operations strategy begins with market analysis,
which categorizes the firms customers, identifies their needs and assesses
competitors strength. You should note that this analysis accompanies an
analysis of the external environment. In the second phase, the firm formulates
its corporate strategy, which constitutes the organisations overall goals. After
the firm has determined which customers it wants to serve, it then goes on to
develop its competitive priorities, or the capabilities and strength that the firm
must possess to meet customer demand.
The competitive priorities and the future directions the form will take, such as
global strategies, and new products or services, provide input for functional
strategies or the goals and long-term plans of each functional area. By making
use of its strategies planning process, each functional area is responsible for
identifying ways to develop the capabilities it will need to carry out functional
strategies and achieve corporate goals. This input, along with the current status
and capability of each area, is fed back into the corporate strategic planning
process to indicate whether corporate strategy should be modified. (See Figure
2.1).

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Figure 2.1: Priorities: Link Between Corporate Strategy and Functional

Area Strategies

Market analysis
Socioeconomic
Segmentation
and business
Needs assessment environment

Corporate strategy
Missions
Goals
Distinctive competence

Future directions Competitive priorities

Capabilities
Global strategy Operations marketing * current
New products/ - cost
* needed
Services
- quality finance
* plans
- time
- flexibility others

Functional area strategies

finance
marketing
operations
others

Corporate Strategy
In any business organisation, it is the responsibility of top management to plan
the organisations long-term future. In this regard therefore, corporate strategy
defines the businesses that the company will pursue, new threats and
opportunities in the environment, and the growth objectives that it should
achieve. Also addressed, is business strategy, i.e how a firm can differentiate
itself from the competition. The various alternatives could include producing
standardized products instead of customized products or competing on the basis
of cost advantage versus responsive delivery. Thus, corporate strategy provides
an overall direction that serves as the framework for carrying out all the
organisations functions. In the sections that follow, we shall discuss the basic

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alternatives involved in corporate strategy and how global markets affect

strategic planning.

3.2.1 Strategic Alternatives

As you already know, corporate strategy defines the direction of the
organisation over the long term and determines the goals that must be achieved
for the firm to be successful. Corporate strategy is set by management via three
strategic alternatives:
(i) determining the firms mission;
(ii) monitoring and adjusting to changes in the environment ; and
(iii) identifying and developing the firms core competencies
Let us try to look into these three alternatives more closely:
(a) Determining the firms mission
An organisations mission is the basis of the organisation, i.e the reason for its
existence. Note that missions vary from organisation to organisation,
depending on the nature of their business. It is important that an organisation
have a clear and simple mission statement, one which answers several
fundamental questions such as:
What business are we in?
Where should we be ten years from now?
Who are our customers (or clients)?
What are our basic beliefs?
What are the key performance objectives, such as profits, growth
market share, by which we measure success?

or

The mission statement should serve to guide formulation of strategies for the
organisation, as well as decision making at all levels. In addition, an
understanding of the firms mission helps managers generate ideas and design
new products and services. If its mission is too broadly defined, the firm could
enter areas in which it has no expertise. On the other hand, if the mission is too
narrowly defined the firm could miss promising growth opportunities. Hence,
without a clear mission, an organisation is unlikely to achieve its true potential
because there is little direction for formulating strategies.
(b)

Monitoring and adjusting to change in the Environment

The external business environment in which a firm competes changes

continually for this reason, an organisation needs to adapt to those changes.
Usually, adaptation begins with environmental scanning.

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Environment scanning is the considering of events and trends that present

either threats or opportunities for the organisation. Generally, these include:
Competitors activities;
Changing consumer needs;
Legal, economic, political and environmental issues;
The potential for new markets; etc.
Technological changes
Social changes (such as attitudes toward work)
Availability of vital resources and
Collective power of customers or suppliers.
Depending on the nature of an organisation and the locations of its customers,
the issues raised above may be looked at on global, national, regional or local
basis.
A crucial reason for environmental scanning is to stay ahead of the
competition. For instance, competitors may be gaining an edge by broadening
product lines, improving quality, or lowering costs. In addition, new entrants
into the market or competitors who offer substitutes for the firms product or
service may threaten continued profitability.
(c) Identifying and developing the firms core competencies
Core competencies are those special attributes or abilities possessed by an
organisation that gives it a competitive edge. They reflect the collective
learning of the organisation, especially in how to coordinate diverse processes
and integrate multiple technologies. In effect core competencies relate to the
ways that organisations compete.
Competitiveness is an important factor in determining whether a company
prospers, barely gets by, or fails. Business organisations compete with
themselves in a variety of ways. Key among them are price, quality, product
or service differentiation, flexibility, time to perform certain activities,
workforce, facilities, market and financial know-how and systems, and
technology.
(i) Price: Price is the amount a customer must pay for the product or
service. If all other factors are equal, customers will choose the product
or services that has the lower price. Organisations that compete on price
may settle for lower profit margins. However, they must focus on
lowering production costs
(ii) Quality: This refers to materials and workmanship as well as design.
Generally, it relates to the buyers perceptions of how well the product
or service will serve its purpose.

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(iii) Product differentiation: Product differentiation refers to any special

features (.e.g design, cost, quality, case of use, convenient location,
warrants etc) that cause a product or service to be perceived by the
buyers is more suitable than a competitors product or service.
(iv) Flexibility: This is the ability to respond to changes. The better a
company or department is at responding to changes, the greater its
competitive advantage one another company that is not as responsive.
The changes might relate to increases or decreases in volume demanded,
or to changes in product mix.
(v) Time: This refers to a number of different aspects of an organisations
operations. There are at least three examples here: one is how quickly a
product or service is delivered to a customer. Two, is how quickly new
product or services are developed and brought to the market. Thirdly, is
the rate at which improvements in products or services are made.
(vi) Workforce: A well-trained and flexible work force is an advantage that
allows organisations to respond to market needs in a timely fashion.
This competency is particularly important in service organisation where
the customer comes in direct contact with the employees.
(vii) Facilities: Having well-located facilities offices, stores, and plants is
a primary advantage because of the long lead time needed to build new
ones. For instance, expansion into new products or services may be
accomplished quickly. Furthermore, facilities that are flexible and can
handle a variety of products or services at different levels of volume
provide a competitive advantage.
(viii) Market and Financial know-how: An organization that can easily
attract capital from stock sales, market and distribute its products has a
competitive edge.

3.3 Strategies and Tactics

As you are already aware, a mission statement provides a general direction for
an organisation and gives rise to organizational goals, which provide substance
to the overall mission. For example, one goal of an organisation may be to
capture a certain percentage of market share for a product; another goal may be
to achieve a certain level of profitability. Taken together, the goals and the
mission establish a destination for the organisation.
Strategies are plans for achieving goals. If we have already likened goals to
destinations, then, strategies may be seen as road maps for reaching the
destination. Strategies provide focus for decision making. organisations usually
have overall strategies refereed to as organisation strategies (i.e.Corporate

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Strategies), which relate to the entire organisation. They also have functional
strategies, which relate to each of the functional areas of the organisation.
Tactics are the methods and actions used to accomplish strategies. They are
more specific in nature than strategies, and they provide guidance and direction
for carrying out actual operations, which need the most specific and detailed
plans and decision making in an organisation. One may think of tactics as the
how to part of the process (e.g. how to reach the destination, following the
strategy road map) and operation as the actual doing: part of the process.
Please note that the overall relationship that exists from the mission down to
actual operations is hierarchical in nature. This is illustrated in Figure 2.2.

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Figure 2.2: Planning and decision making in Hierarchical Organizations

Mission

Goals

Organizational
Strategy

Functional strategies
Finance Marketing Operations

Tactics Tactics Tactics

Finance
Operations

Marketing
Operations

Operations
operations

3.4 Operations Strategy

You have seen that corporate strategy provides the overall direction for the
organisation. It is broad in scope, covering the entire organisation. Operations
strategy on the other hand is narrower in scope, dealing primarily with the
operations aspect of the organisation. It relates to products, processes, methods,
operating resources, quality, costs, lead times and scheduling.
It is often very important to link operations strategy to corporate strategy, so as
to make it truly effective. This means that the two should not be formulated
independently. In this regard, therefore, formulation of corporate strategy
should always consider the realities of operations strengths and weaknesses
what is normally done is to capitalise on strengths and deal squarely with
weaknesses. Similarly, operations strategy must be consistent with the overall
strategy of the organisation, and formulated to support the goals of the
organisation.
In conformity with the principles above, Figure 2.3 shows that operations
strategies are derived directly form the corporate mission and business strategy.
Operations strategy can have a major influence on the competitiveness of an
organisation. For instance, if it is well formulated and well executed, there is a
strong possibility that the organisation will be successful. Conversely, if it is

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poorly designed or excited, the chances are much less that the organisation will
be successful.
Figure 2.3: Developing Operations Strategy

Corporate Mission

Assessment
of Global
Business
Conditions

Business
Strategy

Distinctive
Competencies or
Weaknesses

Product/Service
Plans

Competitive
Priorities
Cost, Time,

Operations Strategy
Positioning the Production System
Focus of Production
Product/Service Designs and Plans
Production Process and Technology Plans
Allocation of Resources to Strategic Alternatives
Facility Plans: Capacity, Location, and Layout

3.4.1 Elements of Operations Strategy

We shall break our discussion on operation strategy under the following units:
(1) positioning the production system, (2) focus of production (3) product/
service plans, (4) production process and technology plans, (5) allocation of
resources to strategic alternatives, and (6) facility plans: capacity, location and
layout.

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Positioning the Production System

Positioning the production system in manufacturing generally means selecting
the type of product design, type of production processing system, and type of
finished goods inventory policy for each product group in the business
strategy.
With regard to product design, there are usually tow basic types: custom and
standard. Custom products are designed according to the need of individual
customers. The consequence of choosing this type of product is that there will
be many products, each being produced in small batches. It should be clear to
you that flexibility and on-time delivery are the competitive priorities needed
for this type of product. In case of standard products, only a few product
models are produced, either continuously or in very large batches. Fast delivery
and low production cost are usually needed for this type of product.
There are also two basic types of production process: product-focused and
process-focused. Product focused production is also called line flow
production, production lines and assembly lives. Here, both the machines and
workers needed to produce a product are grouped together. This type of
product is appropriate where there are only a few standard products, each with
a high volume. Since such systems are usually difficult and expensive to
change to other product designs and production volumes, they are not very
flexible. Process-focused production is usually best when producing many
unique products, each with a relatively low volume. Each production
department ordinarily performs only one type of process, such as painting. All
products that need such services are then transported to that particular
department. Custom products usually require this form of production because
process-focused systems are relatively easy and inexpensive to change to other
products and volumes, thereby offering great flexibility. Hence, if a business
strategy calls for custom products whose market strategy requires the
competitive priorities of flexibility and on-time delivery, then process-focused
production is usually preferred.
Again, there are two types of finished goods inventory policies: produce to
stock and produce to order. In the case of the produce-to-stock policy, products
are produced ahead of time and then placed in inventory. Later, when orders
for the products are received, the products are then shipped immediately from
inventory. For the produce-to-order policy, operations managers usually wait
until they have the customers order in hand before they produce the products.
With the proper selection of an appropriate product design, production process
and finished goods inventory policy for a product, much of the structure
required of a factory may have been established.

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3.4.1.2 Focus of Production

Another important element of operations strategy is the plan for each
production facility to be specialized in some way. This idea of the specialized
factory has been labeled focused factory by Skinner (1974). According to
him a factory that focuses on a narrow product mix for a particular market
niche will outperform the conventional plant which attempts a broader mission.
Because its equipment supporting system and procedures can concentrate on a
limited task for one set of customers, its costs and especially its overheads are
likely to be lower than those of the conventional plant. But, more important,
such a plant can become a competitive weapon because its entire apparatus is
focused to accompany the particular manufacturing task demanded by the
companys overall strategy and marking objective.
How can factories and service facilities become more focused? This can be
done in two major ways: specializing in only a few product models or a few
production processes. Graither (1996) submits that it is desirable for factories
and service facilities to be specialised in some way, so that they will not be
vulnerable to smaller and more specialized competitors that can provide a
particular set of customers with a better set of cost, delivery, quality and
customer service performance. However, this is not to say that smaller facilities
are always better. Actually, economies of scale have to be considered while
choosing the size of production facilities.

3.4.1.3 Product/Service Plans

Plans for new products and services to be designed, developed and introduced
are also an important part of business strategy. Operations strategy is directly
influenced by product/service plans because:
(i) As products are designed, all the detailed characteristics of each product
are established;
(ii) Each product characteristics directly affects how the product can be
made or produced; and
(iii) How the product is made determines the design of the production
system, which is the heart of operations strategy.

3.4.1.4 Production Process and Technology Plans

Another important part of operations strategy is the determination of how
products will be produced. This entails planning every detail of production
process and facilities. You should note here, that the range of production
technologies available to produce both products and service is great and is
continuously increasing. For instance, combining
high-technology production
equipment with conventional equipment, and devising effective overall
production schemes are indeed challenging.

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3.4.1.5 Allocation of Resources to Strategic Alternative

Allocation of resources constitutes a common type of strategic decision to be
made by operations managers.
For example, almost all companies today have limited resources available for
production. For instance, cash and capital funds, capacity, research
laboratories, workers, engineers, machines, materials and other resources are
scarce in varying degrees to each firm. Shortages of these resources generally
have serious impacts on production systems. These resources must be divided
among, or allocated to product, business units, projects, or profit opportunities
in ways that maximize the achievement of the objectives of operations.

3.4.1.6 Facility Plans: Capacity, Location and Layout

Another critical part of setting operations strategy is how to provide the longrange production capacity to produce the products/services for a firm. Huge
capital investment is required to make production capacity available. For
instance, land and production equipment may need to be bought, and
specialized production technologies may have to be developed. In addition,
new production equipment may need to be made or purchased and installed,
and new factories may need to be located and built.
It is obvious that the decisions involved here have long-lasting effects and are
subject to great risk. For example, if poor decisions are made or if
circumstances change after the company has commuted to a choice of
alternatives, it has to live with the results of such decision for quite sometime.
Relevant decisions in these areas are therefore treated under long-range
planning and Facility Location.

Market Analysis
One important key to success in formulating a customer-driven operations
strategy is understanding what the customer wants and how to provide it better
than the competitor does. This clearly means that the market must be analyzed.
Market analysis first divides the firms customers into market segments and
then identifies the need of each segment. In the sections that follow, we shall
define and discuss the concept of market segmentation and needs assessment.

3.4.1.1 Market Segmentation.

This is the process of identifying groups of customers with similar
characteristics to warrant the design and provision of products or services that
the larger group wants and needs. In general, in order to identify market
segments, the analyst must determine the characteristics that clearly
differentiate each segment. After this, a sound marketing programme can be

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devised and an effective operating system developed to support the marketing

plan.
Having identified a market segment, the firm can then incorporate the needs of
customers into the design of the product or service as well as the operations
systems for its production. The following characteristics are among those that
can be used to determine market segments:
(i) Demographic factors: age, income, educational level, occupation and
geographical locations are examples of factors that can differentiate
markets.
(ii) Psychological factors: factors such as pleasure, fear, innovativeness,
and boredom can be said to segment markets. For example, people with
a fear of crime constitute a market segment that has led to the creation of
new products and services for protection.
(iii) Industry factors: Customers may make use of specific technologies
(e.g. electronics, robotics, or microwave telecommunications), use
certain materials (e.g. rubber, oil or wool) or participate in a particular
industry (e.g. banking health, care or automotive). These factors are
used for market segmentation when the firms customers use its goods
or services to produce other goods or services for sale.

3.4.3 Needs Assessment

The second step in market analysis is to make a needs assessment. Needs
assessment seeks to identify the needs of each segment, and assess how well
competitors are addressing those needs. One important advantage of the needs
assessment is that it allows the firm to differentiate itself from its competitors.
Usually, the needs assessment include both the tangible and the intangible
product attributes and features a customer desires. The attributes and features
are commonly referred to as the customer benefit package, and they consist of a
core product or service and a set of peripheral products or services. Note that
the customer often views the customer benefit package as a whole. For
example, when you buy a personal computer (PC), the core product is the PC
itself i.e. its features and qualities. However, the peripheral services offered by
the dealer play an important role in your decision to purchase the PC. These
include the manner in which you are treated by the sales person, the availability
of credit facility, and the quality of after-sales services at the dealership. Hence,
the customer benefit package is the PC together with the services provided by
the dealership. Generally, customers will not be completely satisfied unless
they receive the entire customer benefit package.
By understanding the customer benefit package for a market segment,
management is able to identify ways of gaining competitive advantage in the
market. Each market segment has market needs that can be related to

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product/service process or demand attributes. Market needs has been grouped

as follows:
(a) Product/Service needs i.e. attributes of the product or service, such as
price, quality and degree of customization desired.
(b) Delivery system needs i.e. attributes of the process and the supporting
systems and resources needed to deliver the product or service, such as
availability, convenience, courtesy, safety, delivery speed and delivery
dependability
(c) Volume needs i.e attributes of the demand for the product or service,
such as high or low volume, degree of variability in volume and degree
of predictability in volume.
(d) Other need i.e other attributes not directly relating to operations, such as
reputation and number of years in business, technical after sales support,
accurate and reliable billing and accounting systems, ability to invest in
international financial markets, competent legal services and
product/services design capability.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE (SAE)
Understanding the customer benefit package enables management to identify
ways to gain competitive advantage in the marketplace. What do you consider
to be the components of the customers benefit package in the provision of:
(a) a car
(b) an airline flight
Suppose that you were conducting a market analysis for a new textbook about
Business management. What factors would you consider in order to identify a
market segment? How would you make a need assessment?

4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has taken you through operations strategy, which is embodied in the
long-range production plan. This plan specifies positioning strategies, focus of
production, product and production process and technology plans, allocation of
resources to strategic alternatives, and facility planning. Once these issues have
been decided and set in place, the fundamental structure of the operations
function is established.

5.0 SUMMARY
Strategies are the basic approaches used by an organisation to achieve its goals.
Strategies provide focus for planning and decision making. Organisations
typically have overall strategies that pertain to the entire organisation, and
strategies for each of the functional areas. Functional strategies are narrower in
scope and should be linked to overall strategy.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

1. Why should a firm not attempt to excel in al the areas of
competitive priorities?
2. What determines the choice of the competitive priorities that a company
should emphasize?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Krajewski, L.J. and L.P. Ritzman (1999): Operations Management AddisonWesley Safizadeh, H.M. L.P. Ritzman,D. Sharman and C. Wood (1996):
An Empirical Analysis of the
Product Process matrix
Management Science vol 42, No 1 pp 1576 1591.
Stalk, G. P. Evans, and P.E. Schulman (1992): Competing on capabilities: The
New Rules of Corporate Strategy Harvard Business Review (March
April) pp. 57-69
Vickery, S.K., C Droge and R.R, Markland (1993) Production
Competence and Business Strategy: Do they affect Business
Performance? Decision Sciences, vol 24, no 2 pp 435 456.
Wheelwright, S.C. and H.K. Bowen. The Challenge of Manufacturing
Advantage Production and Operations Management , Vol 5 No 1
pp 59- 77.

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UNIT 3

FORECASTING IN POM

CONTENTS
1.0
Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Introduction to Forecasting in POM
3.2 Importance of Forecasting in POM
3.3 An Overview of Demand Measurement
3.4 Time Horizon in Forecasting
3.4.1 Short Range
3.4.2 Medium Range
3.4.3 Long Range
3.5 Importance of Sales Forecasting
3.6 Sales Forecasting Methods
3.6.1 Subjective or Qualitative Methods
3.6.1.1 Users Expectations
3.6.1.2
Sales Force Composite
3.6.1.3
Jury of Executive Opinion
3.6.1.4
Delphi Technique
3.6.2 Objective or Quantitative Methods
3.6.2.1 Market Test
3.6.2.2 Time Series
3.6.2.3 Statistical Demand Analysis
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0

INTRODUCTION

This unit introduces you to forecasting in production and operations

management (POM). Planning is an integral part of a managers job, and if
uncertainties becloud the planning horizon, managers will find it difficult to
plan effectively. Forecasts help managers by reducing some of the
uncertainties, thereby enabling them to develop more meaningful plans. In a
nutshell, a forecast is statement about the future.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(i) Describe at least four qualitative forecasting techniques and the
advantages and limitations of each.

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(ii) Compare and contrast qualitative and quantitative approaches to

forecasting.
(iii) Identify the five basic demand patterns that combine to produce some
series.
(iv) Choose an appropriate forecasting technique for a given decision
problem.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Introduction to Forecasting in POM.
Customer demand is the backbone of all enterprises. Occasionally, however,
customers appear unexpectedly, without prior notice. This sudden situation
very often throws organisations off balance to the extent that the quality of
their products, response time and customer service are badly affected. But this
shouldnt be allowed to happen. A well-managed enterprise will make efforts
to forecast demand, which normally allows it to be reasonably prepared when
the demand actually occurs. Broadly speaking, well-managed businesses strive
to manage demand, and this normally includes:
Planning for demand
Recognizing and accounting for all sources of demand
Pre-processing of demand.
From the foregoing therefore, it is important that organisations have effective
approaches to forecasting. In addition, forecasting should be an integral part of
their business planning. Figure 3.1 is an illustration that forecasting is an
integral part of business planning. The figure shows that the major inputs from
various market conditions, economic outlook and other factors such as legal,
political, sociological and cultural forces are processed through forecasting
models or methods to develop demand estimates. You must however note that
these demand estimates are not the sales forecasts. They are just the starting
point for management teams to develop sales forecast. The sales forecasts in
turn become inputs to both business strategy and production resource forecasts.
Actually, when managers plan, they are merely trying to determine in the
present, what causes of action they will take in the future. The first step in
planning is therefore forecasting or better still, estimating the future demand for
products and services and the resources necessary to produce these outputs.
Estimates of the future demand for products are usually referred to as sales
forecasts. These are the starting point for all the other forecasts in POM. Can
you now guess why forecasting is so essential to POM? Anyway, let us look at
this together: Operations managers need long-range forecasts to make strategic
decisions about products, process, and facilities. They will also need shortrange forecasts to assist them in making decisions about product issues that
span only the next few weeks.

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Figure 3.1 Forecasting as an Integral Part of Business Planning

INPUTS
Market Conditions
Competitor Actions
Consumer Tastes
Products Life C ycles
Season
Customers Plans

OUTPUTS

Forecasting
Method(s)
Or Model(s)

Economy Outlook
Business Cycle Status
Leading Indicators-Stock
Prices, Bond Yields, Material
Prices, Business Failures, Money
Supply, Unemployment
Other Factors
Legal
Political
Sociological
Cultural
Forecast Errors/

Estimated
Demand
For Each
Product in
Each Time
Period, Other

Management Team

SALES
FORECAST
Forecast of
Demand for
Each Product
In Each Time

Production
Capacity
Available
Resources
Risk Aversion
Experience
Personal Values
And Motives
Social and
Cultural Values
Other factors

Feedback

Procedure for Translating Sales

Forecast into Production
Resource Forecasts

Business Strat egy

Marketin g Plan Advertising,
Sales Efforts, Price, Past Sales
Production Plan Quality
Levels, C ustomer Service,
Capacity,
Costs
Finance Plan
Credit Policies, Billing Policies

PRODUCTION RESOURCE FORECAST S

Long-Range

Medium-Range Short-Range

Factory Capacities
Work Force
Labor by Skill Class
Capital Funds
Department Capacities Machine Capacities
Facility Needs
Purchased Materials
Cash
Other
Inventories
Inventories
Other
Other

Source: Adapted From Gaither, N. (1996), Belmont, Duxury Press, p.64.

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3.2 Importance of Forecasting in POM.

Some of the reasons why forecasting is very essential in POM are given below:
1. New Facility Planning: It usually takes as long as five years to design
and build a new factory or design and implement a new production
process. Such strategic activities in POM require long-range forecasts of
demand for existing and new products so that operations managers can
have the necessary lead time to build factories and install processes to
produce the products and services when needed.
2. Production Planning: Usually, demands from products continue to
vary from month to month and from one season to the other. Hence
production rates need to be scaled up or down to meet these varying
demands. We should also note that it can take some months to alter the
capacities of production processes. Therefore, operations managers need
medium-range forecasts so that they can have the lead time necessary to
provide the production capacity to produce there variable monthly
demands.
3. Work Force Scheduling: Demands for products and services may
actually vary from week to week. In order to remain on an efficient or
profitable level of operation, the work force must, out of necessity be
scaled up or down to meet these demands by using various methods,
such as reassignment, overtime, layoffs, or hiring. In this regards,
operations managers need short-range forecasts so that they can have the
lead time necessary to provide work force changes for the production of
weekly demands.

3.3 An Overview of Demand Measurement:

We need to realize right from here, that demand management is a shared
responsibility. Usually, a master planning team, composed of experts in
Marketing, Finance and Operations is responsible for taking care of, and
coordinating demand management activities. This team has at least three
important roles to play. These are to:
* Account for all sources of demand: historical demand patterns, sales
force estimates, actual orders and direct selling, within company (i.e.
division-to-division) demands, and economic influences.
* Influence demand, e.g. through special promotions
* Evaluate the impact of any demand management plan on capacity and
cash flow.

Time Horizon in Forecasting

From our previous discussion, you will have observed that forecasts can be
made over any time horizon. However, the shorter the period being considered,
the more accurate is the forecasts, since one is more certain of the variables

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involved. Descriptions of forecast elements over three time horizon include

short-range, medium-range and long-range. Each time frame is discussed
below with examples of some of the things usually forecasted:

3.4.1 Short Range

A short-range forecast is one for a time span of a few weeks, up to say about
three months. It would include forecasting such items as:

purchase transactions;
cash requirements;
work scheduling;
workforce levels;
job assignments; and
production levels.

3.4.2 Medium Range

The medium-range forecast covers between about three months and up to one
year. Items usually included here are:

capacity plan;
operating cash budgets;
production plans;
sales plans; and
Subcontractor needs.

3.4.3 Long Range

A long-range forecast usually spans a year up to about five years, and would
include:

new investments;
capital expansion plans;
facility location;
new product development
strategic plans;
acquisition;
implementing new technology; and
research and development programmes.

3.5 Importance of Sales Forecast

What we have been stressing all along is that an estimate of demand, typically
in the form of a sales forecast, is critical to the successful functioning of most
businesses. It is one of the most important pieces of data used by management

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and takes a central stage in most companies planning efforts. Its importance
spreads across the following areas: as shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Different Areas of Application of Sales forecasts within an
organization
User within the
Areas of application
organization
Top management * Allocating resources among functional areas
* Control of operations of the firm
Finance Department * Projection of cash flows
* Deciding capital appropriations
* Establishing operating budgets
Production Department * Determination of production quantities
* Determination of production schedules
* Control of inventory.
Personnel Department * Planning manpower requirements
* As an input in collective bargaining
Purchasing Department * Planning the firms overall material requirements
* Scheduling materials arrival.
Marketing Department * Planning marketing strategies and soles
programmes
* Allocation of resources among various marketing
activities
* Planning and evaluating the personal selling
efforts
* Setting sales quota
* As an input into compensation plan
* Evaluating the field sales force.

3.6 Sales Forecasting Methods.

There are two main classes of forecasting methods: Qualitative (or subjective)
and Quantitative (or objective). The qualitative or subjective methods rely
primarily on judgment to produce sales forecasts. The quantitative or objective
methods, in contrast, involve the application of statistical techniques of varying
degrees of sophistication. The different techniques under each main class are
shown in Figure 3.2. We will consider these methods at some length in the
sections that follow.

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Figure 3.2: Classification of Sales Forecasting Methods

Sales Forecasting Methods

Subj ective / Qualitative Methods

Users expectations
Sales force Composite
Jury of Ex ecutive Opinion
Delphi technique.

Objective / Quantitativ e Methods

Market test
Time Series analysis
Moving averages
Exponential smoothing
Decomposition
Statistical demand analysis.

3.5.1 Subjective or Qualitative Methods

The subjective methods are based on assumptions, or intuitive estimates of
those in the firm that are familiar with the market. This may include sales
personnel, purchasing representatives or management people who all have
close contact with customers. Some of there techniques may involve several
levels of sophistication. An example here is an opinion survey that has been
scientifically conducted. Others are merely intuitive hunches about future
events. The accuracy of a particular subjective approach depends on the good
judgment, honesty and philosophy of the individuals concerned. We shall
attempt to examine each of the subjective techniques indicated in Figure 3.2

3.5.1.1 Users Expectations

The users expectations method is also known as the buyers intentions
methods since it relies on responses from customers with regard to their
expected consumption or purchase of a product. The customers may be
surveyed in person, over the telephone, or by mail. In some particular
situations, the respondents in a users expectations survey do not necessarily
have to be the ultimate consumers. Rather, the firm may find it advantageous to
secure the reactions of wholesalers and retailers that serve the channel.
Advantages
The users expectations method offers several advantages. These include the
following:

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(i) The forecast is based on estimates obtained directly from firms whose
buying actions will actually determine the sales of the product.
(ii) The way through which the information was obtained i.e. projected
product use by customers, allows preparation of forecasts in great detail
e.g. by product, by customer, or by sales territory.
(iii) The method may often provide some insight into the buyers thinking
and plan. Therefore, it could be helpful in planning the marketing
strategy.
(iv) It is particularly useful to solicit opinions from prospective buyers about
a new product that is just coming to the market.
Disadvantages of Users expectations are as enumerated below:
(i) The method is limited to situations in which the potential customers for
the product are few and well defined. The method could be difficult to
adopt and can actually result in grave errors when there are many
customers that cannot be easily identified.
(ii) The method also depends on the sophistication of the potential
customers in appreciating their needs. Here, we should remember that
buyer intentions are subject to change, thus the method does not work
particularly well for consumer goods.
(iii) It is often difficult to determine the firmness of intentions to purchase,
particularly when the person being interviewed is not literate or
uncooperative.
(iv) The method requires a considerable expenditure of money, time and
manpower.

3.6.1.2 Sales Force Composite

The sales force composite is a specific judgmental forecast for which opinions
are solicited from line sales personnel and sales managers. Each person states
how much he or she expects to sell during the forecast period. The usual
technique is to ask sales people to forecast sales for their districts and have
these estimates reviewed by the regional sales manager and then by the head
office sales manager. This method is based on the belief that those closest to
the sales people have the best knowledge of the market.
Advantages
(i) A primary advantage of the sales force composite method is that it uses
the specialised knowledge of the people closest to the market.
(ii) It has also been argued that the size of the sample used to develop the
forecast tends to produce estimates that are fairly accurate.
(iii) The method lends itself to the easy development of customer; product,
territory, or sales force breakdowns. These are particularly important in
controlling the sales effort.

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Disadvantages
(i) Sales representatives are often seen to be notoriously poor estimates. For
instance, they tend to be overly optimistic when the economy is
booming and overly pessimistic when things are not so good.
(ii) Salesmen usually are not trained forecasters and are ill-informed on the
factors influencing sale.
(iii) The approach makes no provision for bringing the systematic
consideration of uncontrollables into the analysis.
(iv) The approach does not provide for discovery of important facts through
statistical analysis of historical data.

3.6.1.3 Jury of Executive Opinion

The jury of executive opinion method is about the oldest and simplest method
of making sales forecast. The method either formally or informally polls the
top executives of the company for their assessment of sales possibilities. The
separate assessments are then combined into a sales forecast for the company.
This is sometimes often done by simply averaging the individual judgments.
Disparate views are resolved through group discussions. In some cases, the
process amounts to little more than group guessing. In other cases however, it
involves the careful judgment of experienced executives who have studied the
underlying factors influencing their companys sales.
Advantages
(i) Ease and quickness with which it can be made.
(ii) Does not require elaborate statistics.
(iii) The method brings together a variety of specialised viewpoints. The
resulting collective wisdom reflects the thinking of the top people in
the company.
(iv) When there is an absence of adequate data or experience, such as with
innovative products, the jury of executive opinion method may be the
only means of sales forecasting available to the company.
Disadvantages
(i) The forecasts are based on opinions rather than on facts and analysis.
(ii) Averaging opinions reduces responsibility for accurate forecasting.
(iii) The method is expensive because of the large amounts of highly paid
executives time it consumes.
(iv) The forecast may not properly weight the expertise of those most
informed.

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3.6.1.4 Delphi Technique

This method is used to achieve consensus within a committee. The Delphi
technique uses repeated measurements and controlled feedback instead of
direct confrontation and debate among the experts preparing the forecast. The
way this method is employed is illustrated by Figure 3.3. The following steps
are involved. First, each individual prepares a forecast using whatever facts,
figures and general knowledge of the environment he or she has at his or her
disposal. Second, the forecasts made are collected, and the person supervising
the process prepares an anonymous summary. Third, the summary is
distributed to each person who participated in the initial phase. Usually, the
summary indicates each forecast figure, the average and some other summary
measure of the spread of the estimates. Those whose initial estimates fell
outside the mid range of responses are asked to express their reasons for these
extreme positions. The explanations offered are then incorporated into the
summary. Those participating in the exercise are asked to study the summary
and submit a revised forecast. The process is then repeated.

3.2: Operation of Delphi Process

11

Coordinator Anonymous
Summary

Coordinator
12

Anonymous
Summary

13

1m

hod is based on the following two premises:

(a) The range of responses will decrease, and the estimates will converge with repeated measurements
b) The total group response or median will move successively toward the correct or true answer.

Back to
individua
and the
process i
repeated
until
reasonab
converge
e is
obtained

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Advantages
(i) The strategy of forcing those whose forecasts lie at the ends of the
distribution to justify their estimates seems to have benefits in that
informed experts have greater opportunity to influence the final
forecast.
(ii) Those who might have a deviant opinion, but with good reason, can
defend that position, rather than going in to group pressure.
(iii) The method can result in forecasts that most participants have ultimately
agreed to in spite of their initial disagreement.
Disadvantages
(i) The process of iteration and feedback in the Delphi often takes a long time
(ii) The method can also be very expensive.

3.6.2 Objective of Quantitative Methods

As we have already noted, the objectives or quantitative methods of forecasting
are statistical in nature. They range in complexity from relatively simple trend
extrapolations to the use of sophisticated mathematical models. A lot of
organisations are tending toward the use of advanced methods in which the
computer correlates a host of relationships. Let us now go into the treatment of
the quantitative techniques earlier shown in Figure 3.

3.6.2.1 Market Test

Market testing is a relatively recent phenomenon in demand estimation and is
mostly used to assess the demand for new products. The essential feature of a
market test is that it is a controlled experiment, done in a limited but carefully
selected part of the marketplace, whose aim is to predict the sales or profit
consequences, either in absolute or relative terms, of one or more proposed
marketing actions. It therefore goes beyond estimating the potential sales of a
new product.
It is necessary for us to note that market testing methods differ in the testing of
consumer and industrial products. For instance, when testing consumer
products, the company wants to estimate the major determinants of sales, such
as trial, first repeat, adoption, and purchase frequency. The major methods of
consumer goods market testing include sales-wave research, simulates store
technique, controlled test marketing and test markets. However, we are not
going into their details here. You will learn more about them under Marketing
Research.
Test marketing is not typically used in the case of industrial products. For
instance, it will be too expensive to produce a sample of airplanes; ships etc, let

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alone put them up for sale in a select market to see how well they will sell.
Marketing research firms have actually not built the test-market systems that
are found in consumer markets. Therefore, goods industrial manufacturers have
to resort to other methods to research the markets interest in a new industrial
product. The most common method adopted is product-use test. A second
common market test is to introduce the new industrial product at trade shows.
A new industrial product can also be tested in a distributor and dealer display
rooms. The details of these methods are under Marketing Research.
Advantages
(i) Market testing can indicate the products performance under actual
operating conditions.
(ii) It can also show the key buying influences and the best market segment
(iii) It provides ultimate test of consumers reactions to the product
(iv) It allows the assessment of the effectiveness of the total marketing
programme
(v) It is very useful for new and innovative products.
Disadvantages
(i) It allows competitors know what the firm is doing; hence they
may jam the experiment by creating artificial situations so that the
results of the test may not be meaningful.
(ii) It invites competitive reaction
(iii) It is expensive and time consuming.
(iv) Often takes a long time to accurately assess level of initial and repeat
demand.

3.6.2.2 Time Series

This approach to sales forecasting rely on the analysis of historical data to
develop a prediction for the future. The depth and sophistication of these
analyses often vary widely. At one extreme, the forecaster might just forecast
next years sales to be equal this years sales. This forecast might be reasonably
accurate for a mature industry that is experiencing little growth. However, if
there is some growth, the forecaster might allow for it by predicting the same
percentage increase for next year that the company experience this year. Still
further along the continuum, the forecaster might attempts to break historical
sales into basic components by isolating that portion due to trend, cyclical,
seasonal and irregular influences.
The first component, trend (T), is the result of basic developments in
population, capital formation, and technology. It is found by fitting a straight or
curved line through pass sales. The second component, cycle (C), captures the
wavelike movement of sales. Many sales are affected by swings in general

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economic activity, which tends to be somewhat periodic. The cyclical

component can be useful in medium-range forecasting. The third component,
season (S), refers to a consistent pattern of sales movement within the year.
The term season, describes any recurrent hourly, weekly, monthly, or quarterly
sales pattern. The seasonal component may be related to weather factors,
holidays, and trade customs. The seasonal pattern provides a norm for
forecasting short-range sales. The fourth component, erratic events (E),
includes strikes, blizzards, fads, riots, fires, war scares, and other disturbances.
These erratic components are by definition unpredictable, and should be
removed from past data to see the more normal behaviour of sales.
Time series analysis consists of decomposing the original sales series, Y, into
the components, T, C, S, and E. Then these components are recombined to
produce the sales forecast. The following is an example.
A company sold 12,000 units of its main product this year. It now wants to
predict next years December sales. The long-term trend shows a 5% sales
growth rate per year. This alone suggests sales next year of 12,600. (i.e. 12,000
x 1.05). However, a business recession is expected next year and will probably
result in total sales achieving only 90% of the expected trend-adjusted sales.
Therefore, sales next year will more likely be 11,340 (i.e. 12, 600 x 0.90). If
sales were the same each year, monthly sales would be 945 (i.e. 11,340 12).
However, December is an above-average month for that particular product,
with a seasonal index of 1.30. Therefore, December sales may be as high as
1,228.5 (i.e. 945 x 1.30). No erratic events such as strikes or new product
regulations are. Therefore, the best estimate of new product sales next
December is 1,228.5.
A newer time-series technique called exponential smoothing is now available.
This is being used by a firm with hundreds of items in its product line, and
wants to produce efficient and economical short-run forecasts. In its simplest
form, exponential smoothing requires only three pieces of information: this
periods actual sales, Qt; this periods smoothed sales, Q t; and a smoothing
parameter, a . The sales forecast for next periods sales is then given by:
Qt + 1 = a Qt + (1 - a ) Q t

Where:
Q t + 1 = sales forecast for next period
a

the smoothing constant, where 0 = a = 1

Qt

current sales in period t

Qt

= smoothed sales in period t.

Example:
Suppose the smoothing constant is 0.3, current sales are N600, 000, and
smoothed sales are N500, 000.

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Then sales forecast is:

Q t + 1 = 0.3 (N600, 000) + 0.7 (N500, 000)

= N180, 000 + N350, 000

= N530, 000.
You will observe that the sales forecast is always between (or at an extreme of)
current sales and smoothed sales.
Another technique under time series analysis is the method of moving
averages. This is conceptually simple. Let us consider the forecast that next
years sales will be equal to this years sales. Such a forecast might be subject
to large error, if there is a great deal of fluctuation in sales from one year to the
next. To allow for such randomness, we might want to consider making use of
some kind of recent values. For example, we might average the last two years
sales, the last three years sales, etc. The forecast would simply be the average
that resulted. The term moving average is used because a new average can be
computed and used as a forecast as each new observation becomes available.
Table 3.2 presents 15 years of historical data for a manufacturer of shirts,
together with the resulting forecast for a number of years using two-year and
four-year moving averages.
Table 3.2: Annual and Forecasted sales for a manufacturer of shirts.

Year
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

Forecasted
Sales
Two-Year
Four-Year
Actual
Moving
Moving
Sales
Average
Average
4,200
4,410
4,322
4,305
4,106
4,366
4,311
4,214
4,260
4,742
4,209
4,287
4,837
4,527
4,370
5,030
4,790
4,730
4,779
4,934
4,847
4,970
4,905
4,904
5,716
4,875
5,128
6,116
5,343
5,395
5,932
5,916
5,684
5,576
6,024
5,835
5,465
5,754
5,772
5,520

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As earlier explained, the calculation of moving averages is relatively simple.

For instance, the entry 4305 for 1976 under the two-year moving average
method, for example, is the average of the sales of 4,200 units in 1974 and
4,410 units in 1975. In the same vein, the forecasts of 5520 units in 1989
represent the average of the number of units sold in 1987 and 1988. You may
attempt to verify other forecast in the table.
Advantages
(i) The time series approach to sales forecasting provides a systematic
means for making quantitative projections of sales.
(ii) The method is objective in the sense that two analysts working on the
same data series using the same forecasting technique and the same
model should produce the same forecast.
Disadvantages
(i) It is not useful for new or innovative products
(ii) Factors for trend, cyclical, seasonal, or product life-cycle phase must be
accurately assessed and included
(iii) Technical skill and good judgement required.
(iv) Final forecast may be difficult to break down into individual territory
estimates.

3.6.2.3

Statistical Demand Analysis.

Statistical demand analysis is a set of statistical procedures designed to

discover the most important real factors affecting sales and their relative
influence. The factors most commonly analysed are price, income, population
and promotion.
The method consists of expressing sales (Q) as a dependent variable and trying
to explain sales as a function of a number of independent demand variables X1,
X2, , Xn; that is:
Q = f (X1, X2, , Xn)

By making use of multiple regression analysis, various equation forms can be

statistically fitted to the data in the search for the best predicting factors and
equation.
Let us make use of the work of Palda (1964), who tried to measure cumulate
advertising effects of a vegetable product. He found that the following demand
equation gave a fairly good fit to the historical sales of the product in question
between the years 1908 and 1960:
Y = - 3649 + 0.665X1 + 1180 log X2 + 774 X3 + 32X4 2.83X5

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Where:
Y = Yearly sales in thousands of dollars
X1 = yearly sales (lagged one year) in thousands of dollars
X2 = yearly advertising expenditures in thousands of dollars
X3 = a dummy variable, taking on the value 1 between 1908 and 1925 and 0

from 1926 on
X4 = year (1908 = 0, 1909 = 1, etc)
X5 = disposable personal income in billions of current dollars.

It was found that all the five independent variables accounted for 94% of the
yearly variation in the sale of the commodity under investigation between 1908
and 1960. How can we use this demand equation as a sales forecasting equation
for the five independent variables? It follows thus:
Sales in 1960 should be put in X1;

The log of the companys planned expenditures for 1961 should be put
in X2;
0 should be put in X3;

The numbered year corresponding to 1961 should be put in X4; and

Estimated 1961 disposable personnel income should be put in X5.

The result of multiplying these numbers by the respective coefficients and

summing them gives a sales forecast (Y) for 1961.
Advantages
(i) It has great intuitive appeal
(ii)
Requires quantification of assumptions underlying the estimates. This
makes it easier for management to check the results
(iii) It provides a means of discovering factors affecting sales which intuitive
reasoning may not uncover.
(iv)
The method is objective in the results can be reproduced by different
analysts using the same model and variables.
Disadvantages
(i) It presumes that historical relationships will continue into the future,
hence the analysts may have a false sense of security in this regard.
(ii) It requires technical skill and expertise
(iii) Some managers are reluctant to use the method due to its sophistication.

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4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learned that planning is an integral part of a managers
job. If uncertainties cloud the planning horizon, managers will find it difficult
to plan effectively. Forecasts help managers by reducing some of the
uncertainties, thereby enabling them to develop more meaningful plans.

5.0 SUMMARY
Forecasts are vital inputs for the design and the operation of the productive
systems because they help managers to anticipate the future. Forecasting
techniques are generally classified as qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative
techniques rely on judgement, experience, and expertise to formulate forecasts;
quantitative techniques rely on the use of historical data, or associations among
variables to develop forecasts. Some of the techniques are simple, while others
are complex. Some work better than others, but no technique works all the
time.

6.0
1.

given the following data:

Period
1
2
3
4
5

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Number of complaints
60
65
55
58
64

Prepare a forecast using each of these approaches:

(a) The nave approach
(b) A 3 period moving average
(c) Exponential smoothing with a smoothly constant of 0.40.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Bowerman, B.L and R.T.O. Connell (1993): Forecasting and Time Series: An
Applied Approach. 3rd ed. Belmont, Calif: Duxbury Press.
Hanke, J.E. and A.G. Reitsch (1992): Business Forecasting. 4th Ed. Boston:

Allyn & Bacon.

Makridakis, S. and S. Wheelright (1989): Forecasting Methods for
Management. 5th Ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

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UNIT 4 PROCESS MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS
1.0
Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Meaning of Process Management
3.2 Major Types of Process Decisions
3.2.1 Process Choice
3.2.1.1 Project Process
3.2.1.2 Job Process
3.2.1.3 Batch Process
3.2.1.4 Line Process
3.2.1.5 Continuous Process
3.2.2 Degree of Vertical Integration
3.2.3 Resource Flexibility
3.2.4 Customer Involvement
3.2.5 Degree of Automation
3.3 Designing Processes
3.3.1 Process Re-engineering
3.3.1.1 Critical Processes
3.3.1.2 Strong Leadership
3.3.1.3 Cross-Functional Teams
3.3.1.4 Information Technology
3.3.1.5
Clean Slate Philosophy
3.3.1.6 Process Analysis
3.3.2 Process Improvement
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit discusses process management, which is very essential in the design
of a production system. Deciding on process involves many different choices in
selecting human resources, equipment, as well as materials. Processes are
involved in how the marketing department prepares a market analysis; how a
retail store provides services on the sales floor; and how a manufacturing plant
performs its assembly operations

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2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Describe each of the main
process decisions and how they must relate to volume.
(i) Discuss how process choice implements flow strategy and how the five
choices differ.
(ii) Explain when less vertical integration and more outsourcing are
appropriate and how resource flexibility supports competitive priorities.
(iii) Describe the different ways that customer contact can affect a process.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1

The Meaning of Process Management

Let us start by first defining what a process is: A process involves the use of an
organisations resources to provide something of value. You should understand
that no product can be made and no service can be provided without a process.
On the other hand too, no process can exist without a product or service.
Two implications of this definition come out very clearly:
(i) Processes underline all work activity and are found in all organisations,
as well as all functions of an organisation.
(ii) Processes are nested within other processes along an organisations
supply chain. A firms supply chain (also called the value chain) is an
interconnected set of linkages among suppliers of materials and services
that spans the transformation process that convert ideas and raw
materials into finished goods and services for a firms customers.
We can now go ahead to define process management as the selection of the
inputs, operations, work flows, and methods that transforms input into outputs.
Usually input selection begins by deciding which processes are to be done inhouse, and which processes are to be done outside, as well as purchased
materials and services. Process decisions also deal with the proper mix of
human skills and equipment and which parts of the processes are to be
performed by each. You should also note that decisions about processes must
be consistent with the organisations flow strategy, and the organisations
ability to obtain the resources necessary to support that strategy.
When should process decisions be made? It is always better to take the
necessary decisions whenever:
(i) A new or substantially modified product or service is being offered.
(ii) Quality must be improved;
(iii) Competitive priorities have changed;

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

(iv) Demand for a product or service is changing;

(v) Current performance is inadequate;
(vi) Competitors are gaining by using a new process or technology, or
(vii) The cost or availability of inputs has changed.
However, not all these situations will result to changes in current processes.
Very often, process decisions must recognize costs, and sometimes the cost of
change outweighs its benefits.
In addition, process decisions must take other choices into account, especially
those concerning quality, capacity, layout, and inventory. Furthermore, process
decisions depend on competitive priorities and on flow strategy. Ethics and the
environment are similarly considered.

3.2

Major Types of Process Decisions

Operations managers usually consider five common process decisions. These

are discussed in the sections that follow:

3.2.1 Process Choice

Choosing a process that best supports an organisations flow strategy is one of
the first decisions a manager makes in order to design a well-functioning
operation. There are five process types, which form a continuum, and from
which the manager can choose:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Project,
Job,
Batch,
Line, and
Continuous process.

A close look at Figure 4.1 should reveal to you that the best choice depends on
the volume and degree of customisation. It is important to note that a process
choice might apply to an entire facility or just one segment of its overall
process. For example, a process segment might best be characterised as a job
process and another segment as a line process.

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Figure 4.1:
High
Flex ible flows
Project
process
Job
Process

Intermediate
flows
Batch
Process

Line flows
Line
Process

Continuous
Process

Low
Low

3.2.1.1

Volume

High

Project Process

A project process is characterised by a high degree of job customisation, the

large scope of each project, and the release of substantial resources once a
project is completed. A project process lies at the high customisation, lowvolume end of the process choice continuum. The sequence of operations and
the process involved in each one are unique to each project, thereby creating
one-of-a-kind products or services made specifically to customer order.
Very often, firms with project processes sell themselves on the basis of their
capabilities rather than on specific products or services. One attribute of project
is that they tend to be complex, take a long time, and be large. Also, many
interrelated tasks must be completed, and these usually require close
coordination. Projects usually make heavy use of certain skills and resources at
particular stages, and then have little use for them till the end of the time. A
project process is based on a flexible flow strategy, with work flows re-defined
with each new project.
Examples of a project process: Building a shopping centre, forming a project
team to do a task, running a political campaign, doing management consultancy
work, or developing a new technology or product.

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3.2.1.2 Job Process

A job process creates the flexibility needed to produce a variety of products or
services in significant quantities. Very often, customisation is relatively high
and volume for any one product or service is low. However, the volume here is
larger than in the case of project process. Note that by definition, a project
process does not produce in quantity. The work force and equipment are
flexible and can handle various tasks.
Organisations choosing the job process usually bid for work. Since the specific
needs of the next customer is unknown, and the timing of repeat orders from
the same customer is unpredictable, products are made to order and never
ahead of time.
Thus, each new job is handled as a single unit, i.e. as a job. A job process
primarily involves the use of a flexible flow strategy, with resource organised
around the process.
Examples of a job process: Providing emergency room care, courier services,
making customised cabinets etc.

3.2.1.3

Batch Process

A batch process differs from the job process with respect to volume, variety
and quantity. For instance, volumes are higher in the case of batch process
since the same or similar products or services are provided repeatedly.
However, a narrower range of products and services is provided with respect to
quantity, production lots, or customer groups are handled in larger quantities
(or batches) then they are with job processes. A batch of one product or
customer grouping is processed, and production is later switched to the next
one. Invariably, the first product or service is produced again.
Examples of a batch process: Scheduling air travel for a group (pilgrims,
students, holiday makers), making components that feed an assembly line, and
manufacturing capital equipment.

3.2.1.4 Line Process

A line process lies between the batch and continuous process on the continuum,
volumes are high, and products or services are standardised, thus allowing
resources to be organised around a product or service. In this process, materials
move linearly from one operation to the next according to a fixed order, and
little inventory being held between operations.
Unlike project and job processes, production orders are not directly linked to
customer orders. Manufacturers with line processes usually follow a make-to-

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

stock strategy, with standard products held in inventory so that they are ready
when a customer places an order. Note that the use of a line process is also
referred to as mass production. It is possible to have product variety by
carefully controlling the addition of standard options to the main product or
service. Very often, a line process fits primarily with the line flow strategy,
although it can overlap into the intermediate flow strategy when mass
customisation or assemble-to-order strategies are pursued.
Examples of a line process: Vehicle assembly plants, Electrical and electronic
manufacturing companies, garment factories etc.

3.2.1.5 Continuous Process

A continuous process is the extreme and of high-volume, standardised
production with rigid line flows. Usually, one primary material, such as a
liquid, gas, or powder, moves without stopping through the facility. Typically
this process is capital intensive and operated round the ch to maximize
utilization and to wid expensive shutdowns and start-ups. They are used almost
exclusively in manufacturing and fit perfectly a line flow strategy.

3.2.2 Degree of Vertical Integration

Another important issue to resolve when developing production process
designs is the determination of how much of the production of products or
services a company should bring under its own roof. Vertical integration is the
amount of the production and distribution chain, from suppliers of components
to the delivery of products and services to customers that is brought under the
ownership of a company.
Usually, management decides the level of vertical integration by looking at all
the activities performed between acquisition of raw materials or outside
services and delivery of finished products or services. The more processes in
the supply chain that the organisation performs itself, the more vertically
integrated it is. If the organisation does not perform some processes itself, then
it must rely on outsourcing. Decisions such as these are often called make-orbuy decisions. A make decision translates to more integration, while a buy
decision essentially means more outsourcing.
The make-or-buy decisions are not always simple. But the starting point is to
determine whether the cost of making components is less than that of buying
them from suppliers. Unless there are clear cost advantages to making
components in-house, such issues as the following are not likely to be as
important. Is enough investment capital available to expand production
capacity to make the components?. Does the company have the technological
capability to make the components? Are there high-quality suppliers available?
Is there a risk that suppliers will become competitors?

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Whatever decision is taken, management must find ways to coordinate and

integrate the various processes and suppliers involved.
Because of shortages of both capital and production capacity, small firms and
start-up ventures ordinarily choose to have a very low degree of vertical
integration.

3.2.3 Resource Flexibility

Usually, the choices that management makes with respect to competitive
priorities determine the degree of flexibility required of a companys resources
(i.e. its employees, facilities, and equipment).
With respect to human resources, operations managers must decide whether to
have a flexible work force or an inflexible one. Members of a flexible
workforce are capable of doing many tasks. However this flexibility has its
costs. For example, it requires greater skills and thus more training and
education. On the other hand, worker flexibility provides an opportunity to
achieve reliable customer service and alleviate capacity bottlenecks.
When a firms product or service has a short life cycle and a high degree of
customisation, low production volumes suggest that the firm should select
flexible, general-purchase equipment.

3.2.4 Customer Involvement

The extent to which customers interact with the process is another important
process decision to consider. The amount of customer involvement ranges from
self-service to customisation of product, to deciding the time and place that the
service is to be provided.

3.2.5 Degree of Automation

A key issue in designing production processes is determining how much
automation to integrate into the production system. Usually, automation
projects are not under-taken lightly since the equipment is very expensive and
managing the integration of automation into existing or new operation is
difficult.
Automation can reduce labour and related costs. In many applications however,
the huge capital investment required by automation projects cannot be justified
on labour savings alone. It is the goals of improving product quality and
product flexibility that motivate companies to make the huge investments in
automation projects. Apart from anything else, the degree of automation
appropriate for producing a product or service must be driven by the operations
strategy of the firm. For instance, if those strategies call for high product

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quality and product flexibility, automation can be an important element of

operations strategy.

3.3 Designing Processes

Having broadly examined the five main process decisions, the manager should
determine exactly how each process will be performed. T here are two different,
but complementary approaches for designing process: process re-engineering
and process improvement.

3.3.1 Process Re-engineering

Re-engineering is the fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of processes
to improve performance dramatically in terms of cost, quality, service, and
speed. It is all about reinvention, rather than an incremental improvement.
Though reengineering can make a company more competitive, its side effects,
especially on employees are often very harsh. For example, it usually leads to
massive lay-offs. The company also coughs out large cash outflows for
investment in information technology. The following points are useful
guidelines for reengineering:

3.3.1.1

Critical Processes

Normally, a process selected for reengineering should be a core process, rather

than functional departments (such as purchasing or marketing). By focusing on
processes, managers may discover opportunities to eliminate unnecessary work
and supervisory activities. Hence, reengineering should be reserved for
essential processes, such as new-product development or customer services,
because of the time and energy involved.

3.3.1.2 Strong Leadership

It has also been suggested that senior executives must provide strong leadership
for reengineering to be successful. If this is not effectively and efficiently done,
cynicism, resistance and boundaries between functional areas can block such a
radical change. Resistance can be over-come by providing the clout necessary
to ensure that the project proceeds within a strategic choice.

3.3.1.3 Cross-Functional Teams

Usually, a team, made up of members from each functional area affected by the
process change should be charged with carrying out a reengineering project.

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3.3.1.4 Information Technology

Information technology is absolutely necessary for a successful reengineering.
This is because most reengineering projects design processes around
information flows such as customer order fulfillment.

3.3.1.5 Clean Slate Philosophy

A clean slate philosophy means starting with the way the customer wants to
deal with the company. A customer-driven orientation necessitates that the
cross-functional teams start with internal and external customer objectives for
the process. What the teams usually do is to first establish a price target for the
product or service, subtract the desired profit, and then find an appropriate
process that will provide what the customer wishes to pay. It is thus a common
practice for Reengineers to start from the future and work backward, usually
unconstrained by current approaches.

3.3.1.6 Process Analysis

In spite of the clean slate philosophy discussed above, a reengineering team
must understand things about the current process. For instance, what it does,
how well it performs, and what factors affect it. A critical analysis of such
details can highlight areas in which new thinking will provide the biggest
payoff. It is therefore necessary for the team to examine every procedure
involved in the process throughout the organisation, recording each step,
questioning why it is done, and then eliminating it, if it is not necessary.

3.3.2 Process Improvement

This is the systematic study of the activities and flows of each process to
improve it. The major objective of process improvement is to learn the
number, understand the process, and dig out the details. The idea here is that
once a process is really understood, it can be improved. Please note that
process improvement goes on, whether or not a process is reengineered. In
actual fact, the relentless pressure to provide better quality at a lower price
means firms must always review all aspects of their operations.
There are two basic techniques for analyzing processes: flow diagrams and
process charts. These are already treated. As discussed in that unit, these
techniques involve the systematic observation and recording of process details
to allow better understanding of it. Thereafter, the analysis can highlight tasks
to be simplified, or where productivity can otherwise be improved.

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4.0 CONCLUSION
You have learned in this unit that process decisions affect what the firm
achieves with the competitive priorities of quality, flexibility, time, and cost.
For example, firms can improve their ability to compete on the basis of time by
examining each step of their processes and then finding ways to respond more
quickly to their customers.

5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has demonstrated that process decisions are strategic and can affect an
organisations ability to compete over the long-run. We started by defining five
basic process decisions: process choice, degree of vertical integration, resource
flexibility, customer involvement, and degree of automation. We also discussed
how each process will be performed.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE (SAE)
Question: An automobile service station is having difficulty providing oil
changes in the 29 minutes or less mentioned in its advertisement.
The process chart is given in Figure 4.2.

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Figure 4.2
Process: Changing engine oil
Subject: Mechanic
Beginning Direct customer arrival
Ending: Total charges, receive
payment

SUMMARY

Activity
Operation
Transport
Inspect
Delay

Step
No.

Time
(min)

Distanc
e (ft)

Number Time
of steps
(Min)
7
16.5

Distance
(ft)
-

5.5

420

5.0

0.7

Step description

X
Direct customer in to service bay
1
0.8
50
Record name and desired service
2
1.8
X
Open hood, verify engine type,
3
2.3
X
inspect hoses,
check fluid
levels oil and
You
of changing
automobile
engine
4
0.8 are to30analyse theXprocess
Walk
to
customer
in
waiting
5also provide
0.6
the summary. XThe subject of the study is the service area
mechanic.
6The process
0.7 begins when the mechanic directs
X the customers arrival, and ends
X
Wait fo r customer decision
7when the0.9
70 for the services.
customer pays
Walt to storeroom
8
1.9
X
Look up filter number(s), find filter(s)
9
0.4
X
C heck filter number(s)
X
10
0.6
50
C
arry filter(s)
service pit
Perform
und er-cartoservices
11
4.2
X
X
Climb
from
pit,
walk
to automobile
12
0.7
40
Fill engine with oil, start engine
13
2.7
X
Inspect for leaks
14
1.3
X
X
Walk to pit
15
0.5
40
Inspect for leaks
16
1.0
X
Clean and organize work area
17
3.0
X
X
Return to auto, drive from bay
18
0.7
80
Park the car
19
0.3
Walk to customer waiting area
20
0.5
60
Total charges, receive
21
2.3
X

Solution
The process is broken into 21 steps. A summary of the number of steps times
and distances traveled is presented below:

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Summary
Activity

Number of
Time
Distance
Steps
(min.)
(ft)
Operation
7
16.5
Transport
8
5.5
420
Inspection
4
5.0
Delay
1
0.7
Store
1
0.3
TOTAL
21
28.0
420
Source: Figure 4 .2
The times add up to 28 minutes, which does not allow much room for error if
the 29 minutes guarantee is to be met, and the mechanic travels a total of 420
feet.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Refer to the self-Assessed Question. What improvements can you make in the
process shown in Figure 4.2?

7.0 REFERENCES /FURTHER READINGS

Harmer, M. (1996): Beyond Reengineering. New York: Harper Business
Hill, T (1989): Manufacturing strategy: Text and cases. Homewood, Ill.:
Irwin.
Krajewski; L.J and L.P. Ritzman (1999): Operations Management: Strategy
and Analysis. 5th ed. Reading, Massachusetts, Addison Wesley.

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UNIT 5

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

JOB DESIGN

CONTENTS
1.0
Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Introduction to Job Design
3.2 Approaches to Study of Job Design
3.2.1 The Efficiency Approach
3.2.2 The Behavioural Approach
3.3 Job Specialisation
3.4 Alternatives to Job Specialisation
3.4.1 Job Rotation
3.4.2 Job Enlargement
3.4.3 Job Enrichment
3.4.4 Team Production
3.4.5 Empowerment
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The importance of work system is underscored by the organisation's
dependence on human efforts. (i.e work) to accomplish its goals. Work design
is one of the oldest fields of operations management. In the past, it has often
been de-emphasised in operations management courses in favour of other
topics. In recent years, however, renewed interest has taken place, and it has
come from an entirely different direction: some of the interest has resulted from
studies that reveal a general dissatisfaction felt by workers with their jobs. It is
therefore important for management to make design of work systems a key
element of its operations strategy. This unit examines the important areas of
job design as specified in the objectives below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
i) explain the importance of job design
ii) describe the two basic approaches to job design
iii) rationalise the advantages of job specialisation, or its alternatives, for a
particular situation.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Introduction to Job Design
Job design entails matching tasks or work activities to individuals or task
groups. This is usually done by specifying a job's content, the employee skills
and training needed to perform that job, and the degree of specialisation
appropriate for the job. The ultimate intention here, is to increase efficiency of
an organisation, with the parallel goal of making working conditions more
agreeable. In addition, job design improves productivity through consideration
of technical and human factors. It also increases the quality of the final product
or service.
Let us pause for a moment to answer this question: Who are job designers? Job
designers are concerned with who will do a job, how the job will be done, and
where the job will be done. Stevenson (1969) has suggested four parameters
for a successful job design. To him, the job design must be:
i. Carried out by experienced personnel who have the necessary training
and background;
ii. Consistent with the goals of the organisation;
iii. In written form; and
iv. Understood and agreed to by both management and employees.
You need to realise that the factors that affect job design and the implications
of various alternatives are often so complex, that a person without a good
background in job design is likely to overlook important aspects of it. It is also
necessary to consult workers and managers alike in order to take advantage of
their knowledge, as well as keep them informed.
Since employees are particularly intimately involved with the work, they are
veritable sources of ideas for job improvement. Management support for job
design equally depends on the commitment and involvement of managers.
Once these two important groups have been included in the process, it is often
relatively easier for them to embrace the design.
The establishment of a written record of the job design can serve as a basis for
referral, whenever there are clarifications to be made about it.

3.2

Approaches to the Study of Job Design

There are two basic schools of thought with respect to current practice in job
design.
One might be called the efficiency school, because it emphasises a
systematic, logical approach to job design.
The second one is called the
behavioural school because it emphasises satisfaction of wants and needs.

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We shall now examine each of these schools:

3.2.1 The Efficiency Approach

The efficiency approach, a refinement of Frederick Taylor's scientific
management concepts, received considerable emphasis in the past.
Taylor's
approach is based on the philosophy that any operation can be improved by
breaking it into components and studying the work content of each component
in order to improve work methods. Taylor believed that managers should study
jobs scientifically, using careful analysis, experimentation, and tools such as
flow diagrams and process charts to find the most economic way to perform a
task. Details of this will be covered under job specialisation in section 3.3.

3.2.2 The Behavioural Approach

The behavioural approach to job design emerged during the 1950s, and has
continued to make impact on many aspects of job design. One of the major
contributions of the behavioural approach is that it has reminded managers of
the complexity of human beings, and that the efficiency approach may not be
appropriate in ever instance. More of the behavioural approach will be treated
under section 3.4.

3.3 Job Specialisation

A job with a high degree of specialisation involves a narrow range of tasks, a
high degree of repetition, and presumably, great efficiency and high quality.
Examples range from assembly lines to medical specialties.
Some bakers
specialise in wedding cakes; a heart specialist can diagnose and treat heart
problems better than a general practitioner.
Generally, specialisation results in benefits such as:
less training time needed per employee because the methods and
procedures are limited,
faster work pace, leading to more output in less time, and
lower wages paid because education and skill requirements are lower.
However, the agreements against job specialisation suggest that narrowly
defined jobs lead to:
poor employee morale, high turnover, and lower quality because of the
monotony and boredom of repetitive work;
the need for more management attention because the total activity is
broken into a larger number of jobs for a large number of employees, all

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of whom have to be coordinated to produce the entire produce or

service; and
less flexibility to handle changes or employee absences.

3.4 Alternatives to Job Specialisation

From our previous discussions in unit 1, it should be clear to you now, that
people work for a variety of reasons: economic needs (i.e. to earn a living),
social needs (to be recognised and to belong to a group), and individual needs
(to feel important and to feel in control). These factors influence how people
perform their jobs.
In narrowly designed jobs (as in job specialisation), workers have few
opportunities to control the pace of work, receive gratification for the work
itself, advance to a better position, show initiative, and communicate with
fellow workers.
Suggestions have therefore been made on how to modify
specialised jobs to provide for a broader range of needs satisfaction.
These
include job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment, team production and
empowerment. We will look at each of these in the sections that follow.

3.4.1 Job Rotation

Job rotation moves beyond specialisation, so that people who have the required
skills can rotate from one job to another in order to get away from the job
specialisation rut. For example, assembly line workers may work one week on
engine mountings and then work on assembling dashboard components or tyre
fixing, the following week.
This process can help to reduce the monotonous
aspects of the job.
Job rotation implies multi skills in personnel. It is not only advantageous and
motivating for the employees, but it also gives the employer the flexibility to
adjust to client needs. For instance, because workers learn many aspects of the
job, job rotation increases the skills of the work force, thereby giving
management to flexibility to replace absent workers, or to move more workers
to different workstations as necessary. In addition, rotation of jobs can give a
better appreciation for the production problems of others, and the value of
passing only good quality to the next person.

3.4.2 Job Enlargement

Job enlargement is intended to avoid an employee being trapped in job
specialisation by trying to improve the variety within a certain sphere of a
person's ability and interest.
It is done by adding additional similar tasks to
workers' job.
This is referred to as horizontal job enlargement.
Apart form
reducing boredom, job enlargement has the potential to increase employee

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satisfaction because the worker feels a greater sense of responsibility, pride,

and accomplishment.

3.4.3 Job enrichment

This is the most comprehensive approach to job design. It involves a vertical
expansion of job duties.
This means that workers have greater control and
responsibility for an entire process, not just a specific skill or operation. For
example, a purchasing secretary whose basic job is the correspondence for a
group of purchasing people could have the job enriched by planning the work
assignments of the group, being an intermediate in customer contact and maybe
helping in the evaluation of some proposals.
That is, the secretary's job is
enriched from being a secretary to becoming an assistant. This is what obtains
today, when many of the classic secretarial duties are less required as more and
more people have their own personnel computers.

3.4.4 Team Production

This entails organising workers into work teams; selecting workers and training
them to work as a team; assigning some responsibility for management of
production to teams. However, building effective work teams means more than
just grouping workers into work groups.
More still needs to be done.
For
instance, team building requires training in team effectiveness, conflict
resolution, team measurement, and motivation systems.
One strong feature of effective work teams is that they can focus on processes,
instead of departments. For example, if a team is to design and develop a new
product, the team can focus on the process of designing and developing the
new product and not be constrained by departmental boundaries and
responsibilities.

3.4.5 Empowerment
This is an extension of job enrichment by adding to it, complete employee trust
and responsibilities not initially associated with the job.
It is basically a
process of conveying authority from management to workers.
Let us see how it works: imagine a manager tells his workers that they have
authority to stop production lines whenever the notice that product quality is
beginning to deteriorate. In this situation, workers tend to accept responsibility
for product quality and shut down product whenever the need arises. They then
come together in order to correct the cause of low product quality.
Worker
safety, maintenance problems, materials shortages, and other occurrences are
other factors that can cause the need for production to be stopped.

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Giving workers the authority to stop production for these and other causes is
perhaps the most visible conveyance of authority to workers.
This process
leads to what is now termed "internal ownership", where workers feel that the
production line belongs to them and that they are responsible for everything
that occurs in production.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learned about the importance of job designs and how you
can apply this to increase the efficiency as well
as the productivity of your
organisation.
You should also be able to recommend between job
specialisation and its alternatives in particular situations.

5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has shown you that the importance of work system is underscored by
the organisation's dependence on human efforts. It is therefore important for
management to make design of work systems a key element of its operations
strategy.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the major advantages and disadvantages of specialisation in business?
Address these issues both from management and labour sides.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Stevenson, W.J. (1996): Production/Operations Management 5th ed. Richard
D. Irwin.
Carlise, B. (1983): "Job Design Implications for Operations Managers"
International Journal of Operations and Production Management" 3, No.
3 pp. 40-48.
Cummingham, J.B and T. Eberle (1990) "A Guide to Job Enrichment and
design" Personnel Fegbruary 1990, pp. 56-61.
Hopeman, R.J. (1980): Production and Operations Management. 4th ed.
Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing.
Monks, J.G. (1989): Operations Management: Theory, and Problems, New
York: McGraw-Hill.

Re-

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MODULE 2
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5

Management of Technology
Site Selection
Supply Chain Management
Inventory Management
Aggregate Planning

UNIT 1

MANAGEMENT OF TECHNOLOGY

CONTENTS
1.0
Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Meaning and Role of Technology
3.1.1 The Three Primary Aspects of Technology
3.1.1.1
Product Technology
3.1.1.2 Process Technology
3.1.1.3 Information Technology
3.1.2 Management of Technology
3.13 The Role of Technology in Business Performance
3.2 Information Technology
3.2.1 Components of Information Technology
3.2.1.1 Hardware
3.2.1.2 Software
3.2.1.3 Database
3.2.1.4 Telecommunications
3.3 Creating and Applying Technology
3.31 Research and Development (R & D) Stages
3.3.1.1 Basic Research
3.3.1.2 Applied Research
3.3.1.3 Development
3.4 Choosing Technologies
3.4.1 Assessing the Technologies
3.5 Implementation Guidelines for New Technologies
3.5.1 Technology Acquisition
3.5.2 Technology Integration
3.5.3 Technology and Human Resources
3.5.4 Leadership
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn that technological change is a major factor in gaining
competitive advantage. It can create whole new industries and dramatically
alter the landscape in existing industries. You will also realise in this unit that
the development and innovative use of technology can give a firm a distinctive
competence that might be difficult to match. The scope of what the unit
comprises is given in the objectives:

2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(i) define the meaning of technology and describe how best to manage it.
(ii) demonstrate the importance of technology to the firms supply chain and
within each functional area.
(iii) describe the fundamental role of the computer and information
technology in reshaping an organisations processes.
(iv) discuss the stages of the research and development (R & D), and how
firms use R & D to create and apply new technology.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Meaning and Role of Technology
Technology may be defined as the know-how, physical things, and procedures
used in the production of products and services. The know-how component
of this definition is the knowledge and judgement of how, when, and why to
employ equipment and procedures. Craftmanship and experience are naturally
embodied in this knowledge, but unfortunately, cannot be written into manuals
or routines. The second component, physical things, are the equipment and
tools. The last component, procedures, is the rules and techniques for operating
the equipment and performing the work.
Let us use the air travel technology to illustrate how the three components in
our definition of technology work together: knowledge is reflected in
scheduling, routing, and pricing decisions. The airplane is the equipment,
consisting of many components and assemblies. The procedures are rules and
manuals on aircraft maintenance and how to operate the airplane under many
different conditions.
You need to understand that technologies dont occur in a vacuum, rather, they
are embedded in support networks. A support network comprises the physical,
informational, and organisational relationships that make a technology
complete and allow it to function as intended. Using our air travel technology
example, its support network will include the infrastructure of airports, baggage

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handling facilities, travel agencies, air traffic control operations, and the
communication systems connecting them.

3.1.1 The Three Primary Aspects of Technology

Within any organization, technologies often reflect what people are working
on, and what they are using to do that work. Three general aspects of
technology have been identified. The first, and most widespread is product
technology, which is what a firms engineering and research groups develop
when creating new products and services. The second aspect is that of process
technology, which a firms employees use to do their work. The third is
information technology, which a firms employees use to acquire, process, and
communicate information. Note that information technology is becoming
increasingly important in this modern day. The particular way in which a
specific technology is classified depends on its application. For instance, a
product technology to one firm may be part of the process technology.
Why should operations managers be interested in these three aspects of
technology? Let us look at the reasons: product technology is important
because the production system must be designed to produce products and
services generated by technological advances. Similarly, process technology is
important because it can improve the methods currently used in the production
system. Lastly, information technology is important because it can improve
how information is used to operate the production system. We shall briefly
examine these three areas of technology.

3.1.1.1 Product Technology

Product technology is developed within the organisation, whereby it translates
ideas into new products and services for the firms customers. Production
technology is often developed primarily by engineers and researchers. This
group of workers develops new knowledge and ways of doing things, merge
them with and extend conventional capabilities, and then translate them into
specific products and services with features that customers value. Wherever
new product technologies are being developed, it is usually necessary to seek
close cooperation with the marketing personnel in order to find out what
customers actually want. The operations department can then determine how
the goods and services can be produced effectively. Product technology also
requires the design systems to support field installation and maintenance.

3.1.1.2 Process Technology

The methods by which an organisation does things usually rely on the
application of technology. At times, some of the large number of process
technologies used by an organisation is unique to a particular functional area,
while others are used more universally. Figure 6.1 illustrates how technologies

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support the processes in the supply chain for both manufacturers and service
providers. Each of the technologies shown in the Figure can be further broken
into more technologies. Process technologies commonly used in other
functional areas are shown in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.1 Process Technologies

Suppliers
Suppliers

P
*
P
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
**

ur c h as i ng
C ommu ni c a t i on
ur c h as i ng
Tr a ns por t a ti o n
C ommu ni c a t i on
ED I
Tr a ns por t a ti o n
M a t e ri a l s
ED I
ha nd l i ng
M a t e ri a l s
Te s t i ng
ha nd l i ng
S t or a ge
Te s t i ng
O tffi
S
orcaege
t e ch no l ogy
* O ffi c e
* I nfo rma t i on
t e ch no l ogy
t e ch no l ogy
* I nfo rma t i on
t e ch no l ogy

O pe r a ti on s
* B a si c pr oc e ss e s
O pe r a ti on s
* Te s t i ng
* B a si c pr oc e ss e s
* M a t e ri a l s
* Te s t i ng
h a nd l i ng
* M a t e ri a l s
* O ffi c e
h a nd l i ng
t e c h no l ogy
* O ffi c e
* I nfo
t e crma
h not il on
ogy
* I nfo rma t i on

M an u fac tu r i n g
O pe r a ti on s
* Ba s ic p roc e s se s
* C IM (c omp ut e ri n t e gra t e d
* C IM (c omp ut e rma n ufa c t ur i ng)
* M a t e ri a l s h a nd li n g
ma n ufa c t ur i ng)
* O ffi c e t e c hn ol og y
* M a t e ri a l s h a nd li n g
** IOnfo
ffi crma
e t it on
e c hn ol og y
t e c hno l og y
* I nfo rma t i on
* M a t e ri a l s
t e c hno l og y
t e c h no l ogy
* M a t e ri a l s
* Te s t i ng
t e c h no l ogy
* S t or a ge
* Te s t i ng
* S t or a ge

D is tr i b u ti on
* Co mmun i ca t i o n
D is tr i b u ti on
* Tra ns po rt a t i on
* Co mmun i ca t i o n
* ED I
* Tra ns po rt a t i on
* M a te r i a ls
* ED I
ha n dl i ng
* M a te r i a ls
* P ha
a ckn dl
a gii ng
ng
* St o ra ge
* Of fi c e
t e c hn ol og y
* Info rma t i on
t e c hn ol og y
t e c hn ol og y
t e c hn ol og y

M ar k e ti ng a nd
SM
al ar
e sk e ti ng a nd
* C ommu ni c a t i on
S al e s
* M e di a
* C ommu ni c a t i on
t e c h nol o gy
* M e di a
* El e c t ro ni c
t e c h nol o gy
c o mme rc e
* El e c t ro ni c
* Tec sot mme
in g rc e
** Te
O ffi
s tcine g
* In for ma t io n
t e c h nol o gy
* In for ma t io n
t e c h nol o gy

Cu s tom e r
s

Cu s tom e r

Figure 6.2: Process Technologies - Technologies for other functional areas

* Hardware
* Databases
* Software
* Telecommunications

* Planning and
budgeting technology
* Electronic data
interchange (EDI)
* Information technology
* Office technology
* Electronic commerce

Accounting

Engineering
Management
Information
System

* Training technology
* Office technology
* Performance evaluation
* Motivational research

* Information technology

Operation

Human
Resources

* Product technology
* Office technology
* Information technology
* Process technology
* Pilot-plant technology
* Computer-aided design (CAD)

Finance
* Planning and budgeting technology
* Office technology
* Online databases

* Information technology

There continue to be great developments in process technology of almost all

functional areas of an organisation. Imagine the sales processes in the service
section that use vending machines to distribute products. This process
technology is now shedding its low-tech image. New electronic vending
machines are loaded with circuit boards and microprocessors, instead of the

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gears and chains of previous versions. With this improved technology, these
vending machines can count how much product is left, check the coin boxes,
and make sure that the mechanisms work properly. Of course, this capabilities
demonstrated by the machines simplify product ordering and inventory control
processes.

3.1.1.3 Information Technology

Information Technology (IT) is increasingly being used by managers to
acquire, process and transmit information so that they can make more effective
decisions. As Figure 6.1 illustrates, IT pervades every functional area in the
workplace. It is particularly more revolutionary in offices. Office technologies
include various types of telecommunication systems, word processing,
computer spreadsheets, computer graphics, e-mail, on-line databases, the
internet and the intranet.

3.1.2 Management of Technology

Management of Technology, links R & D, engineering, and management to
plan, develop and implement new technological capabilities that can
accomplish corporate and operations strategies. This in essence, means
identifying technological possibilities that should be pursued through R & D,
choosing from both internal and external sources the technologies to
implement, and then following through their successful implementation as
products, processes, and services.
There is quite a large array of technologies, and yet managers need to be
knowledgeable about the technologies used in their operations. What in fact,
does a manager need to know about technology? There are two sides to this
question. One is that the manager just needs to understand what a technology
can do, including its costs and performance possibilities. The second is that
such understanding is not enough. Rather, the effective manager must also
understand how the technology works and what goes on in the technology
black box. The better answer is that managers must invest the time to learn
more about these technologies, and at the same time develop good sources of
technical advice within the organisation.

3.1.3 The Role of Technology in Business Performance

In this modern time, technology is about the most important force during the
increase in global competition. It also plays a pivotal role in creating new
products and improving processes. It has been shown by many empirical
studies that firms that invest in, and apply new technologies often tend to have
stronger financial positions than those that think otherwise.

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A study by Steele (1988) on large U.S. firms showed that, as the investment in
R & D for technology increases, so does profitability and new product
introductions. Another study by Roth (1996) of over 1,300 manufacturers in
Europe, Japan, and North America focused more on process technologies, and
reported a strong relationship between financial performance and technological
innovation. The benefits of the application of technology to business are not
limited to large firms. For example, small firms that have more technical knowhow and use computer based information and manufacturing technologies more
intensively enjoy stronger competitive positions (Lefebvre, Harrey, and
Lefenbvre, 1992).
It is necessary to point out that high technology and technological change for
its own sake might not create a competitive advantage, be economically
justifiable, fit with the desired profile of competitive priorities, or adds to the
firms core competencies. To be worthwhile, technology must be appropriately
applied to the operations of the business. In many jobs, for instance, a simple
handsaw might be a better choice than a computer-controlled laser.

3.2 Information Technology

As you already learned in section 3.1.1.3 IT is very crucial to operations
everywhere along the supply chain and to every functional area. This fact has
been vividly illustrated by Figure 6.1 and 6.2. It is commonly seen that
computers are spawning a huge proportion of current technological changes
and innovations, either directly on indirectly. For example, computer-based
information has greatly influenced how operations are managed and how
offices work. Today, office workers are able to do things that were not possible
a short time ago, such as accessing information simultaneously from several
locations and diverse functional areas. In fact IT makes
functional coordination easier and links a firms basic processes. For instance,
in a manufacturing plant, IT can link people with the work centres, databases,
and computers. Computer literacy is now rapidly becoming a critical factor in
the success of an organisation.

3.2.1 Components of Information Technology

IT comprises computing and telecommunications technologies. It is the
merging of the above two technologies, and the organisational and
management technologies that help in fashioning it for organisational use. On
the whole, IT can be partitioned into four sub technologies:
(1) Hardware (2) Software (3) databases, and

(4)

telecommunications

cro

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3.2.1.1 Hardware
The hardware sub technology is made up of a computer and the devices
connected to it. Improved hardware memory, processing capability, and speed
have greatly taken technological changes to higher levels.

3.2.1.2 Software
Software refers to the computer programmes written to make the hardware
work, and to carry out different application tasks. Application software is what
computer users work with. Generally, it allows information to be recorded,
manipulated, and presented as output that is invaluable in performing work and
managing operations. For instance, software is available for use with almost all
the decision tools such as flow diagramming, statistical process control
techniques, learning curves, simulation, queuing models, location, and layout
techniques, forecasting models, linear programming, production and inventory
control systems, and scheduling techniques. Furthermore, software is essential
to numerous manufacturing capabilities, such as computer-aided design and
manufacturing, robots, automated guided vehicles, and flexible manufacturing
system. Again, software provides various executive support systems, including
management information systems, as well as decision support systems. The
advantages inherent in this software are that it allows managers to quickly and
effectively evaluate business issues.

3.2.1.3 Databases
The third component of IT is databases. A database is a collection of
interrelated data or information stored on a data storage device such as a
computer hard drive, a floppy disk, or tape. For instance, a database can be a
firms inventory records, time standards for different kinds of processes, cost
data, or customer demand information. Databases have been put to numerous
uses. For example, the police use it to launch assault on neighbourhood drug
trafficking by keeping track of drug-selling locations and activity. Some
business organisations also employ it to offer innovative marketing
programmes. The marketing information in such firms contains customers biodata, location, purchase records, and other information. By using proprietary
software with this database, firms can add personalised offers and messages to
the invoices of selected customers. The database then tracks customer reactions
to the messages forwarded. This person-to-person marketing process is based
on the philosophy that different customers should be treated differently, and
that the best customers should get the most attention. This information
management system just described has appeals in airlines, grocery delivery
businesses, mass-customisation manufacturers, etc.

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3.2.1.4 Telecommunications
Telecommunications is the fourth and final component of IT. In order for one
computer to communicate data with another computer, it has to do so through
the telecommunication technology. Telecommunications main purpose is to
enable the transmission of signals representing voice data, physical data, and
images between remote locations.

Many of the telecommunications systems in use today employ electrical or

electromagnetic media as carriers of signals. There are different types of
networks, for example, data networks (as in when two or more computers are
connected together to communicate data); television networks (e.g. CNN and
NTA stations); and radio networks (FRCN, BBC, and VOA stations).
The ability of computers to communicate to one another in even very far away
locations has given rise to the Internet (commonly referred to as the
information superhighway).

3.3 Creating and Applying Technology

One of the major challenges facing most firms today is how to apply emerging
product and process technologies to their businesses. For the purposes of
understanding these technologies better, it is necessary for us to examine the
concept of innovation process. Figure 6.2 shows an overview of the innovation
process, which is aimed at creating and applying technology to improve a
firms products, production processes, and services. The innovation process
focuses technical and scientific efforts on better ways to meet market needs.

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Figure 6.2: Research and Development Stages

Generates new
knowledge and
pioneers
technological
advances

Solves practical
problems by
applying
findings from
basic research

Creates new
products or
processes to
meet market
needs
New
Processes

Stage 1
Basic
Research

Stage 2
Applied
Research

Stage 3
Development

New
product
and
services

Inter firm
Partnership
and suppliers

3.3.1 Research and Development (R & D) Stages

Very often innovation and R & D projects go through the stages already shown
in Figure 2. You can see from the figure that stages 1 and 2 are research stages,
while stage 3 is the development stage.

3.3.1.1 Basic Research

A study that explores the potential of narrowly defined technological
possibilities, and attempting to generate new knowledge and pioneer
technological advances is called basic research. It seeks fundamental truths,
such as the knowledge that ultimately made space ships possible. It is generally
non-directive research that is not targeted for a particular product or process.
Basic research is usually science based, as with computer and biotechnology.
This is however, not always the case. Successes may come from an inventive
mind or a flash of genius. Since basic research is often capital-intensive, it is
performed in laboratories owned by government agencies, or some large firms,
and universities.

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3.3.1.2 Applied Research

Applied research attempts to solve the practical problems involved in turning
an idea or invention into a commercially feasible product, process or service. It
tends to the carried out mostly by large firms. Applied research is also more
directed than basic research for example, a small group of engineers and
scientists might be formed to build a small-scale pilot plant to test and refine
ideas coming from basic research efforts.

3.3.1.3 Development
Development here refers to the activities that turn a specified set of
technologies into detailed designs and processes. Product and process designs
are developed with an eye to both marketability and ease of production. Both
large and small firms are usually involved in development. Some studies have
shown that many development ideas begin with the recognition of market
production needs, rather than from a new technological opportunity.
Generally, development of product technology moves through several phases:
(1) Concept development (2) technical feasibility (3) detailed product or
service design and (4) process design. At the concept development phase, the
product idea is just conceived. During the technical feasibility phase, tests are
conducted to determine whether the concept will work or not.
During the detailed product design phase, prototypes of the product features
may be built, tested and analysed. Normally, detailed design goes beyond
engineering, with operations and marketing personnel getting involved in
assessing the design for its manufacturability and marketability. Details of
product characteristics are examined by utilizing lists of specifications, process
formulas, and drawings.
Still, on the detailed product design phase, the marketing department uses trial
tests in limited markets or with consumer panels to help measure market
reactions to specific product features or packaging. At times, test results may
lead to changes in the product or the way it is presented before it is actually
produced and marketed. Tests such as these often provide reasonable assurance
that the product is technically feasible, can be produced in quantity at the
desired quality level, and has customer appeal.
At the final development phase, process design, final decisions are made
regarding the inputs, operations, work flows, and methods to be used to make
the product.
The service providers too, can employ the R & D stages to their business
operations. However, stages 1 and 2 are far less formal and extensive than they
have for manufacturers. For instance, when developing new services, service

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providers still must define their customer benefit packages, which is an

important part of the development stage. For example, at a restaurant, the core
products are food and drink. The peripheral products are chairs, tables, and
tableware. The services include courtesy, speed, quality and the less tangible
characteristics of taste, atmosphere, perceptions of status, comfort, and a
general sense of well being.
You should realise that the development stage is very crucial to a firms future
profitability. A future-looking organisation that is technology and resource rich should always develop and compete with the new technologies that they
helped create. That is, they should continue to develop innovations into
products and services. This is the only way to prevent organisational
complacency from depriving them of the initial leadership.

3.4

Choosing Technologies

Operations managers need to make intelligent, informed decisions about new

product and process technologies now, more than ever before. This is because
of the rapid rate at which technology is changing, coupled with the numerous
technologies available all over the place, whether choices that are eventually
made are bound to have effects on both human, as well as technical aspects of
operations.
Consequently, we shall attempt to examine how technologies should be chosen
and how these choices link with strategy to create a competitive advantage. It is
necessary to stress at this point that, an appropriate technology is one that fits
corporate and operations strategies and gives the firm a sustainable advantage.
In addition, several tests of a potential technological change should be made.
For instance, if the change being considered fails these tests, it should never be
pursued even if it represents an impressive technological accomplishment.

3.4.1 Assessing the Technologies

Almost out of necessity, a new technology should create some kind of
competitive advantage. This competitive advantage is created by either
increasing the value of a product to a customer, or reducing the costs of
bringing it to the market. Generally, there are great potentials for increasing
value and reducing costs from a new technology.
The most common cost-reduction strategy is that of cutting the direct cost of
labour and materials. Though labour savings have generally been used to
justify most automation projects, it has been reported that labour is a shrinking
component, being only between 10 to 15 percent of total costs. Hence, in order
to understand a new technologys true value, an operations manager should
assess factors other than cost savings.

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For instance, the presence of the following factors may indicate the existence
of competitive advantage in a new technology:
(i) Increase in sales and/or customer satisfaction.
(ii) Improvement in quality.
(iii) Quicker delivery times through reductions in processing times.
(iv) Improvement in inventory control.
(v) Reduction in costs.
(vi) Improvement on the environment.
(vii) Improvement in product design.
(viii) Increase in production.
(ix) Increase in product variety.
As should be expected, new technologies are not without costs. For instance,
investment in a new technology can be very intimidating and discouraging
especially for complex and expensive projects requiring new facilities or
extensive facility overhaul. In addition, the investment can be risky because of
uncertainties in demand and in per-unit benefits. Furthermore, the technology
may have hidden costs, such that could require employee knowledge and skills
to maintain and operate the new equipment. Sometimes, such new requirements
may lead to employee resistance, lower morale, and increased labour turnover.
For these and other reasons, the operations manager must sort out the numerous
benefits and costs of different technological choices.
Another important test is how the technological change will help a firm achieve
the competitive priorities of cost, quality, time, and flexibility. For a new
technology to be certified for use, it should normally have a positive impact on
one or more of these priority areas, especially those already emphasised for the
product or service in question. It is also essential to check whether this
advantage can be protected from imitation.
You need to also note that achieving strategic fit (as discussed in the previous
paragraph), whereby the technologies chosen help achieve current corporate
and operations strategies, is necessary, but not sufficient.
Hence, the organisation should look out for new technologies that can build
new production capabilities. These can then form the basis for new strategies,
thereby leading down a long-term path to improvement. The point being made
here is: instead of just preserving the past, management must create the firms
future with new operating capabilities. This is done by developing a set of core
competencies and technologies that enable the firm to adapt quickly to
changing opportunities.
In addition to core competencies, management must identify a firms core
technologies, which are crucial to the firms success. For obvious reasons,
these should be developed internally. The best thing is for a firm to possess a

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broader set of core technologies, in order to be less vulnerable to new entrants

in the industry.
Another strategic consideration deals with when to launch a new technology.
Very often, being the first to market with a new technology offers a firm many
advantages that may actually outweigh the financial investment needed. In the
first place, technological leaders define the competitive rules that others will
follow with regard to a new product or process. Secondly, a first-mover may
be able to gain a large market share early, and this can create an entry barrier
for other firms. Even if competitors are able to match the new technology, the
first movers initial advantage in the market can endure. Thirdly, being the first
can give a firm the reputation that emulators will find difficult to overcome.
Fourthly, a first-mover strategy may lead to a least temporary advantage with
suppliers of outside materials and services over those of its late-comer
competitors. Finally, technological leadership might also allow the firm to get
patents that discourage imitation.
However, a number of risks are being faced by a company that adopts a firstmover strategy. First, the pioneering costs are often high, with R & D costs
exceeding the firms financial capabilities. Second, market demand for a new
technology is speculative, and estimates of future financial gains might be
overstated. Third, a new product or process technology may soon become
outdated because of new technological break-through. It is therefore imperative
for managers to carefully analyse these risks and benefits of which
technologies to adopt.
Economic justification is another important strategic factor to be taken into
account when examining our earlier considerations, with respect to:
(i) sources of competitive advantages;
(ii) fit with competitive priorities;
(iii) existence of core competencies; and
(iv) first-mover strategy.
It is therefore important to perform some financial analyses in order to
determine whether investment in the new technology is economically justified.
Towards this end, operations managers should state in clear and unambiguous
terms, what they expect from a new technology, and then quantify costs and
performance goals. Next, they should determine whether the expected after-tax
cash flows arising from the investment are likely to outweigh the costs, after
taken the time value of money into consideration. The application of the
traditional financial appraisal techniques such as the net present value, internal
rate of return and the pay back methods can be employed to measure the
financial impact of new technologies. Though uncertainties and intangibles are
not easily measurable, they must necessarily be considered.

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It has also been suggested that operations managers need to look beyond the
direct costs of a new technology to its impact on customer service, delivery
times, inventories, and resource flexibility. In many instances, these are the
most important considerations. It is true that quantifying such intangible goals
as the ability to move quickly into a new market prove difficult. At the same
time, a firm that fails to make technological changes along with its competitors
can quickly lose its competitive advantage and subsequently experience
declining revenues and layoffs.
In the light of the above, economic justification should begin with financial
analyses, through the recognition of all quantifiable factors that can be
translated into financial values. Thereafter, the resulting financial measures
should be merged with an evaluation of the qualitative factors and intangibles
involved. The manager can then estimate the risks associated with uncertain
cost and revenue estimates.

3.5 Implementation Guidelines for New Technologies

Apart from making the right choice, managing technology also means
supporting the particular technology selected throughout its implementation. In
actual fact, job satisfaction and positive employee attitudes can be sustained
only if technological change is managed well. To this end, some useful
implementation guidelines have been developed, and these relate to technology
acquisition, technology integration, the human side, and leadership. It is
necessary to examine each of these areas in the guidelines.

3.5.1 Technology Acquisition

Technology acquisition deals with how far back in the R & D stream a firm
gets involved (i.e. in basic research, applied research or development) for the
purposes of securing new technologies and which options it uses to do so.
Generally, large firms are more likely to enter the early stages of the R & D
stream, whereas small firms are more likely to enter later, usually at the
development stage. There are three main options for acquiring a new
technology. These are internal sources; inter firm relationships, and purchasing
from suppliers.
With respect to internal sources, a firm may decide to do its own R & D or,
more likely, some part of it. It might also look to its engineering department to
refine product and process designs during the development stage, or ask other
departments that have successfully applied new technologies to do the
refinement. However, it is relatively unrealistic to rely exclusively on internal
sources, most especially at the earliest research stages at R & D.
The second, major option for technology acquisition is inter-firm relationships.
Here, firms turn to outside sources more than ever for new technologies. This

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source is particularly attractive to many firms (including most small firms),

who do not have their own R & D and engineering departments. Their main
pre-occupation therefore, is to choose and refine the best mix of available
technologies created by others. Sometimes some of them simply wait until
information about a new technology comes into public domain. The major
limitation inherent in this passive option, is the long delay and possibly,
incomplete information. There is a continuum of more aggressive options, with
varying levels of commitment required of the firm. There are four of such
approaches:
(i)

Outsourcing research: A firm may outsource research to universities or

laboratories by giving research grants. Very often, this approach requires
the least commitment by the firm, but most probably minimises the
transfer of knowledge to the firm.
(ii) Obtaining a license: A firm may also decide to obtain a license for the
technology from another organisation, thereby gaining the legal right to
use such in its processes or products. One limitation of this approach is
that the agreement with the licensing company might contain clauses
which may invariably limit the flexibility of the licensee.
(iii) Entering a joint venture or alliance: In this approach two or more
firms may enter into a joint venture or alliance. In a joint venture, the
firms agree to jointly produce a product or service. In the case of an
alliance, the firms share the costs and benefits of R & D. This approach
requires a greater degree of commitment. However, it establishes more
of a market presence than the first two options.
(iv) Buying out: A firm may buy out another firm which has the desired
technological know-how. It should be clear to you that this approach
requires the greatest commitment to exploiting the new technology and
can lead to market dominance.
The third main option for acquiring a new technology is from outside suppliers.
For example, suppliers can be the source of parts for a firms own technology
products, or they can be the source of new innovative equipment or services
that the firm uses in its processes. The operations managers of organisations
interested in this option must always be on the look out for new technologies
available from suppliers that will increase productivity, improve product
quality, shorten lead times, or increase product variety. Generally, outsourcing
gives a firm access to the latest technology that has been developed throughout
the world.

3.5.2 Technology Integration

For proper management of technology, there is the need to raise crossfunctional teams to implement the new technology. It is the responsibility of
these teams to bridge the gaps between research and development, and between
development and manufacturing. The act of bringing design engineers,

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manufacturing engineers, buyers, quality specialists, information technology

specialists, and others at this stage is called concurrent engineering. This
exercise significantly shortens the time to market, and equally allow the firm to
meet time-based and quality competition better. These teams are after charged
to take a broad, systematic outlook in choosing technologies to pursue.

3.5.3 Technology and Human Resources

There is no doubt that new technology affects jobs at all levels, for instance,
eliminating some, upgrading some, and downgrading others. In this regard
therefore, operations managers must be able to anticipate such changes and
prepare for them. Usually, education and employee involvement help a firm
identify new technological possibilities and then prepare employees for the jobs
modified or created when the new technologies are implemented.

3.5.4 Leadership
Managing technology in an appropriate way requires that managers play
several, often conflicting roles. For instance, they must be good stewards and
hold the right budgets and schedules. It also requires good project management
skills for implementation speed to keep pace with technological changes.
Therefore, operations managers must continually monitor programme targets
and completion dates. It is necessary for them to be realists when accessing the
risks, costs, and benefits of a new technology. As visionaries, managers should
have a technical vision of the goal and vigorously pursue it. Managers must
also play the role of advocates, by making strong commitment to the project as
well as stand behind it. Finally, they must act as gatekeepers by keeping
everyone focused.
It must also be mentioned that when new technologies are being developed or
implemented, the operations manager should raise a team, made up of
representatives of all relevant departments. This team should then be made to
lead and coordinate the work. The head of the team (a project champion)
should be someone who promotes the project at every opportunity and who
naturally has contagious enthusiasm.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that technology plays a pivotal role in creating new
products and improving processes. It can create whole new industries and
dramatically alter the landscape in existing industries. You also learnt that the
development and innovative use of technology can give a firm a distinctive
competence that is difficult to match.

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5.0 SUMMARY
We have explored how technology can create a competitive advantage. The
Unit started with a general definition of technology, and then applied it
specifically to products, processes and information. We also examined the
various stages of technological development from its creation to its application
to products and processes.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE (SAE)
i. How do you understand the term technology?
ii. Why should operations manager be interested in the three aspects of
technology?
iii. IT comprises computing and telecommunications technologies. Explain
its basic partitions.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Describe the concept of technology strategy as discussed in this unit.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Betz, F. (1987): Managing Technology: Competing Through New Ventures,
Innovation, and Corporate Research. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall.
Burgelman, R.A., Maidique, M.A. and S.C. Wheelwrosht (1996): Strategic
Management of Technology and Innovation. Chicago: Irwin.
Cohen, M.A. and U.M. Apte (1997): Manufacturing Automation, Chicago:
Irwin.
Krajewski, L.J. and L.P. Ritzman (1999): Operations Management:

Strategy

and Analysis. 5th ed. Reading, Massachusetts, Addison-Wesley.

Moori, H. (1990): Managing the Dynamics of New Technology.

Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Porter, M.P. (1985): Competitive Advantage. New York: Free Press.
Steele, L.W. (1988): Managing Technology: The Strategic View.
York: McGraw-Hill.

New

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UNIT 2

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SITE SELECTION

CONTENTS
1.0
Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Site Selection
3.2 Factors in Site Selection
3.2.1 Staffing
3.2.2 Inherent Local Condition
3.2.3 Infrastructure
3.2.4 Construction
3.2.5 Factors Affecting Cash Flows
3.2.6 Financial Aid
3.2.7 Proximity of Resources
3.2.8 Quantitative Approaches to Site Selection
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0

INTRODUCTION

This unit emphasizes the importance of site selection in a firms operation and
looks into many factors that need to be taken into consideration before a siteselection decision is made. The unit looks into the importance of markets,
labour costs and other human-resource - related issues. Emphasis is also placed
on inherent local conditions, the infrastructures of a region, subsidies by
government and accessibility to resources. Attention is also given to
quantitative methods for site selection. The methods include weighting, breakeven, probability and centre-of-gravity methods.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(i) Understand the meaning of site selection
(ii) Understand the factors that need to be considered before site-selection
decisions are made
(iii) Know the interrelationships among relevant factors of site selection
(iv) Use quantitative methods to decide on site-selection.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Site Selection
Site selection is deciding on a location for constructing, expanding or acquiring
a physical entity of a firm in order to reach new markets, increase production
capacity of serve customers better. It is otherwise called facility location and it
could be for either a manufacturing or a service organisation.
Site selection decision may be for a small regional company of a large
multinationals. Depending on the size of the location, the ease of the decision
making process varies from small companies to a large - multinationals. In
other word, it could be domestic or international.
Domestic Example
1. Lever Brothers, based in Lagos, Nigeria selects to have another branch
in Gbongan, a town in Ayedaade Local Government Area of Osun State,
Nigeria.
2. Eleganza (Nig) Plc, based in Lagos selects to have a distribution centre
in Osu, Atakumosa L.G.A., Osun State, Nigeria.
International Examples
Lever Brothers, based in Lagos Nigeria decides to have a distribution centre in
Detroit, Michigan, USA
Eleganza (Nig) Plc, based in Lagos, Nigeria selects to have a new plant in
Watford, north of London, Great Britain.
However, site selection is always based on the cost of operating the new
facility, or on the returns expected to be realised.

3.2 Factors in Site Selection

3.2.1 Staffing
This includes the availability of all the types of personnel needed to run a
facility, direct and indirect operating personnel and management. Labour cost
is an essential criterion that should be considered under staffing. It helps to
explain why many companies based elsewhere have built facilities away from
their own countries. The reason might not be unconnected with the fact that
labour costs enter directly into the cost of manufactured products or the cost of
rendering a service. The cost includes basic salary, wages as well as all social

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and other charges paid to the employee or paid to government by employer in

the form of taxes
Social laws with the accompanied social charges affect labour flexibility and
cover areas such as basic work week, overtime permitted, weekend working
living and termination laws. This is very important in deciding where a
company should be located.
For example, a great impediment to sitting companies in France and Italy is the
consideration of introducing a 35 hour working week, which is lower than what
operates in many other countries
Availability of skilled labour is also important. There must be a good pool of
labour which can be trained for the type work. Choosing a place where there is
high unemployment level confirms labour availability e.g IBM of USA
locating in Glasgow Scotland because of significant labour availability in the
areas.
Productivity of labour should also accompany the availability of labour.
Productivity (absolute) is measured as the output divided by the input of
resources. For example, companies tend to locate in South Korea and Hong
Kong because of their high labour productivity.
Strong Trade - Union power in a country can also contribute to unwillingness
to locate a firm in the region: This manifests in the conditions attached to
Union membership and the frequency of industrial actions in the region. This
explains why many trade memberships are declining and companies avoid
strikes celebrated regions.
Education level of the available work force is also important. This has a direct
relationship with how much training would be required and the training
facilities available. For example, North Caroline, USA, because of her high
education level is attracting many companies.
Local labour should also be able to handle sophisticated plant technology.
Sometimes sitting a company or a facility where the labour lacks the required
sophistication may compel the reduction of the complexity of the plant to adapt
to the level of the local labour.
Labour mix which affects reputations governing the percentage of local labour
that must be used in either the construction of a new firm or the subsequent
operation is also an important factor in staffing a company or a facility. The
consideration of the specification of some countries stating the minimum levels
of local labour that should be in a company is important.

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3.2.2 Inherent Local Condition

Inherent local conditions include factors such as climate, culture and language.
Climate may present attractive locations for facilities if associated with many
days of sunshine and good weather. This is because people prefer to live in
regions with good weathers and it is easier to recruit personnel in such a place.
This explains the rapid growth of Florida and Texas in USA to the detriment of
some other areas in the country.
Culture of a region may present difficult situation for the expatriates.
Expatriates are nationals of the country where the head office is located, who
are sent overseas on a time-limited contract. They receive a premium on their
salary according to the difficulty of the location. Using expatriates is very
costly, not only because of the salary premium but because housing and
transportation have to be provided for the. For example, South Arabia would be
considered more difficult than England.
Ethics of certain regions may not match those of others and therefore acting as
a deterrent to siting a facility or company in some regions. For example, in
Europe, Italy puts itself at a disadvantage for possible invertors because of its
Mafia dealings.
Language should also be a subject of consideration under inherent local
conditions. Common language among regions is an asset for the establishment
of firms or facility. One reason why UK is attractive to US companies is the
common language. Japan and UK are also attracted because English is the
common language of Japanese. The same is true of Nigeria and the USA

3.2.3 Infrastructure
This comprises the physical facilities put in place by the region, business
environment, and laws enacted by the government. It also includes family
services such as housing, schools, University, shops, medical services as well
as telephone, fax lines, computer net work facilities and video conferencing.
Other aspects of infrastructure include:
Environmental regulations cover local regional and national rules for air, water,
land and noise pollution. For instance, locating a facility in an area where the
environmental laws are strict can be costly. In California U.S.A., an
environmental impact statement has to be prepared before, a company can
construct. The document should address all the possible effects that
construction and operation will have on the environment. This is lengthy and
constitutes a delay in constructing a plant in such a location.

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Legal framework is another important factor. Litigation laws are not the same
among countries. Damage claims for infringement, such as faulty products,
faulty operation, environmental spills can cost huge some of money. In some
countries like USA, companies are expected to have programmes that stress the
living and promotion of less privileged individuals.
Transportation is another consideration under infrastructure. It covers the
transportation facilities and networks for raw materials, finished goods and
personnel. A good road network and rail services are advantageous.
Transportation costs can add in great measure to the cost of finished products.
Rental costs also play an important consideration in the location of site.
Because rental costs add to the price of customers, it may influence companies
in sitting at adjacent towns where the costs are lower instead of capital where
they ought to use. In Europe, for example, Paris and London are most
expensive.
Living costs is also an aspect of infrastructure. It covers all the expenses for
employees to live in an area. High living costs are limiting factors in recruiting
the appropriate personnel because intending employee may find relocation
extremely difficult. For instance, personnel find it expensive to relocate to
Tokyo because of high living costs in the place except if the recruiting
company can shoulder the responsibility (financial).
Stability of a country may also affect site location by presenting a high risk to
companies because of the fragility of the government, the threat of civil strife
or local intolerance to foreign companies. Iraq is one the riskiest countries in
the world as a result of great instability in the country. Other countries
considered as being risk are Russia, Venezuela, Nigeria, Mexico etc.

3.2.4 Construction
Construction costs can reduce the profitability of the facility.
Land cost is often high where land is scarce and this could be of limiting factor
in sitting a company Europe, for example is considered high relative to many
other regions.
Construction labour which refers to the pool of construction labour available.
Getting this pool of labour is difficult, many a time, in developing regions
necessitating the import of labour for the duration of the construction - local
regulation may also stipulate the proportion of local labour in the construction
crews.
Land preparation involves the work necessary to prepare land for constructing
of the facility. Some regions require little land preparation while other regions

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require great land preparations. For example Industrial Parks, created by

regional districts for the purpose of attracting companies require little land
preparation and often all the utilities look ups are in place as well. This
characterises developing countries such as Brazil, Philippines and the Middle
East.
Expansion possibilities are also relevant needs to be given to whether
expansion possibilities exist. Non existence of such a factor may hinder
companies from being sited in a place.
Zoning regulations which involve laws regarding construction in particular area
is an important consideration. In some regions, an area has to be designated as
an industrial zone before plant can be constructed in such a place. The
operation phase of the company should also be considered.
Availability of materials for construction must also be considered. Construction
materials such as cement, fibre board, wood and construction steel may not be
available locally and have to be imported. And this adds to costs.

3.2.5 Factors Affecting Cash Flows

Some factors directly affect a firms cash flow. The importance of such factors
is looked into under the factors that impact cash flows.
Fluctuating exchange rates impact cash flow. Stability of currency is important
in site for an operating company. Currency of the country of the parent
company can affect the revenue realized, the cost of raw materials, operating
costs and investment amount needed. In developed countries the German Mark,
the Swiss France and the Dutch Guilder have increased in strength over 20%
relative to the US dollar during the period 1994 to March 1995. The revenues
acrued to the US in US dollars have increased by some 20 per cent. The
changes in operating cost and raw material cost depend on the currency on
which the costs are dominated.
Repatriation of funds is the ability of the parent company to repatriate the funds
to the country where the headquarters are located. Where strict exchange
control exists transfer is not easy.
Taxes on operations levied by government on companies will diminish the net
return to the corporation. For example in California, USA, there is a longrunning unitary taxation situation concerning the ability of the state to tax not
only the operation of a foreign company in the state, but also income generated
by worldwide operations. This tells on the profits of the company establishing
in that region.

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3.2.6 Financial Aid

This includes direct cash grants or tax incentives on the land, operation or
product produced. Example of a case where the financial aid influenced the
citing of company occurred when in 1993 Mercedez-Benz of Germany planned
to build US
300 million dollar plant somewhere in USA to produce a new
four-wheel drive sports utility vehicle. A detailed analysis of the states in the
country reduced the states to three: North Carolina, South Carolina and
Alabama. These three all presented the attractions of a relatively low-cost but
skilled and abundant work-force, anti-union sentiments, affordable housing,
attractive life style and good transport links. In addition, the governments of the
states were willing to throw money at companies ready to locate in their state

3.2.7 Proximity of Resources

Raw materials are very important and particularly their closeness to the
process-flow plants is critical factors in site selection. This informs reason
behind locating Oil refineries, which produce gasoline, kerosene and diesel
close to oil field and the finished products are shopped to customers. Coal
power stations, are often located close to coal mine.
Process and utility water should be close to some companies especially
companies like oil refineries and metal processing plants use a large quantity of
utility water for cooling and / or in the process itself. The same is also true of
food-processing plants particularly brewing and soft drinks industry; the water
supply is integral part of the product and therefore should be located close to
water supply. The quality of the water is also very important.
Reliable power supplies are also important. Countries in Africa have unreliable
power supplies. In cases like this, back-up power facilities need to be
constructed close to the facility. These add to the cost of operation.
Supplier or subcontractor of companies which depend heavily on their services
should be located also close to one another. This is important because
reliability in delivery of goods is necessary if a just-in-time production criterion
is used at the company.

3.2.8 Quantitative Approaches to Site Selection

Four quantitative methods might be used as a basis for site selection if
parameters and variables related to site selection can be estimated with some
certainty. These includes: weighting the site criteria; breaking even analysis;
probability analysis; centre - of - gravity method. These methods quantitatively
determine the best location.

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Weighting the Selection Criteria

This method applies weighting factors to the criteria for site selection. The site
that has the highest overall value would be the preferred location. The
procedure includes:
(a) Select the site criteria that are considered the most important for the site.
These might be, for example, cost, labour availability, transport etc.
(b) Assign a weighting factor F to all the site criteria according to their
importance in the selection. The total weighting will be equal to unity.
(c) Apply a numerical score S / Out of 100, for example, for all the site
criteria for each possible location being considered
(d) Multiply the weighting factor by the numerical score, F x S for each site
and for each criterion.
(e) Sum the total F x S
(f) The value (F x S) that is the maximum indicates the preferred site.
(g)
Example
Table 7.1 shows weighting factor (F) and numerical scores of five different
locations in Nigeria: Oyo, Ogun, Ondo, Kwara and Lagos as analysed by a
company desiring to have new production facilities.
Table 7.1: Weighting factors and scores for each site
Site Criteria Weighting
Oyo
Ogun Ondo Kwara Lagos
factor
S
S
S
S
S
F
Productivity 2.75 25 65 90 60 75
Construction cost 1.35 60 50 30 70 40
Labour cost 2.50 70 30 25 35 50
Proximity to clients 1.25 40 75 85 60 55
Suppliers Proximity to 1.15 30 65 55 35 45
Weather/quality of living
Total

1.00 85 25 25 90 35

10.00

Production facility
1. Based on the data provided, determine the preferred location for the
construction of this new production facility?
2. What can you say about the sensitivity of using this approach for site
selection?

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Solution
(1) The weighting factor F is multiplied by the score S for each location and
the total (F x S) is determined. The values are given in the last line of
Table 7.2
Table 7.2
Site criteria Weighting
factor (F)
Productivity 2.75 25 65 90 60 75

Oyo
S

Ogun
S

Ondo
S

Kwara
S

Lagos
S

Construction cost 1.35 60 50 30 70 40

Labour cost 2.50 70 30 25 35 50
Proximity to clients

1.25 40 75 85 60 55

Proximity to suppliers 1.15 30 65 55 35 45

Weather/quality of living 1.00 85 25 25 90 35
Total 10.00 494.25 514.75 545.00 552.25 540.75
From table 2, maximum score = 552.25 preferred location Kwara.
Break-even analysis
Break-even analysis is a common evaluating method when costs can be
determined with some certainty. The procedures are itemised below:
(a) Determine the fixed and variable costs for each site
(b) If a site has a variable cost higher than another site but a lower fixed cost
then there will be a break-even point. There will be no break-even point
if both the fixed costs and variable costs are higher than the
corresponding costs at another location.
(c) determine the production level expected from each site
(d) the preferred site will be that which has the lowest total cost.
Example

Table 7.3
Fixed costs, /year

Akure Ibadan Osogbo

Salaries/management/staff 3,400,000 2.700,000 3,200,000

Depreciation

750,000 600,000 400,000

Insurance

250,000 225,000 210,000

Energy costs

310,000 275,000 290,000

Taxes

100,000

Total

90,000

80,000

4,810,000 3,890,000 4,180,000

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Variable cost, /unit

Raw materials

21.50 25.96 24.75

Labour

12.50 11.30 11.10

Packing

1.30

Transportation

0.30

2.05
1.10

1.50
0.95

35.60 40.35 38.30

Total

Table7.3 shows the fixed costs and variable costs of Cadbury (Nig.) Plc in its
attempt to site new branch at state capital. Three state capitals are being
considered. Akure, Ibadan and Osogbo.
1. Determine the break-even levels in terms of units produced in the three
states.
Solution
Break-even point is
Total costs = fixed costs + variable cost x production level
The first step is to determine if there will be break-even points
comparing their fixed and variable costs with one another shows that
there will be:
Total cost for Akure
TCA = FCA + QA x VCd

And for Ibadan

TCI = FCI + QI x VCI

The break-even point is when the total costs are equal for the two sites at
some production level Q or
FCA + QA x VCA = FCI + QI x VCI

making Q, the subject of the formula .

Similar relationships hold between Akure and Osogbo and between
Ibadan and Osogbo.
Table7.4 gives the values of the production units at the
point, and the total cost for each of the twin sites.

break-even

Table7.4
Units Produced to break-even Akure Ibadan Osogbo
141,463

9,846,098 9,598,049 9,598,049

193,684

11,705,158 11,705,158 11,598,105

233,333

13,116,667 13,305,000 13,116,667

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The equal break-even units are in bold prints.

Uncertainty and risk
Uncertainty is when it is difficult to assign probabilities to a situation. In this
case, the criteria of minimax, maximin, equally likely and Minimax regret may
be used, depending on the approach of the decision maker.
Probabilities
If probabilities can be assigned, then the expected outcome of a particular site
selection may be determined by weighing according to various probabilities.
Examples
Nestle Nig. (Plc), based in Nigeria, manufactures and distributes Nescafe. As a
result of an expected increase in demand for its product, the company is
considering four possibilities or capacity expansion.
Table7.5 gives estimates of the profits from each facility in the four possible
locations: Kano, Kaduna, Sokoto, Lagos; for over five years estimation period
Table 7.5 Estimates of the profits from each facility in Naira
Market change 40% 25% 1% -10%
Over five years

increase Increase increase increase

Kano 22,250,000 19,250,000 -625,000 -11,250,000

Kaduna 26,290,000 15,500,000 -1,479,000 -18,925,000
Sokoto 6,273,500 5,250,000 -1,790,000 12,920,000
Lagos 7,400,000 5,500,000 -50,000 -100,000
Based on the above information, what would be the preferred site:
(a) If management is pessimistic in its approach
(b) Using the concept of minimax regret

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Solution
Table7.6
Market change

40%
25%
1% -10% Minimum
increase
increase
Kano 22,250,000 19,250,000 -625,000 -1,250,000 -11,250,000
Kaduna 26,290,000 15,500,000 -1,479,000 -18,925,000 -18,925,000
Sokoto 6,273,500 5,250,000 -1,790,000 -12,920,000 -12,920,000
Lagos 7,400,000 5,500,000 -50,000 -100,000 -100,000
If the management is pessimistic in its approach, then maximim is the criterion
to be used.
Based on Table 6, maximum of the minimum is - 100,000 which imply that
Lagos is the preferred site.
1. Using the concept of minimax regret.
Minimax regret matrix is shown in Table7.7 which is determined for
each column. Each cell value is obtained by finding the difference
between the maximum outcome in that column and the possible
outcome of the cell.
Table 7.7
Kano 4,040,00 0 575,000 11,150,000 11,150,000
Kaduna 0 3,750,000 1,429,000 18,825,000 18,825,000
Sokoto 20,016,500 14,000,000 1,740,000 12,820,000 20,016,500
Lagos 18,890 13,750,000 0 0 18,890,000
The minimum of the maximum regrets in the last column is the chosen, and it
is 11,150,000. Hence, the preferred location using the concept of minimax
regret is Kano.
Centre of Gravity
The fourth method to determine site/selection is centre-of-gravity. It may be
used to establish the location of a primary central distribution centre that
supplies secondary centres. It takes cognisance of the volume of goods
transported from primary to secondary centres and also the distance between
sites. The cogent procedures are itemised below:
(a) Position the network on a grid identified by X and Y
ordinates. The units of the co-ordinates are not important

co-

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(b) The co-ordinates of the centre of gravity are calculated using the
following relationship.
Xc = SXQi and Yc = SYiQi
SQi
SQi
Where,
Xc and Yc has the co-ordinates for the centre of gravity.
Xi and Yi are the co-ordinates for supply center, Qi is the quantity delivered
from the central site to the secondary centre.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt a number of important issues that relates to site
selection. The importance of site selection factors and the methods
(quantitative) to determining preferred locations were brought into limelight.
Apart from knowing the relevant factors that should be considered in site
selection and the implications on the company in question, you should have
used the basic quantitative techniques to establish the preferred locations for
some indigenous companies such as Cadbury (Nig) Plc, Liver Brothers (Plc)
etc. you should have known how the same technique especially under
uncertainty and risk could give different preferred locations for site selection
depending on the criterion used by the management. You need also, to know
that there are some levels of interrelationships among the factors that need to
be put into consideration before site selection decisions are made.

5.0 SUMMARY
What you have learnt in this section concerns the meaning of site selection, the
relevance of different relevant factors in selection decision and methods of
determining the preferred location.
The factors considered include staffing with conditions which embraces the
influence of labour costs, labour productivity, and availability of good training
facilities as well as cultural implications on expatriates. The role of language
differentials was also accentuated.
Climate and issues that directly relates to construction perse as well as the
factors that impact cash-flow were also meticulously looked into. Labour costs,
as they affect manufacturing firms, the proximity of raw materials, water
availability etc. were not ignored.
Importance of exchange rate and the stability of the regions add to factors that
were considered. Quantitative methods for evaluating the location of site were
looked into at break -even analysis, weighting the evaluation criteria,
probability analysis of various returns, and the centre of gravity method with
regard to transportation

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6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

In Table 7.5 Assume the probability of the marked changes were estimated
as follows
Market change 40%
25%
1%
-10% incline
increase
increase
increase
Probability of
30% 45% 20% 5%
occurrence
Using expected values, what decision would be made for site selection?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Uk Dept of Employment (1995) (Adapted from the Economist) 21 January
Khami J. (1997) Restaurant site selection, Commercial Investment Real
Estate Journal 16 (3): 20-23
Raudhawa, S.U and West, T.M. (1995) An Integrated approach to facility
location problems computers and industrial Engineering 29 (1-4): 26165
Thisse, J.F. and Wildasin, D.E. (1995) Optimal transportation Policy
with strategic locational choice, Regimal Science and Urban
Economics 25 (4); 395-416
Milmo, S. (1997) Who pays wins, Management Today. April. 60-68
Kroehe, J. J. Relocation reconsidered Across the Board 32 (2): 40-40

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UNIT 3 SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS
1.0
Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 An Overview of Supply-Chain Management
3.1.1 Materials Management
3.1.2 Supply Chains
3.1.3 Developing Integrated Supply Chain
3.2 Purchasing
3.2.1 The Acquisition Process
3.2.2 Criteria for the Selection and Certification of
Suppliers
3.2.3 Types and Effects of Supplier Relations
3.2.3.1 Competitive Relationship
3.2.3.2 Cooperative Relationship
3.3 Distribution
3.3.1 Placement of Finished Goods Inventory
3.3.2 Selection of Transportation Mode
3.3.3 Scheduling, Routing and Carrier Selection
3.4 Measures of Supply-Chain Performance
3.4.1 Inventory Measures
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of supply chain management is to synchronise a firms function

with those of its suppliers in order to match the flow of materials, services, and
information with customer demand. Its strategic implications lie on the fact that
the supply system can be used to achieve important competitive priorities. In
addition, it involves the coordination of key functions in the firm such as
marketing, finance, engineering, information systems, operations, and logistics.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(i) Define the nature of supply-chain management for both manufacturers
and service providers.
(ii) Describe the strategic importance of supply-chain management
(iii) Explain the important roles of purchasing and distribution in the design
and execution of effective supply chains.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 An Overview of Supply Chain Management
One major consequence of supply-chain management is to control inventory by
managing the flow of materials. As discussed, an inventory is a stock of
materials used to satisfy customer demand or support the production of goods
or services. Figure 1 uses the analogy of a water tank to illustrate how
inventories are created. The flow of water into the tank raises the water level.
This inward flow of water represents input materials or a finished product.
Figure 8.1:

Creation of Inventory

Input flow of materials

Inv entory level

Scrap flow

Output flow of materials

The water level represents the amount of inventory held at a plant, service
facility, warehouse, or retail outlet. The flow of water from the tank lowers the
water levels and this depicts the demand for materials inventory. Examples of
such include customer orders for a finished product or requirements for
component parts or supplies to support the production of a good or service. In
addition to these, we also have scrap as another possible outward flow from
materials inventory.
It should be clear to you, that both the input and output flows determine the
level of inventory. For instance, inventories will normally rise when more

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materials flow into the tank that flows outside. Conversely, they fall when more
flows out than flows in.
There are three categories of inventory: raw materials (RM) work-in-process
(WIP) and finished goods (FG). Raw materials are inventories needed for the
production of goods or services; they are generally seen as inputs necessary in
the transformation processes of the firm. Work-in-process consists of items
such as components or assemblies needed for a final product in manufacturing
as well as in some service operations (such as service shop, mass service
providers, and service factories). Finished goods in manufacturing plants,
warehouses, and retail outlets are the items that are sold to the firms
customers. Please note that the finished goods of one firm may be the actual
raw materials sought by another firm for its transformation processes.
Organisation (such as governments, churches, manufacturers, wholesalers,
retails and universities) in almost all segments of an economy are becoming
more conscious of the need to manage the flow of materials. Manufacturers
make products from materials and services they purchased from outside
suppliers. Service provides too, use materials in the form of physically items
purchased from suppliers. The values of these materials that are purchased
from outside sources often represent substantial portions of the total income
eared by business organisations. Hence, firms can reap large profits with a
small percentage reduction in the cost of materials. This is perhaps one of the
reasons why supply-chain management is becoming a key competitive weapon.

3.1.1 Materials Management

Materials management is concerned with decisions about purchasing materials
and services, inventories, production levels, staffing, patterns, schedules and
distribution. Such decision often affects the entire organisation, either directly,
or indirectly. Operations and logistics therefore play a major role in supplychain management.
The belief in some quarters is that ideally, one person
within the firm should make all such decisions concerned with materials
management, more so that they are so inter-related. However, the sheer
magnitude of this task in most firms (for example; with thousand of employees,
tens of thousands of inventory items, husbands of work centres, several plants
and thousands of supplies) often makes the suggestion impossible.
The relevant question then is: what organisational structure is best suited to
handle the materials management function? Traditionally, organisations have
divided the responsibility for materials management among three departments:
purchasing, production control and distribution. This form of organisation is
called a segmented structure. Here the manager of each of these departments
reports to a different person. The approach obviously requires a great amount
of coordination in order for its to achieve a competitive supply system.

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Consequently, many firms have restructured to centralize most materials

management task in one department, and the manager of that department
elevated to a higher position in the organisation. This form of organisation is
called an integrated structure, while the unified department is referred to as
materials management or logistics management.
The advantage in this integrated structure is that it elevates the materials
management function. In addition, it also recognizes that the various materials
management task are all part of the same supply chain management activity. In
other words, it brings together all the tasks related to the flows of materials,
from the purchase of raw materials to the distribution of the finished product or
service. However, most firms have been found to adopt the hybrid structures,
whereby two of the three departments (i.e. purchasing and production control)
typically report to the same executive. The distribution department then
continues to report to the marketing manager.
Granted that the organisational structure and management hierarchy can help
integrate decisions and activities in materials management, a lot of cross
functional coordination is still required. Let us use an example to buttress this
important point: the marketing department typically makes forecasts and
processes incoming customer orders. The production control department uses
this information to organise work-force schedule and set work priorities.
Simultaneously the marketing department needs to know the current schedule
and production capability when processing incoming orders for the purposes of
making realistic delivery promises. Immediately purchased materials have been
received or furnished goods shipped, the accounting department must
necessarily follow through with payments or billing. In order to achieve better
cross functional coordination, organisations may have to push responsibilities
lower in the organisation; group traditional functions around each major
product or service; or create inter-functional coordination units. It has also been
suggested that information systems and the reward system maybe used to
facilitates coordination across the functional boundaries.
Figure 8.2 illustrates the scope of materials management and the typical
domains of responsibility for purchasing, production control, and distribution
for a baker. As can been seen from the figure, the flow of materials begins with
the purchase of raw materials (e.g. flour, eggs, sugar baking powder) and
services (e.g. maintenance technicians to service equipment) from outside
suppliers. The incoming raw materials are stored and then converted into bread
by one or more processes, which involves some short-term storage of work-inprocess inventory. The loaves of bread are stored for a brief period as finished
goods and later shipped by means of transportation services suppliers to
various outlets with their distribution centres. Cycle is repeated as necessary, as
the firm responds to customer demand.

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Figure 8.2: Materials management for a Bakery and the Domains of

Responsibility for its Three Primary areas of operation

Outlet A
Distribution centre

Outlet B
Distribution

DISTRIBUTION
Domain of responsibility

Transportation
services supplier

FG Storage

PRODUCTION CONTROL

Domain of responsibility

Transformation
process and WIP
storage

RM Storage

Egg
supplier

Sugar
supplier

Flour
supplier

Bakin g
powder
supplier

Maintenance
services
supplier

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The purchasing department is often responsible for working with supplies to

ensure the desired inward flow of materials and services. This department may
also be responsible for inventories of raw materials. The determination of
production qualities and scheduling of machines and employees directly
responsible for the production of goods and services are all within the domain
of the production central department. The department handling distribution is
usually responsible for the outward flow of materials from the firm to its
customers. It may also be responsible for finished goods inventories and
selection of transportation suppliers. It can be clearly seen that materials
management is responsible for coordinating the efforts of purchasing and
distribution. Hence, as we have already mentioned, materials management
decisions have a major cumulative effect on the profitability of a firm and thus
attract considerable managerial attention.

3.1.2 Supply Chains

A supply chain is the inter-connected set of linkages between suppliers of raw
materials and services that spans the transformation of raw materials into
products and services, and delivers them to a firms customers. The provision
of information needed for planning and managing the supply chain is an
important part of the process just described.
The supply chain for a firm can be very complicated. Figure 8.3 is a simplified
version. Here the firm owns its own distribution and transportation services.
Note that firms that manufactured products to customer specifications dont
usually have distribution centres of their own. They often ship the products
directly to their customers. It is customary to identify suppliers by their
position in the supply chain. For example, tier 1 suppliers provide materials or
services that are used directly by the firm; tier 2 suppliers usually supply tier 1
suppliers etc.
Having observed that supply chains can often be complicated, what then, is the
best way to control suppliers in a complex supply chain? One sure way to gain
control is to buy a controlling interest in the firms major suppliers. This is
known as backward vertical integration. This way, the firm can ensure its
priority with the supplier and even more forcefully lead efforts to improve
efficiency and productivity. It should however be noted that buying into other
companies involves a lot of capital, which may reduce a firms flexibility.

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Figure 8.3: Supply Chain for a manufacturing firm.

Customer Customer Customer Customer

Distribution

Distribution

center

center

Manufacturer

Tier 1

Tier 2

Tier 3

Legend Supplier of services Supplier of materials

Most importantly, if demand drops, the firm cant simply reduce the amount of
materials purchased from the supplier to reduce costs since the suppliers fixed
costs remain unchanged. Another approach of controlling suppliers is to enter
into some agreements with the first-tier suppliers, such that these suppliers can
be held accountable for the performance of their own suppliers.

3.1.3 Developing integrated Supply chain

From our discussion so far, it is clear that a successful supply chain
management requires a high degree of functional and organizational
integration. Such integration usually comes through some form of evolution.
Usually, firms willing to undergo the rigours of developing integrated supply
chains move through a series of phases as displayed by figure 4. The starting
point for most firms is phase 1, where external suppliers and customers are
considered to be independent of the firm. This situation makes relations with
these entities to be formal, have there is little sharing of operating information
and costs. Similarly, the firms purchasing, production control and distribution
departments act independently. Each of these internal departments attempts to
optimize its own activities without considering other entities. Each external and

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internal entity in the supply chain will then try to control its own inventories,
and also utilizes control systems and procedures that are incompatible with
those of other entities. The existence of organizational and functional
boundaries often leads to large amounts of inventories in the supply chain.
Consequently, the overall flow of materials and services is ineffective.
Figure 8.4: Phases in the Development of an Integrated Supply Chain
Phase 1:
Independent
Supply-chain
entities
Control

Phase 2:

Suppliers

Suppliers

Purchasing

Purchasing

Internal
Integration

Production

Distribution

Customers

Distribution
Production Customers
control

Internal Supply chain

Materials Management Department

Phase 3:
Supply chain
Integration

Suppliers
Chain

Internal
Supply

Customer

Integrated Supply Chain

Source: Adapted from: Krajweski, L.J. and L.P. Ritzman 1999.

In the second phase, the firm attempts to initiate internal integration by

combining purchasing, production control and distribution into a materials
management department. The major interest here is on the integration of such
aspects of the supply chain directly under the firms control in order to create
an internal supply chain. It is usually for firms already in this phase to utilize a
seamless information and materials control system right from distribution to
purchasing, integrating marketing, finance, accounting and operations. While
efficiency and close linkages to customers are emphasized, the firm still

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considers its suppliers and customers to be independent entities, thus focusing

on tactical rather than strategic issues.
It is necessary for internal integration (Phase 2) to precede phase 3 (external
integration). What happens in the third phase is that the internal supply chain is
extended to embrace suppliers and customers. By so doing, the internal supply
chain is linked to the external supply chain (which initially, is not under the
direct control of the firm). At this phase, the firm needs to change its
orientation from a product or service outlook to a customer orientation. This in
essence means that the firm must identify the appropriate competitive priorities
for each of its market segments. In order to serve its industrial customers better,
the firm should develop a good understanding of their products, culture,
markets and organisation. Furthermore, the first should not just react to
customer demand; rather it should strive to work with its customers so that the
two of them benefit from improved flows of materials and service. In the same
vein, the firm needs to develop better understanding of its suppliers
organisations, capacities, and strength and weakness. It is also necessary for the
firm to include its suppliers earlier in the design process for new products or
services. It is this phase 3 that embodies supply chain management, which
seeks to integrate the internal and external supply chains.

3.2 Purchasing
Purchasing is the management of the acquisition process, and it involves
deciding, decoding which suppliers to use, negotiating contracts, as well as
deciding whether to buy locally. It is basically the duty of purchasing to satisfy
the firms long-term supply needs. Furthermore, it should support the firms
capabilities to produce goods and services. We need to understand that the
performance of both the internal and external supply chains depends on how
well this critical task is performed.

3.2.1 The Acquisition Process.

There are five basic steps in the acquisition process. These are:
(i) Recognise a need: The first step starts with the receipt of a request to
buy outside materials or services by the purchasing department. This
request is generally known as a purchase requisition and it usually
includes the items description, quantity and quality desired as well as
the delivery date. The purchasing department is well positioned to
appraise supplier capabilities and performance. In a manufacturing firm,
the purchasing department normally receives such authority to buy from
the production control department. Production control department, in
turn, is guided by the outsourcing and make or buy decision that have
already been made.

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At a retailing firm the decision of what merchandise to buy is usually the

same as that of what to sell, hence marketing and purchasing decisions
are intermingled. In the case of service provides, purchase decisions are
generally based on the need to replenish items and services consumed in
the delivery of services by the firm.
(ii) Select Suppliers: in this second step, there is the identification of
suppliers that are capable of providing the items, grouping items that can
be provided by the same supplier, requesting bids on the needed items,
evaluating the bids in terms of multiple criteria and finally selecting a
supplier.
(iii) Place the Order: This step involves the actual placement of orders. The
ordering procedure can be very complex, especially when it involves
expensive one-time purchases. However, it is usually very simple in the
case of standard items that are routinely ordered from the same supplier.
It is usual for suppliers to make shipments daily or even shift by shift
without being prompted by purchase orders. This is often the case in
some high-usage situations.
(iv) Track the order: This includes routine follow-up of orders to avoid the
late deliveries or deviations from requested order quantities. The usual
practice is for the suppliers to be contacted by letter, fax, telephone or email. This step is particularly important for large purchases, especially
when a delay could disrupt production schedules or mean the loss of
customer goodwill as well as future sales.
(v) Receive the order: This is the last step. Here, the in-coming shipments
are normally checked for quantity and quality, with notices going to
purchasing department, the unit placing the purchase requisition,
inventory control and accounting. In a situation where the shipment is
not satisfactory, the purchasing department should decide whether to
return it to the supplier. It is also very important to keep a track of
punctuality, quality and quantity deviations and price. Furthermore, the
purchasing department should coordinate closely with account
department to ensure that supplies are paid accurately and punctually
too.

3.2.2 Criteria for the selection and certification of suppliers

From our discussion so far, it should be clear that the purchasing department is
the eyes and eyes of the organisation in the suppliers market place. It therefore
continuously seeks better buys and new materials from suppliers For this
reason, the purchasing department is in a good position to select suppliers for
the supply chain and to conduct certification programmes.

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With respect to supplier selection decision and the review of the performance
of current suppliers, it is necessary for the organisation to review the market
segments it wants to serve and relate their needs to the supply chain. Usually,
the starting point in developing a list of performance criteria to be used is
competitive priorities being adopted by the organisation. For example, foodservice firms use on-time delivery and quality as the top two criteria for
selecting suppliers.
The three most commonly considered by firms selecting new suppliers are
price, quality and delivery. It has been shown earlier that firms spend a large
proportion of their total income on purchase items. Hence, their key objective
is finding suppliers that charge low pries. However, low prices should not be
made to overshadow quality, since this should equally be given an important
consideration. For instance, the hidden costs of poor quality can be very high,
most especially if defects are not detected until after substantial value has been
added by subsequent operations. In the case of a retailer, poor merchandize
quality can lead to loss of customer goodwill and future sales. Finally, shorter
lead times and on-time delivery can assist the buying firm maintaining
acceptable customer service with fewer inventories.
Let us now consider issues involved in supplier certification: The essence of
supplier certification programmes is to verify that potential suppliers have the
capacity to provide the materials or services the buying firm requires. Usually,
certification involves actual site visits by a cross-functional team (made up of
operations, purchasing, engineering, information systems and accounting) from
the buying firm. This team performs an in-depth evaluation of the suppliers
capability to meet cost, quality, delivery and flexibility targets from process
and information system perspectives. All the aspects of producing the materials
or sources are examined through real observation of the processes in action and
review of documentation for completion and accuracy. If the team is satisfied,
the supplier is certified, hence can be subsequently used by the purchasing
department. Thereafter, the performance of the supplier is monitored and the
records of such are appropriately kept. After a particular period of time, or if
performance declines, the supplier may need to be re-certified.

3.2.3 Types and Effects of Supplier Relations

The nature and type of relations maintained with suppliers can affect the
quality, delivery and price of a firms products and services. There are tow
major types of relationships a firm may develop with its suppliers: competitive
and cooperative.

3.2.3.1 Competitive Relationship

In this type of relationship, the negotiation between the buyer and supplier is
viewed as a zero-sum game, that is, whatever one side loses, the other side

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gains. Consequently, short-term advantages are preferred to long-term

commitments. On one hand the buyer may want to beat the suppliers price
down to he lowest level. The buyer may also push demand to high levels
during boom times, thereby ordering almost nothing during recessions. On the
other hand, the supplier presses for higher prices for specific levels of quality,
customer services, and volume flexibility.
Whichever party wins depends on who has the most clarify. Usually,
purchasing power determines that that a firm has. A firm is said to have
purchasing power when its purchasing volume represents a significant share of
the suppliers sales or the purchased item or service is standardized and many
substitutes are available.

3.2.3.2 Cooperative Relationship

In this type of relationship, the buyer and supplier see themselves as partners.
Thus, each tries to help the other as much as possible. This in essence means
long-term commitment, joint work on quality and support by the buyer of the
suppliers managerial, technological and capacity development. Generally, a
cooperative relationship favours few suppliers of a particular item or service,
the ideal number being just tone or two suppliers. With some increase in order
volume, the supplier gains repeatedly, and this helps the line flow strategy of
high volume at a low cost. In addition, when contract are large and a long-term
relationship is assured, the supplier might even decide to build a new facility
and, then hire a new work force. The supplier might even re-locate close to the
buyers plant.

Another interesting feature of the cooperative relationship is that he buyer

shares more information with the supplier on its future buying intention. This
then allows suppliers to make better, more reliable forecasts of future demand.
The buyer at times, visits suppliers plants for familiarization purposes, and
may actually suggest ways to improve the suppliers operations. This
relationship may grow so well that the buyer wouldnt see the need to inspect
incoming materials. Moreover, the supplier may be given more freedom in
specifications involving the supplier more in designing parts, implementing
cost-reduction ideas, and sharing in savings. One major advantage of the
cooperative relationship is the potential to reduce the number of suppliers in the
supply chain, thereby reducing the complexity of managing them.

3.3 Distribution
Distribution is the management of the flow of materials from manufacturers to
customers and from warehouses to retailers, involving the storage and
transportation of products. Generally, distribution broadens the marketplace for
a firm, adding time and place value to its products. In the sections that follow,

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we will look at three types of decisions facing distribution managers. These

are:
(i) Where to stock finished goods;
(ii) What transportation mode to use; and
(iii) How to schedule, route, and select carriers

3.3.1 Placement of Finished Goods inventory

This is often a fundamental decision in any business organisation . One
solution is to consider forward placement, which means locating closer to
customers at a warehouse or distribution centre (DC) or with a wholesaler or
retailer. The advantages here are two-fold:, there is fast delivery times,
accompanied by reduced transportation costs. Ordinarily, these opportunities
usually stimulate sales. Firms using a make-to-stock strategy often use forward
placement.
However, if competitive priorities call for customized products, storing an
inventory of finished goods, risks creating unwanted products. The solution
then lies on backward placement, which is the holding of inventory at the
manufacturing plant or maintaining no inventory of finished goods. At times
backward placement (also referred to as inventory pooling), is advantageous
when the demand in various regions maybe unpredictably high in one month,
and low in the next. What backward placement does in this instance is to pool
demand so that the highs in some regions cancel the lows in others. This is
based on the fact that demand on a centralised inventory is less erratic and
more predictable than demand on regional inventories. Inventories for the
whole system can be lower, and costly re-shipments from one distribution
centre to another can be minimized.

3.3.2 Selection of Transportation Mode

There are basically five modes of transportation: high way, rail, water, pipeline
and air. Providers of these transportation services normally become part of a
firms supply chain. Since each of these modes has its own advantages and
disadvantages, the selection of a particular one to adopt should be made with
the competitive providers for each of the firms products or services in mind.
For instance, if flexibility is a key competitive priority, highway transportation
can be used to ship goods to almost any location within a geographical region.
One of the advantages inherent in the highway mode is that, no re-handling is
needed as so is often the case with other modes that rely on trucks for initial
pick up and final delivery. In addition, transit times are good, and rates are
usually less than rail rates for small quantities and short hauls.

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If cost is the competitive priority, rail or water transportation may be

appropriate. Rail transportation, in particular can ship large quantities of goods
very cheaply. However, its transit times are long and variable. This mode is
usually recommended for shipping raw materials, rather than finished goods.
Rail shipments often require pickup and delivery rehandling. Water
transportation provides high capacity at low unit cost, but its transit times are
low. It also has limited geographical flexibility.
In the case of certain products in high volumes at low cost, pipelines may be
the choice. Pipeline transportation is highly specialised, but with limited
geographical flexibility. It is naturally limited to liquids, gases, or solids in
slurry form. No packaging is needed and costs per kilometer are low.
Finally, if fast delivery times are the competitive priority, air transportation is
the fastest but most expensive mode. This mode is limited by the availability of
airport facilities and also requires pickup and delivery re-handling.
Apart from these primary modes, special service modes and hybrids are
available. These include parcel post, air express, bus service, and freight
forwarder.

3.3.3 Scheduling, Routing and Carrier Selection

The decisions on how to schedule, route and select carriers are usually very
complex. For instance, several activities essential to the performance of the
supply chain are involved in the day-to-day control of freight movement. In
addition, the shipping schedule must fit into purchasing and production control
schedules. It also reflects the
trade-off between transportation costs and
customer response times. For instance, by delaying a shipment for another day
or two so as to combine it with others will make it possible to have a full
carload rate for a rail shipment or a full truckload for truck shipment.
With
respect to routing choices, a manufacturer can gain a lower freight rate by
selecting a routing that combines shipments to multiple customers. In fact, the
firm may even negotiate lower overall rates, if it develops routings by which
large volumes can be shipped regularly.

3.4 Measures of Supply-Chain Performance

It is now clear to you, that supply chain management involves managing the
flow of materials that create inventories in the supply chain. Hence, managers
need to closely monitor inventories in order to keep them at acceptable levels.
For instance, the flow of materials affects various financial measures of
concern to the firm. It is therefore necessary to examine the typical inventory
measures that are usually used to monitor supply-chain performance.

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3.3.3 Inventory Measures

Measures of inventories are usually reported in three basic ways: average
aggregate inventory value, weeks of supply, and inventory turnover.
The average aggregate inventory value is the total value of all items held in
inventory for a firm. All the monetary values in this inventory measure are
expressed at cost since we can then sum the values of individual items in raw
materials, work-in-process, and finished goods. Final sales monetary values
have meaning only for final products or services, and can not be used for all
inventory items. It is an average because it usually represents the inventory
investment over some period of time.
Let us illustrate with an example: suppose that item A is a raw material that is
transformed into a finished product, item B. One unit of item A may be worth
only a few

Value of each
Number of UnitsValue
of of each unit
Average Aggregate inventory value = Number
+ of
Item A typically on
unithand
of ItemItem
A B typicallyofon
Item
hand
B
Units of
naira. On the other hand, one unit of item B maybe valued in the hundreds of
naira because of the labour, technology, and other
operations performed in manufacturing the product. For an inventory consisting
of only item A and B, this measure is given as:

value-add

By summing up over all items in an inventory, the total tells managers how
much of a firms assets are tied in inventory. T ypically, manufacturing firms
have about 25 percent of their total assets in inventory, whereas wholesalers
and retailers average about 75 percent.
To some extent, it is possible for managers to decide whether the aggregate
inventory value is too low or too high by a recourse to historical or industry
comparison, or by managerial judgement. It is however very important to take
demand into consideration.
Another inventory measure is weeks of supply, and this is obtained as follows:

Weeks of supply = Average aggregate inventory value

Weekly sales (at cost)

You will observe that the numerator includes the values of all items (e.g. raw
materials, work-in-process, and finished goods), while the denominator
represents only the finished goods sold at cost, rather than the sale price after
mark ups or discounts. This cost is often referred to as the cost of goods sold.

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The third measure of inventory is inventory turn over (or turns), which is
obtained by dividing annual sales at cost by the average aggregate inventory
value maintained during the year. T he formular is:

Inventory turnover =

Annual sales (at cost)

Average aggregate inventory value

Example
A company averaged N2million in inventory last year, and the cost of goods
sold was N10million. If the company has 52 business weeks per year, how
many weeks of supply were held in inventory? What was the inventory
turnover?
Solution
(a)
Weeks of Supply =

N2m
(N10m) / (52 weeks)
= 10.4 weeks

(b)

Inventory turns = N10m

/
N2m = 5turns year

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learned that a careful management of the materials and
services from the suppliers to production to the customer allows organisations
to operate more efficiently than competitors. You were also thought that
supply-chain management involves the coordination of key functions in the
firm such as marketing, finance, engineering, information systems, operations
and logistics.

5.0 SUMMARY
A basic purpose of supply-chain management is to control inventory by
managing the flows of materials that create it. Three aggregate categories of
inventories are raw materials, work-in-process and finished goods. An
important aspect of supply-chain management is materials management, which
coordinates the firms purchasing, production control, and distribution
functions.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

A firms cost of goods sold last year was N3, 410,000 and the firm operates 52
weeks per year. It carries items in inventory: three raw materials, two work-inprocess items, and two finished goods. The following table contains last years
average inventory level for each item, along with its value.

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(a) What is the average aggregate inventory value?

(b) What weeks of supply does the firm maintain?
(c) What was the inventory turnover last year?
Category Part Number Average Level Unit value
Raw materials 1
15,000
2
2,500
3
3,000
Work-in-process 4
5,000
5
4,000
Finished goods 6
2,000
7
1,000

3.00
5.00
1.00
14.00
18.00
48.00
62.00

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Fisher, M.L. (1997): What is the Right Supply Chain for your Product?
Harvard Business Review (March April) pp 105- 116.
Lee, H.L. and C. Billington (1992): Managing Supply Chain Inventory:
Pitfalls and Opportunities Sloan Management Review (Spring)
pp 65 - 73

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UNIT 4

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

INVENTORY MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS
1.0
Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Purpose of Inventories
3.2 Inventory Cost Structures
3.2.1 Item Cost
3.2.2 Ordering (or set up) Costs
3.2.3 Carrying (or holding) Cost
3.2.3.1 Cost of Capital
3.2.3.2
Cost of Storage
3.2.3.3 Costs of Obsolescence, Deterioration,
and Loss
3.3 Independent versus Dependent Demand
3.4 Requirements for Effective Inventory Management
3.4.1 Inventory Counting Systems
3.4.2 Demand Forecasts and Lead Time Information
3.4.3 Classification System
3.5 Economic Order Quantity Model
3.5.1 Basic Economic Order Quantity Model
3.5.2 EOQ with Non-instantaneous Relenishment
3.5.3 Quantity Discounts
3.5.4 When to Reorder EITH EOQ Ordering
3.6 How Much to Order: Fixed-Order-Interval Model
3.6.1 Reasons for Using the Fixed-Order-Interval Model
3.6.2 Determine the Amount to Order
3.6.3 Benefits and Disadvantages
3.7 The Single-Period Model
3.7.1 Continuous Stocking Levels
3.7.2 Discrete Stocking Level
3.8 Operation Strategy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A convenience point to start our discussion in this unit is to provide an answer
to the question: what is an inventory?
An inventory is a stock or store of
goods. Firms typically stock hundreds or even thousands of items in inventory,
ranging from small things such as pencils, paper chips to large items such as
machines and trucks. Naturally, many of the items a firm carries in inventory
relate to the kind of business it engages in. Thus, manufacturing firms carry

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supplies of raw materials, purchased parts, partially completed items, and

finished goods, as well as spare parts for machines, tools and other supplies.
Hospitals stock drugs, surgical supplies, life monitoring equipment etc;
supermarket stock fresh and canned foods, frozen foods etc.
To test your
understanding of inventory, try to identify the different types of inventories
carried in the following organizations: Banks, Laboratory, clothing store and
petrol station.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

After completing this unit you should be able to:

1) Define the term inventory and list the major reasons for holding
inventories.
2) Contrast independent and dependent demand
3) List the main requirement for effective inventory management
4) Discuss period and perpetual review system.
5) Describe the A. B. C approach and explain how it is useful
6) Discuss the objectives of inventory management
7) Describe the basic EOQ model and its assumptions and solve typical
problems.
8) Describe the economic run size model and solve typical problems.
9) Describe the quantity discount model and solve typical problems.
10) Describe reorder point models and solve typical problems.
11) Describe situation in which the single period model would be
appropriate.
12) Solve typical problems that involve shortage costs and excess costs.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1

Purpose of Inventories

To understand why firms have inventories at all, you need to know something
about the various functions of inventory.
Inventories serve a number of
functions. Among the most important are the following:
1. To meet anticipated demand or planned demand.
2. To smooth production requirements This is true for firms that
experience seasonal patterns in demand often build up inventories
during off-season periods to meet overly high requirements during
certain seasonal periods. For example, poultry farmers keep inventory
of birds until festival periods when they will be sold. Can you think of
examples of firms that keep seasonal inventories?.
3. To decouple components of the production distribution system
manufacturing firms have used inventories as buffers between

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4.

5.

6.

7.

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

successive operations to maintain continuity of production that would

otherwise be disrupted by events such as breakdown of equipment and
accidents that cause a portion of the operation to shut down temporarily.
The buffers will permit other operations to continue temporarily while
the problem is resolved.
Similarly, firms can use buffers of raw
materials to insulate production from disruptions in deliveries from
suppliers, and finished goods inventory to buffer sales operations from
manufacturing disruptions.
To protect against stock-outs, that is, one can reduce the risk of
shortages resulting, for example, from delays due to weather condition
by holding safety stocks, which are stocks in excess of anticipated
demand. Can you identify possible causes of shortages in raw materials;
work in process and finished goods?
To allow economic production and purchase or to take advantage of
order cycles. To minimize purchasing and inventory costs, a firm can
buy in quantities that exceed immediate requirements. This necessitates
storing some or all of the purchased amount for later use. Similarly, it is
usually economical to produce in large rather than small quantities.
Again, the excess output must be stored for later use.
Thus inventory
storage enables a firm to buy and produce in economic lot sizes without
having to try to match purchases or production with demand
requirements in the short run.
This results in periodic orders, or order
cycles. The resulting stock is known as cycle stock. You have to know
that economic lot sizes are not the only cause of order cycles. In some
instances, it is practical or economical to group orders and/or to order at
fixed intervals.
To hedge against price increases or to take advantage of quantity
discounts.
Occasionally, a firm can suspect that a substantial price
increase is about to be made and therefore purchase larger-than normal
amounts to avoid the increase.
The ability to store extra goods also
allows a firm to take advantage of price discounts for large orders.
To permit operations. The fact that production operations take a certain
amount of time (i.e. they are not instantaneous) means that there will
generally be some work-in-progress inventory. In addition, intermediate
stocking of goods including raw materials, semi-finished items and
finished goods at production sites, as well as goods stored in ware
houses, - leads to pipeline inventories throughout a production
distribution system. As a follow up to question asked in section 1: What
functions do those inventories identified perform?

3.2 Inventory Cost Structures

One of the most important prerequisites for effective inventory management is
an understanding of the cost structure. Inventory cost structures incorporate the
following four types of costs:

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3.2.1 Item cost

This is the cost of buying or producing the individual inventory items.
The
item cost is usually expressed as a cost per unit multiplied by the quantity
procured or produced. Sometimes item cost is discounted if enough units are
purchased at one time.
3.2.2 Ordering (or set up) costs
These are costs of ordering and receiving inventory.
They include typing
purchase order, expediting the order, transportation costs, receiving costs, and
so on.
Ordering costs are generally expressed in fixed Naira per ordering
regardless of order size. When a firm produces its own inventory instead of
ordering it from a supplier, the costs of machine setup (e.g., preparing
equipment for the job by adjusting the machine, changing cutting tools) are
analogous to ordering costs; they are expressed as a fixed charge per run
regardless of the size of the run.
3.2.3 Carrying (or holding) cost
This is associated with physically having items in storage for a period of time.
Holding costs are stated in either of two ways: as a percentage of unit price, for
example, a 15 percent annual holding cost means that it will cost 15 kobo to
hold N1 of inventory for a year or in Naira per unit.
The carrying cost usually consists of three components:
3.2.3.1 Cost of capital
When items are carried in inventory, the capital invested is not available for
other purposes.
This represents a cost of foregone opportunities for other
investments, which is assigned to inventory as an opportunity cost.

3.2.3.2 Cost of storage

This includes variable space cost, insurance, and taxes. In some cases, a part of
the storage cost is fixed, for example, when a ware house is owned and cannot
be used for other purpose. Such fixed costs should not be included in the cost
of inventory storage. Similarly, taxes and insurance should be included only if
they vary with inventory levels

3.2.3.3

Costs of obsolescence, deterioration, and loss

Obsolescence costs should be assigned to items which have a high risk of

becoming obsolete; the higher the risk, the higher the costs.
Perishable
products such as fresh seafood, meat and poultry and blood should be charged

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with deterioration costs when the item deteriorates over time. The costs of loss
include pilferage and breakage costs associated with holding items in
inventory. For example, items that are easily concealed (e.g. pocket cameras,
transistor radios, calculators) or fairly expensive (e.g. cars TVs) are prone to
theft.
Stock out or shortage costs result when demand exceeds the supply of
inventory on hand. These costs can include the sale lost because material is not
on hand, loss of customer goodwill due to delay in delivery of order, late
charges and similar costs. Also, if the shortage occurs in an item carried for
internal use (e.g. to supply and assembly line), the cost of lost production or
downtime is considered a shortage cost. Shortage costs are usually difficult to
measure, and they are often subjectively estimated. Estimates can be based on
the concept of foregone profits.

3.3 Independent versus Dependent Demand

A crucial distinction in inventory management is whether demand is
independent or dependent.
Dependent demand items are typically
subassemblies or component parts that will be used in the production of a final
or finished product.
Demand (i.e. usage) of subassemblies and component
parts is derived from the number of finished units that will be produced.
A
classic example of this is demand for wheels for new cars.
If each car is to
have five wheels, then the total number of wheels required for a production run
is simply a function of the number of cars that are to be produced in that run.
For example, 200 cars would require 200 x 5 = 1,000 wheels.
Independent demand items are the finished goods or end items.
Generally
these items are sold or at least shipped out rather than being used in making
another product. This demand includes an element of randomness.
The nature of demand leads to two different philosophies of inventory
management.
A replenishment philosophy, that is, as the stock is used, an
order is triggered for more material and inventory is replenished.
A requirements philosophy, that is, as one stock begins to run out.
materials or ordered only as required by the need for other higher-level or end
items.
The sections that follow focus on independent demand items.

3.4 Requirements for Effective Inventory Management

Management has two basic functions concerning inventory. One is to establish
a system of keeping track of items in inventory and other is to make decision
about how much and when to order. To be effective management must have the
following:

More

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1. A system to keep track of the inventory on hand and on order.

2. A reliable forecast of demand that includes an indication of possible
forecast error.
3. Knowledge of lead times and head time and lead time variability.
4. Reasonable estimates of inventory holding costs, ordering costs
and shortage costs.
5. A classification system for inventory items.
Lets take a close look at each of these requirements.

3.4.1

Inventory Counting Systems

Inventory counting system can be periodic or perpetual. Under a periodic

system, a physical count of items in inventory is made at periodic intervals
(e.g., weekly, monthly) in order to know how much to order of each item. An
advantage of this type of system is that orders for many items occur at the same
time, which can result in economies in processing and shipping orders. There
are also several disadvantages of periodic reviews. One is a lack of control
between reviews. Another is the need to protect against shortages between
review periods by carrying extra stock. A third disadvantages is the need to
make a decision on order quantities at each review.
A perpetual inventory system (also known as a continual system) keeps tracks
of removal from inventory on a continuous basis, so when the system can
provide information on the current level of inventory for each item, when the
amount on hand reaches a pre determined minimum a fixed quantity, Q, is

ordered. The advantages of this system include;

(i) Continuous monitoring of inventory withdrawals.
(ii) Fixed order quantity that makes it possible for management to identify
an economic order size (discuss in detail later in the unit). The
disadvantages include added cost of record keeping and also a physical
count shall be performed.
Bank transactions such as customer deposit and withdrawals are examples of
continuous recording of inventory changes. An example of perpetual system is
in two- bin system that uses two containers of inventory; reorder is done when
the first is empty. It does not demand record of withdrawal.
Perpetual system can be batch or on line. In batch system inventory records are
collected periodically and entered into the system. In on-line system the
transactions are recorded instantaneously. The advantage of latter over the
former is that they are always up to date.

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3.4.2 Demand Forecasts and Lead Time Information

Since inventories are used to satisfy demand requirement it is essential to;
(i) have reliable estimates of the amount and timing of demand
(ii) know how to long it will take for orders to be delivered
(iii) know the extent to which demand and lead time (the time between
submitting an order and receiving it) might vary.

3.4.3 Classification System

Since items held in inventory are not of equal importance in terms of naira
invested, profit potential, sales, or usage volume or stock out penalties. They
must be classified in order of their importance to the business. One way you
can do this is to employ A- B- C approach which classifies inventory items
according to some measures of importance, usually annual naira usage (i.e.
naira value per unit multiplied by annual usage rate) and then allocates control
efforts accordingly. Here, A is used for very important items, B for moderately
important and C for least important. A
items generally account for about 15
percent to 20 percent of the items in inventory but 60 percent to 70 percent of
the naira usage. While C items might account for about 60 percent of the
number of items only abort 10 percent of the items of the naira usage of an
inventory. In most instances A items account for large share of the value or
cost associated with an inventory; and they should receive a relatively greater
share of control efforts. The C items should receive only loose control and B
items should have controls that lie between the two extremes.
The
A.
B. C
concept is used by managers in many different settings to
improve operations. For example in customer service, a manager can focus
attention on the most important aspects of customer service as very important,
or of only minor importance. This is to ensure that he does not overemphasize
minor aspect of customer service at the expense of major aspects.
A-B- C. concept can also be used as a guide to cycle counting, which is a
physical count of items in inventory. The purpose of cycle counting is to reduce
discrepancies between the amounts indicated by inventory records and the
actual quantities of inventory on hand. Using A- B- C. concept let us attempt to
classify the inventory items contained in the following table as A, B, or C
based on annual naira value.

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Item Annual
Demand
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

1,000
5,000
1,900
1,000
2,500
2,500
400
500
200
1,000
3,000
900

Unit
Cost
N4,300
720
500
710
250
192
200
100
210
35
10
3

Annual Naira
Value
N4,300,000
N3,600,000
950,000
710,000
625,000
480,000
80,000
50,000
42,000
35,000
30,000
27,000

When you look at the information contained in the table carefully, we can say
that the first two items have a relatively high annual naira value so it seems
reasonable to classify them as A items. The next four items appear to have
moderate annual naira values and should be classified as B items. The
remainders are C items, based on their low naira value. The key questions
concerning cycle counting for management are:
1. How much accuracy is needed
2. When should cycle counting be performed
3. Who should do it?
The American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS) recommends
the following guideline for inventory record accuracy 0.2 percent for A
items, 1 percent for B items and 5 percent for C items.
On when cycle counted be performed, you can decide to do it on periodic
(scheduled) basis or certain events may trigger you do it on a periodic
(scheduled) basis. An-out-of-stock report written on an item indicated by
inventory records to be in stock, an inventory report that indicate a low or zero
balance of an item and a specified level of activity (e.g. every 2000 units sold.)
On who should do it, you may use regular stock room personnel especially
during period of slow activity or give the contract to outside firms to do it on a
periodic basis. The latter provides an independent check on inventory and may
reduce the risk of problem created by dishonest employees.

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3.5 Economic Order Quantity Model

The question of how much to order is frequently determined by using economic
order quantity (EOQ) models. EOQ models identify the optimal order quantity
in terms of minimising order costs. These models can take the following forms:
1. The economic order quantity model
2. The quantity discount model
3. The economic order quantity model with no instantaneous delivery.

3.5.1

Basic Economic Order Quantity Model

This basic model assumes the followings:

1. Only one product is involved.
2. Annual demand requirements are known
3. Lead time do not vary
4. Each order is received in a single delivery
5. There are no quantity discount
6. Demand is spread evenly throughout the year so that the demand rate is
reasonably constant.
The exact amount to order will depend on the relative magnitudes of carrying
and ordering cost. Annual carrying cost is computed by multiplying the average
amount of inventory on hand by the cost to carry one unit for one year, even
though any given unit would not be held for a year. The average inventory is
simply half of the order quantity. Using the symbol H to represent the average
annual carrying cost per unit, the total annual carrying cost is Annual carrying
Q
cost = H
2 . (1)

Annual ordering cost is a function of the number of orders per year and the
ordering cost per order
Annual ordering Cost = DS
Q

Where
S = ordering cost
D = annual demand
Q = order size
The equation shows that annual ordering cost varies inversely with respect to
order sizes.
The total cost associated with carrying and ordering inventory when Q units are
ordered each time is therefore:

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TC = Annual carrying cost + Annual ordering cost = QH + DS

2
Q
Where
D = Demand, usually in units per year
Q = Order quantity, in units
S = Ordering cost in Naira
H = Carrying cost, usually in Naira per unit per year.
If TC is differentiated with respect to Q and equated to zero, and solving for Q,
we will obtain the expression which we use to determine optimum order
quantity, Q0
Q0 = H

2 DS

(3)

The minimum total cost is then found by substituting Q0 in total cost formula.
The length of an order cycle is obtained by dividing optimum quantity (Q0) by

annual demand (D).

To illustrate the use of expression (3), suppose a local distributor for Michelin
tyre expect to sell approximately 9,600 steel-belted radial tires of a certain size
and tread designs next year. Annual carrying costs are N16 per time, and
ordering cost are N 75. The distributor operates 288 days a year
(a) What is the EOQ?
(b) How many times per year does the store reorder?
(c) What is the length of an order cycle?
To answer these question demands that you know the value of D, H and S.
These are as follows D= 9,600 tires per year
H = N 16 per unit per year
S = N 75
Having determined these values, answers to those questions are thus: (a) Qo =

2 DS
= = 300tires
2(9600) 75
H
16
(b) Number of order per year
D/Q0 = 9.600 tires =32
300 tires
(c) (length of order cycle:
Q0/D = 300 tires =

9,600 tires
1/32 of a year, which is 1/32 x 288 or nine workdays.
Now, if your carrying costs are stated as a percentage of the purchase price of
an item rather then as a naira amount per unit, is (3) still appropriate to
determine Q0, optimum order size? The answer is yes as long as you can

convert the percentage in naira equivalent.

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Let us illustrate this with an example: suppose Tijani and Osot. Ltd assembled
television sets. It purchases 3,600 black and white picture tubes a year at N 65
each. Ordering costs are N 31, and annual carrying costs are 20 percentage of
the purchase price. Compute the optimal quantity and the total annual cost of
ordering and carrying the inventory
Solution
D= 3,600 picture tubes per year
S= N 31
H= 20 (N65) = N13 (since this can be done, Q0 expression is therefore

appropriate)

Q0=

2DS =
H

2 (3,600 (31)
13

= 131 picture tubes

TC = carrying costs + ordering costs

= (Q0/2) H + (D/Q0) S

= (131/2) 13 + (3.600/13)31
= N852 + N852 = N1, 704

3.5.2 EOQ with Non instantaneous Replenishment

Recall the assumptions of the basic EOQ model discussed in the last section, it
as assumed that each order is delivered at a single point in time. In some in
time instances, however, such as when a firm is both a producer and user or
when deliveries are spread over time, inventories tend to build up gradually
instead of instantaneously.
When a company makes the product itself there are no ordering costs as such.
Nonetheless, with every run there are setup costs. Setup costs are similar to
ordering cost hence they are treated in (3) in exactly the same way.
In this
case, the number of runs is D/Qo and the annual setup cost is equal to the
number of runs per year times the setup cost per run: (D/Qo)S

Total cost is
TCmh = carrying cost + setup cost
= (Imax) H + (D/Q0)S ----------------- (4)

(2)
Where
Imax = maximum inventory

The economic run quantity is

2 DS.(5)
p
Q0 =
u
H
p -

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Where
P = production or delivery rate
U= usage rate
The maximum and average inventories are
Imax= Q0 (P-U) and Iaverage = Imax

The cycle time (the time between orders or between the beginning of runs) for
the economic run size is dependent on the run size and use (demand) rate:
Cycle time = Q0

U
Similarly, the run time (the production phase of the cycle) is dependent on the
run size and the production rate:
Run time = Q0

P
Now let us illustrate our discussion in this section with an example:
A toy manufacturer uses 48,000 rubber wheels per year for its popular dump
truck series. The firm makes its own wheels which it can produce at a rate of
800 per day. The toy trucks are assembled uniformly over the entire year.
Carrying cost for a production run of wheel is 45. The firm operates 240 days
per year. Determine each of the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

optimal run size

minimum total annual cost for carrying and setup
cycle time for the optimal run size
run time

Solution
D= 48,000 wheels per year
S= N45
H= N 1 per wheel per year
P= 800 wheels per day
U = 48,00 wheels per 240 days or 200 wheel per day

Q0 =

2 DS
H

p
2(48000) 45
800
=
p- u
1
800 - 200

(b) Tcmin = carrying cost + set up cost =

(Imax) H + (D/Q0)S

2
Thus you must first compute Imax
Imax = Q0 (P-U) = 2,400 (800-200) = 1,800 wheels

800

= 2400 wheels

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TC= N1,800 X N1 + 48,000 X N45 = N900 + N900 = N1,800

2
2,400
(c) Cycle time = Q0 = 2,400 wheels

200 wheels per day

= 12 days.

Thus, a run of wheel will be made every 12 days

(d) Run time = Q0 = 2,400 wheel = 13days

P 800 wheels per day

Thus, each run will require 3 days to complete.

3.5.3 Quantity Discounts

This section discusses the third variant of EOQ model. This requires that the
assumption of no quantity discounts is relaxed. A convenient point to start our
discussion in this section is to understand what quantity discounts mean. We
would define quantity discounts as a price reduction for large orders offered to
customers to induce them to buy in large quantities.
The buyers goal with discount is to select the order quantity that will minimize
total cost, which is the sum of carrying cost, ordering cost, + purchasing cost:
TC = Carrying cost + ordering cost of purchasing
= (Q) H + (Q)S + PD
2 D
Where
P = unit price
Recall that in the basic EOQ model, determination of order size does not
involve the purchasing cost. The rationale for not including unit price is that
under the assumption of no quantity discounts, price per unit is the same for all
order sizes.
There are two general cases of the model. In one, carrying costs are constant
(e.g. N20 per unit) in the other, carrying costs are stated as a percentage of
purchase price (e.g. 20 percent of unit price).
The procedure for determining the overall EOQ differs slightly, depending on
which of these two cases is relevant. For carrying cost that is constant, the
procedure is as follows:
(1) Compute the common EOQ
(2) Only one of the unit price will have the EOQ in its feasible range since
the ranges do not overlap. Identify that range

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(a) if the feasible EOQ is on the lowest price range, that is the optimum
order quantity.
(b) If the feasible EOQ is in any other range, compute the total cost for the
EOQ and for the price break of all lower unit cost. Compare the total
costs: the quantity (EOQ or the price break) that yield the lowest total is
the optimum order quantity.
This is illustrated with the following example:
The maintenance departments of a large hospital used about 816 cases of liquid
cleaner annually. Ordering costs are N12, carrying costs are N4 per case a year
and the new price schedule indicate that orders of less that 50 cases will cost
N20 per case, 50 to 79 cases will cost N18 per case 80, to N99 will cost N17
per case, and the large order will cost N16 per case. Determine the optimal
order quantity and the total cost.

Solution
D= 816 cases per year S= N 120 H = N40 per case per year.
Range

Price

1 to 49 -----------------------------------------50 to 79 ---------------------------------------

18

80 to 99 ----------------------------------------

17

1. 100
compute
or morethe
----------------------------------common EOQ =
=

N20

2DS
H

16

2 (2 (816)12
4

= 70cases

2. The 70 cases can be bough at 18 per case since 70 falls in the range of
50 to 79 cases. The total cost to purchase 816 cases a year, 70 cases a
year, at the rate of 70 cases per order will be
TC70,= carrying cost + order cost + purchase cost

= (Q/2)H + (D/Q)S + PD
= (70/2) 4 + (816/70)12 + 18 (816) = N14,968.
Since lower cost ranges exist, each must be checked against the minimum cost
generated by 70 cases at 18 each. In order to buy at 17 per case, at least 80
cases must be purchased. The total cost at 80 cases will be:
TC80 = (80/2) 4 + (816/100) 12 + 17 (816) = N14, 154.

To obtain a cost of 16 per case, at least 100 cases per order are required and
the total const will be

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TC100 = (100/2)4 + (816/100) 12+16 (816 = 13,354.

Therefore, since 100 cases per order yields the lowest total cost, 100 cases is
the overall optimal order quantity. Next let us consider a situation, when
carrying costs are expressed as a percentage of price; in this case you can
determine the best purchase quantity with the following procedure
(1) Beginning with the lowest price compute the EOQs for each price range

until an EOQ is found (i.e., until an EOQ is found that falls in the
quantity range for its price).
(2) If the EOQ for the lowest price is feasible, it is the optimal order
quantity. If the EOQ is not the lowest price range, compare the total cost
at the price break for all lower prices with the total cost of the highest
feasible EOQ. The quantity that yields the lowest total cost is the
optimum.
To illustrate this, suppose Tijani electric uses 4,000 toggle switches a year
priced as follows: 1 to 499, 90 kobo each; 500 to 999, 85 kobo each: and 1,000
or more, 82 kobo each. It costs a approximately
N18 to prepare an order and receive it and carrying costs are 18 percent of
purchase price per unit on an annual basis. Determine the optimal order
quantity and the total annual cost.
Solution
D = 4, 000 switches per year S = N18 H = 0.18P
Range

Unit Price

1 to 499

0.90

500 to 999

(a)

0.18 (0.90) = 0.1620

0.85

1000 0r more

0.18 (0.85) = 0.1530

0.82

0.18 (0.82) = 0.1476

Find the EOQ for each price, starting with the lowest price until a
feasible EOQ is located.

EOQ0.82

2DS

2(4,00) 18

= 988 switches

0.1476

Since 988 stitches will cost N0.85 each, 988 is not a feasible EOQ. Next try
0.85 per unit
EOQ 0.85

2 (4000)18

0.153 = 970 switches

This is feasible; 970 switches falls in the N0.85 range of 500 to 999.

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(b) Compute TC for 970, and compare it to the total cost at the minimum
quantity necessary to obtain a price of N0.82 per switch.
TC = carrying cost + ordering cost + purchase cost
= (Q) H + (D) S + PD
2
Q
TC 970= (970/2) (0.153) + (4,000/970) 18 + 0.85 (4,000) = N3, 548.
Tc100= (1000/2 (0.1476) + (4,000/1,000) 18 + 0.82 (4,000) = N3, 426

Thus, the minimum cost order size is 1,000 switches.

3.5.4

When to Reorder with EOQ Ordering

EOQ models answer the question of how much to order but not the question of
when to order. The latter is the function of models that identity the reorder
point (ROP) in terms of a quantity: the reorder point occur when the quantity
on hand drop to a predetermine amount. The amount generally includes
expected demand during lead time and perhaps an extra cushion of stock,
which serves to reduce the probability of experiencing a stock out during lead
time. There are four determinants of the reorder point quantity.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

The rate of demand (usually based on a forecast).

The length of lead time.
The extent of demand and/or lead time variability.
The degree of stock-out risk acceptable to management.

If demand and lead time are both constant, the reorder point is simply: ROP =
D x LT
Where
D = demand per day or week
LT = lead time in days or weeks
Note: Demand and lead time must be in the same units.
The following example illustrates this concept:
Osot takes Two a Day
vitamins, which are delivered to his home by salesman seven days after an
order is called in. At what point should Osot telephone his order in?
Usage = 2 vitamins per day
Lead time = 2 days
ROP = Usage x lead time
= 2 vitamins per day x 7 days
= 14 vitamins
Thus, Osot should reorder when 14 vitamin tablets are left. Now let us look at
a scenario where demand or lead time is not constant as earlier assumed. If this

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is the case, there is the possibility that actual demand will exceed expected
demand. It therefore becomes necessary to carry additional inventory called
safety stock, to reduce the risk of running out of inventory (a stock-out) during
lead time. The reorder point then increased by the amount of the safety stock.
ROP = Expected demand + safety stock during lead time.
For example, if expected demand during lead time is 100 units and the desire
amount of safety stock is 10 units the ROP would be 110 units.
Service Level:
Because it cost money to hold safety stock, a manager must
carefully weigh the cost of carrying safety stock against the reduction in stock
out risk it provides, since the service level increases as the risk of stock-out
decreases.
Order cycle service level can be defined as the probability that
demand will not exceed supply during lead time (i.e., that amount of stock on
hand will be sufficient to meet demand) Hence a service level of 95 percent
implies a probability of 95 percent that demand will not exceed supply during
lead time.
An equivalent statement that demand will be satisfied in 95 percent of such
instance does not mean that as percent of demand will be satisfied. The risk of
a stock out is the compliment of service level; a customer service level of 95
percent implies a stock-out risk of 5 percent.
That is service level = 100
percent stock-out risk. Later you will see how the order cycle service level
relates to annual service level.
The amount of safety stock that is appropriate for a given situation depends on
the following factors:
(1) The average demand rate & average lead time.
(2) Demand and lead time variability.
(3) The desire service level.
For a given order cycle, service level the greater the variability in either
demand rate or lead time, the greater the amount of safety stock that will be
needed to achieve that service level. Similarly, for a given amount of variation
in demand rate or head time, achieving an increase in the service level will
require increasing the amount of safety stock. Selection of a service level may
reflect stock out costs (e.g. lost sales, customer dissatisfaction) or it might
simply be a policy variable (e.g. manager wanting to achieve a specified
service level for a certain item). Several models will be described that can be
used in cases when variability is present. The first model can be used if an
estimate of expected demand during lead time and its standard deviation are
available. The formula:
ROP = expected demand + Z dLT during lead time.

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Where
Z = Number of standard deviations
dLT = The standard deviation of lead time demand.
The models generally assume that any variability in demand rate or lead time
can be adequately described by a normal distribution. However, this is not a
strict requirement; the models provide approximately reorder points even
where actual distribution departs from normal.
The value of Z, used in a particular instance depends on the stock-out risk that
the manager is willing to accept. Generally, the smaller the risk the manager is
willing to accept, the greater the value of Z.
Let us illustrate this with an
example:
Suppose that the manager of a construction supply house determined from
historical records that the lead time demand for sand averaged 50 tons.
In
addition, suppose the manager determined the demand during lead time could
be described by a normal distribution that has a mean of 50 tons and a standard
deviation of 5 tons. Answer the following questions assuming that the manager
is willing to accept a stock out risk of no more than 3 percent.
(a) What value of Z is appropriate?
(b) How much safety stock should be held?
(c) What reorder point should be used?
Expected lead time demand = 50 tons
dLT = 5 tons
Risk = 3 percent
(a) From normal deviate table, using a service level of 1 0.3 =.9700 you
obtain a value of Z = +1.82.
(b) Safety stock = Z dLT
= 1.88 (5)
= 9.40 tons
(c) ROP = expected lead time demand + safety stock
= 50 + 9.40
= 59.40 tons
If data are available, a manager can determine whether demand and/or lead
time is variable, and if variability exist in one or both, the related standard
deviation. For those situations, one of the following formulae can be used.
If only demand is variable, then d LT =
1LT d and the reorder point is

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d X LT + Z

LT d

----------------------------- (1)

Where
-

d = Average daily or weekly demand

d = standard deviation of demand per day or week
LT = lead time in days or weeks if only lead time is variable, than dLT =d dLT

and the reorder point is ROP = d x LT + Z dLT

---------- 2)
Where
d = Daily or weekly demand
LT = Average lead time in days or week
dLT = Standard deviation of lead-time in days or weeks.
If both demand and lead-time are variables, then.
LT =

LT 2

2
d +

d 2 LT

and the reorder point is

ROP = d1 x L1T1 + Z LT d

2 + d2 LT2

. (3)

Note: each of these models assumes that demand and time are independent.
Let us illustrate the use of these formulas with the following.
Example
Suppose a restaurant uses an average of 50 jars of a special sauce each week.
Weekly usage of sauce has a standard deviation of 3 jars.
The manager is
willing to accept no more than a 10 percent risk of a
stock-out during
lead time, which is two weeks. Assume the distribution of usage is normal.
(a) Which of the above formulas is appropriate for this situation? Why?
(b) Determine the value of Z
(c) Determine the ROP
Solution
d = 50 jars per week
LT = 2 weeks
d = 3 jars per week

Acceptable risk = 10 percent, so service level is .90

(a) Because only demand is variable (i.e., has a standard deviation) formula
(l) is appropriate

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(b) From the normal distribution table, using a service level of. 9000, you
obtain Z = + 1.28.
(c) ROP = d X LT + Z

LT d

= 50 X 2 + 1.28 2 (3)
= 100 + 5.43
= 105.43.

3.6 How Much To Order: Fixed Order-Interval Model.

When inventory replenishment is based on EOQ /ROP model, fixed quantities
of items are ordered at varying time interval. Just the opposite occurs under the
fixed-order-interval (FOI) model orders for varying quantities are placed at
fixed time intervals (e.g. weeks, every 20 days).

3.6.1 Reasons for Using the Fixed-Order-Interval Model

In some cases, a supplier policy might encourage orders at fixed interval.
Grouping orders for items from the same supplier can produce saving in
shipping costs. Furthermore some situations to not readily lend themselves to
continuous monitoring of inventory levels. Many retail operator (e.g. drug
stores) falls into this category. The alternative for them is to use fixed-intervalordering, which requires only periodic checks on inventory levels.

3.6.2 Determining the Amount to Order

If both the demand rate and lead time are constant, the fixed interval model and
the fixed quantity model function identically. The difference in the two models
becomes apparent only when examined under condition of variability. Like the
ROP model, the two models can have variation in demand only, in lead time
only, or in both demand and lead time. However, for the sake of simplicity ad
because it is perhaps the most frequently encountered situation, the discussion
here will focus on variable demand and constant lead time.
Order size in the fixed-interval model is determined by the following
computation:
Amount = Expected demand during protection interval + safe stock
Amount on hand at reorder time
= d (OI + LT) + Z d

O1 + LT - A

Where
01 = order interval (length of time between order)

A = Amount on hand at reorder time

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As in previous models, it is assumed that demand during the protection interval

is normally distributed.
Given the following information determine the amount to order
d = 30 unit per day
Desired service = 99 percent
d = 3 units per day

LT = 2 days

Amount on hand at reorder time = 71 units

01 = 7 days

Solution
Z = 2.33 for 99 percent service level
Amount =d (01 + LT) + Z d

01 + LT - A

= 30 (7+2) + 2.33 (3) 7+ 2 71 = 220 units

3.6.2 Benefits and Disadvantages

The fixed-interval system result in the tight control need for A items in an A-BC classification due to the periodic review it requires. In addition, when two or
more items come from the same supplier, grouping orders can yield saving in
ordering, packing and shipping costs. Moreover, it may be the only practical
approach if inventory withdrawal cannot be closely monitored.
On the negative side, the fixed system necessitate a large amount of safely
stock for a given risk of stock-out because of the need to protect against
shortage during an entire order interval plus lead time (instead of lead time
only) and this increases the carrying cost. Also, there are the costs of the
periodic reviews.

3.7 The Single-Period Model.

The single-period is used to handle ordering of perishable (e.g. fresh fruits,
vegetables, seafood, cut flowers) and items that have a limited useful life (e.g.
newspapers magazines, spare parts for specialized employment.) The period
for parts is the life of the equipment (assuming that the part cannot be used for
other equipment) what sets unsold or unused goods apart is that they are not
typically carried over from one period to the next, at least not without penalty.
Day-old baked goods, for instance, are often sold at reduced prices, left over
seafood may be discarded, and out of-date magazines may be offered to used
book stores at bargain rates. At times, there may even be some cost associated
with disposing of left over goods.
Analysis of single period situation generally focuses on two costs: Shortages
and excess shortage cost may include a charge for loss of customer goodwill as
well as the opportunity cost of lost sales. Generally shortage cost is unrealised
profit per unit. That is,

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C shortage = C = Revenue per unit-cost.

If a shortage or stock out relates to an items used in production or to a spare
parts for a machine, then shortage cost refer to the actual cost of production.
Excess cost pertains to items left over at the end of the period. In effects,
excess cost is the difference between purchase cost and salvage value. That is
C excess = C2 = Original cost per unit salvage value per unit.

If there is cost associated with disposing of excess items, the salvage will be
negative and will therefore increase the excess cost per unit. The goal of the
single-period model is to identify the order quantity or stocking level that will
minimize the long-run excess and shortages costs.
There are two general categories of problem that we will consider; those for
which demand can be approximated using a continuous distribution (perhaps a
theoretical one such as a uniform or normal distribution) and those for which
demand can be approximated using a discrete distribution (say historical
frequencies or a theoretical distribution such as the Poisson). The kind of
inventory can indicate which types of model might be appropriate. For example
demand for petroleum, liquid and gases tend to vary over some continuous
scale, thus lending itself to description by a continuous distribution. Demand
for tractors cars and computer is expressed in terms of the number of units
demanded and lends itself to description by a discrete distribution.

3.7.1 Continuous Stocking Levels

The concept of identifying an optimal stocking level is perhaps easiest to
visualize when demand is uniform. Choosing the stocking level is similar to
balancing a seesaw, but instead of a person on each end of the see saw, we have
excess cost per unit (Ce) on one and of the distribution and shortage cost per
unit (Cs) on the other. The optioned stocking level is analogous to the fulcrum

of the seesaw; the stocking level equalizes the cost weights, as illustrated in the
figure below.
The service level is the probability that demand will not exceed the stocking
level, and computation of the service level is the key to determining the optimal
stocking level, so
Service level =

Cs

Cs + Ce

Where
Cs = shortage cost per unit
Ce = Excess cost per unit

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Ce

Cs

Service level

S0
quantity
Balance point

So = optimum stocking quantity

If actual demand exceeds S0 there is a shortage: hence Cs is on the right end of
the distribution. When Ce = Cs the optimal stocking level is half way between
the end points of the distribution. If one cost is greeter than the other, S0 will be

closer to the larger cost.

A similar approach applies if demand is normally distributed.
Example
Sweet order is delivered whereby to Osots produce stand. Demand varies
uniformly between 300 litres and 500 litres per week. Osot pays 20 kobo per
litres for the cider and charges 80 kobo per litre for it. Unsold cider has no
salvage value and cannot be carried over into the next week due to spoilage.
Find the optimal stocking level and its stock-out risk for that quantity.
Ce = cost per unit Salvage Value per Unit

= N 0.20
--N0
= N 0.20 per unit
SL

Cs
Cs +Ce

N 0.06
= .75
N 0.06 + N 0.20

Thus, the optimal stocking level must satisfy demand 75 percent of the time.
For the uniform distribution this will at a point equal to the minimum demand
plus 75 percent of the difference between maximum and minimum demands
S0 = 300+0.75 (500 300) = 450 litres
75%

300

450

500

The stock out risk is 1.00 0.75 = 0.25

Suppose Osots stand also sells blend of cherry juice and apple cider. Demand
for the blend is approximately normal with a mean of 200 litres per week and a

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standard deviation of 10 litres per week. Cs = 60 kobo per litre, and Ce = 20

kobo per litre find the optimal stocking level for the apple cherry blend.
SL =

Cs
Cs + Ce

=
N 0.60
N 0.60 + N 0.20

=.75

This indicates that 75 percent of the normal curve must be to the left of the
stocking level. Normal Table shows that a value of Z between + 0.67 and 0.68
say, + 0.675, will satisfy this.
Thus, S0 = 200 litres + 0.675 (10 litres)

= 206.75 litres

3.7.2 Discrete Stocking Level.

When stocking level are indiscrete rather than continuous, the service level
computed using the ratio Cs / (Cs + Ce) usually does not coincide with a

feasible stocking level (e.g. the optimal amount may be between a five and six
units). The solution is to stock at the next higher level (e.g. six units).
In other words, choose the stocking level so that the desire service level is
equalled or exceeded.
Example

Historical records on the use of spare pats for several large hydraulic presses
are to serve as an estimate of usage for spares of a newly installed press. Stockout costs involve downtime expenses and special ordering cost. There average
N4, 200 per unit short. Spares cost N 800 each, and unused parts have zer
salvage. Determine the optimal stocking level.
Nos of spare used Relative frequency Cumulative frequency
0
.20
. 20
1
.40
. 60
2
.30
.90
3
.10
1.00
4 or more
.00
1.00
1.00

Cs = N 4,200
SL =
Cs
Ce + Cs

Ce = N 800
=
N 4,200
N 800 + N 4,200

=0.90

The cumulative frequency column indicates the percentage of time that demand
did not exceed (has equal to or less than) some amount. For example, demand

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does not exceed one spare 60 percent of the time or two spares 90 percent of
the time. Thus, in order to achieve a service level of at least 90 percent, it will
be necessary to stock two spare (i.e. to go to the next highest stocking level).
Lets consider another example:
Suppose the demand for long steamed red roses at a small flower shop can be
approximated using a Poisson distribution that has a mean of four dozens per
day. Profit on the roses is N 3 per dozen. Left over flowers are marked down
and sold the next day at a loss of N 2 per dozen. Assume that all marked down
flowers are sold. What is the optimal level?
Cs = N 3 Ce = N 2

SL

Cs

=
Cs + Ce

N3

= .60
N3+N2

Obtain the cumulative frequency from the Poisson table for a mean of 4.0
Demand (dozen per day) Cumulative frequency
0
018
1
092
2
238
3434
4
629
5
785
.
.
.
.
Compare the service level to the cumulative frequency. In order to attain a
service level of at least .60 it is necessary to stock four dozens.

3.8 Operation Strategy

Inventories are necessary parts of doing business, but having too much
inventory is not good. One reason is that inventories tend to hide problems:
they make it easier to live with problems rather than eliminate them. Another
reason is that inventories are costly to maintain. Consequently, a wise operation
strategy is to work toward cutting back inventories by (1) reducing lot size (2)
reducing safety stocks.
Japanese manufactures use smaller lots sizes than their western counterparts
because they have a different perspective on inventory carrying costs. Recall
that carrying costs and ordering costs are equal at the EOQ. A higher carrying
cost, results in a steeper carrying-cost line, and the resulting intersection with
the ordering-cost line at a smaller quantity; hence, a smaller EOQ.
The second factor in the EOQ mode that can contribute to smaller lot seizes is
the set up or ordering processing cost. Numerous cases can be cited where
these costs have been reduced through research efforts. However while
reduction due to carrying costs stems from a reassessment of those costs, a

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reduction due to ordering or set up cost must come from actually pursuing
improvement. Together, these cost reduction can lead to even smaller lot
seizes.
Additional reductions in inventory can be achieved by reducing the amount of
safety stock carried. Important factor in safety stock are lead time variability,
reductions of which will result in lower safety stocks. These reductions can
often be realized by working with supplier, choosing suppliers located close to
the buyer, and shifting to smaller lot sizes.
To achieve these reductions, an A-B-C approach is very beneficial. This means
that all phases of operation should be examined, and those showing the greatest
potential for improvement (A items) should be attacked first.
Last, it is important to make sure that inventory records be kept accurate and up
to date. Estimated of holding costs, setup costs, and lead time should be
reviewed periodically and updated as necessary.

4.0

CONCLUSION

In this unit you have learnt the management of finished goods, raw materials,
purchased parts and retail items. You have also learnt the different functions of
inventories, requirements for effective inventory management, objective of
inventory control, and the techniques for determining how much to order and
when to order.

5.0 SUMMARY
Good inventory management is often the mark of a well-run organization.
Inventory levels must be planned carefully in order to balance the cost of
holding inventory and the cost of providing reasonable levels of customer
service. Successful inventory transactions, accurate information about demand
and lead times, realistic estimates for certain inventory-related costs, and a
priority system for classifying the items in inventory and allocating control
efforts.
The models described in this unit are relevant for instances where demand for
inventory items is independent. Four classes of models are described; EOQ,
ROP, fixed-interval and the single-period models. The first three are
appropriate if unused items can be carried over into subsequent periods. The
single-period model is appropriate when items cannot be carried over. EOQ
models address the question of how much to order. The ROP models address
the question of when to order and are particularly helpful in dealing with
situations that include variations in either demand rate or lead time. ROP
models involve service level and safety stock considerations. When the time
between orders is fixed, the F0I model is useful. The single-period model is
used for items that have a shelf life of one period.

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6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. a. Does inventory control increase profitability? Explain
your answer
b. The Dangobell Corporation produces water heating unit in
a number of types and sizes. Most of the parts for these
units are made by the company and stored for later use
during assembly of the heaters.
Since many different items are made and stored, the company wishes to be
certain to manufacture these items in the most economical lot size.
The
formular used to make this determination is:
Economic lot = 2 x quantity used per year x total setup cost
Manufacturing cost per piece x interest rate

The Company recognized that the formular gave only

its use was justified because of its simplicity.

approximate results, but

Model BY water heater has enjoyed steady sales over the years and an
assembly line operating at a fairly uniform rate of 30 units a day has been set
up to produce this heater. This model takes a special nozzle that is not used
on any other model. The nozzle is produced on a turret lathe that can be set up
for the job at a cost of N 300. The combined labour, material and over head
cost of producing the nozzle once the machine is set up is N 60.10 each. The
company regularly computes inventory carrying charges at 20% of the average
investment in the inventory. The plant operates regularly 5 days a week for 50
weeks of the year.
1. What is the economic manufacturing lot size of nozzles for model
BY?
2. What other factors in might influence the EOQ or lot size?
3. What types of charges are included in the 20% inventory carrying
cost?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Krajewski, L. J. and L.P Ritzman (1999): Operations Management: Strategy
and Analysis, Reading, Massachutes. Addison Wesley
Bonini, C.P, W.H. Hansman and H. Bierman, Jr (1997): Quantitative
Analysis for Management Chicago: Irwin.

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UNIT 5

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

AGGREGATE PLANNING

CONTENTS
1.0
Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Production Planning Hierarchy
3.2 The Concept of Aggregation
3.3 The Purpose and Scope of Aggregate Planning
3.3.1 Demand and Capacity
3.3.2 The Purpose of Aggregate Planning
3.3.3 Inputs to Aggregate Planning
3.3.4 Demand and Capacity Options
3.3.4.1 Demand Options
3.3.4.1
Capacity Options
3.4 Basic Strategies for Meeting Uneven Demand
3.4.1 How to Choose a Strategy
3.5 Analytical Techniques for Aggregate Planning
3.5.1 Informal Techniques
3.5.2 Mathematical Techniques
3.5.2.1
Linear Programming
3.5.2.2
Linear Decision Rule
3.5.2.3
Simulation Models
3.6 Disaggregating the Aggregate Plan
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces the concept of aggregate planning, which is the
intermediate range of capacity planning that typically covers a time horizon of
2 to 12 month. In some organisations, this time horizon might be extended to as
much as 18 months. It is particularly useful for organisations that experience
seasonal or other fluctuations in demand or capacity. The goal of aggregate
planning is to achieve a production plan that will effectively utilize the
organisations resources to satisfy expected demand.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
i. Explain what aggregate planning is and how it is useful

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ii. Identify the variables decision makers have to work with in aggregate
planning
iii. Identify some of the possible strategies decision makers use
iv Describe some of the techniques planners use.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Production Planning Hierarchy
Generally, organisations become involved with capacity decisions on three
levels: Long-term, intermediate term, and short-term. Long term decisions
usually relate to:
(i) Product and service selection i.e. determining which predicts or services
to offer;
(ii) Facilities i.e. plan locations, layout, size send capacities
(iii) Processing plans i.e., new production technology, new production
processes, new systems of automation etc; and
(iv) Major supplier plans and amount of vertical integration.
These long-term decisions essentially define the capacity decisions naturally
set the capacity constraints within which intermediate planning must function.
Aggregate planning develops medium-range production plans concerning
employment level and changes, inventory levels and changes, utilities, facility
modifications, back orders, and subcontracting. These aggregate plans in turn
impose constraints on the short range production plans that follow. Short term
decisions, therefore, essentially relate to taking decisions on the best way to
achieve desired results within the constraints resulting from long-term and
intermediate decisions. These involve scheduling jobs, machine loading, job
sequencing etc. the three levels of capacity decisions are illustrated in Table
10.1

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Table 10.1: Overview of planning levels

Short range plans

Long-range plans
General levels of;

Detailed plans:
Machine loading
Job assignments
Job sequencing
Production lot size
Order quantities

Employment
Output
Finished- goods
Inventories
Subcontracting
Back orders

Long-range plans
Location
Long term capacity
Layout
Production design
Product design
Work system design

Long- range

Intermediate

Short range

Now 2 month
1 year
Planning horizon
It is usual to find many business organisations developing a business plan that
comprises both long-term and intermediate-term planning. This business plan
sets guidelines for the organisations, taking into account the organisations
strategies and policies; forecasts of demand for the organisations products or
services; and economic, competitive, and political conditions. A major
objective in business planning is to coordinate the intermediate plans of various
organisations functions, such as marketing, operations, and finance. In the case
of manufacturing firms elements of engineering and materials management
also form part of the coordination.
The business plan guides the planning processes of each functional area. For
example, in operations functions, a production plan (or operations plan in the
services organisation) is usually developed to guide the more detailed planing
that eventually leads to a master schedule. The illustration of the planning
sequence is given in Figure 10.2.

3.2 The Concept of Aggregation

Aggregate planning can be looked at as a big picture approach to planning. It
is the usual practice for planners to try to avoid focussing on individual
products or services, unless the organisation deals in only product or service.
Rather, they focus on a group of similar products or sometimes an entire
product line.

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Figure 10.2: Planning Sequence

Corporate
Economic
Aggregate
Strategies
Competitive
demand
And policies
and political
forecasts
Condition

Business Plan
Establishes production
operation and capacity
strategies
Production/operation plan
Establishes production/
Operation capacity
Master schedule
Establishes Schedules for
specific products/services

Lets look at some examples:

(a) For purposes of aggregate planning, planners in a television
manufacturing firm would not concern themselves with 21 inch sets
versus 18-inch or 14-inch. Instead, they would lump all models together
and deal with them as a simple product. Hence, the term aggregate
planning.
(b) Again, for the purposes of aggregate planning, a refrigerator
manufacturing firm might lump all different sizes and styles of
refrigerators it produces into a single category of frigdes.
(c) In the same vein, when fast-food outfit such as Mr. Biggs, sweet
sensation, and Tasty Fried Chicken plan employment and output levels,
they would not try to determine how demand will be broken down into
the various options they offer. Instead, they focus generally on overall
demands and the overall capacity they want to provide.
In each of the examples cited above, it can be seen that an aggregate approach
permits planners to make general decisions about intermediate range capacity
without having to deal with highly specific details. Instead, they often concern
themselves with overall decision on levels of output, employment and
inventories. This is done by lumping demand for all products into one or a few
categories, and then planning on that basis.
For purposes of aggregate, it is better to think of capacity in terms of labour
hours or machine hours per period, or output rates (e.g. barrels per period, units
per period), without necessarily worrying about how much of a particular item
will actually be involved .

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The advantage in this approach is that it frees planners to make general

decision about the use of resources without having to get into the complexities
of individual product or service requirements.

3.3 The Purpose and Scope of aggregate Planning

We shall briefly examine the basic problem addressed by aggregate planning
(i.e the balancing of supply and demand) along with the purpose of aggregate
planning, the primary decision variable available to planners and associated
costs.

3.3.1 Demand and Capacity

Aggregate planners are usually pre-occupied with the quantity and timing of
expected demand. For instance, it total expected demand for the planning
period is much different from available capacity over the particular planning
period, the major approach of planners is either to try to increase demand (in
case demand is less than capacity) or increase capacity (if demand exceeds
capacity). It could happen that capacity and demand are approximately equal
for the planning horizon as a whole. Even here, planners may still be faced with
the problem of dealing with uneven demand within the planning interval. For
example, in some periods, expect demand may exceed projected capacity; in
others, expected demand may be less than projected capacity, and in some
periods, the two may be equal, thus, the task of aggregate demand is to achieve
rough equality of demand and capacity over the entire planning horizon.

3.3.2 The Purpose of Aggregate Planning.

The major purpose of aggregate planning is to develop a feasible production
plan on an aggregate level that achieves a balance of expected demand and
supply. Furthermore, planners are usually concerned with minimising the cost
of the production plan. However, cost is not the only consideration.
Generally, aggregate planning is necessary in Production and Operations
Management because it provides for:
(i) Fully loaded facilities and minimisies over-loading and under-loading,
thereby reducing production costs.
(ii) Adequate production capacity to meet expected aggregate demand
(iii) A plan for the orderly and systematic change of production capacity to
meet the peaks and valleys of expected customer demand.
(iv) Getting the most output for the amount of resources available, which is
important in time of scarce production resources.

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3.3.3 Inputs to Aggregate Planning

For an effective aggregate planning to take place, at least three important
informational needs must be met. First, the available resources over the
planning period must be known. Second, a forecast of expected demand must
also be available. Thirdly, planners much take into account any policies
regarding changes in employment levels. For example, some organizations
view layoffs as extremely undesirable, so they would exclude that option from
consideration, or use it only as a last resort). Added to these inputs are the costs
of activities, such as inventory carrying costs, general costs of backorders,
hiring/firing, overtime, inventory changes and subcontracting.

3.3.4 Demand and Capacity Options

For the purposes of aggregate planning, management has a wide range of
decision options at its disposal. Among these are changing prices, promotion,
backlogging orders, using overtime, using part-time workers, subcontracting,
adding or deleting extra shifts, and stockpiling inventories. Some of these
options are for the purposes of altering the pattern of demand. Examples here
include pricing and promotion. Others, such as using part-time workers,
overtime, and subcontracting represent options that are being used to alter
capacity or supply we shall examine these options in the section that follow:

3.3.4.1 Demand Options

There are four basic demand options: pricing, promotion, back-orders and new
demand.
1. Pricing: Differential pricing is often used to shift demand from peak
periods to off-peak periods. For example, some air-lines offer lower
fares for mid-week travel and change higher fares other times. Similarly,
some restaurants offer early bird specials in an attempt to shift some
of the heavier dinner demand to an earlier time that traditionally has less
traffic. Another example is to be found in the telephone service sector,
where there are different rates for peak and off-peak periods. If the
pricing is effective, demand will be shifted so that it corresponds closely
to capacity, except for an opportunity cost that represents the lost profit
stemming from capacity insufficient to meet demand during certain
period. The major analytical factors to consider is the degree of price
elasticity for the product or service: the more the elasticity, the more
effective pricing will be in influencing demand patterns.
2. Promotion: Promotional tools such as advertising, displays, direct
marketing etc., can sometimes be effective in shifting demand so that it
conforms more closely to capacity. The timing of these efforts and
knowledge of response rates and response patterns will needed to

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achieve the desired results. However, unlike pricing policy, there is

much less control over the timing of demand.
3. Back orders: Back orders involves taking orders in one period, and
promising deliveries for a later period. This approach can be used by an
organisation to shift demand to other periods. The success of back
orders however depends on the willingness of customers to want for
later delivery. In addition, the hidden costs associated with back orders
can be difficult to pin down, since it would include lost sales, annoyed
or disappointed customers, and additional paperwork.
4. New Demand: In situations where demand is very uneven,
organizations often face the problem of having to provide products or
services for peak demand, for instance, demand for public transportation
tends to be more intense during the moving and late afternoon rush
hours; ironically, the demand is much lighter at other times. By creating
new demand for buses at these other times, (e.g. excursions by school,
clubs etc) there would be an opportunity to make use of the excess
capacity during such slack periods. This way, organisations can achieve
a more consistent use of labour, equipment and facilities.

3.3.4.2 Capacity Options

There are five basic options available for altering the capacity (or supply) or
production. These are discussed below:
1. Hire and Fire Workers: The main determinant of the impact changes
in the workforce level will have on capacity is the labour intensiveness
of operations. Another factor is the resource requirements of each
worker. For instance, if a transport service firm has 15 drivers for its
fleet of 22 buses, an additional seven drivers could be hired. Thus, the
ability to add workers is constrained at some point by other resources
needed to support the workers. On the other hand, there may be a lower
limit on the number of workers needed to maintain a viable operation
(e..g a skeleton crew).
At times, union contracts may restrict the amount of hiring and firing an
organisation can do. Furthermore, since the issue of firing and laying-off
can give workers serious problems, some organisations have policies
that either disallowed or limit downward adjustments to a workforce. On
the other hand, hiring presumes an available supply of workers. There
are times when labour may be in short supply, and hence have an impact
on the ability of an organisation to pursue this approach.
It is necessary to know that hiring and firing entails certain costs. For
instance, hiring costs include recruitment, screening, and training to

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bring new workers up to speed. And quality may suffer. However,

some savings may occur if previously laid off workers are re-hired.
Firing costs include payment of terminal benefits, the cost of realigning
the remaining workforce, potential bad feelings toward the firm on the
part of fired workers, and some loss of morale for workers who are
retained.
2. Overtime/Slack time: The use of overtime or slack time is a less severe
method for changing capacity than hiring and firing workers. It can
generally be used across the board or selectively as needed. In addition,
it can also be implemented more quickly than hiring and firing, and
allows the firm to maintain a steady base of employers. In particular,
overtime can be very attractive in dealing with seasonal demand peaks
by reducing the need to hire and train people who will eventually be laid
off during the off-season. Overtime also allows the firm to maintain a
skilled workforce and employees to increase earnings. However,
overtime often results in lower productivity, poorer quality, more
accidents, and increased payroll costs, whereas idle time results in less
efficient use of machines, and other fixed assets.
3. Part-time workers: The use of part-time workers has been found to be
a viable option in particular situations. It usually depends on the nature
of the work, training and skills needed, and union agreements. Seasonal
work that require low-to-moderate job skills lends itself to part-time
workers, who generally cost less than regular workers in hourly wages
and fringe benefits.
4. Inventories: The use of finished goods inventories allows forms to
produce goods in one period and sell them in another period. This
normally involves holding or carrying such goods as inventory until they
are needed. In essence, inventories can be built up during periods when
production capacity exceeds demand and drawn down in periods when
demand exceeds production capacity. The use of inventories is not
without its costs, such as storage costs, cost of money tied up, costs of
insurance, obsolescence, deterioration, spoilage, breakage etc.
5. Subcontracting: Subcontracting allows organizations to acquire
temporary capacity. However, organisations often have less control over
the output; hence this approach may lead to higher costs and quality
problems. The decision of whether to make or buy (i.e., in
manufacturing) or to perform a service or hire someone else to do the
work generally depends on such factors as available capacity, relative
expertise, quality considerations, costs and the amount and stability of
demand.

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It is possible for a firm to choose to perform part of the work itself, and
let others handle the remaining so as to maintain flexibility and as a
hedge against loss of a subcontractor. In addition, this approach gives
the firm a bargaining power in negotiations with contractor and a head
start, if it decides at a later date to take over the production entirely.

3.4 Basic strategies for Meeting Uneven Demand

From our discussions in section 3.3.34 and its subsections, it should be clear to
you that manages have a wide range of decision options they can consider for
achieving a balance of demand and capacity in aggregate planning. The options
that are most suited to influencing demand fall more in the area of marketing
than in Operations (with the exception of backlogging). Hence we will be
concentrating on the capacity options here, within the ambit of operations
(With the inclusion of back orders).
There are a number of strategies open to aggregate planners. Some of the
notable ones include:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Maintaining a level workforce

Maintaining a steady output rate
Matching demand period by period
Using a combination of decision variables.

The first three strategies can be regarded as pure strategies since each of
them has a single focal point. The fourth strategy is however mixed because
it lacks the single focus. With respect to the level capacity strategy, variations
in demand are met by using some combination of inventories, overtime, parttime workers, subcontracting and back orders. The purpose here is to maintain
a steady rate of regular-time output, although total output could vary.
Maintaining a steady rate of output means absorbing demand variations with
inventories, subcontracting, or backlogging. In the case of Chain demand
strategy, capacity is match to demand, whereby the planned output for a period
is set at the expected demand for that period.
Maintaining a level workforce has been found to have strong appeals in some
organisations. And as earlier mentioned, workforce changes through hiring and
firing often have a major impact on the lives and morale of employees hence
can be disruptive for managers. Consequently, organisations usually prefer to
handle uneven demand in other ways. Again, as already mentioned, changes in
workforce size can be very costly and there is always the risk that a sufficient
pool of workers with the appropriate skills may not be forthcoming when
needed. Furthermore, such changes can involve a significant amount of
administrative work.

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In order to maintain a constant level of output and still meet demand

requirements, an organisation necessarily needs to resort to some combination
of subcontracting, backlogging, and use of inventories to absorb fluctuations:
subcontracting requires an investment in evaluating sources of supply as well
as possible increased costs, less control over output, and quality considerations.
Backlogs may lead to lost dales, increased record keeping and lower levels of
customer services. With regard to the issue of allowing inventories to absorb
fluctuations, it has been realized that such an alternative also has substantial
costs. These including having money tied up in inventories, having to maintain
relatively large storage facilities, and incurring other costs related to
inventories. Actually, inventories are not usually an alternative for service
oriented organisations, however, there are certain advantages inherent in the
strategy: minimum costs of recruitment and training, minimum overtime and
idle-time costs, fewer morale problems and stable use of equipment and
facilities.
It is assumed in the chase demand strategy, that there is a great deal of ability
and willingness on the part of managers to be flexible in adjusting to demand.
One important advantage of this approach is that inventories can be kept
relatively low, and this can yield substantial savings for an organisation. A
major limitation is the lack of stability in operations i.e the organisation has to
dance to demands tune.
In addition, where there are gaps between forecasts and reality, morale may
suffer since it quickly dawns on workers and managers that lot of efforts have
been wasted.
Another alternative approach for organisations is to opt for a strategy that
involves some combination of the pure strategy. This often permits managers
greater flexibility in dealing with uneven demand, as well as in experimenting
with a wide choice of alternatives. The major problem inherent in this mixed
strategy is the absence of a clear focus, which may lead to an erratic approach
and confusion on the part of employees.

3.4.1 How to choose a strategy

All the four strategies discussed above have their merits as well as limitations.
Organisations are free to choose anyone. Whatever strategy an organisation is
considering however depends on two important factors: company policy and
costs. Company policy may set constraints on the available options or the
extent to which they can be used. For instance, company policy may discourage
firing and layoffs, except under unavoidable conditions. Similarly, subcontracting may not be a viable option due to the desire to maintain secrecy
about some aspects of the manufacturing of the product.

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3.5 Analytical Techniques For aggregate Planning

There are many techniques which can assist planners with the task of aggregate
planning. These are broadly placed into one of two categories; informal trialan-error techniques and mathematical techniques. The informal techniques are
more widely used.
1. Determine demand for each product
2. Determine capacities (regular time, overtime, subcontracting) for each
period
3. Identify company or departmental policies that are pertinent. (e.g.
maintain a safety stock of 5 percent of demand, maintain a reasonably
stable workforce).
4. Determine unit costs for regular time, overtime, subcontracting, holding
inventories, back orders, and other relevant costs.
5. Develop alternative plans and compute the costs for each
6. If satisfactory plans emerge, select the one that best satisfies objectives.
Otherwise, return to step 5.
It may be helpful to use a worksheet that summarises demand, capacity, and
cost for each plan. This is shown in Figure 3. Graphs can also be used to
guide the development of alternatives.
Figure 3: Example of a Worksheet
Period 1 2 3 4 5 TOTAL
Forecast
Output
Regular time
Overtime
Subcontract
OutputForecast
Inventory
Beginning
Ending
Average
Backlog
Costs
Output
Regular
Overtime
Subcontract
Hire/Fire
Inventory
Back orders
TOTAL

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3.5.1 Informal Techniques

These usually consist of developing simple tables or graphs that allow planners
to virtually compare projected demand requirements with existing capacity.
The various alternatives are then evaluated on the basis of their overall costs.
The major limitation of these techniques is that they do not necessarily result in
the optional aggregate plan.
Let us make use of an examples provided by Stevenson (1996). It is based on
the following assumptions:
1. The regular output capacity is the same in all periods. No allowance is
made for holidays, different numbers of workdays in different months.
Etc. this has been done for simplicity and ease of computation.
2. Cost (back order, inventory, subcontracting etc) is a linear function
composed of unit cost and number of units, this often has a reasonable
approximation to reality, although there maybe only narrow ranges over
which this is true. Cost is sometimes more of a step function.
3. Plans are feasible: i.e. sufficient inventory capacity exists to
accommodate a plan, sub-contractors with appropriate quality and
capacity are standing by and changes in output can be made as needed.
4. All costs associated with a decision option can be represented by a lump
sum or by unit costs that are independent of the quantity involved.
Again, a step function may be more realistic; but for purposes of
illustration and simplicity, this assumption is appropriate.
5. Cost of figures can be reasonably estimated and are constant for the
planning horizon.
6. Inventories are built up and drawn down at a uniform rate and output
occurs at a uniform rate throughout each period. However, backlogs are
treated as if they exist for an entire period, even though in periods where
they initially appear, they would tend to build up toward the end of the
period. Hence, this assumption is a bit unrealistic for some periods, but
it simplifies computations.
In addition to the assumptions above, the following relationships are
used in the determination of the number of workers, the amount of
inventory, and the cost of a particular plan.
(a) the number of workers available in any period is:
Number of
Workers in a
Period

Numbers of
Number of new
= workers at end of
+ -workers at start
the previo us period
of the per iod

Number of laid off

workers at start of
the period

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(b) The amount of inventory at the end of a given period is:

Inventory at the end of a period
Inventory at end Production in Amount used to satisfy
= of
+ -the previous the current
period

(c)

period

demand in the current

period

The average inventory for a period is equal to:

Beginning Inventory + Ending Inventory

(d) The cost of a particular plan for a given period can be determined by
summing the appropriate costs:

Cost for a period

=

Output cost

Hire / Fire Inventory Back - order

+++
(Regular + Overtime + Subcontract
Cos
cost
Cost

The appropriate costs are calculated as follows:

Type of Cost
Output
Regular
Overtime
Subcontract
Hire/Fire
Hire
Fire
Inventory
Back order

How to Calculate
Regular cost/unit x quantity of regular output
Overtime cost/unit x overtime quantity
Subcontract cost/unit x subcontract quantity
Cost/hire x Number hired
Cost/Fire x Number fired
Carrying cost/unit x Average inventory
Back order cost/unit x Number of back-order
units

Let us make use of an example to illustrate the process of developing and

evaluating an aggregate plan; with the trial and error techniques. Note that the
intention here is not to find the lowest cost plan. With trial and error, one can
never be completely sure that the lowest cost alliterative has been found, unless
all possible alternatives are evaluated.
Example
Planners for a company are about to prepare the aggregate plan that will cover
six periods. They have assembled the following information:

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Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total
Forecast 200 200 300 400 500 200 1,800
Costs
Output
Regular time
= N2/unit
Overtime
= N3/unit
Subcontract
= N6/unit
Inventory
= N1/unit/period on average inventory
Back orders
= N/unit/period
They now want to evaluate a plan that calls for a steady rate of regular time
output, mainly using inventory to absorb the uneven demand, but allowing
some backlog. They intend to start with zero inventories on hand in the first
period. Prepare an aggregate plan and determine its cost using the preceding
information. Assume a level output rate of 300 units per period with regular
time (i.e. 1,800/6 = 300). Note that the planned ending inventory is zero. There
are 15 workers.
Solution
Period 1 2
Forecast 200
Output
Regular
Overtime
Subcontract
Output

Forecast
Inventory
Beginning
Ending
Average
Backlog
Costs
Output
Regular
Overtime

3 4 5 6 Total
200 300 400 500 200 1,800
300
-

300
-

300
-

300
-

300
-

300
-

1,800

100

100

100

200

100

0
100
50
0

100
200
150
0

200
200
200
0

200
100
150
0

100
50
100

0
0
0
0

600
100

N600
50
0

600
150
0

600
200
0

600
150
0

600
50
500

600
0
0

Subcontract
Hire/Fire
Inventory
Back orders
Total 650 750 800 750 1,150 600 4,700

3600

600
500

Note that the total regular-time output of 1,800 units equals the total expected
demand. Ending inventory equals beginning inventory plus or minus the
quantity output-forecast.

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3.5.2 Mathematical Techniques

Some mathematical techniques are available to handle aggregate planning. The
notable one include linear programming techniques, linear decision rule and
simulation models. We shall briefly describe these techniques.

3.5.2.1 Linear Programming

These are methods for obtaining optimal solutions involving the allocation of
scarce resources in terms of cost minimisation or profit maximisation. With
aggregate planning, the goal is usually to minimise the sum of costs related to
regular labour time, overtime, subcontracting, inventory, holding costs, and
costs associated with changing the size of the workforce. The capacities of the
workforce, inventories, and subcontracting constitute the constraints.

3.5.2.2 Linear Decision Rule

The Linear decision rule is another optimising technique. It was developed in
the 1950s, by Charles Holt, Franco Modigliand, John Mush, and Herbert
Simon. Its objectives are to minimize the combined costs of regular payroll,
hiring and layoffs, overtime, and inventory by using a set of costapproximation function. Three at these functions are quadratic in order to
obtain a single quadratic equation. With the use of calculus, two linear
equations can be derived from the quadratic equation. One of the equations can
be used to plan the output for each period in the planning horizon, and the other
can be used to plan the workforce for each period. The model has been found to
suffer from three limitations. In the first place, a specific type of cost function
is assumed. Secondly, considerable efforts must usually be expended in
obtaining relevant cost data and developing cost functions for each
organisation. Finally, the method can produce solutions that are unfeasible or
impractical.

3.5.2.3 Simulation Models

In addition to the first two techniques, some simulation models have been
developed for aggregate planning. The essence of simulation is the
development of computerized models that can be tested under a variety of
conditions in an attempt to identify reasonably acceptable solutions to
problems.

3.6 Disaggregating the Aggregate Plan.

There is the need to disaggregate the aggregate plan so that the production plan
might be translated into meaning terms for production. This generally involves
breaking down the aggregate plan into specific product requirements in order to

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determine labour requirements (skill, size of work force), materials and

inventory requirements.
It is a fact that working with aggregate units often facilitates intermediate
planning. However, for the production plan to be put into operation, those
aggregate units must be decomposed into units of actual products or services
that are to be produced or offered.
The result of disaggregate the aggregate plan is a master schedule, showing the
quantity and timing of specific and items for a schedule horizon (Which often
covers about six to eight weeks ahead). The master schedule shows demand for
individual products rather than an entire product group, along with the timing
of production. The master schedule usually contains important information for
marketing as well as for production. It reveals when orders are scheduled for
production and when completed orders are to be shipped.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE (SAE)
1. What three levels of planning involve operations managers? What kinds
of decisions are made at the various levels?
2. Why is there a need for aggregate planning?
3. What are the three phases of aggregate planning?

4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has taken you though a number of important issues involved in
aggregate planning. You have learned that the essence of aggregate planning is
the aggregation of products or services into one products or service

5.0 SUMMARY
Aggregate planning establishes general levels of employment, output, and
inventories for periods of two to twelve months. In the spectrum of planning, it
falls between the broad design decisions of long-range planning and the very
specific and detailed short-range planning decisions. It begins with overall
forecasts for the planning horizon and ends with preparations for applying the
plans to specific products and services.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Question: Refer to the worked example in the text: After reviewing the plan
developed in the worked example, planners have decided to develop an
alternative plan. They have learned that one person is about to return from the
company, rather than replace him, they would like to stay with the smaller
workforce and use overtime to make up for the lost output. The reduced
regular-time output is 280 units per period; the maximum amount of overt-time

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output per period is 40 units. Develop a plan and compare it to the previous
one.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Buffa, E.S and J.G. Miller (1974): Production Inventory Systems:

Planning

and Control. 3rd ed. Burr Ridge. Ill: Richard D. Irwin.

Vollmann, T.E., Berry W.L. and D.C. Whyback (1992): Manufacturing

Planning and Control System. 3rd ed. Burr Ridge. Ill: Richard O.

Irwin.
Stevenson, W.J. (1996): Production/operations Management. 5th ed. Burr

Ridge. Ill. Richard D. Irwin.

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MODULE 3
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5

Linear Programming (LP)

Material Requirements Planning
Just-In-Time System
Project Management
Productivity

UNIT 1

LINEAR PROGRAMMING (LP)

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Function and Characteristics of LP
3.1.1 Functions
3.1.2 Characteristics
3.2 Components of LP Model
3.3 Formulating a LP Problem
3.4 Slack and Surplus Variables
3.5 Sensitivity Analysis
3.5.1 Right-Hand-Side Parameters
3.6 Computer Solution
3.6.1 Simplex Method
3.6.2 Computer Output
3.7 Dual
3.7.1 Procedure for a Dual Process
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In many business situations, resources are limited while demand for them is
unlimited. For example, a limited number of vehicles may have to be scheduled
to make multiple trips to customers or a staffing plan may have to be developed
to cover expected variable demand with the fewest employees. In this unit we
describe a method called linear programming (LP), which is useful for
allocating scarce resources among competing demands. The resources may be
time, money, or materials, and the limitation are known as constraints. Linear
programming can help managers find the best allocation solution and provide
information about the value of additional resources.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
(i) Explain the characteristics and assumption of linear programming
model.
(ii) Formulate models for various problems
(iii) Perform graphic analysis for two-variable problems and find the
algebraic solution for the corner point found to be optimal.
(iv) Describe the meaning of slack and surplus variables
(v) Discuss the meaning of sensitivity analysis on the objective function coefficient and right hand side parameters.
(vi) Interpret the computer output of a linear programming solution.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Function and Characteristics of LP
3.1.1 Functions
(i) LP is useful in the specification of optimum organisation of resources in
a business organisation such that net returns of maximization of returns
is achieved under given condition of resource restriction.
(ii) LP makes long range planning possible in business
(iii) LP gives technical co-efficient based largely on the practices and
methods of operation adopted by the manager.
(iv) By-product obtained from results of the LP planning exercises are
capable of throwing considerable light on a number of aspects of
business management e.g. the surplus or unexhausted resource(s), the
rate of interest the manager can justifiably pay on borrowed funds,
wages that the manager is willing to pay for labour.

3.1.2 Characteristics
Some assumptions (characteristics) go with the three components of LP
outlined in section 3.2, they are:
(i) Linearity:- This implies that the input-output co-efficient are constant
and independent of the scale of operation implying constant resource
productivity and return to scale.
(ii) Additivity:- This assumption implies that the total quantity of resources
used in different activities is equal to the sum of the quantities of
different input used in each activity and that the size of any activity is
independent of the size of other activities.

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(iii) Divisibility:- This means that inputs are infinitely divisible. Thus, an LP
solution can specify inputs and outputs in fractional units such as 10.7
units of labour etc.
(iv) Finiteness:- This implies that a limit exists on the number of `activities
and resources which can be programmed. This is a practical assumption
in the sense that an unlimited number of activities and resources would
make an optimum solution impossible to obtain
(v) Single valued expectation:- This characteristics shows that the prices
of inputs and outputs, the input-output co-efficient and the levels of
resources are known with certainty. Hence, a LP model is deterministic.
(vi) Non -negativity of decision variables:- This is very logical, there is no
way you use any negative quantity of any resource, the least you use of
any input among series of inputs in a production process is zero i.e. not
used at all.

3.2 Components of LP Model

(i) An objective function:- This must be clearly spelt out in mathematical
language, and this can take one of several forms e.g. (a) Maximization
of net revenue or profit from one or a several
combination
enterprises
(b) Maximization of production or a transportation cost.
(ii) Competitive enterprises with possible alternative methods of
producing each enterprise. This implies that enterprises must be
competing for the use of resources and in which case there is a problem
of choice among enterprises, (see section under formulation of LP
problem).
(iii) Constraint to the attainment of the objective: A linear programming
(LP) problem exists only if there are constraints limiting the attainment
of an objective
Basically there are 3 types of constraints
(a) Resource constraint:- A manager always have limited levels of such
resources as capital, labour, machines, building capacity etc. which
limits the scale of his operation.
(b) Institutional constraint: - This is typified by quota system which is a
contractual arrangement with say a governmental agency specified
minimum or maximum production levels.

of

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(c) Subjective constraint: - The manager imposes this on himself. For

example, there may be internal capital rationing due to (i) debt aversion
(ii) scale restriction due to skill (iii) consumption habit consideration etc.

3.3 Formulating a LP problem

Linear programming application begins with the formulation of a model of the
problem with the general characteristics just described. We illustrate the
modeling process here with the product mix problem, a one- period type of
aggregate planning problem, the solution of which yields optimal output
quantities (or product mix) of a group of product or services, subject to
resource capacity and market demand constraints. Formulating a model to
represent each unique problem, using the following three-step sequence, is the
most creative and perhaps the most difficult part of linear programming.
Step 1: Define the decision variable
Define each decision variable specifically, remembering that the definitions
used in the objective function must be equally useful in the constraints. The
definitions should be as specific as possible e.g. X, = product 1
or
X, =

no of units of product 1 produced and sold at a time.

Step 2: Write out the objective function.

What is to be maximized or minimized? If it is revenue, write out an objective
function that makes the revenue a linear function of the decision variables.
Identify parameters to go with each decision variable. For example, if each unit
of X1 sold yields a revenue of N45, the total revenue realizable from X1 equal
45 X1. The objective function often is set to equal to Z, and the goal is to

maximize or minimize Z.
What limits the values of the decision variables? Identify the constraints and
the parameters for each decision variable in them. To be formally correct, also
write out the non-negativity constraints.
Example 1
Lopin factory produces two basic types of plastic pipe. Three resources are
taken to be crucial to the output of pipe: extrusion hours, packaging hours, and
a special additive to the plastic raw material. The data below represent next
production situation.

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Product
Resource Type 1 Type 2 Resource availability
Extrusion 4hr 6hr 48hr
Packaging 2hr 2hr 18hr
Additive mix 2kg l kg 16kg
The contribution of profits and overhead per 100 feet of pipe is N34 for type 1
and N40 for type 2. Formulate a linear programming mode to determine how
much of each type of pipe should be produced to maximize contribution to
profits and to overhead.
Solution
Step 1: To define the decision variables that determine product mix, we let
X1 = amount of type 1 pipe to be produced and sold after next production. X2 =

amount of type 2 pipe to be produced and sold after next production.

Step 2: Next define the objective function. The goal is to maximize the total
contribution that the two products make to profits and overhead. Each unit of
X1 yields N34 and each unit of X2 yields x N40. For specific values of X1and
X2 we find the total profit by multiplying the number of units of each product

produced by the profit per unit and adding them. Thus our objective function
becomes Maximize N34 X1 + N40 X2 =Z.
Step 3. The final step is to formulate the constraints. Each unit of X1 and X2

produced consumes some of the critical resources. In the extrusion department,

a unit of X1 requires 4 hours and a unit of X2 requires 6 hrs. The total must not
exceed the 48hours capacity available, so we use the = sign. Thus the first
constraint is 4 X1 + 6 X2 = 48 (extrusion).

Similarly, we can formulate constraints for packaging and raw materials.

2 X1+ 2 X2 = 18 (packaging)
2 X1+ X2
= 16 (additive mix)

These three constraints restrict our choice of values for the decision variables
because the values we choose for X1and X2 must satisfy all of them. Negative
values for X1and X2 don't make sense, so we add
non-negativity

restrictions to the model

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0; X2 =

We can now state the entire model, made complete with the definition of
variables.
Maximize 1 N34X1 + ; N40X2 = Z
Subject to 4X1 + 6X2 = 48
2X1 + 2X2 = 18
2X1 + X2 = 16
X1, X2 = 0.

3.3.1 Graphic analysis

With the model formulated, we now seek the optimal solution. In practice,
most linear programming problems are solved with the computer. However,
insight into the meaning of the computer output and linear programming
concept in general can be gained by analyzing a two - variable problem with
the graphic method of linear programming, even though it isn't a practical
techniques for solving problems having three or more decision variables. Five
basic steps involved are
(i) Plot the constraint
(ii) Identity the feasible region
(iii) Plot an objective function line
(iv) Find the visual solution
(v) Find the algebraic solution
Each of these five steps are briefly discussed
(1) Plot the constraints:
We begin by plotting the constraint equations, disregarding the inequality
portion of the constraints. Making each constraint equal converts it to equation
for a straight line. The line can be drawn as soon as we identify two points on
it. To find the X1 axis intercept, set X2 equal to 0 and solve the equation for

X1. For the Lopin factory in example l, the equation of the line for the
extrusion process is
4X1 + 6X2 = 48
for the X1 axis intercept, X2 = 0
and so
4X1 + 6(0) = 48
X1 = 12
To find X2 axis intercept, X1 = 0
and so
4(0) + 6(X2) = 48
X2 = 8

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We now connect points (0, 8 ) and (12, 0) as in Figure 11.1 below.

Figure 11.1: Graph of the Three Constraints

X2

2X1 + X2=

16

2X1 + 2 x 2 =

18

4X1 + 6X2=

48

X1

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 X,
The solution for packaging process line
2X1 + 2X2 =
18
for X1, :2X1 + 2(0) =
18
X1, =
9
For X2 : 2(0) + 2(X2) = 18
X2 =
9

We now connect points (9,0) and (0,9) on the same graph behind in fig. 1. The
equation for the additive mix line is 2X1, + X2 = 16. To find X1, intercept, set
X2 = 0
2X1, + X2 = 16
X1 =
To find X2, set X1
=
0
2(0) + X2
=
16
X2
=
16.

We also connect points (0, 16) and (8, 0) for the additive mix on the same
graph of Figure 11.1.
(2) Identify the feasible region
The feasible region is the area on the graph that contains the solutions that
satisfy all the constraints simultaneously, including the nonnegative restriction.
The feasible region for a maximization problem as in this case is that area
bounded by all the tree curves and so we would have the curve ICFH as our
feasible region as shown in Figure 11.2. Having obtained the feasible region we

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now seek to locate the point that maximizes the objective function this is
achieved by plotting the objective function on the feasible region. The series of
lines plotted are called Iso-revenue curves if the objective function is to
maximize revenue or Iso-profit curve if the objective is to maximize profit. The
optimal point is finally read as the point where the objective function line cuts
the tip of the feasible point (farthest point from the origin).

Figure 11.2: The Feasible region

X1

2X1 + X2

16

2X1 + 2 X2

18

I
4X1 + 6X2

48

(extrusion)

X1

2 X1 + 2 X2

18 (packaging)

(3) Find the visual solution

From the feasible region lCFH we eliminate corner point OH because better
points lie above and to the right. The optimal solution is the last point touching
the feasible region when series of lines with slope equal to the slope of the
objective are plotted within the feasible region. Due to some errors in reading,
the value from the graph or gradation, visual solution isn't exact.
(4) Find the Algebraic Solution
To find an exact solution, we must use algebra. We begin by identifying the
pair of constraints that define the corner point at their intersection. We then list
the constraints as equations and solve them simultaneously to find the
coordinates (XI, X2) of the corner point.
Simultaneously equation can be solved several ways. For small problems the
easiest way is as follows.
Step 1: Develop an equation with just one unknown. Start by multiplying
both sides of one equation by a constant so that the
co-efficient for

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one of the two variables is identical in both equations. Then subtract one
equation from the other and solve the resulting equation for its single unknown
variable.
Step 2: Insert this decision variable value into either one of the original
constraints and solve for the other decision variable. Find the optimal
solution algebraically for the Lopin factory. What is the value of Z when the
decision variables have optimal values.'?
Solution
Step 1
4X1 + 6X2
2X1 + 2X2

=
=

48 (Extrusion)
18 (Packaging)

Multiply each term in packaging constraint by 2 to give 4X1 + 4X2 = 36. Next,

we subtract the packaging constraint from the extrusion constraints.

4X1 + 6X2
= 48
(4X1 + 4 X2 = 36)
2X2 = 12
X2 = 6
Step 2 substituting the values of X2 into the extrusion equation, we get
4 X1 + 6(6) = 48
4X1 = 12
X1 = 3

The optimal point is thus (3, 6) to give an optimal profit of

34(3) + 40 (6) = N4342

3.4 Slack and surplus variables.

For a O constraints, the amount by which the left-hand side falls short of the
right-hand side is called slack. For a 1:1 constraint, the amount by which the
left-hand side exceeds the right-hand side is called surplus. To find the slack
for a O constraint algebraically, we add a slack variable to the constraint and
convert it to an equality. Then we substitute in the values of the decision
variables and solve for the slack. For example the additive mix constraint in
Lopin factory is 2X1 + X2 + S1 = 16.
We then find the slack at the optimal solution (3, 6)
2(3) + 6 + S1 = 16
S1 = 4.

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The procedure is much the same to find the surplus for a , constraint, except
that we subtract a surplus variable from the left-hand side. Suppose that X1 +
X2 , 6 was another constraint in the Lopin factory problem, representing a

lower bond on the number of units produced. We would then rewrite the
constraint by subtracting a surplus variable S2
XI + X2 - S2 = 6

The slack at the optimal solution (3,6) would be

3+6 - S2 = 6
S2 = 3

3.5 Sensitivity analysis

The parameters in the objective function and constraints are rarely known with
certainty. Sometimes they are just estimates of actual values. For example, the
available packaging and extrusion hours for the Lopin factory are estimates that
do not reflect the uncertainties associated with absenteeism or personnel
transfers, and required time per unit to package and extrude may be work
standards that essentially are averages. Likewise, profit contribution used for
the objective function coefficients do not reflect uncertainties in selling prices
and such variable costs as wages, raw materials, and shipping.
In spite of these uncertainties, initial estimates are needed to solve the problem.
Accounting, marketing and work-standard information systems usually often
provide these initial estimates. After solving the problem using these estimated
values, the analyst can determine how much the optimal value of the decision
variables and the objective function value Z would be affected if certain
parameters had different values. This type of post solution analysis for
answering "what if' question is called sensitivity analysis.

3.5.1 Right - hand - side parameters

Now consider how a change in the right-hand-side parameter for a constraint
may affect the feasible region and perhaps cause a change in the optimal
solution. Lets return to the Lopin factory problem. Consider adding one more
hour to the packaging process, increasing it from 18 to 19 hours; i.e.
4X1 + 6X1, = 48 (extrusion)
2X1, + 2X2 = 19 (packaging)
The optimal values are X1 = 4.5 and X2 = 5 and the new Z value is N34 (4.5) +

N40 (5) = N353. Because the value of Z was N342 with 18 hours of packaging
time, the value of one more hour of packaging is N11 (or N353 - N342).
The change in Z per unit of change in the value of the right-hand side
parameter of a constraint is called the shadow price, which is the marginal
improvement in Z caused by relaxing the constraint by one unit. Relaxations

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mean making the constraint or decrease it for an O restrictive, which involves

increasing the right-hand-side for an O constraint. The shadow price also is the
marginal loss in Z caused by making the constraint more restrictive by one unit.

3.6 Computer Solution

Most real-world linear programming problems are solved on a computer, so we
will focus our understanding on the use of computer to solving LP problems
and the logic behind its use. The solution procedure in computer codes is some
form of the simplex method, an iterative algebraic procedure for solving linear
programming problems.

3.6.1 Simplex Method

The graphic analysis gives insight into the logic of the simplex method. One
corner point of the feasible region will always be the optimum, even when
there are multiple optimal solutions. Thus, the simplex method starts with an
initial corner point and then systematically evaluates other corner points in
such a way that the objective function improves (or at worst, stays at the same)
at each iteration. In the Lopin factory example we have being using for
illustration; an improvement would be an increase in profits. When no more
improvements are possible, the optimal solution has been found.

3.6.2 Computer Output

Computer programmes diagrammatically reduce the amount of time required to
solve linear programming problems. Special - purpose programmes can be
developed for applications that must be repeated frequently. Such programmes
simplify data input and generate the objective function and constraint for the
problem.
Printout 1 shows the input data for the Lopin factory problem. The last half of
printout 1 gives the values an the type of constraint (O = or O). The user may
choose to enter labels for the objective function, constraint, and right hand side
values. Here the extrusion constraint is labelled "Ext" and the right-hand -side
values are labelled "RHS" Input data can be stored in file for use during
subsequent sessions.
Printout 1
Data entered
Number of variables
2
Number of O constraint 3
Number of = constraint 0
Number of O constant 0

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Number of constraint 0
Model
Xl

X2 RHS

Max Z 34

Ext 4

O 48

Pac 2

O 18

Add 2

0 16

Printout 2
Solution
sVariable Variable original coefficient
Label Value coefficient

sensitivity

X1 3

34 0

X2 6

40 0

Constraint Original Slack or Shadow

Label RHV Surplus Price
Ext 48

03

Pac 18

0 11

Add 16

40

Objective function value: 342

So far we have solved the Lopin factory problem graphically and algebraically,
mention was made of the simplex approach but not performed in this section
we shall see manually the series of operations being performed within the
input-output system of a computer.
Max Z = 34 X1 + 40 X2

S.t

4X1 + 6X2
48
2X1 + 2X2
18
2X1 + X2
16

By converting the inequality to strict equality, we add slack activities to each of

the constraints. i.e.

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Max Z = 34X1 + 40X2

S.t 4X1 + 6X2 + IS1 = 48

2X1 + 2X2 + IS2 = 18
2X1 + X2 + IS3
= 16
X1 X2 O 0

Simplex table
iteration C Resources/ Resources Real Activities Slack Activities R
Activities Level 34 40 0 0 0
X, X2 S, S2 S3
0 S, 48 4 6 1 0 0 8*
0 S, 18 2 2 0 1 0 9
1 0 S3 16 2 1 0 0 1 16
Z 0 00 000
Z-C - -34 -40 0 0 0
40 X2 8 213 1 '/6 0 0 12
0 S2 2 2/3 0 -1/3 1 0 3*
0 S3 8 11/3 0 -1/6 0 1 6
11
Z 320 262/3 40 62/3 0 0
Z-C - -71/3 0 62/3 0 0
34 X, 3 1 0 -`/2 1 `/2 0
111 40 X2 6 0 1 1/2 -1 0
0 S3 4 0 0 1/2 -2 1
Z 342 34 40 3 11 0
Z-C - 0 0 3 11 0
Critical evaluation of the simplex table would show the last value of Z as
N342, just as in the computer printout 2, the values 3, 11, 0, last bottom values
are defined as shadow prices, just the same as in computer printout 2. In the
third iteration S3 featured with a value of 4, showing us that the third resource
was not fully consumed, Just the same as computer printout 2. It may be of
necessity to practice one or two examples on simplex table, this then call for
the need to explain the table.
1. In the first iteration, all resources to be used in the production process
are treated as surplus
2. Anything surplus would have a shadow price of zero i.e. how much you
are willing to pay to have an additional unit.
3. Consider the resource level column, the level you have would be the
total amount you have in store to use in production process.
4. The real activities column would have the co-efficient of the constraint.
5. Slack activities column would have diagonal values as 1 and all off
diagonal values as 0, i.e. and identity matrix.
6. Having inputted all these values, underline every column and introduce
a Z row

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7. To fill the Z row, multiply the cost values corresponding to any entry by
the quantity and sum throughout the row.
8. Designate another Z-C row and subtract C, note that C attached to X,
and XZ is the coefficient in its objective form as 34 and 40 respectively
and C corresponding to Si. SZ and S3 are all zeros, meaning that
whatever is surplus would not command a value from a consumer.
9. Looking at the Z-C row under the real activity column, observe any
highest negative value, trace it up and call this the pivot column
(incoming activity)
10. Next, divide all resource levels by their pivot column equivalent and fill
this in the R column
11. Observe the lowest of all the Rs and trace this sideways (outgoing
activity); this is the pivot row.
12. There is a place where the pivot column and pivot row intersect, call this
the pivot. That is the end of the first iteration.
13. In the second iteration, first input the incoming activity (XZ in this case)
14. To know the levels of X2 in each cell divide the values of the outgoing
activity by its pivot all through.
15. Now, observe something special, just as the pivot divide itself to give 1,
observe the two other values under it to be zero. This must be, and so
would be helpful when the levels of the other two resources are to be
deduced.
16. For the level of S2, we wont just copy the levels iteration 1, but we have
to use adjusted levels (observe what was said in point 15 above).
17. To go about that where we peg S2 = 0 under the location where pivot
divide itself to give 1 and other values under = 0, we say we want to
look for a multiplier effect. This is calculated as initial - multiplier
(outgoing) = 0.
18. Look back at iteration 1 and see that the value of S2 directly under pivot
value is 2 (that value represents initial).
19. Back in iteration II, the value of S2 under same column was traced down
to zero. The outgoing value for that column was 6 (the pivot).
20. Let us now use this combination to find out multiplier as
2 - Multiplier (6) = 0
Let multiplier be x
So that 2-x (6) = 0
x = 1/3

21. To calculate resource level for S2 in iteration II we say 18 which is

initial value from iteration I less the product of multiplier and what is
going out under same column i.e. 18 - 1/3 (48) = 2.
Similarly to calculate the value of S2 under real activity X1, we say
2-1/3 (4) = 2/3, until the whole array is filled up.
22. We also have to look for multiplier S3.

23. Underline and evaluate Z and Z-C and observe if negative exists in the
real activity column of Z-C row.

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24. If negative exists, the highest negative connotes the incoming activity in
the next iteration. If not an optimal solution has been reached.

3.7

Dual

The objective of any LP process is called the primal, the process of reversing or
transpose of the primal process is called the dual. If the primal is to maximize
then the dual is to minimize, whether the primal function is solved or its dual
function is used to establish the solution, the answer remain unchanged

3.7.1 Procedure for a dual process

1. Observe the objective function of the primal problem
2. Write out the co-efficients of the constraints of the primal problem in
form of matrix.
3. Transpose the matrix of co-efficients of the constraints.
4. Total requirement of each of the constraints of the primal problem now
turn coefficients of the objective function of the dual.
5. Co-efficients of the objective function of the primal problem become the
resource constraints.
6. The inequality sign is reversed for the dual problem.

4.0

CONCLUSION

We have been able to see how the knowledge of LP can be of help in

management decisions to boost the performance of a business unit or
production organisation.

5.0

SUMMARY

We are now able to take some economic and managerial decision on the use of
resources, what resource would contribute better to our objective has been
pointed out from slack activities column and the Z-C row of the optimal
strategy.
The limitations of graphical method compared to the simplex method was seen
in that graphical solution cannot handle clearly more than two objective
function case, whereas the simplex approach would do us better. The surplus
resource(s) or the shadow prices was equality highlighted in the simplex
method but cannot be depicted on the graphical solution.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

(1) Maximize Z = 2X1 + 3X2

S.t

X1 + 2X2 O 30

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3X1 + X2 O 60
6X1 + 3X2 O 200
5X1 + 4X2 O 200
(2) Maximize Z = 2X1 + X2

S.t.

X1 + X2 O 5
X1 + 3X2 O 9

In each case find maximum Z, the slack resources, and the shadow prices.

7.0

REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Krajewski, L. J. and LT Ritzman (1999): Operations Management:

and Analysis, Reading, Massachutes. Addison Wesley

Strategy

Bonini, C.P, W.H. Hansman and H. Bierman, Jr (1997): Quantitative

Analysis for Management Chicago: Irwin.

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UNIT 2 MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS PLANNING

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 MRP Inputs
3.1.1 The Master Schedule
3.1.2 The Bill-of-Material File
3.1.3 The Inventory Records File
3.2 MRP Processing
3.3 MRP Outputs
3.3.1 Primary Reports
3.3.2 Secondary Reports
3.3.3 Safety Stocks
3.3.4 Lot Sizing
3.3.4.1 Lot-for-lot Ordering
3.3.4.2 Economic Order Quantity Model
3.3.4.3 Period Ordering
3.3.4.4 Part-Period Model
3.4 Capacity Requirements Planning
3.5 Benefit and Requirements of MRP
3.5.1 Benefits
3.5.2 Requirements
3.6 MRP II
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References/Further Readings

1.0

INTRODUCTION

Material requirements planning (MRP) is a computer-based information system

for ordering and scheduling of dependent-demand inventories (e.g. raw
materials, component parts, and subassemblies). (Recall that dependentdemand is the demand for items that are subassemblies or component parts to
be used in the production of finished goods).
What is involved in MRP is the translation of a production plan for a specified
number of finished products into requirements for component parts and raw
materials working backward, using lead time information to determine when
and how much to order.
MRP is as much a philosophy as it is a technique, and as much an approach to
scheduling as it is to inventory control. MRP begins with a schedule of finished
goods that is converted into a schedule of requirements for subassemblies,

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components parts, and raw materials needed to produce the finished items in
the specified time frame. What this amounts to, is that MRP is designed to
answer three questions: What is needed? How much is needed? And when it is
needed? The primary inputs of MRP necessary to answer these questions are (i)
a bill of material, which tells the composition of a finished product; (ii) a
master schedule which tells how much finished product is desired and when;
and (iii) an inventory records file, which tells how much inventory is on hand
or on order. This information is then processed to determine the planning
horizon.
Outputs from the process include planned-order schedule, order releases,
changes performance-control reports, planning repots and exception reports.
These inputs and output are discussed in more detail in subsequent sections.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

After completing this unit, you should be able to:

(i) Describe the conditions under which MRP is most appropriate.
(ii) Describe the input, outputs and nature of MRP processing.
(iii) Explain how requirements in a master production schedule are translated
into material requirements for lower-level items.
(iv) Discuss the benefits and requirements of MRP.
(v) Explain how an MRP system is useful in capacity requirements
planning.
(vi) Outline the potential benefits and some of the difficulties users have
encountered with MRP.
(vii) Describe MRP II and how it relates to MRP.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 MRP Inputs
As already mentioned in proceeding section, an MRP system has three major
sources of information: a master schedule, a bill- of-material file, and an
inventory records file. Let's consider each of these inputs.

3.1.1 The Master Schedule

The master schedule states which end items are to be produced, when they are
needed, and in what quantities. Figure 12.1 illustrates a portion of a master
schedule that shows planned output for end items X for the planning horizon.
The schedule indicates that 100 units of X will be needed (e.g., for shipments
to customers) at the start of week 4 and that another 150 units will be needed at
the start of week 8.

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Figure 12.1. A portion of master schedule.

Week Number
Item X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Quantity

100

150

The quantities in a master schedule come from a number of different sources,

including customer orders, forecasts, orders from warehouses to build up
seasonal inventories, and external demand.
The master schedule separates the planning horizon into a series of time
periods or time buckets, which are often expressed in weeks. However, the
time bucket need not be of equal length.
It is important that the master schedule cover the stacked or cumulative lead
time necessary to produce the end items. This cumulative lead time is the sum
of the lead times that sequential phases of a process require, from ordering of
parts or raw materials to completion of final assembly.
Stability in short-term production plans is very important; without it, changes
in order quantity and/or timing can render material requirements plans almost
useless. To minimize such problems, many firms establish a series of time
intervals, called time fences, during which changes can be made to orders. For
example, a firm might specify time fences of 4,8, and 12 weeks, with the
nearest fence being the most restrictive and farthest fence being less restrictive.
Beyond 12 weeks changes are expected; from 8 to 12 weeks, substitutions of
one end item for another may be permitted as long as the components are
available and the production plan is not compromised; from 4 to 8 weeks, the
plan is fixed, but small charges may be allowed; and the plan is frozen out to
the four-week fence.

3.1.2 The Bill-of-Material File.

A bill of materials (BOM) containing a listing of all the assemblies, subassemblies, parts, and raw materials that are needed to produce one unit of a
finished product. This means that each finished product has its own bill of
materials.
The listing in BOM is hierarchical; it shows the quantity of each item needed to
complete one unit of the following level of assembly. The nature of this aspect
of a BOM is perhaps grasped most readily by considering a product structure
tree, which provides a visual depiction of the subassemblies and components
that are needed to assemble a product. Figure 12.2 shows a product tree for a
chair.

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Figure 12.2: Product Structure Tree

Chair

Leg
Seat
Assembly
Back

Legs (2) Cross bar

Side
Back
rails (2)
Supports

Assembly

Cross bar

A product structure tree is useful in illustrating how the bill of materials is used
to determine the quantities of each of the ingredients (requirements) needed to
obtain a desired number of end items. Let's consider the product tree shown in
figure 12.3.
Figure 12.3: A product tree for end item X
0
X
1. B(2)
C

2.

D(3)

F(2)

3.

E(4)

Note that the quantities of each item in the product structure tree refer only to
the amounts needed to complete the assembly in the next higher level. We can
use the information presented in figure12.3 to do the following:
(a) Determine the quantities of B, C, D, E, and F needed to assemble one X.
(b) Determine the quantities of these components that will be required to
assemble 200Xs

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Solution
Component

Quantity

B ---------------- 213s
=2
D----------------30s per B X 213s per X
=6
E ---------------- 4 Es per D X 3Ds per B X 2Bs per X
E ----------------lE per B X 213s per X
=2
C --------------- 1 C per X
=1
E ----------------- 2 Es per C X 1 C per X
=2
F --------------- 2 Fs per C X 1 C per X
=2

= 24

Note that E appears in three separate places. Its total requirements can be
determined by summing the separate amounts, which yields 28.
(b) In order to assemble 200 units of X, the quantities of each component
must be multiplied by 200. Hence, there must be 200 (2) = 400Xs, 200

(6) = 1,200Ds, 200 (28) = 5,600Es, and so on.

When requirements are calculated in an MRP system, the computer scans the
product structure level by level, starting at the top. When a component (such as
E in figure 12.3 appears on more than one level, its total requirements cannot
be determined until all levels have been scanned. From a computational
standpoint, this is somewhat inefficient. A simplification sometime used to
increase efficiency is low-level coding, which involves restructuring the BOM
so that all occurrences of an item are made to coincide with the lowest level in
which the item appears. Figure 12.4 illustrates how component E, which appear
in three different levels of product Y, can be rearranged so that it appears at
only one level.
Figure 12.4: Low-level coding for component E.
Level

3 E E E

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3.1.3 The Inventory Records File

The inventory records file is used to store information on the status of each
item by time period. This includes gross amount on hand. It also includes other
details for each item, such as supplier, lead time, and lot size - changes due to
stock receipts and withdrawal, canceled orders, and similar events also are
recorded in this file.

3.2 MRP Processing

MRP processing takes the end-item requirements specified by the master
schedule and "explodes" them into time-phased requirements for assemblies,
parts, and raw materials using the bull of materials offset by lead times.
The quantities that are generated by exploding the bill of materials are gross
requirements. It is the total expected demand for an item or raw material during
each time period without regard to the amount on hand. For end items, these
quantities are shown in the master schedule; for components, these quantities
equal the planned-order releases of their immediate "parents"
Scheduled Receipt: - Open orders scheduled to arrive from vendors or
elsewhere in the pipeline by the beginning of a period.
Projected on hand: - The expected amount of inventory that will be on hand at
the beginning of each time period; schedule receipts plus available inventory
from last period. Net-requirements: - The actual amount needed in each time
period.
Planned-order receipts: - The quantity expected to be received by the
beginning of the period in which it is shown. Under lot-for-lot ordering, this
quantity will equal net requirements. Under lot-size ordering this quantity may
exceed net requirements. Any excess is added to available inventory in the next
time period.
Planned-order releases: - Indicates a planned amount to order in each time
period; equal planned-order receipts offset by lead time. This amount generates
gross requirements at the next level in the assembly or production chain. When
an order is executed, it is removed from "planned-order releases" and entered
under "Scheduled receipts"
Let us illustrate MRP processing with the following example.
Suppose firm that produces wood shutters and bookcases has received two
orders for shutters: one for 100 shutters and one for 150 shutters. The 100-unit
order is due for delivery at the start of week 4 of the current schedule, and the
150-unit order is due for delivery at the start of week 8. Each shutter consists of

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four slatted wood sections and two frames. The wood sections are made by the
firm, and fabrication takes one week. The frames are ordered and lead time is
two weeks. Assembly of the shutters requires one week. There is a scheduled
receipt of 70 wood sections in (i .e. at the beginning of) week 1. Determine the
size and timing of planned-order releases necessary to meet delivery
requirements under each of these conditions:
Lot-for-lot ordering (i e order size equal to net requirements)
Lot-size ordering with a lot size of 20 units for frames and 70 units for wood
sections to answer tree question, you first develop a master schedule as
follows:
Week number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Quantity

100

150

Secondly, develop a product structure tree: Shutter

Shutter

Frame (2)

wood sections

Next, using the master schedule, determine gross requirements for shutters.
Then, compute net requirements. Assuming lot-for-lot ordering, determine
planned-order receipt quantities and the planned - order release timing to
satisfy the master schedule
Since the master schedule calls for 100 shutters to be ready for delivery, and no
shutters are projected to be on hand at the start of week 4, the next
requirements are also 100 shutters. Therefore planned receipts for week 4
equals 100 shutters. Some shutters are assembled during week 7 in order to be
available for delivery at the start of week 8.
The planned-order release of 100 shutters at the start of week 3 means that 200
frames (gross requirements) must be available at that time. Since more are
expected to be on hand, this generates net requirements of 200 frames and
necessitates planned receipts of 200 frames by the start of week 3. With a twoweek lead time, this means that 200 frames must be ordered at the start of week
1. Similarly, the planned-order release of 150 shutters at week 7 generates
gross net requirement 300 frames for week 7 as well as planned receipts for

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the start of week 5.

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

two-week lead time means frames must be ordered at

The planned-order release of 100 shutters at the start of week 3 also generates
gross requirements of 400 wood sections at that time. However, because 70
wood sections are expected to be on hand, net requirements are 400-70 =330.
This means a planned receipt of 330 by the start of week 3. Since fabrication
time is one week, the fabrication must start (planned order release) at the
beginning of week 2.
Similarly, the planned-order release of 150 shutters in week 7 generates gross
requirements of 600 wood sections at that point. Since no on-hand inventory of
wood sections is projected, net requirements are also 600, and planned-order
receipt is 600 units. Again, the one week lead time means 600 sections are
scheduled for fabrication at the start of week 6.
Finally under lot-size ordering, the only difference is the possibility that
planned receipts will exceed net requirements. The excess is recorded as
projected inventory in the following period. For example, the order size for
frames is 320 units. Net requirements for week 3 are 200; thus, there is an
excess of 320-200 = 120 units, which become projected inventory in the next
week. Similarly, net frame requirements of 180 units are 140 less than the 320
order size; again, the excess become projected inventory in week 9. The same
thing happens with wood sections; an excess of planned receipt in weeks 3 and
7 is added to projected inventory in weeks 4 and 8. Note that the order size
must be in multiples of the lot size; for week 3 it is 5 times 70 and for week 7 it
is 9 times 70.
The importance of computer becomes evident when you consider that a typical
firm would have not one but many end items for which it needs to develop
material requirements plans, each with its own set of components.
Inventories on hand and on order, schedules, order releases, and so on must all
be up dated as changes and rescheduling occurs. Without the aid of a computer,
the task would be almost hopeless; with the computer, all of these things can be
accomplished with much less difficulty.
Updating the System. The two basic systems to update MRP records are
regenerative and net change. A regenerative system is updated periodically; a
net-change system is continuously updated.
A regenerative system is essentially a batch-type system, which compiles all
changes (e.g. new orders, receipts) that occur within the time interval (e.g.
week) and periodically updates the system. Using that information, a revised
production plan is developed (if needed) in the same way that the original plan
was developed (e.g. exploding the bill of materials level by level).

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In a net-change system, the basic production plan is modified to reflect changes

as they occur. If some defective purchased parts had to be returned to a vendor,
this information is entered into the system as soon as it becomes known. Only
the changes are exposed through the system, level by level; the basic plan
would not be regenerated.
The regenerative system is best suited to fairly stable systems, whereas the netchange system is best suited to systems that have frequent changes. The
obvious disadvantage of a regenerative system is the potential amount of lag
between the time information becomes available and the time it can be
incorporated into the material requirements plan. On the other hand, processing
costs are typically less using regenerative systems; changes that occur in a
given time period could ultimately cancel each other, thereby avoiding the need
to modify and then remodify the plan. The disadvantages of the net-change
system relate to the computer processing costs involved in continuously
updating the system and the constant state of flux in a system caused by many
small changes. On way around this is to enter minor changes periodically and
major changes immediately. The primary advantage of the net-change system
is that management can have up-to-date information for planning and control
purposes.

3.3 MRP Outputs

MRP systems have the ability to provide management with a fairly broad range
of outputs. These are often classified as primary reports, which are the main
reports, and secondary reports, which are optional outputs.

3.3.1 Primary Reports

Production and inventory planning and control are part of primary reports.
These reports normally include the following:
(1) Planned orders, a schedule indicating the amount and timing of future
orders.
(2) Order releases, authorizing the execution of planned orders.
(3) Changes to planned orders, including revisions of due dates or order
quantities and cancellations of orders.

3.3.2 Secondary Reports

Performance control, planning, and exceptions belong to secondary reports.
(1) Performance-control repots are used to evaluate system operation. They
aid managers by measuring deviations from plans, including missed

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deliveries and stock-outs, and by providing information that can be used

to assess cost performance.
(2) Planning reports are useful in forecasting future inventory requirements.
They include purchase commitments and other data that can be used to
assess future material requirements.
(3) Exception reports call attention to major discrepancies such as late and
overdue orders, excessive scrap rates, reporting errors and requirements
for none existent parts.
The wide range of output generally permits users to adapt MRP to their
particular needs.

3.3.3 Safety Stock

Theoretically, inventory systems with dependent demand should not require
safety stock below the end-item level. This is one of the main advantages of an
MRP approach. Supposedly, safety stock is not needed because usage
quantities can be projected once the master schedule has been established.
Practically, however, there may be exceptions. For example, a bottleneck
process or one with varying scrap rates can cause shortage in downstream
operations. However, a major advantage of MRP is lost by holding safety stock
for all lower-level items. When lead times are variable, the concept of safety
time instead of safety stock is often used. This results in scheduling orders for
arrival or completion sufficiently ahead of the time they are needed in order to
eliminate or substantially reduce the element of chance in waiting for those
items. Frequently, managers elect to carry safety stock for end items, which are
subject to random demand and for selected lower-level operations when safety
time is not feasible.

3.3.4 Lot Sizing

Choosing a lot size to order or for production is an important issue in inventory
management for both independent- and dependent-demand items. This is called
lot sizing. For independent-demand items, economic order sizes and economic
run sizes are often used.
Mangers can realize economies of scale by grouping order or run sizes. This
would be the case if the additional cost in covered by holding extra units until
they were used led to a saving in set up or ordering cost. This determination
can be very complex at times. Let's consider some of the methods used to
handle lot sizing.

3.3.4.1

Lot-for-lot ordering

The order or run size for each period is set equal to demand for that period.
This method was demonstrated in the example in section 3.3. Not only is the

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order size obvious, but it also virtually eliminates holding casts for parts carried
over to other periods. Hence, lot-for-lot ordering minimizes investment in
inventory. Its two chief draw backs are that it usually involves many different
order sizes and thus cannot take advantage of the economies of fixed order size
and it involves a new setup for each run.

3.3.4.2

Economic Order Quantity Model

Sometimes economic order quantity models (EOQ) are used. They can lead to
minimum costs if usage is fairly uniform. This is sometimes the case for lowerlevel items that are common to different parents and for raw materials.
However, the more lumpy demand is, the less appropriate such an approach is.

3.3.4.3

Fixed - Period Ordering

This type of ordering provided coverage for some predetermined number of

periods (e.g., two or three). A simple rule is; order to cover a two period
interval. The rule can be modified when common sense suggests a better way.
For example, take a look at the demand shown in Figure 12.5. Using a twoperiod rule, an order size of 120 units would cover the first two period. The
next two periods would be covered by an order size of 81 units. However, the
demand, in period 3 & 5 are so small, it would make sense to combine them
both with the 80 units and order 85 units.
Figure 12.5: Demand of part
Period
1 2 3 4
5
Demand 70 50 1 80 4
Cumulative 70 120 121 01 205
Demand

3.3.4.4

Part-Period Model

The term part-period refers to holding a part or parts over a number of periods.
For example, if 10 parts were held for two periods, this would be 10x2 = 20
part periods. The economic part period (EPP) can be computed as:
EPP

Setup Cost
Unit holding cost per period.

In order to determine an order size that is consistent with EPP, various order
sizes are examined for a planning horizon, and each one's number of part
periods is determined. The one that comes closest to the EPP is selected as the

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best lot size. The order sizes that are examined are based on cumulative
demand. The following example illustrates this approach.
Now use the part-period method to determine order sizes for this demand
schedule: set cost is N80 per run for this item, and unit-holding cost is N95 per
period.
Solution

Period
7Demand
60
Cumulative demand 60

1
40
100

20
120

2
122

2
30
152

7050
12 222 272

(1) First compute the EPP: EPP = N80/=N95 = 84.21 which rounds to
84 part period.
(2) Next, try the cumulative lot sizes beginning with 60, until the port
periods approximate the EPP. Continue this process for the planning
horizon. This leads to the following:
Lot Extra
Period
Part cumulative
Period Size inventory X carried = period part periods carried
1
60
0
0
0
0
100 40
1
40
40
120
20
2 40
80
122
2
3
6
86 5
30
0
0
0
0
100 70
2
140
140
50
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
The computations of part periods indicate that 122 units should be ordered to
be available at period 1, and 100 units should be ordered to be available at
period 5. The next lot will be ordered for period 8, but there is insufficient
information now to determine its size.
The lot sizes considered for 1 correspond to cumulative demand. Once the best
lot size has been identified, the cumulative demand is set equal to zero and then
summed beginning with the next period. In this case, the lot size of 122 covers
the first four periods, so cumulative demand is started next for period 5. The
next lot size covers through period 7, and the count begins again at period 8.
The process works well for the first lot size because then cumulative number of
part periods is close to the EPP, but the effect of Lumpy demand is apparent for
the second lot size of 100 (140 part periods is not very close to 84 part periods).

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3.4 Capacity Requirements Planning

One of the most important features of MRP is its ability to aid manager in
capacity planning. As noted, a master production schedule that appears feasible
on the surface may turn out to be far less feasible in terms of the resources
requirements needed for fabrication and /or subassembly operations of lowerlevel items.
Capacity requirement planning is the process of determining shortage capacity
requirements. The necessary inputs include planned-order releases for MRP,
the current shop load, routing information and job times. Outputs include load
report for each work center. When variances (under loads or over loads) are
projected, managers might consider remedies such as alternative routing,
changing or eliminating lot splitting. Moving production forward or back ward
can be extremely challenging because of precedence requirements and
availability of components.
The capacity planning begins with a proposed or tentative master production
schedule that must be tested for feasibility and possibly, adjusted before it
becomes permanent. The proposed schedule is processed using MRP to
ascertain the material requirements the schedule would generate. These are then
translated into resource ( i e capacity) requirements often in the form of a series
of load reports for each department or work p center, which compares known
and expected future capacity requirement with projected capacity availability.
An important aspect of capacity requirements planning is the conversion of
quantity requirements into labour and machine requirements. This is
accomplished by multiplying each period's quantity requirements by standard
labor and/or machine requirements per unit. For instance, if 100 units of
product A are scheduled in the fabrication department, and each unit has a
labor standard time of 2 hours and a machine standard time of 1.5 hours, then
100 units of A convert into these capacity requirements.
Labor:100 units x 2 hours/unit = 200 labor hours
Machine: 100 units x 1.5 hours/unit = 150 machine hours
These capacity requirements can then be compared with available department
capacity to determine the extent to which this product utilizes capacity. For
example, if the department has 200 labour hour, and 200 machine hours
available, labor utilization will be 100 percent because of all of the labor
capacity will be required by this product. However, machine capacity will be
underutilized.
Required X 100 = 150hours X 100 = 75 percent.
Available
200 hours

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Underutilization may mean that unused capacity can be used for other jobs;
over utilization indicates that available capacity is insufficient to handle
requirements. To compensate, production may have to be rescheduled or
overtime may be needed.

3.5

Benefits and Requirements of MRP

3.5.1 Benefits
MRP offers a number of benefits for the typical manufacturing or assembly
type of operation, including:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Low levels of in-process inventories

The ability to keep track of material requirements.
The ability to evaluate capacity requirements generated by a given
master schedule.
A means of allocating production time.

A range of people in a typical manufacturing company are important users of

information provided by an MRP system. Production mangers who must
balance work loads across departments and make decisions about scheduling
work, and plant foremen, who are responsible for issuing work orders and
maintaining production schedules, also rely heavily on MRP output. Other
users include customer service representatives, who must be able to supply
customers with projected delivery dates, purchasing managers, and inventory
managers. The benefits of MRP depend on large measure on the use of a
computer to maintain up-to-date information on material requirements.

3.5.2 Requirements
In order to implement and operate an effective MRP system, it is necessary to
have:
(1) A computer and the necessary software programs to handle
computations and maintain records.
(2)

Accurate and up-to-date

(a) Master schedule

(b) Bills of materials
(c) Inventory records
(3)

Integrity of file data

On the whole, the introduction of MRP has led to a major improvement in

scheduling and inventory management but it has not proved to be the cure-all

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that many hoped it would be. Consequently, manufacturers are beginning to

take a much broader approach to resource planning one such approach is
referred to as MRP 11.

3.6 MRP II
MRP II refers to manufacturing resources planning. It
expand the scope of production resource planning and
functional areas of the firm in the planning process. A major
His to integrate primary functions and other functions
engineering and purchasing in the planning process.

represents an effort to
to involve other
purpose of MRP
such as personnel,

Material requirement planning is at the heart of the process. Process begins

with an aggregation of demand from all sources (e.g. firm orders, forecasts,
safety stock requirement). Production, marketing and finance personnel work
toward developing a master production schedule. Although manufacturing
people will have a major input in determining the schedule and a major
responsibility for making it work, marketing and finance will also have
important inputs and responsibilities. The rationale for having these functional
areas work together is the increase likelihood of developing a plan that works
and with which everyone can live. Moreover, because each of these functional
areas has been involved in formulating the plan, they will have reasonably
good knowledge of the plan and more reason to work toward achieving it.
In addition to the obvious manufacturing resources needed to support the plan,
financing resources will be needed and must be planned for, both in amount
and timing. Similarly, marketing resources will also be needed in varying
degree throughout the process. In order for the plan to work, all of the
necessary resources must be available as needed. Often, an initial plan must be
revised based on an assessment of the availability of various resources. Once
these have been decided, the master production schedule can be firmed up.
At this point, material requirement planning comes into play generating
material and schedule requirements. More detailed capacity requirement
planning must be made next to determine whether these more specific
requirements can be met. Again some adjustment in the master production
schedule may be required.
As the schedule unfold, and actual work begins, a variety of reports help
managers to monitor the process and to make any necessary adjustments to
keep operations on track.
In effect, this is a continuing process where the master production schedule is
updated and revised as necessary to achieve corporate goals. The business plan
that governs the entire process usually undergo changes too although this tend
to be less frequent than the changes made at lower levels (i. e. the master
production schedule).

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Finally, it should be noted that most MRP 11 systems have the capability of
performing simulation, enabling managers to answer a variety of "what if
questions so they can gain a better appreciation of available options and their
consequences.

4.0

CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learnt the meaning of MRP and the conditions under
which it is appropriate; its inputs and outputs as well as the nature of MRP
processing; the benefits, requirements and the difficulties encountered with its
use.

5.0

SUMMARY

Material requirements planning (MRP) is an information system used to handle

ordering of dependent-demand items (i e, components of assembled products).
The planning process begins with customer orders, which are used along with
any back order to develop a master schedule that indicates the timing and
quantity of finished items. The end items are exploded using the bill of
materials, and material requirements plans are developed that show quantity
and timing for materials, and timing for ordering or producing components.
The main features of MRP are the time-phasing of requirements, calculating
component requirements, and planned-order releases. To be successful, MRP
requires a computer program and accurate master production schedules, bills of
materials, and inventory data. Firms that have not had reasonably accurate
records or schedules have experienced major difficulties in trying to implement
MRP.
MRP 11 is a second-generation approach to planning which incorporates MRP
but adds a broader scope to manufacturing resource planning because it links
business planning, production planning, and the master production schedule.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Compare and contrast MRP with MRP II and state the advantage MRP offers
as also compared to Order Point control.

7.0

REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Krajewski, L. J. and L.P Ritzman (1999): Operations Management:

and Analysis, Reading, Massachutes. Addison Wesley

Strategy

Bonini, C.P, W.H. Hansman and H. Bierman, Jr (1997): Quantitative

Analysis for Management Chicago: Irwin.

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UNIT 3

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

JUST-IN-TIME SYSTEM

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 JIT Goals
3.2 Building blocks
3.2.1 Product Design
3.2.2 Process Design
3.2.3 Personnel Organization Elements
3.2.4 Manufacturing Planning and Control
3.3 Benefits of JIT Systems
4.0 Conclusions
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0

INTRODUCTION

The term just-in-time (JIT) is used to refer to a production system in which

both the movement of goods during production and deliveries from suppliers
are carefully timed so that at each step of the process the next (usually small)
batch arrives for processing just as the preceding batch is complete-thus, the
name just-in-time. The result is a system with no idle items waiting to be
processed and no idle workers or equipment waiting for items to process.
The just-in-time phenomenon is characteristic of lean production system, which
operates with very little "fat" (e.g. excess inventory, extra workers, and wasted
space). JIT pertains to the timing of the flow of parts and material through the
systems, and the timing of services. Companies that employ the JIT/lean
production approach have lower processing costs, fewer defectives, and greater
flexibility; and are able to bring new or improved products to the market more
quickly.
The JIT approach was developed at the Toyota Motor Company of Japan by
Taiichi Ohno (who eventually became vice president of manufacturing) and
several of his colleagues. JIT regards scrap and rework as waste, and inventory
as an evil because it takes up space and ties up resources. JIT represents a
philosophy that encompasses every aspect of the process, from design to after
the sale of a product. The philosophy is to pursue a system that functions well
with minimal levels of inventories, minimal space, and minimal transactions. It
must be a system that is not prone to disruptions and is flexible in terms of the
product variety and range of volume that it can handle. The ultimate goal is to

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achieve a balanced system that permits a smooth, rapid flow of materials

through the systems.
Companies that use JIT have achieved a level of quality that enables them to
function with small batch sizes and tight schedules. JIT systems have high
reliability: major sources of inefficiency and disruption have been eliminated,
and workers have been trained not only to function in the system but also to
consciously improve it.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
(i) Explain what is meant by the term just-in time (JIT) production system.
(ii) List each of the goals of JIT and explain its importance.
(iii) List and briefly describe the building blocks of JIT.
(iv) List the benefits of the JIT systems.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 JIT Goals
The ultimate goal of JIT is a balanced system; that is, one that achieves a
smooth, rapid flow of materials through the system. The idea is to make the
process time as short as possible by using resources in the best possible way.
The degree to which the overall goal is achieved depends on how well certain
supporting goals are achieved. These goals are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Eliminate disruptions.
Make the system flexible.
Reduce setup times and lead times
Minimise inventory.
Eliminate waste.

Disruptions are caused by a variety of factors, such as poor quality, equipment

breakdowns, changes to the schedule and late deliveries. These should be
eliminated as much as possible. Inefficiency and disruption have been
eliminated, and workers have been trained not only to function in the system
but also to consciously improve it.
A flexible system is one that is robust enough to handle a mix of products,
often on a daily basis, and to handle changes in the level of output while still
maintaining balance and throughput speed.
Setup times and delivery lead times prolong a process without adding any value
to the product. Moreover, long setup times and long lead times negatively

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impact the flexibility of the system. Hence, reduction of setup and lead times is
important, and is one objective of continuous improvement.
Inventory is an idle resource, taking up space and adding cost to the system. It
should be minimized or even eliminated wherever possible.
Waste represents unproductive resources: eliminating waste can free up
resources and enhance production. In the JIT philosophy, waste includes.

Overproduction
Waiting time
Unnecessary transporting
Inventory storage
Scrap
Inefficient work methods
Product defects

The existence of these wastes is an indication that improvement is possible.

Alternatively, the list of wastes identifies potential targets for continuous
improvement efforts.

3.2 Building Blocks

The design and operation of a JIT system provide the foundation for
accomplishing the aforementioned goals. The foundation is made up of four
building blocks:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Product design
Process design
Personnel/organizational elements
Manufacturing planning and control.

Let us discuss these blocks in turn.

3.2.1 Product Design

Three elements of product design are key to JIT systems:
1. Standard parts
2. Modular design
3. Quality
The first two elements relate to speed and simplicity.
The use of standard parts means that workers have fewer parts to deal with, and
training times and costs are reduced. Purchasing, handling, and checking

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quality are more routine and lend themselves to continual improvement.

Another importance benefit is the ability to use standard processing.
Modular design is an extension of standard parts. Modules are clusters of parts
treated as a single unit. This greatly reduces the number of parts to deal with,
simplifying assemble, purchasing, handling, training, and so on.
Standardization has the added benefit of reducing the number of different parts
contained in the bill of materials for various products, thereby simplifying the
bill of materials.
Disadvantage of standardization are less product variety and resistance to
change in a standard design. These disadvantages are partly offset where
different products have some common parts or modules. Using a tactic that is
sometimes referred to as delayed differentiation; a decision concerning which
products will be produced can be delayed while the standard portions are
produced. When it becomes apparent which products are needed, the system
can quickly respond by producing the remaining unique portions of those
products.
Quality is the sine qua non (without which not" ) of JIT.
systems because poor quality can create major disruptions.

It is crucial to JIT

JIT system uses a three-part approach to quality: One part is to design quality
into the product and the production process. High quality levels can occur
because JIT systems produce standardized products that lead to standardized
job methods, workers who are very familiar with their jobs, and the use of
standardized equipment. Moreover, the cost of product design quality (i.e.,
building quality in at the design stage) can be spread over many units, yielding
a low cost per unit. It is also important to choose appropriate quality levels in
terms of the final customer and of manufacturing capability: Thus, product
design and process design must go hand in hand.

3.2.2 Process Design

Seven aspects of product are particularly important for JIT systems:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

Small lot sizes

Setup time reduction
Manufacturing cells
Limited work in process
Quality improvement
Production flexibility
Little inventory storage.

Small lot sizes in both the production process and deliveries from suppliers
yield a number of benefits that enable JIT systems to operate effectively: First,
with small lots moving through the systems,
in-process inventory is

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considerably less that it is with large lots. This reduces carrying costs, space
requirements, and clutter in the workplace. Second, inspection and rework
costs are less when problems with quality occur, because there are fewer items
in a lot to inspect and rework.
Small lots also permit greater flexibility in scheduling. This flexibility enables
JIT systems to respond more quickly to changing customer demands for output:
JIT systems can produce just what is needed, when it is needed.
Small lots and changing product mixes require frequent setups. Unless these
are quick and relatively inexpensive, the time and cost to accomplish them is
prohibitive. Often, workers are trained to do their own setups. Moreover,
programs to reduce setup time and cost are used to achieve the desired results;
a deliberate effort is required, and workers are usually a valuable part of the
process.
One characteristic of many JIT systems is multiple manufacturing cells. The
cells contain the machine and tools needed to process families of parts having
similar processing requirements. In essence the cells are highly specialized and
efficient production centres. Among the important benefits of manufacturing
cells are reduced changeover times, high utilization of equipment, and ease of
cross-training operators. The combination of high cell efficiency and small lot
sizes results in very little work-in-process inventory.
JIT systems sometimes minimize defects through the use of autonomation (note
the extra syllable no in the middle of the word). This refers to the automatic
detection of defects during production. It can be used with machines or manual
operations. It consists of two mechanisms: one for detecting defects when they
occur and another for stopping production to correct the cause of the defects.
Thus, the halting of production force immediate attention to the problem, after
which an investigation of the problem is conducted, and corrective action is
taken to resolve the problem.
Because JIT systems have very little in-process inventory, equipment
breakdowns can be extremely disruptive. To minimize breakdowns, companies
use preventive maintenance programs, which emphasize maintaining
equipment in good operating condition and replacing parts that have a tendency
to fail before they fail. Workers are often responsible for maintaining their own
equipment.
Guidelines for increasing production flexibility are as follows:
1. Reduce downtime due to changeovers by redoing changeovers time
2. Use preventive maintenance on key equipment to reduce breakdowns
and downtime.

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3. Cross-train workers so they can help when bottlenecks occur or other

workers are absent. Train workers to handle equipment adjustments and
minor repairs.
4. Use many small units of capacity: many small cells make it easier than a
few units of large capacity to shift capacity temporally and to add or
subtract capacity.
5. Use off-line buffers. Store infrequently used safety stock away from the
production area to decrease congestion and to avoid continually turning
it over.
6. Reserve capacity for important customers.
One way to minimize inventory storage in a JIT system is to have deliveries
from suppliers go directly to the production floor, which completely eliminates
the need to store incoming parts and materials. At the other end of the process,
completed units are shipped out as soon as they are ready, which minimize
storage of finished goods. Coupled with low work-in-process inventory; these
features result in systems that operate with very little inventory.
Among the advantages of lower inventory are less carrying cost, less space
needed, less tendency to rely on buffers, less rework if defects occur, and less
need to "work off' current inventory before implementing design
improvements. But carrying fewer inventories also has some risks. The primary
one is that if problems arise, there is no safety net. Another is that opportunities
may be lost if the system is unable to respond quickly enough.

3.2.3 Personnel Organizational Elements

There are five elements of personnel and organizational that are particularly
important for JIT systems:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Workers as assets.
Cross-trained workers
Continuous improvement
Cost accounting
Leadership project management.

Worker as Assets:- A fundamental tenet of the JIT philosophy is that workers

are assets. Well-trained and motivated workers are the heart of a JIT system.
They are given more authority to make decisions than their counterparts in
more tradition systems, but they are also expected to do more.
Cross-Trained Worker:- Worker are cross-trained to perform several parts of
a process and operate a variety of machines. This adds to system flexibility
because workers are able to help one another when bottlenecks occur or when a
co-worker is absent.

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Continuous Improvement:- Workers in a JIT system have greater responsibly

for quality than worker in traditional systems, and expected to be involved in
problem solving and continuous improvement. JIT workers typically receive
extensive training in statistical process control, quality improvement, and
problem solving.
Problem solving is a cornerstone of any JIT interest are problems that interrupt,
or have the potential to interrupt, the smooth flow of work through the system.
A central theme of a true just-in-time approach is to work toward continual
improvement of the system-reducing inventories, reducing setup cost and time,
improving quality; increasing the output rate, and generally cutting waste and
inefficiency. Toward that end, problem solving becomes a way of life a
"culture" that must be assimilated into the thinking of management and workers
alike. It becomes a never ending quest for improving operations as all members
of the organization strive to improve the system.
Cost Accounting:- Another feature of some JIT systems is the method of
allocating overhead. Traditional accounting methods sometimes distort
overhead allocation because they allocate it on the basis of direct labour hours.
However, that approach does not always accurately reflect the consumption of
overhead by different jobs.
One alternative method of allocating overhead is activity-based costing. This
method is designed to more closely reflect the actual amount of overhead
consumed by particular job or activity. Activity-based costing first identifies
traceable costs and then assigns those costs to various types of activities such
as machine setups, inspection, machine hours, direct labour hours, and
movement of material. Specific jobs are then assigned overhead based on the
percentage of activities they consume.
Leadership/Project Management:- Another feature of JIT systems relates to
leadership. Managers are expected to be leaders and facilitators, not order
givers. Two-way communication between workers and managers is
encouraged.
Project managers are often given full authority over all phases of a project.
They remain with the project from beginning to end; in the more traditional
forms of project management, the project manger often has to rely on the
cooperation of other managers to accomplish project goals.

3.2.4 Manufacturing Planning and Control

Five elements of manufacturing planning and control are particularly important
for JIT systems:

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1. Level loading
2. Pull system
3. Visual system
4. Close vendor relationships
5. Reduced transaction processing.
Level Loading:- JIT systems place a strong emphasis on achieving stable level
daily mix schedules. Toward that end, the master production schedule is
developed with level capacity loading. That may entail a rate-based production
schedule instead of the more familiar quality -based schedule. Moreover, once
they are established, production schedules are of short time horizon, which
provide certainty to the system. This is needed in day-to-day schedules to
achieve level capacity requirements.
Pull Systems:- The terms push and pull are used to describe two different
systems for moving work through a production process. In push systems, when
work is finished at a workstation, the output is pushed to the next station: or, in
the case of the final operation, it is pushed on to final inventory Conversely, in
a pull system, control of moving the work rests with the following operation:
each workstation pull the output from the preceding station as it is needed;
output of the final operation is pulled by customer demand or the master
schedule. Thus, in a pull system, work is moved response to demand from the
stage in the process, whereas in push system, work is pushed in as it is
completed, without regard to the next stations readiness for the work.
Consequently, work may pile up at workstations that fall behind schedule
because of equipment failure or the detection of a problem with quality.
JIT systems use the pull approach to control the flow of work, with each
workstation gearing its output to the demand presented by the next
workstations. Traditional production systems use the push approach for moving
work through the system. JIT system communication moves backward through
the system from station to station. Work moves "just in time" for the next
operation; the flow of work is thereby coordinated, and the accumulation of
excessive inventories between operations is avoided. Of course, some
inventory is usually present because operations are not instantaneous.
Visual Systems:- Another way to describe the pull system is that work flow is
dictated by "next-step demand". Such demand can be communicated in a
variety of ways, including a shout or a ware, but by far the most commonly
used device is the kanban card. Kanban is a Japanese word meaning "signal" or
"visible record". When a worker needs materials or work from the preceding
station, he or she used a kanban card. In effect, the kanban card is the
authorization to move or work on parts. In Kanban system, no part or lot can be
moved or worked on without one of these cards. The ideal number of Kanban
cards can be computed using this formula:
N= DT(l+X) C

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Where
N=
D=
T=

Total number of containers

Planned usage rate of using work centre
Average waiting time for replenishment of parts plus average production
time for a container of parts
X = Policy variable set by management that reflects possible inefficiency in
the system (the closer to 0. the more efficient the
system
C = Capacity of a standard container (should be no more than 10 percent of
daily usage of the part).

Note that D and T must use the same time units (e.g., minutes, days).
Let's illustrates the use of the formula with the following example:
Suppose the usage at a work centre is 300 parts per day, and a standard
container holds 25 parts. It takes an average of 12 day for a container to
complete a circuit from the time a kanban card is received until the container is
returned empty. Compute the number of kanban cards need if X = 20.
N= ?
D = 300 parts per day
T = 12day
C = 25 parts per container
X = 20
N = 300(12)(1 +20)(25) = 1,890,000 containers
Close Vendor Relationships: JIT systems typically have close relationship
with vendors, who are expected to provide frequent small delivers of highquality goods. Traditionally, buyers have assumed the role of monitoring the
quality of purchased goods, inspecting shipments for quality and quantity, and
returning poor-quality goods to the vendor for rework. JIT systems have little
slack, so poor-quality goods cause a disruption in the smooth flow of work.
Moreover, the inspection of incoming goods is viewed as inefficient because it
does not add value to the product. For these reasons, the burden of ensuring
quality shifts to the vendor. Buyers work with vendors to help them achieve the
desired quality levels and to impress upon them the importance of consistent,
high-quality goods. The ultimate goal of the buyers is to be able to certify a
vendor as product A producer of high-quality goods. The implication of
certification is that a vendor can be relied on to deliver high quality goods
without the need for buyer inspection.
Suppliers must also be willing and able to ship in small lots on regular basis.
Under JIT purchasing, good vendor relationships are very important. Buyers
take measures to reduce their list to suppliers, concentrating on maintaining

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close working relationships with a few good ones. Because of the need for
frequent, small delivers many buyers attempt to find local vendors to shorten
the lead time for deliveries and to reduce lead time variability. An added
advantage of having vendors nearby is quick response when problems arise.
Suppliers: A key feature of many lean production systems is the relatively
small number of suppliers used. Lean production companies may employ a
tiered approach for suppliers. They use relatively few first-tier suppliers who
work directly with the company or who supply major subassemblies. The firsttier suppliers are responsible for dealing with second-tier suppliers who provide
components for the subassemblies, thereby relieving the final buyer from
dealing with large numbers of suppliers.
A good example of this situation is found in the automotive industry. Suppose a
certain model has an electric seat. The seat and motor together might entail 250
separate parts. A traditional producer might use more than 50 suppliers for the
electric seat, but a lean producer might use a single (first-tier) supplier who has
the responsibility for the entire seat unit. The company would provide
specifications for the overall unit, but leave to the supplier the details of the
motor, springs and so on. The first-tier supplier, in turn, might subcontract the
motor to a second-tier supplier, the track to another second-tier supplier, and
cushions and fabric to still another. The second-tier suppliers might subcontract
some of their work to third-tier suppliers, and so on. In this "team of suppliers"
approach, all suppliers benefits from a successful product, and each supplier
bears full responsibility for the quality of its portion of the product.
Reduced Transaction Processing:- The transactions can be classified as
logical, balancing, quality, or change transactions.
Logical Transactions:- Include ordering, execution, and confirmation of
materials transported from one location to another. Related costs cover
shipping and receiving personnel, expediting orders, data entry, and data
processing.
Balancing transactions:- Include forecasting, production control,
procurement, scheduling, and order processing. Associated costs relate to the
personnel involve in these and supporting activities.
Quality transactions:- Include determining and communicating specifications,
monitoring, recording, and follow-up activities. Costs relates to appraisal,
prevention, internal failures (e.g., scrap, rework, retesting, delay, administration
activities) and external failure (e.g., warranty cost, product liability, returns,
potential loss of future business).
Change transactions:- Primarily involve engineering changes and the ensuing
changes generated in specifications, bills of material, scheduling, processing

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instructions and so on. Engineering changes are among the most costly of all
transactions.
JIT systems cut transaction costs by reducing the number and frequency of
transactions. For example, supplier deliver goods directly to the production
floor, by passing the store-room entirely, thereby avoiding the transactions
related to receiving the shipment into inventory storage and later moving the
materials to the production floor. In addition, vendors are certified for quality,
eliminating the need to inspect incoming shipment for quality. The unending
quest for quality improvement that pervades JIT systems eliminates many of
the above mentioned quality transactions and their related costs. The use of bar
coding (not exclusive to JIT systems) can reduce data entry transactions and
increase data accuracy.

3.3 Benefits of JIT Systems

JIT systems have a number of important benefits that are attracting the
attention of traditional companies. The main benefits are:
1. Reduced level of in-process inventories, purchased goods, and finished
goods.
2. Reduced space requirements.
3. Increased product quality and reduced scrap and rework.
4. Reduced manufacturing lead times.
5. Greater flexibility I changing the production mix.
6. Smoother production flow with fewer disruptions caused by problems
due to quality, shorter setup times, and multi-skilled workers who can
help each other and substitute for other
7. Increased productivity levels and utilization of equipment
8. Worker participation in problem solving.
9. Pressure to build good relationships with vendors
10. Reduction in the need for certain indirect labour, such as material
handlers.

4.0

CONCLUSION

This unit has described the JIT/lean production approach, including the basic
elements of these systems, and what it takes to make them work effectively. It
has also pointed out the benefits of these systems.

5.0

SUMMARY

Just-in-time (JIT) is a system of lean production used mainly in repetitive

manufacturing, in which goods move through the system and tasks are
completed just in time to maintain the schedule. JIT systems require very little
inventory because successive operations are closely coordinated.

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The ultimate goal of a JIT system is to achieve a balanced, smooth flow of

production. Supporting goals include eliminating disruptions to the system,
making the system flexible, reducing setup and lead times, eliminating waste,
and minimizing inventories. The building blocks of a JIT system are product
design, process design, personnel and organization, and manufacturing
planning and control.
Lean systems require the elimination of sources of potential disruption to the
even flow of work. High quality is stressed because problems with quality can
disrupt the process. Quick, low-cost setups, special layouts, allowing work to
be pulled through the system rather that pushed through, and a spirit of
cooperation are important features of lean systems. So too, are problem solving
aimed at reducing disruptions and making the system more efficient, and an
attitude of working toward continual improvement.
Key benefits of JIT/lean systems are reduced inventory levels, high quality,
flexibility, reduced lead times, increased productivity and equipment
utilization, reduced space requirements.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
One reason for Japans high manufacturing productivity is the cost reductions
it achieved through its Just-in-Time.
1. Define the conceptual framework of JIT as a philosophy to bring out its
fundamental characteristics.
2. Discuss fully the foundations building block of Just-In-Time.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Krajewski, L. J. and L.P Ritzman (1999): Operations Management:
and Analysis, Reading, Massachutes. Addison Wesley

Strategy

Bonini, C.P, W.H. Hansman and H. Bierman, Jr (1997): Quantitative

Analysis for Management Chicago: Irwin.

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UNIT 4 PROJECT MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Behavioural Aspect of Project Management
3.1.1 The Nature of Projects
3.1.2 The Project Manager
3.1.3 The Merits and De-merits of Working on Projects
3.2 Project Life Cycle
3.3 Work Breakdown Schedule
3.4 Planning and Scheduling with Gantt Charts
3.5 PERT and CPM
3.6 The Network Diagram
3.6.1 Network Conventions
3.7 Deterministic Time Estimates
3.7.1 A Computing Algorithm
3.7.1.1 Computing ES and EF times
3.7.1.2 Computing LS and LF Times
3.7.1.3 Computing Slack Times
4.0 Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Managers typically oversee a variety of operations. Some of these involve
routine, repetitive activities, but other involves non routine activities. Under the
non-routine are projects: unique, one-time operations designed to accomplish a
set of objectives in a limited time frame. Examples of projects include
constructing a shopping complex, drainage system, installing a new computer
system, introducing a new product or service to the market place.
Projects may involve considerable cost. Some have a long time horizon, and
some involve a large number of activities that must be carefully planned and
coordinated. Most are expected to be completed within time, cost, and
performance guidelines. To accomplish these, goals must be established and
priorities set. Tasks must be identified and time estimates made. Resource
requirements must also be projected and budget prepared. Once commenced,
progress must be monitored to ensure that project goals and objectives are
achieved.

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2.0

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

OBJECTIVES

After completing this unit, you should be able to:

(i) Discuss the behavioral aspects of projects in terms of project personnel
and the project manager.
(ii) Discuss the importance of a work breakdown structure in project
management
(iii) Give a general description of PERT / CPM techniques
(iv) Construct simple network diagrams.
(v) List the kinds of information that a PERT or CPM analysis can provide.
(vi) Analyse networks with deterministic times.
(vii) Analyze networks with probabilistic times
(viii) Describe activity "crashing" and solve typical problems.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Behavioural aspect of Project Management
Project management differs from management of more traditional activities
which gives rise to a host of rather unique problems. This section will
emphasize the nature of projects and their behavioural implications. Emphasis
will be laid on the role of the project manager.

3.1.1 The Nature of Projects

Projects go through a series of stages, a life cycle, which include planning,
execution, and project phase out. During this life cycle, a variety of skillful
requirements are involved.
In effect, projects unit personnel are with diverse knowledge and skills, most of
whom remain together for less than the full life of the project. Some personnel
go from project to project as their contributions become needed, some on a fulltime or part-time basis, from their regular jobs. Certain kinds of organisation
tend to be involved with project on a regular basis; examples include consulting
firms, architects, writers and publishers.

3.1.2 The Project Manager

The central figure in a project is the project manager. He or she bears the
ultimate responsibility for the success or failure of the project manager. The
role of the project is one of an organizer - a person who is capable of working
through others to accomplish the objectives of the project.
Once the project is underway, the project manager is responsible for effectively
managing each of the following:

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(i) The work, so that all of the necessary activities are accomplished in the
desired sequence.
(ii) The human resource, so that those working on the project have direction
and motivation.
(iii) Communications, so that everybody has the information they need to do
their work.
(iv) Quality, so that performance objectives are realized
(v) Time, so that the project can be completed on a time.
(vi) Costs, so that the project is completed within budget.
The job of project manager can be both difficult and rewarding. The manager
must coordinate and motivate people who sometimes owe their loyal support to
other managers in their functional areas. In addition, the people who work on a
project frequently possess distinct knowledge and skill that the project manager
lacks. Nevertheless, the manager is expected to evaluate and guide their efforts.
The rewards of the job of project manager come from the challenges of the job,
the benefits of being associated with a successful project, and the personal
satisfaction of seeing it through to its conclusion.

3.1.3 The Merits and De-merits of Working on Projects

People are chosen to work on special projects because the knowledge or
abilities they possess are needed. In some instances, however, their supervisor
may be unwilling to allow them to interrupts their regular jobs, even on a part
time basis, because it may require training a new person to do a job that will be
temporary. Moreover, managers don't want to lose the output of good workers.
The workers themselves are not always eager to participate in projects because
it may mean working for two bosses who impose differing demands and may
cause disruption of friendships and daily routines, and the risk of being
replaced on the current job.
In spite of the potential risks of being involved in a project, people are attracted
by the potential rewards. One is the dynamic environment that surrounds a
project, often a marked contrast to the more staid environment in which some
may feel trapped. Then, too, projects may present opportunities to meet new
people and to increase future job opportunities, especially if the project is
successful. In addition, association with a project can be a source of status
among fellow workers.

3.2 Project Life Cycle

The length, size and scope of projects vary widely according to the nature and
purpose of the project. Nevertheless all projects have something in common.
They go through a life cycle, which typically consists of five phases.

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(i) Concept at which point the organisation recognizes the need for a
project or responds to a request for a proposal from a potential client.
(ii) Feasibility analysis, which examines the expected costs, benefits and
risk of undertaking the project.
(iii) Planning, this spells out the details of the work and provides estimates
of the necessary human resources, time and cost.
(iv) Execution, during which the project itself is done. This phase often
accounts for the majority of time and resources consumed by a project.
(v) Termination, during which closure is achieved.
It should be noted that the phases can overlap, so that one phase may not be
fully completed before the next phase begins. This can reduce the time
necessary to move through the life cycle, perhaps generating some competitive
advantage and cost saving.

3.3 Work Breakdown Schedule

Because large projects usually involve a very large number of activities,
planners need some way to determine exactly what will need to be done so that
they can realistically estimate how long it will take to complete the various
elements of the project and how much it will cost. This is often accomplished
by developing a work breakdown structure (WBS), which is a hierarchical
listing of what must be done during the project. This methodology establishes a
logical framework for identifying the
required activities for the project. The
framework is illustrated below. The first step in developing the work
breakdown structure is to identify the major elements of the project. These are
the level 2 boxes in the structure below. The next step is to identify the major
supporting activities for each of the major elements the level 3 boxes. Then,
each major supporting activity is broken down into a list of the activities that
will be needed to accomplish it, the level 4 boxes. Figure 14.1 below.

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Figure 14.1

Level

Project

Level 2

Level

Level

3.4 Planning and Scheduling with Gantt Charts

The Gantt chart is a popular tool for planning and scheduling simple projects. It
enables a manager to initially schedule project activities and then to monitor
progress over time by comparing planned progress to actual progress. A Gantt
chart for a bank's plan to establish a new direct marketing department is given
in the figure below. To prepare the chart, the personnel in charge of the project
first identify the major activities that would be required. Next, time estimates
for each activity is made, and the sequence of activities is determined. Once
completed, the chart would indicate which activities will occur, their planned
duration, and when they will to occur. Then, as the project progresses, the
manager would be able to see which activities were ahead of schedule and
which were delaying project. This enables the manager to direct attention
where it was needed most to hasten the project in order to finish on schedule.

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Figure 14.2
Activity Weeks after start
Start

10

12

14

16

18

20

Locate new facilities

Interview prospective staff
Hire and train staff
Select and order furniture
Remodel and install phones
Furniture received and setup
More in start up
The obvious advantage of a Gantt chart is its simplicity, and this accounts for
its popularity. However, Gantt Charts fails to reveal certain relationships
among activities that can be crucial to effective project management. For
instance, if one of the early activities in a project suffers a delay, it would be
important for the manager to be able to easily determine which later activities
would result in a delay.

3.5 PERT and CPM

PERM (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) and CPM (Critical Path
Method) are two of the most widely used techniques for planning and
coordinating large -scale projects. By using PERT and CPM, managers are to
obtain:
(i) A graphical display of project activities
(ii) An estimate of how long the project will take
(iii) An indication of which activities are the most critical to timely project
completion.
(iv) An indication of how long any activities can be delayed without
lengthening the project.

3.6 The Network Diagram

One of the main features of PERT and related techniques is their use of a
network or precedence diagram to depict major project activities and their
sequential relationships. Recall the bank example that used a Gantt chart
(Figure14.2).
A network diagram for the same problem is shown in Figure14.3 below. The
diagram is composed of a number of arrows and nodes. The arrows represent
the project activities. Note how much clearer the sequential relationship of
activities is with a network chart than with a Gantt chart. For instance it is

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apparent that ordering the furniture and remodeling both require that a location
for the office has been identified. Likewise, interviewing must precede training.
However, interviewing and training can take place independently of activities
associated with locating a facility, remodeling, and so on. Hence, a network
diagram is generally the preferred approach for visual portrayal of project
activities.
Figure 14.3

Locate
1 1
Facilities

Order

Furniture
Furniture setup
Remodel

Interview
Hired and 5 Move
5 6

33
Trained

In

There are two slightly different conventions for constructing these network
diagrams. Under one convention, the arrows designate activities: under the
other convention, the nodes designate activities. These conventions are referred
to as activity - on- arrow (A-O-A) and activity on-node (A-O-N), we will
concentrate on the activity -on-arrow convention. For now, we shall use the
arrows for activities. Activities consume resources and/or time. The nodes in
the A-O-A approach represent the starting and finishing of activities, which are
called events. Events are points in time. Unlike activities, they consume neither
resources nor time.
Activities can be referred to in either of two ways. One is by endpoints and the
other is by a letter assigned to an arrow. Both methods are illustrated in this
unit.
The network diagram describes sequential relationship among major activities
on a project. For example activity 2-4 cannot be started, according to the
network until activity 1-2 has been completed (Figure 14.3 behind). A path is a
sequence of activities that leads from the starting node to the finishing node.
Thus, the sequence 1-2-4-5-6 is a path. There are two other paths in this
network: 1-2-5-6 and 1-3-5-6. The path with the longest time is of particular
interest because it governs project completion time. Project life cycle equals the
expected time of the longest path; the longest path is referred to as the critical
path, and its activities are referred to as critical activities. The allowable

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slippage for any path is called slack, and it reflects the difference between the
length of a given path and the length of the critical path.

3.6.1 Network Conventions

Developing and interpreting network diagrams requires some familiarity with
networking conventions. Although many could be mentioned, the discussion
will only itemize some of the most basic and most common features of network
diagrams. This will provide us sufficient background for understanding the
basic concepts associated with precedence diagrams and allow us to solve
typical problems.
One of the main features of a precedence diagram is that it reveals which
activities must be performed in sequence and which can be performed
independently of each other. For example, in the following diagram, activity
"a" must be completed before activity "b" can begin and activity "b" must be
completed before activity "c" can begin (Figure 14.4 below).
Figure 14.4
a

If the diagram had looked like the one below (Figure 14.5), both activities "a"
and "b" would have to be completed before activity "c" could begin, but "a"
and "b" could be performed simultaneously, performance of "a" is independent
of performance of "b".
Figure 14.5

a
c
b

If activity a must precede "b" and "c", the appropriate network would look like
this:

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Figure 14.6

When multiple activities enter a node, this implies that all those activities must
be completed before any activity that is to begin at that node can start. Hence,
in this next diagram, activities "a" and "b" must both be finished before either
activity "c" or activity "d" can start.
Figure 14.7
a

c
d

When two activities both have the same beginning and ending nodes, a dummy
note and activity is used to preserve the separate identity of each activity. In the
diagram below, activities "a" and "b" must be completed before activity "c" can
be started.
Figure 14.8

C
b
Dummy
act ivit y

3.7 Deterministic Time Estimates

The main determinant of the way PERT and CPM networks are analyzed and
interpreted is whether activity time estimates are probabilistic or deterministic.
If time estimates can be made with a high degree of confidence the actual times
will not differ significantly, we say the estimates are deterministic. If estimated
times are subject to variation, we say the estimates are probabilistic.
Probabilistic time estimates must include an indication of the extent of
probable variation.

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This section describes analysis of networks with deterministic time estimates.

A later section deals with probabilistic times.
We would most understand the nature of network analysis with the following
simple example.
Example 1
Given the following information

8 weeks

4 weeks
2

1
11 weeks
3 weeks

4 weeks

1 weeks
9 w eeks

56

Determine
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The length of each path

The critical path
The expected length of the project
Amount of slack time for each path.

Solution
(a) As shown in the following table, the path lengths are 18 weeks, 20
weeks and 14 weeks
(b) The longest path (20 weeks) is 1-2-5-6, so it is the critical path.
(c) The expected length of the project is equal to the length of the critical
path (i.e. 20 weeks)
(d) We find the slack for each path by subtracting its length from the length
of the critical path, as is shown in the last column of the table.

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Length (weeks) Slack

1-2-4-5-6 8+6+3+1 = 18 20-18 = 2

1-2-5-6 8+11+1 =20* 20-20 = 0
1-3-5-6 4+9+1 =14

20 -14 = 6

*Critical path length

3.7.1 A computing algorithm

Many real-life project networks are much larger than the simple network
illustrated in the preceding example; they often contain hundreds or thousands
of activities. Because the necessary computations can become exceedingly
complex and time -consuming, large networks are generally analyzed by
computer programmes instead of being done manually. The intuitive approach
just demonstrated does not lend itself to computerization because, in many
instances, path sequences are not readily apparent. Instead, an algorithm is used
to develop four pieces of information about the network activities:
ES, the earliest time activity can start, assuming all preceding activities start as
early as possible. EF, the earliest time the activity can finish.
LS, the latest time the activity can start and not delay the project LF, the latest
time the activity can finish and not delay the project Once these values have
been determined they can be used to find:
(i) Expected project duration
(ii) Slack time
(iii) Those activities on the path.
With reference to example 1, compute the earliest starting time and earliest
finishing time for each activity in the diagram.
The earliest starting time, ES is the time at the start off of an activity. Thus,
activities 12 and 1-3 are assigned ES values of 0.
The earliest finishing time is the time taken for an activity added to ES and so,
EF1-2 = 0+8 = 8
EF1-3 = 0+4 = 4
EF3-5 = 4+9 = 13

By placing brackets at the two ends of each starting activity, wet get:

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ES EF

If we reference our example 1 as shown below

12
8

0
10

13 5
3

We observe that ES of the starting point is 0 and EF is the time from the origin
of the project, but note that ES for activity 2-4 would be the EF of activity 1-2
(8 weeks would have been exhausted in the history of the project before we
want to commence activity 2- 4) and EF of activity
2-4 would be 8+4 to
give 12 weeks. This 12 weeks is equivalent to time taken from path 1- 2-4.

3.7.1.1 Computing ES and EF times

Computation of earliest starting and finishing times is aided by two simple
rules:
(i) The earliest finish time for any activity is equal to its earliest start
time plus it expected duration t. EF = ES + t.
(ii) ES for activities at nodes with one entering arrow is equal to EF of the
entering arrow. ES for activities leaving nodes with multiple entering
arrows is equal to the largest EF of the entering arrow.

3.7.1.2 Computing LS and LF Times

Computation of the latest starting and finishing times is aided by the use of two
rules:
(i) The latest starting time for each activity is equal to the latest finishing
time minus its expected duration LS = LF- t

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(ii) For nodes with one leaving arrow, LF for arrows entering that node
equals the LS of the leaving arrow. For nodes with multiple leaving
arrows, LF for arrows entering that node equals the smallest LS of
leaving arrows.
Finding ES and EF times involve a "forward pass" through the network:
finding LS and LF times involves a "backward pass" through the network.
Hence, we must begin with the EF of the last activity and use that time as the
LF for the last activity and use that time as the LF for the last activity. Then we
obtain the LS for the last activity by subtracting its expected duration
from its LF.

3.7.1.3 Computing Slack Times

The slack time can be computed in either of two ways:
Slack = LS - ES
or
LF-EF
The critical path using this computing algorithm is denoted by activities with
zero slack time.
Probabilistic time estimates
The preceding discussion assumed that activity times were known and not
subject to variation. While the assumption is appropriate in some
situations there are many others where it is not. Consequently, those
situations require a probabilistic approach.
The probabilistic approach involves three time estimates for each activity
instead of one:
1. Optimistic time: - The length of time required under optimum
conditions; represented by the letter o.
2. Pessimistic time: T he length of time required under the worst
conditions: represented by the letter p.
3. Most likely time: The most probable amount of time required:
represented by the letter m.
4. These time estimates can be made by managers or others with
knowledge about the project.
The beta distribution is generally used to describe the inherent variability in
time estimates. Although there is no real theoretical justification for using the
beta distribution, it has certain features that make it attractive in practice: the

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distribution can be symmetrical or skewed to either the right or the left

according to the nature of a particular activity: the mean and the variance of the
distribution can be readily obtained from the three times estimates listed above:
and the distribution is unimodal with a high concentration of probability
surrounding the most likely time estimate.
Of special interest in network analysis are the average or expected time for
each activity te and the variance of each activity time d2 The expected time is

computed as a weighted average of the three time estimates.

te = 0+4M+P

6
The standard deviation of each activity time is estimated as one-sixth of the
difference between the pessimistic and optimistic time estimates. The variance
is found by squaring the standard deviation.
= {P 0}2
d2
{6}

The size of the variance reflects the level of uncertainty associated with an
activity time: the larger the variance, the greater the uncertainty.
It is al so desirable to compute the standard deviation of the expected time for
each path. This can be accomplished by summing the variances of the
activities on a path and then taking the square root of that number: that
is,
Path

(variances of activities on path

For simplicity the following example illustrates clearer.

The network diagram for a project is shown in the accompanying figure. With
three time estimates for each activity. Activity times are in months.

Do the following:
(a) Compute the expected time for each activity and the expected
duration for each path.
(b) Identify the critical path.
(c) Compute the variance of each activity and the variance of each path.
2-4-6

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bc

1-3-4
a
3-4-5
de

2-3-5

3-5-7

5-7-9
f

4-6-8

g
2-5-6

i
3-4-6

Key: The left hand figure of each three digit is the optimistic time.
The middle figure, most likely time
The right hand figure, pessimistic time
Solution
Path total

Path Activity Times Te = 0+4m+p

OMP
a-b-c A 1 3 4 2.83

B 2 4 6 4.00 10.00
C 2 3 5 3.17
d- e-f D 3 4 5 4.00
E 3 5 7 5.00 16.00
F 5 7 9 7.00
g-h-1 9 2 3 6 3.33
H 4 6 8 6.00 13.50
1 3 4 6 4.17
(a) The path that has the longest expected duration is the critical path. Since
path d-e-f has the largest path, it is the critical path.
(b) Path

2path

Activity

Times

2 act = (P-O) 2

OMP

a-b-c
d-e-f

1a 3 4
2b 4 6
2c 3 5

(4-1)2/36
(6-2) 2/36
(5-2) 2/36

D 3 4 5 (5-3) 2/36 =36

=-3-4
36 =0.944 0.97

2path

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e 3 5 7 (7-3) 2/36 36= 1.00 1.00

f 5 7 9 (9-5) 2/36
g 2 3 6 (6-2) 2/36 =41
h 4 6 8 (8-4) 2/36 36 = 1.139 1.07
I 3 4 6 (6-3) 2/36

If we use the information from this preceding example, we may consider the
following question.
(a) What is the probability that the project can be completed within 17
month of its start?
(b) What is the probability that the project will be completed within 15
months of its start?
(c) What is the probability that the project will not be completed within 15
months of its start?
Solution
(a) To answer this question, you must first compute the value of Z using
the relationship
Z = Specified time Expected time
Path standard deviation
In this instance, we have
Z = 17-16 = 1.00 for project d-e-f
1.00
From the normal distribution table, the area under the curve to the left of Z is
0.8413. Hence, the probability of the project finishing within 17 months of its
start is 0.8413.
Projects a-b-c and g-h-I are both sure to be completed within 17 months of its
start.
Hence, their probabilities would be 1 each.
(b) If on the other hand we consider the probability of the project being
completed within 15 months, we then have to compute Z values for each
project.

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Path Z
= 15 -Expected path duration
=
Path standard deviation
in 15 months
a-b-c

15 -10.00
0.97

d-e-f

15-16.00

g-h-i

probability of completion

= +5.15
1.00

= -1.00
1.00

0.1587

15-13.50 = +l.40
1.07
0.9192

1.00
Months
1.00
0.1587

Months

16.0
0.9192
Months
13.5

Although the figure is useful in expressing the concept of overlapping paths,

you need a more rigorous approach to determine which paths to consider
and what the probability of completion is for each path. This requires
computing Z values; any Z value that is greater than + 2.50 is treated as
having a completion probability of 100 percent.
Time -cost trade -offs: Crashing
Estimates of activity times for projects usually are made for some given level
of resources. In many situations, it is possible to reduce the length of a project

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by injecting additional resources. The necessity to shorten projects may reflect

efforts to avoid late penalties, to take advantage of monetary incentives for
timely or early completion of a project. In new product development,
shortening may lead to a strategic benefit: beating the competition to the
market. Managers often have certain options at their disposal that will allow
them to shorten, or crash, certain activities. Among the most obvious options
are the use of additional funds to support additional personnel or more efficient
equipment and the relaxing of some work specifications.
In order to make a rational decision on which activities, if any to crash and on
the extent of crashing desirable, a manager needs certain information.
1. Regular and time crash estimates for each activity.
2. A list of activities that are on the critical path
3. Regular cost and crash cost estimates for each activity.
Activities on the critical path are highly subjected to crashing, since shortening
non critical activities would not have an impact on total project duration. From
an economic standpoint, activities should be crashed according to crashing
costs: crash those with lowest cost first.
Moreover, crashing should continue as long as the cost to crash is less than the
benefits received from crashing.

4.0

CONCLUSION

We have been able to see the need for a manager to be versatile and have
creative and imaginative thought to the smooth running of business. The need
to be evaluative and analytical has been greatly emphasized. Working
round clock has been able to bring his dread a reality.

5.0

SUMMARY

Projects are made up of special activities established to realize a given set of

objectives in a short while. The non-routine nature of project activities
places a set of demands on the project manager that are different in many
respects from those the manager of more routine operations activities
require.
PERT and CPM are two commonly used techniques for developing and
monitoring projects. Although each technique was developed independently
and for expressly different purposes, time and practice have erased most of the
original differences, so that now there is little distinction between the two.
Either provides the manager with a rational approach to project planning and a
graphical display of project activities. Both show the manager the sequence of
events which must be completed on time to achieve timely project completion.

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Two slightly different conventions can be used for constructing network

diagram. One designates the arrows as activities: the other designates the nodes
as activities. This unit has emphasized only the
activity-on-arrow
model.
In some situations, it may be possible to shorten, or crash, the length of a
project by shortening one or more of the project activities. Typically, gains are
achieved by the use of resources, although in some cases, it may be possible to
transfer resources among project activities. Generally, projects are shortened to
the point where the cost of additional reduction would exceed the benefit of
additional reduction, or to a specified time.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENTS ON PROJECT

MANAGEMENT
1. Given the following information

5
2

3
9
3

5
4

(a) Determine the number of paths by writing them out

(b) Determine the critical path
(c) Expected length of the project (all unit in months)
(d) Amount of slack time for each path. Tabulate your answers.
2. Identify the term being described for each of the following:
(a) A sequence of activities in a project.
(b) The longest time sequence of activities in a project
(c) The difference in time length of any path and the critical path.
(d) Used to denote the beginning or end of an activity.
(e) Shortening an activity by allocating additional resources.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Peterson, R.S. (1984): "The critical issues for manufacturing
Operations Management Review 2, No. 4 pp.15-20.

management"

Hall, R (1987): Attaining Manufacturing Excellence. Burr Ridge, III:

Richard D. Irwin. Sutermesster, R.A (1969) People and
Productivity, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Aft, L.S. 1983
(Productivity Measurement and Improvement, Reston, V.A:
Reston Publishing.

MBA 801

UNIT 5

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

PRODUCTIVITY

CONTENTS
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Productivity and Human Behaviour
3.2 Labour Productivity
3.1.2 The Project Manager
3.3 How Productivity can be improved
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References and further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit discusses issues concerned with productivity. Productivity itself
relates to how effective an organisation is in the use of its resource. Here you
will learn how to differentiate between efficiency and productivity. Other
things to learn in this unit include the impact of human behaviour on
productivity, and how productivity can be measured as well as improved.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to;

i. Define the term productivity
ii. Explain why it is important to organizations
iii. Determine partial, multi-factor and total productivities
iv. Explain how productivity can be improved.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Productivity and Human Behaviour
One of the primary responsibilities of an operations manager is to achieve
productive use of an organisations resource. The term "productivity" is used to
describe this. Productivity is actually an index that measures output (i.e. goods
and services) relative to the input (e.g. labour, materials, energy, cost of
equipment, and other appropriate resources) used to produce them. It is usually
expressed as the ratio of output to input
Productivity = Output
Input

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The ratio can be computed for a single operation, a department, an

organisation, or even the whole country productivity measures can be based on
single input (i.e. partial productivity) on more than one in (i.e. multi-factor
productivity), or on all inputs (i e total productivity) some of these measures
are given in Table 1.
The choice of particular measure depends primarily on the purpose of the
measurement. For example, if the purpose is to track improvements in labour
productivity, then labour becomes the obvious input measurement.
Table 1: Examples of different types of measures of productivity.
TYPE

FORMULAR

Partial Output Output Output Output

Measures Labour Machine Capital Energy
Multifactor Output Output
Measures Labour + Machine L abour + Capital + Energy
Total Goods or Services Produced
Measures All inputs used to produce them

Operations managers are more interested in partial measures of productivity

Examples of such measure include the following;
(a) Labour Productivity
Units of output per labour hour
Units of output per shift
Value-added per labour hour
Naira value of output per labour hour
(b) Machine productivity
Units of output per machine hour
Naira value of output per machine hour
(c) Capital Productivity
Units of output per Naira input
Naira value of output per Naira input

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

(d) Energy Productivity

Units of output per kilowatt- hour
Naira value of output per kilowatt -hour
Productivity measures are of prime importance at different levels. For instance,
in the case of an individual department or organization, such measures can be
used to track performance over time this provides opportunities for operations
managers to judge performance, and to decide where improvements are needed.
Productivity can also be used to determine the performance of an entire
industry or even the national productivity of country as a whole. In a nutshell,
productivity measurements serve as scorecards of the effective use of
resources.
Operations manager plays a key role in determining productivity. Their
challenge is to increase the value of output, relative to the cost of input. For
example, if they can generate more output of better quality by using the same
amount of input productivity will definitely increase. Again if they can
maintain the same level of output while reducing the use resources productivity
will also increase.
At the national level, productivity is usually measured as the naira value of
output per unit of labour. This measure depends on the quality of the products
and services generated in a nation, as well as the efficiency with which they are
produced.
Productivity is actually the prime determinant of a nation's standard of living. If
the output per work hour goes up, the nation benefits from higher income
levels, since the productivity of human resources determines employee wages.
On the other hand, lagging or declining productivity lowers the standard of
living. For instance, wage or price increases not accompanied by productivity
increases usually lead to inflationary pressures rather real increases in the
standard of living.
Examples on the Calculation of Productivity
Calculate the productivity for the following operations:
(a) Three employees processed 600 insurance policies last week. They
worked 8 hours per day, 5 days per week.
(b) A team of workers made 400 units of a product, which is valued by its
standard cost of 10 each (before markups for other expenses and profit).
The accounting department reported that for this job, the actual costs
were N400 for labour, N1,000 for materials, and N 300 for overhead.

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Solutions
(a) Labour productivity = Policies processed
Employee hours
=
600
(3 employees) (40 hours/Employee)
= 5 policies/hour
(b) Multi-factor productivity
= Quantity of standard cost
Labour Cost + material cost + overhead cost
(400 units)( N10/unit)

N4,000
=
N400+ N1,000+ N300 N1,700

N2.35

3.2 Labour Productivity

Many companies today are pushing hard to improve their labour productivity.
For man of these companies, direct labour cost remains a significant cost. Some
manufacturing operations are not yet automated, and never will be because
either it is not cost effective or insufficient capital is available. In addition,
many services remain direct-labour-intensive. For these reasons, the cost of
labour and the need to improve the productivity of labour continues to receive
management attention. We are therefore going to focus on labour productivity
in this section.
The major factors that affect labour productivity are contained in Figure 15.1.
The figure clearly shows that the causes of labour productivity are many.
Unfortunately, there are currently no sets of formulars that precisely predict
human behaviour, in general and productivity in particular. It is however
gratifying to note that we can have enough understanding of employee
behaviour, so as to remove some of the uncertainty about why employees are
productive.
Another look at Figure 15.1 should reveal to you that three major factors affect
labour productivity. These are the physical work environment; employee job
performance; and product quality. In this realisation, various staff groups are
making efforts such as industrial, process product and systems engineering to
develop better automation, machines, tools, and work methods to enhance
labour productivity. The belief is their increasing productivity through
technology development is at least as important as employee job performance

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

in increasing productivity. The productivity of all factors of production can also

be directly increased through reduction in defects, scrap, and re-work.
You need to realise that employee job performance is a complex topic because
no two people are exactly the same. Hence, their abilities, personalities,
interests, ambitions, energy levels, education, training, and experience are
bound to vary considerably. Operations managers often consider these factors
since blanket or common approaches to improving job performances may not
be effective for all and sundry.
Figure 15.1 Variables Affecting Labour Productivity

Productivity

Emplo yment job performance

The physical work
environment

Product
Quality

Employee Ability

Defect
Scrap
Aptitude

Rework
Personality

Motivation

Formal
Organizati
on

Informal
Groups

Job
Design

Leader
-ship

Experience
Training
Interest
Education
Intelligence

Unio n

Individual
Employee
Psychology

Economic
condition

Individual
Employee
Personal
situations

Source: Gaither, M. (1996): Production and Operations Management, 7th Ed.

Belmont, Duxary Press, p. 608.
It is in recognition of these differences that efforts are being made by
personnel, departments to select employees who have the desired abilities to
develop training programmes for the improvement of employee skills.
There is a growing importance of employee training and education all over the
world. Many organisation are aggressively increasing their employee training

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

programmes for competitive advantage, and this has been off in boosted
production and morale.
Motivation has been discovered to be the most complex variable in the
equation of productivity. As Berelson and Steiner (1964) have defined the
term, a motive "is an inner state that energises, activates, or moves (hence
'motivation'), and that directs or channels behaviour toward goals". In other
words, "motivation" is a general term applying to the entire class of drives,
desires, needs, wishes, and similar forces.
One of the widely referred-to theories of motivation is the "hierarchy of needs"
theory developed by Abraham Maslow. He saw human needs in the form of a
hierarchy, starting in an ascending order from the lowest to the highest needs,
and concludes that when one set of needs was satisfied, this kind of need
ceased to be a motivator. In this sense, therefore, only unsatisfied needs are
motivators, or cause people to act.
The basic human needs identified by Maslow in an ascending order of
importance are the following:
1. Physiological needs
These are the basic needs for sustaining human life itself - food, water,
clothing, shelter, sleep, and sexual satisfaction. Maslow took the
position that until these needs are satisfied to the degree necessary to
maintain life, other needs will not motivate people.
2. Security or Safety needs
These are the needs to be free from physical danger, and the fear or loss
of a job property, food, clothing or shelter.
3. Affiliation or Acceptance needs
Since people are social beings, they need to belong and to be accepted
by others. In other words, this means sense of belonging and love.
4. Esteem needs
According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong,
they tend to want to be held in esteem both by themselves, and by
others. This kind of need produces such satisfactions as power, prestige,
status, and self-confidence.
5. Self-Actualisation needs
Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is the desire
to become what one is capable of becoming, i.e. to maximise one's
potential and to accomplish something.

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

In Nigeria today, many employees' lower-level needs (physiological and safety)

have been mostly taken care of by the recent minimum wage law. For all
workers in the country, Thehigher-level needs (social, esteem and selfactualisation) may therefore hold more promise for managers in their attempt to
motivate employees.
To what extent can we use the understanding of employees' needs to design a
work environment that encourages productivity?. Using Maslow's theory, if we
can determine what class of needs is currently important to our employees, then
we can apply the following framework given by Graither (1996).
If productivity is seen by employees as a means of satisfying their needs, high
productivity is likely to result. Once employees have their needs satisfied
through rewards that have been conditional upon productivity, the process is
likely to be repeated.
Labour unions and work groups can influence employees to be either
productive or unproductive. For instance, if employees think that their work
groups may treat them as outcasts because they have been productive, they may
not cooperate with management in this productivity-reward-productivity cycle.
This is the reason why operations managers should recognise the influence that
work groups have on labour productivity. They therefore need to develop
cooperative work groups. The also need to influence group norms through
effective cooperation and communication.

3.3 How Productivity can be Improved

An organisation or a department can take a number of key steps toward
improving productivity. Here are some of them as suggested by Stevenson
(1996):
l. Develop productivity measures for all operations. This is based on the
premise that measurement is the first step in managing and controlling
an operation.
2. Look at the system as a whole in deciding which operations are most
critical. This is based on the fact that it is the overall productivity that is
important. This concept is illustrated by Figure 15.2, which shows
several operations feeding their output into a bottle neck operation. The
capacity of the bottle neck operation is less than the combined capacities
of the operations that provide input, so units queue up waiting to be
processed. Productivity improvements to any non-bottleneck operation
will not affect the productivity of the system. However, improvement in
the bottleneck operation will lead to increases productivity, up to the
point where the output rate of the bottleneck equals the output of the
operations feeding it.

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Figure 15.2: Bottleneck Operation

Operation
Operation
Operation

Bottleneck
Operation

Operation

Source: Stevenson, W.J. (1996): Production/Operations Management, (5th ed),

Burr Ridge, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin. p. 45.
3. Develop methods achieving productivity improvements, such as
soliciting ideas from workers (e.g. organising teams of workers,
engineers, and managers) studying how similar firms have increased
productivity, and re-examining the way work is done.
4. Estimate reasonable goods for improvement
5. Make it clear that management supports and encourages productivity
improvement. It is also important to consider incentive to reward
workers for contributions.
6. Measure improvement and publicise them.
7. Don't confuse productivity with efficiency. This is because efficiency is
a narrower concept that pertains to getting the best out of a given set of
resources. Productivity, on the other hand, is a broader concept that
pertains to effective use of overall resources. For example, an efficiency
perspective on mowing a lawn given a hand mower would focus on the
best way to use the hand mower; a productivity perspective would
include the possibility of using a power mower.

4.0

CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learned what productivity is and why it is important. You
have also learned how organisations can improve productivity. You should
now be able to compute partial, multi-factor and total measures of productivity.

5.0

SUMMARY

One basic fact you have learned in this unit is that it is necessary for
organisations, especially the operations managers to achieve productive use of
resources. This unit has taken you through a general discussion on productivity

MBA 801

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

and human behaviour and labour productivity in particular. The unit that
follows is also in line with attempts to increase the efficiency, as well as
productivity of organisations.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE (SAE)
(1) If labour productivity is low in a company, does it necessarily mean that
the labour resource is under performing?
(2) A company that processes fruits and vegetables is able to produce 400
cartoons of canned peaches in one-half hour with two workers. What is
labour productivity?
(3) A wrapping paper company produced 2,000 rolls of paper one day.
Labour cost was N60, material cost was N50, and overhead was N320.
Determine the multi-factor productivity.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

(1) Student tuition a university in an oil-rich state is N100 per semester
credit hour. The state supplements school revenue by matching student
tuition, naira for naira. Average class size for a typical three-credit
course is 50 students. Labour costs are N4, 000 per class, material cost
are N20 per students per class, and overhead costs are N25, 000 per
class.
(a) What is the multi-factor productivity ratio?
(b) If instructors work an average of 14 hours per week for 16 weeks
for each three credit class of 50 students, what is the labour
productivity ratio?
(2) Natty Dresses makes fashionable garments. During a particular week,
employees works 360 hours to produce a batch of 132 garments, of
which 52 were "seconds" (meaning that they were flawed). Seconds are
sold for N90 each at Natty's Factor outlet store. The remaining 80
garments are sole to retail distributor, at N200 each. What is the labour
productivity ratio?

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Peterson, R.S. (1984): "The critical issues for manufacturing
Operations Management Review 2, No. 4 pp. 15-20.

management"

Hall, R (1987): Attaining Manufacturing Excellence. Burr Ridge, III: Richard

D. Irwin. Sutermesster, R.A (1969) People and Productivity, 2nd ed.
New York: McGraw-Hill. Aft, L.S. 1983 (Productivity
Measurement and Improvement, Reston, V.A: Reston Publishing.

MBA 801

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

MODULE 4
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5

Work Methods
Work Measurement
Learning Curves
Total Quality Management
Maintenance and Reliability

UNIT 1 WORK METHODS

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Introduction to Work Methods Study
3.2 Steps Involved in Conducting Work Methods
3.2.1 Flow-Process Charts
3.2.2 Worker-Machine Chart
3.3 Motion Study
3.3.1 Motion Study Principles
3.3.2 Micromotion Study
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn that methods analysis and motion study techniques
are often used to develop the "efficiency" aspects of job. However they do not
directly address their behavioural aspects. Nonetheless, they are important part
of job design, as well as the efforts being made to increase productivity through
different means.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

i. Explain the importance of work methods analysis
ii. Demonstrate the ability to develop a questioning attitude about every
aspect of a particular job to be studied
iii. Explain the steps usually followed by job analysis
iv. Explain who a job analyst is
v. Demonstrate how to use motion study in the performance of human
activities

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

vi. Demonstrate the ability to use flow diagrams and process charts.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Introduction to Work Methods Study
It is usual for job design to begin with a methods analysis of an overall
operation. It then moves from general to specific details of the job by
concentrating on arrangement of the workplace and movements of the worker.
The need for methods analysis can come from a number of different sources,
such as:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Changes in tools and equipment

Changes in product design, or new products
Changes in materials or procedures
Government regulations or contractual agreements
Other factors (e.g. accidents, quality problems)

In our treatment of Productivity and Human Behaviour under Unit 15, we

referred to Figure 15.1, showing the various variables affecting labour
productivity. From that figure, you were able to see that the machines, tools,
materials, and work methods used by workers directly affect labour
productivity. How do we go about improving work methods? It might be better
to start with workers themselves. This is because they are the people who do
the jobs daily, and on things related to these jobs. In a way, they are experts in
their own rights.
You should note that the main objective of improving work methods is to
increase productivity by increasing the production capacity of an operation or
group of operations, reducing the cost of the operations, or improving product
quality.
One important approach to successful methods analysis is the development of a
questioning attitude about every aspect of the job being studied. Such relevant
questions will include the following:
i. Why is there a delay or storage at this point?
ii. How can travel distances be shortened or avoided?
iii. Can materials handling be reduced?
iv. Would a re-arrangement of the workplace result in greater efficiency?
v. Can similar activities be grouped?
vi. Would the use of additional or improved equipment be helpful?
vii. Does the worker have any ideas for improvement?
viii. Who else could do it better?

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Questions such as these will ensure that analysts accept nothing in an operation
as sacred, i.e. everything about the job will be meticulously scrutinized.

3.2 Steps Involved in Conducting Work Methods

Works analysis can be done both for existing jobs and jobs that have not yet
been performed. It might seem strange to you that we are talking about
analysing methods of nonexisting jobs! Yet, it is important to establish a
method for a new job, instead of allowing the job to start and then try to
improve it later.
For an existing job, the procedure usually is to have the analyst observe the job
as it is currently being performed, and then device improvements. For a new
job however, the analyst must rely on a job description and an ability to
visualise the operation in advance.
Gaither (1996) lists ten steps that are generally followed by methods analysts:
i. Make an initial investigation of the operation under consideration
ii. Decide what level of analysis is appropriate
iii. Talk with workers, supervisors, and others who are familiar with the
operation. Get their suggestions for better ways to do the work.
iv. Study the present method. Use process Charts, time study, and other
appropriate techniques of analysis. Thoroughly describe and evaluate the
present method
v. Apply the questioning attitude, the principles of motion economy, and
the suggestions of others. Device a new proposed method by using
process charts and other appropriate techniques of analysis.
vi. Use time study, if necessary. Compare new and proposed methods.
Obtain supervisors' approval to proceed.
vii. Modify the proposed method as required after reviewing the details with
workers and supervisors.
viii. Train one or more workers to perform the proposed method on a trial
basis. Evaluate the proposed method. Modify the method as required.
ix. Train workers and install the proposed method.
x. Check periodically to ensure that the expected savings are being
realised.
In performing work methods analysis, certain diagrams and charts can be
useful. These include flow-process charts and worker-machine charts.

3.2.1 Flow-Process Charts

Flow diagrams and process charts are about the most versatile techniques
available for analysing work methods. They are usually used together to
eliminate or reduce delays, eliminate or combine tasks, or reduce travel time or

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distance. Table 16.1 shows and describes widely applied flowcharting symbols.
Of the five, only the operation symbol denotes a value-adding activity. The
other symbols reflect an addition of cost not value.
Table 16.1: Flow Chart Symbols
Symbol

Activity Description
Activity that adds value
Operation
to a workplace or
provides a value-adding
service to a customer;
usually Operation
requires a setup
Movement of objects
from one work station to
Transportation
another; movement of
customer from one
operation Transportation
to another
Work is checked for
Inspiration
some characteristic of
quality; may call for 100
- percent inspection or
inspection
Inspection by sampling
Applies to materials or
Storage
documents; may be
Storage temporary,
or
permanent V
Delay Time, person, materials
or documents wait for
next operation; In lot
delay, wait is for other
items in the lot to be
processed; In process
delay, entire lot waits for
workstation or other
bottleneck to clear

Figure 16.1 shows how an improvement team might document a company's

travel authorisation process. The before version, i.e. part A, has eight valueadding operations, five transportations, two inspections, and three delays. The
streamlines version in part B uses personal computer communication by e-mail.
It thus cuts the operations to five, transportation to two, inspections to one
(combined with an operation), and delays to one. You should, however, note
that the reduction from eight to five does not mean less value, since value-

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adding operations also consume costly resources and time. The end result is a
simpler process that does the job.
For worked examples on this discussion please refer to Dennis C. Kinlaw
(1992) Continuous Improvement and Measurement for Total Quality (Burr
Ridge, III, Business One Irwin, 1992), pp. 214-215.

3.2.2 Worker-machine Chart

A worker-machine chart is helpful in visualising the portions of a work cycle
during which an operator and equipment are busy or idle. The analyst can
easily see when the operator and machine are working independently, and
when their work overlaps or is interdependent. One area in which this type of
chart is useful is in determining how many machines or how much equipment
the operator can manage. An example of a worker machine chart is given in
Figure 16.2
Figure 16.2: Worker-Machine Chart
Product;
Process;
Stop
1
2

Operator;
Charted b y;
Employee

time

Accept plastic bag from

0
customers and places on scale
punches in price/b
2
3

machine
(Seconds)
1

4 calculate and displays total

5 price
4 Remo ves bag
6
5 Note prices and makes on bag
6 Hands bag to customer

Employee
Time
(Seconds)
Work
12.5
Idle
87.5

Summar y
Machine
Time
%

(Second) %

7
1

87.5
12.5

1
7

Source: Adapted from Schroeder, R.G. (1993): Operations Management

Decision Making in the operations function 4th e New York: McGraw-Hill

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3.3 Motion Study

Motion study is the systematic study of human motions used during the
performance of an operation. The purpose is to eliminate unnecessary motions
and to identify the best sequence of motions for maximum efficiency. In this
regard therefore, motion study can be an important avenue for productivity
improvements. The present practice of motion study can be traced to the work
of Frank Gilbreth, who originated the concept in the bricklaying trade in the
early 20th century.
There are a number of different techniques that motion study analysts can use
to develop efficient procedures. We will only review motion study principles
and micromotion study here.

3.3.1 Motion study principles

Gilbreth's work laid the foundation for the development of motion study
principles, which are guidelines for designing motion-efficient work
procedures. The guidelines are divided into three categories: principles for use
of the body, principles for arrangement of the workplace and principles for the
design of tools and equipment. These principles are listed in Table 16.2.
Table 16.2: Motion Study Principles
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Finger motions.
Finger and wrist motions.
Finger, wrist, and lower arm motions.
Finger, wrist, lower arm, and upper arm motions.
Finger, wrist, lower arm, upper arm, and body motions.
Work done by the feet should be done simultaneously with work done
by the hands. However, it is difficult to move the hand and foot
simultaneously.
7. The middle finger and the thumb are the strongest. The use of the human
body:
(a.) Both hands should begin and end their basic divisions of
accomplishment simultaneously and should not be idle at the same
instant, except during rest periods.
(b.) The motions made by the hands should be made symmetrically and
simultaneously away from and toward the center of the body.
(c.) Momentum should assist workers wherever possible and should be
minimized if it must be overcome by muscular effort.
(d.) Continuous curved motions are preferable to straight-line motions
involving sudden and sharp changes in direction.
(e.) The least number of basic divisions should be used, and they should be
confined to the lowest practicable classifications. These classifications,

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summarized in ascending order of the time and fatigue expended in their

performance are: working fingers. The index finger, fourth finger, and
little finger are not capable of handling heavy loads over extended
periods.
8. The feet are not capable of efficiently operating pedals when the
operator is in a standing position.
9. Twisting motions should be performed with the elbows bent.
10. To grip tools, workers should use the segments of the fingers closest to
the palm of the hand.
The arrangements and conditions of the workplace.
1. Fixed locations for all tools and material should be provided to permit
the best sequence and to eliminate or reduce the therbligs search and
select.
2. Gravity bins and drop delivery should reduce reach and move times,
wherever possible, ejectors should remove finished parts automatically.
3. All materials and tools should be located within the normal working area
in both the vertical and the horizontal planes.
4. A comfortable chair for the operator and the workstation's height should
be arranged so that the work can be efficiently performed by the
operator alternately standing or sitting.
5. Proper illumination, ventilation, and temperature should be provided.
6. The visual requirements of the workplace should be considered so that
eye fixation demands are minimized.
7. Rhythm is essential to the smooth and automatic performance of an
operation, and the work should be arranged to permit an easy and natural
rhythm wherever possible.
The design of tools and equipment
1. Multiple cuts should be taken whenever possible by combining two or
more tools in one or by arranging simultaneous cuts from both feeding
devices, if available (cross slide and hex turret).
2. All levers, handles, wheels, and other control devices should be readily
accessible to the operator and designed to give the best possible
mechanical advantage and to utilize the strongest available muscle
group.
3. Parts should be held in position by fixtures.
4. The use of powered or semi automatic tools, such as power nut and
screwdrivers and speed wrenches, should always be investigated.
Source: Adapted from Benjamin W. Niebel, Motion and Time Study (Burr
Ridge, III: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1993) pp. 206-207.
In developing work methods that are motion-efficient, the analyst tries to:

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Eliminate unnecessary motions

Combine activities
Reduce fatigue
Improve the arrangement of the workplace
Improve the design of tools and equipment

3.3.2 Micromotion Study

Frank Gilbreth and his wife, Lilian (an industrial psychologist) were also
responsible for introducing motion pictures for studying motions, called
micromotion study.
Apart from its direct application in the industry, micromotion study is now
useful in other human endeavours such as sports and health care. The use of
video camera and slow-motion replays enable analysts to study motions that
would otherwise be too rapid to see. Today, it is a most important tool in sports
administration, coaching, and arbitration in disputed competitions. It is also
increasingly being used to analyse crimes. One other important advantage of
micromotion study is that the resulting films provide a permanent record that
can be referred to, not only for training workers and analysts, but also for
settling job disputes involving work methods.

4.0

CONCLUSION

The best way to improve work methods is to start with workers. This is because
they are the people who do the jobs daily, and on things related to these jobs.
The main objective of work methods is to increase productivity by increasing
the production capacity of an operation or group of operations, reducing the
cost of the operation or improving product quality.

5.0

SUMMARY

Methods analysis and motion study techniques are often used to develop the
"efficiency" aspects of jobs. However, they do not address their behaviour
aspects. In spite of this, they are some important parts of job design. Working
conditions are also important aspects of job design, not only because of the
behavioural and efficiency factors, but also because of concern for the health
and safety of workers.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. a. Wherever work is been done, methods study is a desirable
process. How do you understand:
i. Work methods
ii. Motion Study

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iii. Mocromotion
2. What would you do in an attempt to develop work methods that are
motion efficient?
3. Explain the uses of worker-machine chart.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Peterson, R.S. (1984): "The critical issues for manufacturing
Operations Management Review 2, No. 4 pp. 15-20.

management"

Hall, R (1987): Attaining Manufacturing Excellence. Burr Ridge, III:

Richard D. Irwin. Sutermesster, R.A (1969) People and
Productivity, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Aft, L.S. 1983
(Productivity Measurement and Improvement, Reston, V.A: Reston
Publishing.

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UNIT 2

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

WORK MEASUREMENT

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Relevance of Work Measurement
3.2 Standard Time as Management Tool
3.3 Methods of Work Measurement
3.3.1 Time Study Method
3.3.1.1 An Assessment of Time Study
3.3.2 Elemental Standard Data Approach
3.3.2.1 An Assessment of the Elemental Standard
Approach
3.3.3 Work Sampling Method
3.3.3.1 Sample Size
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References/Further Readings

Data

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 5, you learned that job design determines the content of a job. This unit
is devoted to work measurement, which is the process of creating labour
standards based on the judgment of skilled observers. Actually, job times are
vital inputs for manpower planning, estimating labour costs, scheduling,
budgeting and designing incentive systems.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

(i) Define a standard time
(ii) Discuss and compare time study methods
(iii) Describe work sampling and perform calculations
(iv) Compare stopwatch time study and work sampling.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Relevance of Work Measurement
Work measurement refers to the process of estimating the amount of worker
time required to generate one unit of output. Its ultimate goal is usually to

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develop labour standards that will be used for planning and controlling
operations, thereby achieving labour productivity.
Job times are important inputs for manpower planning, estimating labour costs,
scheduling, budgeting, and designing incentive systems. In addition, from the
workers' standpoint time standards provide an indication of expected output.
Time standard reflects the amount of time it should take an average worker to
do a given job, working under typical conditions. The standards include
expected activity time plus allowances for probable delays. Whenever a time
standard is developed for a job, it is essential to provide a complete description
of the parameters of the job because the actual time to do the job is sensitive to
given methods, tools and equipment, raw materials inputs and workplace
arrangement. For instance, changes in product design or changes in job
performance brought about by a methods study should necessitate a new time
study to update the standard time.

3.2 Standard Time as Management Tool.

Managers use Standard Time in the following ways:
(i) Establishing Prices and Costs: Managers can use labour and machine
time standards to develop costs for current and new products, create
budgets, determine prices and arrive at make or - buy decisions.
(ii) Motivating Workers: Standards can be used to define a day's work or to
motivate workers to improve their performance. For example, under an
inventive compensation plan, workers can earn a bonus for output that
exceeds the standard.
(iii) Comparing alternative process designs: Time standards can also be used
to compare different routings for an item and to motivate new work
methods and new equipment.
(iv) Scheduling: Managers need time standards to assign task to workers and
machines in ways that effectively utilize resources.
(v) Capacity Planning: Managers can use time standards to determine
current and projected capacity requirements for given demand
requirements. Work-force staffing decisions also, may require time
estimates.
(vi) Performance Appraisal: A worker's output can be compared to the
standard output over a period of time in order to evaluate worker
performance and productivity. A manager's performance can similarly
be measured by comparing actual costs to standard costs of a process.

3.3. Methods of Work Measurement

Organisations develop time standard in a number of different ways. The most
common methods of work measurements are:

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(i) The time study method

(ii) The elemental standard data approach
(iii) The predetermined data approach and
(iv) The work sampling method.
The particular method chosen usually depends on the purpose of the data. For
example, if a high degree of precision is needed in comparing actual work
method results to standard, a stopwatch study or
pre-determined
times might be required. On the other hand, an analyst who wants to estimate
the percentage of time that an employee is idle while waiting for materials
requires a work sampling method. We shall be examining the time study
method, elemental standard data approach, and the work sampling method in
the sections that follow.

3.3.1 Time Study Method

In this method, analysts use stopwatches to time the operation being performed
by workers. These observed times are then converted into labour standards that
are expressed in minutes per unit of output for the operation.
A time study usually consists of four steps:
Step 1: Selecting Work Elements
Each work element should have definite starting and stopping points so as to
facilitate taking stopwatch readings. It has been suggested that work elements
that take less than three seconds to complete should be avoided since they are
often difficult to time.
The work element selected should correspond to a standard work method that
has been running smoothly for a period of time in a standard work
environment. Efforts should also be made to identify and separate incidental
operations that are not normally involved in the task from the repetitive work.
Step 2: Timing the Elements
Here, the analyst times a worker trained in the work, in order to get an initial
set of observations. The analyst may use either the continuous method,
recording the stopwatch reading for each work element upon its completion, or
the snap-back method, re-setting the stopwatch to zero upon completion of
each worker element.
In the case of the latter, the analyst uses two watches, one for recording the
previous work element, and the other for timing the present work elements.

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In case that data include a single, isolated time that differs greatly from other
times recorded for the same element, it is advisable for the analyst to
investigate the cause of the variation. Any irregular occurrence such as a
dropped tool or a machine failure, should not be included in calculating the
average time for the work element. The average observed time based only on
representative times is called the select time (t).
Step 3: Determining Sample Size
It is usual for analysts using the time study method to look for an average time
estimate that is very close to the true long range average most of the time. The
following formular, based on the normal distribution is used to determine the
required sample size, n:
d
n= 2

)(

)
t

Where
n = required sample size
P = precision of the estimate as a proportion of the true value
t = select time for a work element
d = standard deviation of representative observed times for a work element.

Z = number of normal standard deviations needed for the desired

confidence.
Where = Accuracy or maximum acceptable error
Typical values of Z for these formulars are:
Desired
Confidence
(%)
90
95
96
97
98
99

1.65
1.96
2.05
2.17
2.33
2.58

For example, a Z value of 1.96 represents 1.96 standard deviations from the
mean, leaving a total of 5 percent in the tails of the standardized normal curve.
The precision of the estimate, P is expressed as a proportion of the true (but
unknown) average time for the work element.
Let us make use of an example given by Krajewski and Ritzman (1999) as an
illustration of this step.

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

The example
A coffee cup packaging operation has four work elements. A preliminary study
provided the following results:
Select Time, t
(minutes)

Work Element Standard deviation,

d (minutes)

Sample
size

1. Get two cartons 0.0305 0.50 5

2. Put liner in carton 0.0171 0.11 10
3. Place cups in carton 0.0226 0.71 10
4. Seal carton and set 0.0241 1.10 10
Aside
Work element 1 was observed only 5 times because it occurs once every two
work cycles. The study covered the packaging of 10 cartons. Determine the
appropriate sample size if the estimate for the select time for any work element
is to be within 4 percent of the true mean 95 percent of the time.
Solution
For this problem
P= 0.04 and Z = 1.96
The sample size for each work element must be calculated, and the largest must
be used for the final study so that all estimates will meet or exceed the desired
precision.
2

Work Element 1:

n=
0.04

1.96
0.5000

0.0305

=9

Work Element 2:

n=

1.96

0.0171
0.04

= 58
0 .11
2

Work Element 3:

1.96

Work Element 4:

n=
2
0.0241

n=

1.96

0.0226

=2

0.04

1.10

=3
0.04
0.71

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All fractional calculations were rounded to the next largest integer. To be sure
that all select times are within 4 percent of the true mean 95 percent of the
time, we must have a total of 58 observations because of work element 2.
Consequently, we have to observe the packaging of 48 (i.e. 58-10) more
cartons.
Step 4: Setting the Standard
This is the final step. Here, the analyst first determines the normal time for each
work element by judging the pace of the observed worker. Next, he assesses
not only whether the pace is above or below average, but also a performance
rating factor (RF) that describes how much above or below average the
worker's performance on each element is. Note that setting the performance
rating requires the greatest amount of judgment. Usually, only a few workers
are observed during a study. If the workers are fast, basing the standard on their
average time wouldnt be fair, especially if a wage incentive plan is involved.
At the same time, If the workers are slow, basing the standard on their normal
time would be unfair to the company. In addition, workers may slow pace
when they are being observed in a time study. Ironically, it is important to
inform the observed worker about the study, so as to avoid suspicion or
misunderstandings.
Workers sometimes feel uneasy about being studied and fear the changes that
might result. It is therefore necessary for the analyst to discuss these things
with the workers prior to studying the operation to allay such fears, and to
enlist the cooperation of the worker. Due to these apparent distractions, the
analyst has to make an adjustment in the average observed time to estimate the
time required for a trained operator to do the task at a normal pace.
The analyst must also factor in the frequency of occurrence, F, of a particular
work element in a work cycle. The normal time (NT) for any work element is
calculated by multiplying the select time (t), the frequency (F) of the work
element per cycle, and the rating factor, (RF) i.e.:
NT = t (F) (RF)
NOTE: Use F= 1, if the work element is performed every cycle
F= 0.05, if it is performed every other cycle. etc.
To find the normal time for the cycle (NTC) the normal time for each element
is summed up. i.e. NTC = ,

Where = sum of
An Example of the determination of the Normal Time

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Suppose that 48 additional observations of the coffee packaging operations

earlier referred to, were taken and the following data were recorded.
Work Element t F RF
1 0.53 0.50 1.05
2 0.10 1.00 0.95
3 0.75 1.00 1.10
4 1.08 1.00 0.90
Because element 1 occurs only every other cycle, its average time per cycle,
must be half its average observed time. That is why Fl = 0.50 for that element.
All others occur every cycle. What are the normal times for each work element,
and for the complete cycle?
Solution
The normal times are calculated as follows:
Work element 1
Work element 2
Work element 3
Work element 4
TOTAL

NT1 = 0.53(0.50)(1.05)
NT2 = 0.10(1.00)(0.95)
NT3 = 0.75(1.00)(1.10)
NT4 = 1.08 (1.00)(0.90)
2.18 minutes

=
=
=
=

0.28 minute
0.10
0.83
0.97

The normal time for the complete cycle is 2.18 minutes.

Note that it is not realistic to use this normal time of 2.18 minutes for the cycle
as a standard. Can you guess why? This is because it doesn't allow for fatigue,
rest periods, or unavoidable delays that might have occurred during an average
work day. Therefore, we need to add some allowance time to the normal time
to adjust for these factors. The standard time (ST) therefore becomes.
ST = NTC (1 +A)
Where A = Proportion of the normal time added for allowances.
Most allowances range from 10 to 20 percent of normal time and cover factors
that may be difficult to measure. However, work sampling can be used to
estimate some of those factors. Below is an example of the determination of
Standard Time.

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Management needs a standard time for the Coffee package operation. Suppose
that A= 0.15 of the normal time. What is the standard time for the coffee cup
packaging operation, how many cartons can be expected per eight hour day?
Solution
For A = 0.15 of the normal time,
ST = 2.18 (1+0.15) = 2.51 minutes/carton
For an 8-hour day, this translates into a production standard of 480 minutes/day
2.51 minutes/carton = 191 cartons/day A useful hint
At times, you might not be given the value of the standard deviation, , but
would then compute it from sample data. This you can do, using this formular:
in22- (

= i) Standard Deviation
n -1

3.3.1.1 An Assessment of Time Study

Time study methods have been observed to have some limitations. Therefore, it
is s uggested that they should not be used to set s tandards for jobs in which the
nature of the task is different each time.
Examples of the situation above include a student solving a problem, a
profes sor preparing a lecture, or an automobile mechanic diagnosing the cause
of a non-routine problem. Furthermore, an inexperienced person should not be
allowed to conduct time studies because errors in recording information or in
selecting the work elements to include can result in unrealistic standards.
Another limitation of the time study is that some workers may object to it
because of the "subjectivity" involved.
However, in spite of the above s hortcomings, time studies conducted by an
experienced analyst usually provide a satisfactory, although imperfect, tool for
setting equitable time standards.

3.3.2 Elemental Standard Data Approach

Standard elemental times are derived from a firm's own historical time study
data. For instance, a time study department over the years might have
accumulated a file of elemental times that are com mon to many jobs. After a
certain point, many elemental times can be simply retrieved from the file, thus
eliminating the need for analysts to go through a complete time study to obtain
them.

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

The procedure for using standard elemental times consists of the following
steps:
(i) Analyse the job to identify the standard elements
(ii) Check the file for elements that have historical times and record them,
use time study to obtain others, if necessary
(iii) Modify the file times if necessary. Let us look at some cases where the
file times may not pertain exactly to a specific task. For instance,
standard elemental times might be on file on "move the tool 3
centimeters" and "move the tool 9 centimeters", whereas the task in
question involves a move of 6 centimeters. What can possibly be done is
to interpolate between values on file to obtain the desired time estimate.
(iv) Sum the elemental times to obtain the normal time, and factor in
allowances to obtain the standard time.

3.3.2.1 An Assessment of the Elemental Standard Data

Approach
An obvious advantage of the elemental standard data approach is the potential
savings in cost and effort created by not having to conduct a complete time
study for each job.
Secondly, there is less disruption of work, since the analyst does not have to
time the worker. Thirdly, performance ratings do not have to be done, since
they have been generally averaged in the file times.
However, the elemental standard data approach suffers from a major limitation
in that times may not exist for enough standard elements to make it worthwhile.
In addition, the file times may be biased or inaccurate.

3.3.3 Work Sampling Method

Work sampling is a work measurement technique that randomly samples the
work of one or more employees at periodic intervals to determine the
proportion of the total operation that is accounted for in one particular activity.
These types of studies are frequently used to estimate the percentage of
employee's time spent in such activities as:
Unavoidable delays, which are commonly called ratio-delay studies;
Repairing finished products from an operation; or
Supplying material to an operation
The results of these studies are commonly used to set allowances used in
computing labour standards, in estimating costs of certain activities, and in
investigating work methods. Unlike time study, work sampling does not require
timing an activity nor does it even involve continuous observation of the

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

activity. Instead, an observer is required to make brief observations of a worker

or machine at random intervals over a period of time and simply note the nature
of the activity. For example, a machine may be busy or idle; a secretary may be
typing, filing, talking on the phone, etc. The resulting data are counts of the
number of times each category of activity or non-activity was observed.
Conducting a work sampling study involves the following steps:
(i) Define the activities
(ii) Design the observation form
(iii) Determine the length of the study
(iv) Determine the initial sample size
(v) Select random observation times using a random number table
(vi) Determine the observer table schedule
(vii) Observe the activities and record the data
(viii) Decide whether additional sampling is required.
It is important to note here, that work sampling estimates include some degree
of error. For instance, the same number of observations taken at different times
during the week will probably produce slightly different estimates, and all
estimates will usually differ from the actual (but unknown) values. It is
therefore important to treat work sampling estimates as approximations of the
actual proportion of time devoted to a given activity.

3.3.3.1 Sample Size

The goal of work sampling is to obtain an estimate that provides a specified
confidence not differing from the true value by more than a specified error.
That is, we want to take a sample, calculate the sample proportion, and be able
to say that the following interval contains the true proportion with a specified
degree of precision:
Where,
=

- ee <
+ <
Sample proportion (number of occurrence divided by the sample size)

e = maximum error in the estimate.

The surface size affects the degree of precision that can be expected from work
sampling for any desired level of statistical confidence. Since work sampling
involves estimating proportions, its sampling distribution is the binomial
distribution. However, it has been found that since large sample sizes are
required for this approach, the normal approximation to the binomial
distribution can be used to determine the appropriate sample size. Figure 17
shows the confidence interval for a work sampling study. The maximum error
can be computed as:

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e=

(1 - )
n

Where n = sample size

Z = number of standard deviations needed to achieve the desired confidence.
Figure l.l.l: Confidence interval for a Work Study Sampling

Probability that true

Proportion will fall within
Confidence interval

- e confidence interval

e+

An Example of the calculation of Sample Size

The manager of a small supermarket chain wants to estimate the proportion of
time stock clerks spend making price changes on previously marked
merchandize. The manager wants a 98 percent confidence that the resulting
estimate will be within 5 percent of the true value. What sample size should he
use?
Solution
e= 0.05(given)
Z = 2.33 (i.e. from z values, 98% confidence interval yields a z-value of 2.33
is unknown.

When no sample estimate of P is available, a preliminary estimate of sample

size can be obtained using = 0.50. After 20 or so observations, a new
estimate of can be obtained from the observations and a revised value of n
computed using the new It is better to recompute the value of n at two or

three points during the study to obtain a better indication of the necessary
sample size.
The required sample site for the given information can be computed by the

formular:
[]

Z 2 ) ( I -
e2

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0.-05 (1
Thus, n = (2.33) [0.05(1-0.05)]

0.05 )

(0. 25)2

= 0025

[]

5.43=543
(0.25 )
0.

It follows that the manager should use a sample size of 543.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Through this unit, you have learned that it is important for management to
make design of work systems a key element of its operations strategy. Work
measurement is the process of estimating the amount of worker time required
to generate one unit of output. Its ultimate goal is usually to develop and
controlling operations, thereby achieving high labour productivity.

5.0

SUMMARY

As already mentioned above, work measurement is concerned with specifying

the length of time needed to complete a job. Such information is vital for
personnel planning, cost estimating, budgeting, scheduling, and worker
compensation. Commonly used approaches include stopwatch time study and
predetermined times.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. How does work measurement contribute to the operation of a modern
industrial concern.
2. Comment on suitability of work sampling to set time standards
maintenance operations.

on

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Adam, E.E. J et al (1981): Productivity and Quality: Measurement as a
Basis
For Improvement. Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice-Hall Karger, D.W.
(1982): Advanced Work Measurement. New York: Industrial Press.

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UNIT 3

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

LEARNING CURVES

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 A Soft Background to Learning and the Experience Curve
3.2 The Learning Curve
3.3 Mathematical Representation of Learning Curve
3.3.1 Arithmetic Analysis
3.3.2 Logarithmic Analysis
3.3.3 Learning Curve Tables
3.3.3.1Using the Table to Obtain an Estimate of
Initial Time
3.4 Uses and Applications of Learning Curves
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0

the

INTRODUCTION

This unit is in continuation of our study on productivity improvement. From

the previous units, you have learned what productivity means, and how it can
be improved. You were also taken through such relevant areas as job design,
work methods study, and work measurement. This present topic is on learning
curves, which displays the relationship between the total direct labour per unit
and the cumulative quantity of a product or service produced. You will find the
topic quite interesting and rewarding as specified in the study objectives.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

i. Explain the concept of a learning curve and how volume is related to
unit costs.
ii. Develop a learning curve, using the arithmetic and logarithmic analyses.
iii. Demonstrate how to use the learning-curve table
iv. Demonstrate the use of learning curves for managerial decision making.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 A Soft Background to Learning and the Experience Curve
We are going to open the discussion on learning curve with a soft, or if you
like, elementary prologue:
When anybody starts something new, there is a form of learning process before
one arrives at one's optimum ability. For instance, in the life cycle, one learns
to walk; one learns to talk; one learns to study; one learns in a professional
environment, etc. Another fact we should note is that some activities are harder
to learn than others, while some individuals are quicker to learn than others.
Let us use some examples to explain the concept of the learning curve: If a
company develops a new product, or process, it usually takes time for
engineers, operators and/or maintenance personnel to understand the process,
as well as the design fully, and thus be efficient regarding all the activities
involved. Because of this, the operating and/or product costs at the early stages
are higher than at the later periods. Similarly, it takes time for new employees
to become full operational in a company that already has established
programmes and procedures in place.
The point being made is that human performance of activities typically shows
improvement when the activities are done on a repetitive basis. That is, the
time required to perform a task decreases with increasing repetitions. Learning
curves seem to summarise this phenomenon. However, the degree of
improvement and the number of tasks needed to realise the major portion of the
improvement is a function of the task being done. For instance, if the task is
short and somewhat routine, only a modest amount of improvement is likely to
occur, and it generally occurs during the first few repetitions. If the task is
fairly complex and has a longer duration, improvements will occur over a
longer interval (i.e, larger number of repetitions). Hence learning factors have
little relevance for planning or scheduling routine activities, but they do have
relevance for complex repetitive activities.
Figure 18.1 illustrates the basic relationship between increasing repetitions and
a decreasing time per repetition. You should note that the curve will never
touch the horizontal axis, i.e., the time per unit will never be zero.

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Figure 18.1: The Learning Effect: Time per Repetition Decreases as the
Number of Repetitions increase

Time per
Repetition

3.2 The Learning Curve

The experience, or learning curve, sometimes called the manufacturing
progress function, is a mathematical relationship between the cumulative
production output and its cost, expressed either in financial terms or in
production. The learning curve was first developed in the aircraft industry prior
to World War II, when analysts discovered that the direct labour input per
airplane decline with considerable regularity as the cumulative number of
planes produced increased. Subsequent survey of major airplane manufacturers
revealed that a series of learning curves could be developed to represent the
average experience for various categories of airframes (e.g. fighters, bombers,
etc), despite the different amount of time required to produce the first unit of
each type of airframe. It was found that once production started, this direct
labour for the eight unit was only 80 percent of that for the fourth unit, the
direct labour for the twelfth was only 80 percent of that for the sixth etc. In
each case, each doubling of the quantity reduced production time by 20
percent. It was thus concluded that the aircraft industry's rate of learning was
80 percent between doubled quantities of airframe due to the consistency in the
observed rate of improvement.
In other words, the labour-hours required to assemble an aircraft is reduced by
a factor of 0.8 as the production quantity is doubled. Figure 18.2 shows how
the learning of workers causes the labour-hours per unit to fall as the number of
unit produced increases. For example, if the first aircraft assembled requires
100 labour-hours, the second aircraft would require 0.8 x 100 = 80 labourhours, the fourth would require 0.8 x 80 = 64 labour-hours, the eight would
require 0.8 x 64 = 51.2 labour-hours etc.

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3.3 Mathematical Representation of Learning Curve

A mathematical learning curve can be developed by plotting production labourhours against the quantity of products produced. You will observe that the
curve decreases exponentially, showing that when a new production starts, as
the number of units produced increases, the labour-hours per unit decreases as
operators become more familiar with the task. Learning curves are presented
according to the learning rate, for example 75, 80, 85, or 90 percent. Thus, an
80 percent learning means that, as the quantity produced is doubled, the labourhours per unit decreases by 80 percent.
The mathematical relationship has the exponential form: T n = T 1 (n b),

Where
T n = labour-hours/unit when n units are manufactured,
T1 = labour-hours to produce the first unit;

n = the unit number produced;

b = a constant representing the slope of the curve.
Where the learning rate was found to be 80 percent. In that example, to
assemble the first aircraft required 100 labour-hours. Then at 80 percent
learning rate, the time to produce the second unit was 80 labour-hours (i.e. 0.8
x 100). The time to produce the fourth unit = 64 labour-hours (i.e. 0. 8 x 80).
Table 18.1 gives the progress, while Figure 18.2 earlier referred to, shows the
relationship graphically.
Figure 18.2: Aircraft Assembly 80 Percent Curve
Labor-Hours for Nth Unit
120

100

80

60

40

20
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

Unit Number

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Table 18.1; Relationship between Units produced and Labour-Hour for 80

percent leaning curve.
nth Units

Labour-Hours

Produced

for nth Unit

1
2
4

8
16
32
64
128

100.0
80.0
64.0

51.2
41.0
32.8
26.2
21.0

There are three approaches to learning-curve problems. These are: arithmetic

analysis, logarithmic analysis, and learning-curve tables. We shall make
attempts to examine each of these.

3.3.1 Arithmetic Analysis

Arithmetic analysis is the simplest approach to learning-curve problems
because it is based on this fundamental concept: As the number of units
doubles, the labour-hours per unit decline by a constant factor. You are already
familiar with this idea. From our previous example, if we know that the
learning rate is 80 percent of a particular operation and that the first unit of
production took 100 labour-hours, the labour-hours to produce the eight unit is:
nth Units

Labour-Hours

Produced

for nth Unit

1
2
4
8

100.0
80.0
64.0
51.2

Carefully observe that as long as we wish to find the labour-hours required to

produce n units, and n just happens to be a number that is one of the doubled
values, then this arithmetic approach works. Would this approach be useful if
we want to find the labour-hours required to produce the seventh unit?. This is
where the arithmetic analysis breaks down: it does not let us address such odd
cases with precision. The logarithmic analysis tackles such problems.

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3.3.2 Logarithmic Analysis

In Logarithmic analysis, this relationship allows us to compare Tn which is the

labour hours required to produce the nth unit:

Tn = T1 (nb) and b = log r

Log 2
Where T1

= labour-hours to produce the first unit;

b = slope or me learning curve; ana

r = learning rate percentage
The values of b are found in Table 2 below labour-hours to produce the first unit;
Table 18.2: Learning-curve values of b
Learning rate
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%

-0.515
-0.415
-0.322
-0.234
-0.152

It is also possible to compute the values of b manually. This is by making use

of the formular for b:
b

logr
log2
Where r = learning rate percentage
For example, for an 80 percent learning rate, r = 0.80, hence the value of b is:
b = log r = log 0.80 = -0.2231
log 2
log 2
+0.6931
:. b = -0.3219
The negative slope indicates that the time decreases as the number of units
increases. Example
If we know that the learning rate for a particular operation is 80 percent, and
that the first unit of production took 100 labour-hours, the
labourhours required to produce the seventh unit is:
Tn =T 1(nb)
T7 = 100 (7-322) = 53.4 labour-hours

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We can also calculate the cumulative average number of hours per unit for the
first n units with the help of Table 18.3. The table contains conversion factors
that, when multiplied by the direct labour-hours for the first unit, yield the
average time per unit for selected cumulative production quantities.

18.3:Conversion Factors
Average Number of Direct Labor
the
Hours per Unit
Table for
Cumulative
80% Learning Rate
90% Learning Rate
N
N
N
N
n
n
1 1.0000019 0.5317837 0.439761 1.0000019 0.7354537 0.67091
2 0.9000020 0.5242538 0.436342 0.9500020 0.7303938 0.66839
3 0.8340321 0.5171539 0.433043 0.9154021 0.7255939 0.66595
4 0.7855322 0.5104540 0.429844 0.8890522 0.7210240 0.66357
5 0.7475523 0.5041064 0.373825 0.8678423 0.7166664 0.62043
6 0.7165724 0.49808128 0.302696 0.8501324 0.71251128 0.56069
7 0.6905625 0.49234256 0.244057 0.8349625 0.70853256 0.50586
8 0.6682426 0.48688512 0.196228 0.8217226 0.70472512 0.45594
9 0.6487627 0.48167600 0.186619 0.8099827 0.80106600 0.44519
10 0.6315428 0.47668700 0.1777110 0.7994528 0.69754700 0.43496
11 0.6161329 0.47191800 0.1703411 0.7899129 0.69416800 0.42629
12 0.6022430 0.46733900 0.1640812 0.7812030 0.69090900 0.41878
13 0.5896031 0.4629310000.1586713 0.7732031 0.6877510000.1217
14 0.5780232 0.4587112000.1497214 0.7658032 0.6847112000.40097
15 0.5673733 0.4546414000.1425415 0.7589133 0.6817714000.39173
16 0.5575134 0.4507216000.1366016 0.7524934 0.6789316000.38390
17 0.5483435 0.4469418000.1315517 0.7464635 0.6761718000.37711
18 0.5397936 0.4432920000.1272018 0.7408036 0.6735020000.37114
Example
A manufacturer of ships needs 50,000 labour-hours to produce the first unit.
Based on past experience in the ship-building industry, you know that the rate
of learning is 80 percent.
(a) Use the logarithmic model to estimate the direct labour required for the
40th ship and the cumulative average number of labour hours per unit
for the first 40 units.
(b) Draw a learning curve for this situation

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Solution
(i) The estimated number of direct labour-hours required to produce the
40th unit is: T40 = 50,000 (40)10'0 .8/log 2)

= 50,000 (40)_0.32 = 50,000 (0.30488)

= 15,244 hours
i) We calculate the cumulative average number of direct labour-hours per
unit for the first 40 units with the help of Table 18.3. For a cumulative
production of 40 units and an 80 percent learning rate, the factor is
0.42984. Therefore, the cumulative average direct labour hour per unit
is:
50,000 (0.42984) = 21,492 labour-hours
(b) Plot the first point at (1, 50,000). The second unit's labour time is 80
percent of the first, so you need to multiply 50,000 by 0.80, which
should give 40,000 labour-hours. Then use to plot the second point at (2,
40,000). The fourth is 80 percent of the second, so multiply 40,000 by
0.80 to obtain 32,000 labour hours. Plot the third point at (4, 32,000).
The result is shown in Figure 18.3.
Figure 18.3: The 80 percent Learning Curve

50
Direct labour 40
hours per shop
(;000)
30
20
10

40

80

120
160
200
Cumulative units produced

240

280

3.3.3 Learning-Curve Tables

The third approach to learning-curve problems is to use a 'learning
factor' obtained from a table containing learning curve coefficients. The
table shows two things: One is a unit value of each of the outputs listed this enables us to easily determine how long any unit will take to

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

produce. The second is a cumulative value, which enables us to

complete any given number of repetitions. The computation for both is a
relatively simple operation. It just entails multiplying the table value by
the time required for the first unit. Table 18.4 contains the learning
curve coefficient.

Tabl 18.4: Learning Curve

85%
90%
e
Coefficients
Unit Unit Total Unit Total Unit Total Unit Total
No. Time Time Time Time Time Time Time Time
1 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
2 .750 1.750 .800 1.800 .850 1.850 .900 1.900
3 .634 2.384 .702 2.502 .773 2.623 .846 2.746
4 .562 2.946 .642 3.142 .723 3.345 .810 3.556
5 .513 3.459 .596 3.738 .686 4.031 .783 4.339
6 .475 3.934 .562 4.229 .657 4.688 .762 5.101
7 .446 4.380 .534 4.834 .634 5.322 .744 5.845
8 .422 4.802 .512 5.346 .614 5.936 .729 6.574
9 .402 5.204 .493 5.839 .597 6.533 .716 7.290
10 .385 5.589 .477 6.315 .583 7.116 .705 7.994
11 .370 5.958 .462 6.777 .570 7.686 .695 8.689
12 .357 6.315 .449 7.227 .558 8.244 .685 6.374
13 .345 6.660 .438 7.665 .548 8.792 .677 10.05
14 .334 6.994 .428 8.092 .539 9.331 .670 10.72
15 .325 7.319 .418 8.511 .530 9.861 .663 11.38
16 .316 7.635 .410 8.920 .522 10.38 .656 12.04
17 .309 7.944 .402 9.322 .515 10.90 .650 12.69
18 .301 8.255 .394 9.716 .508 11.41 .644 13.33
19 .295 8.540 .387 10.10 .501 11.91 .639 13.97
20 .288 8.828 .381 10.49 .495 12.40 .634 14.61
21 .283 9.111 .375 10.86 .490 12.89 .630 15.24
22 .277 9.388 .370 11.23 .484 13.38 .625 15.86
23 .272 9.660 .364 11.59 .479 13.86 .621 16.48
24 .267 9.928 .359 11.95 .475 14.33 .617 17.10
25 .263 10.19 .355 12.31 .470 14.80 .613 17.71
30 .244 11.45 .335 14.02 .450 17.09 .596 20.73
35 .229 12.62 .318 15.64 .434 19.29 .583 23.67
40 .216 13.72 .305 17.19 .421 21.43 .571 26.54
45 .206 14.77 .294 18.68 .410 23.50 .561 29.37
50 .197 15.78 .284 20.12 .400 25.51 .552 32.14
60 .183 71.67 .268 22.89 .383 29.41 .537 37.57
70 .172 19.43 .255 25.47 .369 33.17 .524 42.87
80 .162 21.09 .244 27.96 .358 36.80 .514 48.05
90 .155 22.67 .235 30.35 .348 40.32 .505 53.14
100 .148 24.18 .227 32.65 .340 43.75 .497 58.14
120 .137 27.02 .214 37.05 .326 50.39 .483 67.93
140 .129 29.67 .204 41.22 .314 56.78 .472 77.46
160 .122 32.17 .195 45.20 .304 62.95 .462 86.80
180 .116 34.54 .188 49.03 .296 68.95 .454 95.96
200 .111 36.80 .182 52.72 .289 74.79 .447 105.0
250 .101 42.08 .169 61.47 .274 88.83 .432 126.9
300 .094 46.94 .159 69.66 .263 102.2 .420 148.2
350 .088 51.48 .152 77.43 .253 115.1 .411 169.0
400 .083 55.75 .145 84.85 .245 127.6 .402 189.3
450 .079 59.80 .140 91.97 .239 139.7 .395 209.2
500 .076 63.68 .135 98.85 .233 151.5 .389 228.8

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600 .070
700 .066
800 .062
900 .059
1,000 .057

1,200
1,400
1,600
1,800
2,000
2,500
3,000

70.97
77.77
84.18
90.26
96.07

.053
.050
.047
.045
.043
.039
.036

.128
.121
.116
.112
.108

107.0
117.2
126.8
135.9
144.7
165.0
183.7

.102
.097
.093
.090
.087
.081
.076

112.0
124.4
136.3
147.7
158.7

179.7
199.6
218.6
236.8
254.4
296.1
335.2

.223
.215
.209
.203
.198

.190
.183
.177
.173
.168
.160
.153

174.2
196.1
217.3
237.9
257.9

296.6
333.9
369.9
404.9
438.9
520.8
598.9

.378
.369
.362
.356
.350

.340
.333
.326
.320
.315
.304
.296

267.1
304.5
341.0
376.9
412.2

481.2
548.4
614.2
678.8
742.3
897.0
1.047

Example 1
Alexander Airlines is negotiating a contract for the production of 20 small
aircraft. The initial jet requires the equivalent of 400 days of direct labour.
Estimate the expected number of days of direct labour for:
(a) The 20th jet
(b) All 20 jets
(c) The average time for 20 jets. Solution
From Table 18.4 n = 20 and an 80 percent learning percentage, the following
factors are extracted:
Unit time = 0.3 81
Total time = 10.485
Solution
(a) Expected time for 20th jet: 400 (0.381) = 152.4 labour days
(b) Expected total time for all 20: 400 (10.485) = 4,194 labour days.
(c) Average time for 20: 4,194 20 = 209.7

3.3.3.1

Using the Table to Obtain an Estimate of the Initial

Time

The use of Table 18.4 requires a time for the first unit. For instance, if the
completion time of the first unit is not available, or if the manager believes the
completion time for some later unit is more reliable, the table can be used to
obtain an estimate of the initial time, and that value can be used in conjunction
with the table.

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Example
The manger in our immediate past example believes that some unused
problems were encountered in producing the first jet, and would like to revise
that estimate based on a completion time of 276 days for the third jet.
Solution
From Table 18.4, with n = 3 and an 80 percent learning percentage a coefficient
of 0.702 is obtained. Divide the actual time for unit 3 by the table value to
obtain the revised estimate for unit l's time:
276 days 0.702 = 393.2 labour days.

3.4 Uses and Applications of Learning Curves

We now know that as production personnel gain experience with a new
product/service or operation, the labour-hours per unit fall. Consequently,
labour standards are expected to decline on many products and operations, and
cost standards, budgets, production, scheduling, staffing plans, and prices are
necessarily affected.
In job shops and custom service operations, the learning-curve theory has been
found to be important due to the following factors:
(a) Products and services tend to be custom designs that require workers to
start near the beginning of small batches
(b) Batches tend to be small; thus labour-hours per unit improves
dramatically from the first to the last unit
(c) Product/service designs tend to be complex; thus labour -hours per unit
improve quickly. You should note that the application of learning curves
to mass production and standard service operations is less significant
because entirely new products or services are rare, and long production
runs and simplified tasks combine to cause labour-hours per unit to
improve only slightly.
Staff specialists have been found to routinely use learning-curve theory to
develop labour cost for new products and services. This use allows companies
to prepare cost estimates and product prices for bidding purposes.
The learning-curve approach has certain limitations:
(i) It maybe impossible either to develop precise labour-hour estimates for
the first unit, or to determine the appropriate learning rate. Large unique
projects often exhibit both at these difficulties.

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(ii) Different workers have different learning rates. In a pure sense

therefore, learning theory applies only to individual workers, but little
difficulty is encountered in applying learning curves to groups of
workers by applying an average learning rate.
(iii) Few products are completely unique. Workers usually will trained in the
completion of tasks within their skill classifications. Past performance
on related tasks therefore results in latent learning that is transferred to
new products and services.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE (SAE)
An assembly operation has a 90 percent learning curve. The line has just begun
with on a new item; the initial unit requires 28 hours. Estimate the time that
will be needed to complete:
(a) The first 5 units
(b) Units 20 through 25
2. A manager wants to determine an appropriate learning rate for a new
type of work his firm will undertake. He has obtained completion times
for the initial six repetitions of a job of this type:
Unit
1
2
3
4
5
6

Completion Time (hours)

15.9
12.0
10.1
9.,1
8.4
7.5

What learning rater is appropriate?

3. The manager of a custom manufacturer has just received a production
schedule for an order for 30 large turbines. Over the next five months,
the company is to produce 2, 3, 5, 8, and 12 large turbines, respectively.
The first unit took 30,000 direct labour hours, and experience on past
projects indicates that a 90 percent learning curve is appropriate;
therefore the second unit will require only 27,000 hours. Each employee
works an average of 150 hours per month. E stimate the total number of
full-time employees needed each month for the next five months.

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4.0

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

CONCLUSION

A basic consideration in the design of work systems relates to the fact that
learning is usually present when humans are involved. Consequently, it can be
highly desirable to be able to predict how learning will affect task times and
costs. You have learned in this unit that the time required to perform a task
decreases with increasing repetitions. This is what the learning curves try to
summarise.

5.0

SUMMARY

This unit has widened your knowledge to the extent that you can explain the
concept of a learning curve, and how volume is related to unit costs. You have
also learned how to develop a learning curve by making use of arithmetic and
logarithmic analyses. In addition you have been able to demonstrate how to use
the learning curve table, as well as use the concept of the learning curves for
managerial decision making.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Company A has just been given the following production schedule for model
XT cars. The model is considerably different from any others the company has
produced. Historically, the company's learning rate has been 80 percent on
large projects. The first unit took 1000 hours to produce.
Month
1
2
3
4
5
6

3
7
10
12
4
2

Units

Cumulative Units

3
10
20
32
36
38

(a) Estimate how many hours would be required to complete the 38th unit.
(b) If the budget only provides for a maximum of 30 direct labour
employees in any month and a total of 15,000 direct labour hours for the
entire schedule, will the budget be adequate?. Assume that each direct
labour employee is productive for 150 work hours each month.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Waller, D.L (1999): Operations Management, London: International Thomas
Publishing.

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Yelle, L.E. (1979): "The Learning Curve: Historical Review and

Comprehensive Survey" Decision Sciences, Vol. 10, No. 2
pp. 302-328.

MBA 801

UNIT 4

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Quality: A Management Philosophy
3.1.1 Customer-Driven Definition of Quality
3.1.2 Quality as a Competitive Weapon
3.2 Employee Involvement
3.2.1 Cultural Change
3.2.2 Individual Development
3.2.3 Awards and Incentives
3.3 Continuous Improvement
3.3.1 Getting Started with Continuous Improvement
3.3.2 Problem-solving Process
3.4 The Cost of Poor Quality
3.4.1 Prevention Costs
3.4.2 Appraisal Costs - are Incurred in Assessing
the Level of Quality Attained by the Operation System
3.4.3 Internal Failure Costs
3.4.4 External Failure Costs
3.5 Improving Quality through TQM
3.5.1 Benchmarking
3.5.2 Product and Service Design
3.5.3 Product Design
3.5.4 Quality Function Development
3.5.5 Purchasing Consideration
3.5.6 Tools for Improving Quality and Performance
3.5.7 Data Snooping
3.6 National and International Quality Standards
3.6.1 National Quality Standards
3.6.2 International Quality Standard
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0

INTRODUCTION

The challenge for business today is to produce quality products or services

efficiently. A company that meets this challenge can use quality as a
competitive weapon. This unit explores the competitive implications of quality,
focusing on the philosophy of total quality management which is an aspect of
the topic of quality.

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Total quality management (TQM) stresses three principles: customer

satisfaction, employee involvement, and continuous improvements in quality.
TQM also involves benchmarking, product and services design, process design,
purchasing, and problem-solving.
For most companies, superior product quality is at the core of their business
strategy. For these companies, attaining near-perfect product quality is seen as
the principal means of capturing market share in global competition. The
prominence of product quality in business strategy for many firms has come
from the painful knowledge that one may lose business to lower-priced
products, but one wins it back with superior product quality. Achieving
superior product quality within a business requires a long-term process of
changing the fundamental culture of the organization.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

(i) Define quality from the customer's perspective.
(ii) Describe the principles of a TQM program and how the elements fit
together to make improvements in quality and productivity
(iii) Identify
(iv) Discuss how TQM programs improve quality through benchmarking,
product and service design, quality function deployment, and quality
conscious purchasing
(v) Distinguish among the various tools for improving quality and explain
how each should be used.
(vi) Discuss the nature and benefits of NAFDAC and international standards
for quality programs and environmental management programs.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Quality: A Management Philosophy
Starting in the 1970s, Japanese manufacturers, with the help of American
consultants such as W. Edwards Deming and Joseph M. Juran, began making
quality a competitive priority. Deming's philosophy was that quality is the
responsibility of management, not the workers, and the management must
foster an environment for detecting and solving quality problems. Juran
believed that continuous improvement, hands-on management, and training are
fundamental to achieving excellence in quality. Foreign competitors with
superior goods may dominate the local market with inferior alternatives. A
good example is the imported and local rice in Nigeria. Manufacturers need to
listen to the customers or lose market share. This realization has helped the
Japanese manufacturers over the years. The global economy of the 1990s and

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

beyond dictates that companies provide the customer with an ever widening
array of products and services having high level of quality.

3.1.1 Customer-Driven Definition of Quality

Customers define quality in various ways. Generally, quality may be defined as
meeting or exceeding the expectations of the customer. However, quality has
multiple dimensions in the mind of the consumer, and one or more of the
following definitions may apply at any one time.
(a) Conformance to specifications
Customers expect the products or services they buy to meet or exceed certain
advertised levels of performance. When Nestle advertises milo as "the drink of
future champions, the expectation of the customers is high as to the pleasure
they will derive from taking milo. They will be expecting to gain energy,
strength or vitality. If they derive all these or even more, then milo conforms to
specification.
(b)

Value

Another way customers define quality is through value, or how well the
product or service, serves its intended purpose at a price customers are willing
to pay. How much value a product or service has in the mind of the customers
depends on the customer's expectations before purchasing it. For example if
you spent N 10 to buy an Eleganza ball point pen and it served you well for 3
weeks, you might feel that the purchase was worth the price. Your expectations
for the product were met or exceeded. However, if the pen lasted only 3 days,
you might be disappointed and feel that the value wasn't there.
(c) Fitness for use
In assessing fitness for use, or how well the product or service perform its
intended purpose, the customer may consider the mechanical features of a
product or the convenience of a service. Other aspects of fitness for use include
appearance, style, durability, reliability, craftsmanship and serviceability. For
example, a retailer of frozen fish may find a deep freezer fit for product storage
while a wholesaler will need a cold room.
(d)

Support

Often the product or service support provided by the company is as important

to customers as the quality of the product or service itself. Customers get upset
with a company if financial statements are incorrect, responses to warranty
claims are delayed, or advertising is misleading. Good product support can
reduce the consequences of quality failures in other areas. You may decide to

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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

buy your upholstery from a furniture worker who agrees to transport it to your
apartment.
(e) Psychological Impression
People often evaluate the quality of a product or service on the basis of
psychological impressions: atmosphere, image, or aesthetics. The appearance
and actions of the service provider are very important. Nicely dressed,
courteous, friendly, and sympathetic employees can affect the customer's
perception of service quality. For example, rumpled, discourteous, or grumpy
waiters can undermine a restaurant's best efforts to provide high-quality
service.

3.1.2 Quality as a Competitive Weapon

Attaining quality in all areas of a business is a difficult task because
perceptions of quality by customers change over time. For instance, changes in
life-styles and economic conditions have drastically altered customer
perceptions of automobile quality. During austerity, most Nigerians go for
second-hand (Tokunbo) cars especially models with economic fuel
consumption. But as the economy improves, more people buy better cars.
A business's success depends on the accuracy of its prediction of consumers
expectation and the ability to bridge the gap between those expectations and
operating capabilities. Consumers are now
quality-minded than in
the past. Research findings indicate that a high quality product has a better
chance of gaining market share than does a low-quality product. Most modern
firms believe that their total quality management (TQM) programmes are
highly successful in retaining customers and building satisfaction. More over,
perception of a product as being of high quality by customers gives it better
chance over those considered to be of low-quality even if the level of their
quality is the same.
Good quality can pay off in higher profit. High-quality products and services
can be priced higher than comparable lower quality ones and yield a greater
return for the same sales naira. Poor quality erodes the firm's ability to compete
in the market place and increase the costs of producing its products or service.

3.2 Employee involvement

One important component of TQM is employee involvement. A complete
programme in employee involvement includes changing organizational culture,
fostering individual development through training, establishing awards and
incentives, and encouraging team work.

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3.2.1 Cultural Change

The challenge of quality management is to instill an awareness of the
importance of quality in all employees and to motivate them to improve
product quality. With TQM, everyone is expected to contribute to the overall
improvement of quality - from the administrator who finds
cost- saving
measures to the salesperson that learns of a new customer need, to the engineer
who designs a product.
Customers can either be internal or external. External customers are the people
or firms who buy the product or service. Thus the entire firm must do its best to
satisfy them. It is often difficult for employees who are not dealing directly
with customers to see their contribution to TQM, but this is not to say that they
are less important. Each employee has one or more internal customers employees in the firm who rely on the output of other employees. For example,
a printer who prints a book and passes it on to a binder has the binder as his
customer.
The binder will have similar perception of quality as final consumer. All
employees have to do a good job of serving their internal customers for
ultimate satisfaction of the external customers. The concept of internal
customers works, if each internal customer demands only value-added
activities of their internal suppliers: that is, activities that the external customer
will recognize and pay for. The concept of internal customers applies to all
parts of a firm and enhances cross functional coordination.
TQM makes quality control everyone's business where errors are promptly
detected and corrected internally before they get to the final consumers. This
philosophy is called quality at the source. Firms should try to avoid "inspecting
quality into the product" by using inspectors to detect defective product after all
operations have been performed. Some firms authorize workers to stop a
production line if they spot quality problem.

3.2.2 Individual Development

On the job training can help improve quality. Teaching new work methods to
experienced workers or training new employees in current practices can
increase productivity and reduce the number of product defects. Some
companies train workers to perform related jobs to help them understand how
quality problems in their own work can cause problems for other workers.
Managers too need to develop new skills in order to teach their subordinates.
They may have to embark on "train - the - trainer" programme to acquire skills
to train others in quality improvement practices.

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3.2.3 Awards and Incentives

The prospect of merit pay and bonuses can give employees some incentive for
improving quality. Companies may tie monetary incentives directly to quality
improvements.
Non-monetary awards, such as recognition in front of co-workers, also can
motivate quality improvements. Some companies periodically select an
employee who has demonstrated quality workmanship and give them special
recognition e.g. a special dinner, such performance may even be reported in the
company newsletter.

3.3 Continuous Improvement

Continuous improvement, based on a Japanese concept called "Kaizen", is the
philosophy of continually seeking way to improve operations. It is also
applicable to process improvement. Continuous improvement involves
identifying benchmarks of excellent practice and instilling a sense of employee
ownership in the process. The focus can be on reducing the length of time
required to process request for loans at a bank. Continuous improvement can
also focus on problems with customers or suppliers. The bases of continuous
improvement is that if people involved in a process can identify the needed
changes to be made, the process can be improved upon. An organization should
not wait until massive problem occurs before acting.

3.3.1 Getting Started with Continuous Improvement.

Instilling the philosophy of continuous improvement involves the following
processes:
(a) Train employees in the methods of statistical process control (SPC) and
other tools for improving quality and performance.
(b) Make SPC methods a normal aspect of daily operations.
(c) Build work teams and employee involvement
(d) Utilize problem-solving tools within the work teams.
(e) Develop a sense of operator ownership in the process.
Note that employee involvement is central to the philosophy of continuous
improvement. The last two steps are crucial if the philosophy is to become part
of everyday operations. Problem solving addresses the aspects of operations
that need improvement. A sense of operator ownership emerges when
employees feel as though they own the processes and methods they use and
take pride in the quality of the product or service they produce.

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3.3.2 Problem-solving process

Firms that are actively involved in continuous improvement train their work
teams to use the plan-do-check-act cycle of problem solving. The approach is
called Deming wheel and it lies in the heart of the continuous improvement
philosophy. The steps involved are.
(i) Plan. The team selects a process (activity, method, machine, policy
e.t.c.) that needs improvement. The team then documents the selected
process, by analyzing data; sets qualitative goals for improvement; and
discusses various ways to achieve the goal. After assessing the benefits
and costs of the alternatives, the team develops a plan with quantifiable
measures for improvement.
(ii)

Do. The team implements the plan and monitors progress. Data are
collected continuously to measure the improvements in the process. Any
further revisions are made as needed.

(iii) Check. The team analyzes the data collected during the do step to find
out how closely the results correspond to the goals set in the plan step. If
major short comings exist, the team may have to reevaluate the plan or
stop the plan or stop the project.
(iv) Act. If the results are successful, the team documents the revised process
so that it becomes the standard procedure for all who may use it. The
team may then instruct other employees in the use of the revised
process.

3.4 The Cost of Poor Quality

Defective and unsatisfactory product may cost a company up to 20 to 30
percent of its gross sales. For instance, a high electric power surge may damage
all electrical appliances of a company as low current supply may delay
operations. Four major categories of cost are associated with quality
management: prevention, appraisal, internal failure, and external failure.

3.4.1 Prevention Costs

These are incurred when preventing defects from happening. These include the
cost of redesigning the process and product, training of employees and working
with suppliers to increase the quality of purchased items. In order to improve
quality, firms invest in additional time, efforts, and money.

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3.4.2 Appraisal costs - are incurred in assessing the level of quality

attained by the operating system
This helps to identify quality problems and proffer measures to improve
quality, appraisal costs decrease due to quality inspections.

3.4.3 Internal failure costs

These result from defects that are discovered during the production of product
or service. They fall into two categories: yield losses and rework costs. Yield
losses are incurred if a defective item must be scrapped. Rework Costs are
incurred if item is rerouted to some previous operation (s) to correct the defect
or if the service must be performed again. Additional time spent to correct
mistakes lowers productivity of a unit.

3.4.4 External failure costs:

Arise when a defect is discovered after the customer has received the product
or service. For instance, suppose you discover that your dry cleaner has burnt
one of your clothes given to him, you may demand that he amends it for you.
External failure cost erodes market share of profits. The costs include warranty
service and litigation costs. A warranty is a written guarantee that the product
will be replaced or repair the defective parts or perform the service to the
customer's satisfaction.
Defective products can injure and even kill consumer who purchase them. Thus
it is important to prevent them from getting to the final consumer. External
failure costs also include litigation cost. These include legal fees, time and
effort of employees who appear for the company in court. The cost of litigation
is enormous and the negative publicity can be devastating.

3.5 Improving Quality through TQM

Employee involvement and continuous improvement generally improve
quality. But, TQM often focuses on benchmarking, product and service design,
process design and purchasing.

3.5.1

Benchmarking

Benchmarking is a continuous systematic procedure that measures a firm's

products, services and processes against those of industry leaders. Companies
use the outstanding company in the industry as standard they would like to
attain to. Typical measures used in, benchmarking include cost per unit, service
per customer, processing time per unit, customer retention rates, revenue per
unit, return on investment, and customer satisfaction levels. Benchmarking
consists of four basic steps"

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(i) Planning - Identifying the product, service or process to be

benchmarked and the firms (s) to be used for comparison, determine the
measures of performance for analysis, and collect data
(ii) Analysis - Determine the difference between the firm's current
performance and that of the benchmark firm (s) and identify the causes
of significant gaps.
(iii) Integration - Establishing goals and obtaining the support of managers
who must provide the resources for achieving the goals.
(iv) Action - This involves determining the team affected by the changes,
developing action plans and assignments, implementing the plan,
monitoring progress and watching the level attained on the benchmark.
Benchmarking focuses on setting of quantitative goals for continuous
improvement. Comparative benchmarking is based on comparisons with a
direct industry competitor. Functional benchmarking compares areas such as
administration, customer service and sales operations with those of outstanding
firms in an industry. Internal benchmarking involves using an organisational
unit with superior performance as the benchmark for other units. All forms of
benchmarking are applied when there is a need for continuous improvement.

3.5.2 Product and Service Design

Because design changes often require changes in methods, materials, or
specifications, they can increase defect rates. Change increases the risk of
making mistakes, so stable product and service designs can help reduce internal
quality problems. Stable designs may not be possible when a product or service
is sold in markets globally. Although changed designs have the potential to
increase market share, management must be aware of possible quality problems
resulting from changes. A firm may need to change design to remain
competitive; it should carefully test new designs and redesign the product with
a focus on the market. Higher quality and increased competitiveness are
exchanged for added time and cost.
Another dimension of quality related to product design is reliability. Reliability
is the probability that the product will be functional when used. Products often
consist of a number of components that must be operative for them to perform
as expected. Some products can be designed with extra components/subsystems
so that if one system component fails another can be activated.
Suppose that a product has subsystems, each with its own reliability measure.
The reliability of the product is equal to the product of the reliabilities of all the
subsystems, i.e.

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rs = (rl) (r2) ... (rn) ............................... (i)

Where
rs = reliability of the complete product.

n = number of subsystems
rn = reliability of the subsystem n

This measure is based on the assumption that the reliability of each component
depends on those of others.
Suppose you have a table fan, and you discover that the reliability of its plug is
0.95, that of the cord 0.90 that of the switch is 0.88 and the coil has 0.70
reliability. The reliabilities are the probabilities that each subsystem will still be
operating three years from now. The reliability of the table fan is
Rs=(0.95) (0.90) (0.88) (0.70) = 0.53

The table fan thus has a reliability of 0.53. This is the probability that it will not
fail to work when you put it on.

3.5.3 Process Design

Process designs greatly affect product quality. Wema Bank PLC may observe
that the average waiting time to pay NEPA bill in all its branches is one hour. It
may want to reduce the waiting time to 30 minutes by assigning only one
cashier to customer waiting to pay such bills.
The purchase of new and efficient machinery can help to prevent or overcome
quality problem. The cost of the machinery is the trade-off for reducing the
percentage of defects and their cost.
One of the keys to obtaining high quality is concurrent engineering in which
operation's manager work hand in hand with designers in the initial phases of
product or service design to ensure that production requirements and process
capabilities are synchronized. This results in better quality and shorter
development time.

3.5.4 Quality Function Deployment

A key to improving quality is to link the design of products or services to the
processes that produce them. Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a means
of translating customer requirements into the appropriate technical
requirements for each stage of product or service development and production.
This approach seeks answers to the following questions.
(a) Voice of the customer - what do our customers need and want?

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(b) Competitive analysis - How well are we doing relative to our

competitors, in terms of our customers?
(c) Voice of the engineer - what technical measures relate to our customers'
needs?
(d) Correlation - what is the relationship between the Voice of customer
and the voice of the engineer?
(e) Technical comparison - How does our product/service perform
compared to that of our competitors?
(f) Trade-offs - what are the potential technical trade - offs?
The QFD approach provides a way to set targets and debate their effects on
product quality. QFD encourages inter functional communication for the
purpose of improving product quality.

3.5.5 Purchasing Considerations

Most firms depend on outside suppliers for some of the materials, services, or
equipment used in producing their products and services. Large companies
have many of such suppliers, some of which supply them the same material.
The quality of these inputs can affect the quality of the firm's work
Both the buyer's approach and specification management are keys to
controlling supplier quality. The firm's buyer must emphasize the cost, and
speed of delivery of the supplier as well as the quality of the product. The
buyer identifies suppliers with high - quality products and arranges to buy from
them.
The specifications for the purchased items must be clear and realistic. The
buyers initiate process capability studies for important products. This involves
trial runs of small product samples to ensure that the quality is as specified and
will perform as desired at the given cost. Management needs to allow sufficient
time for the purchasing unit and may work closely with other units e.g.
engineering to ensure quality control.

3.5.6 Tools for Improving Quality and Performance

The first step in improving quality of an operation is data collection. There are
seven tools for organizing and presenting data to identify areas for quality and
performance improvement. These are:

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Checklists, histograms and bar charts, Pareto charts, scatter diagrams, causeand-effect diagrams, graphs, and control charts. We discuss six of them here.
(a)

Checklists
A checklist is a form used to record the frequency of occurrence of
certain product or service characteristics related to quality. The
characteristics may be measurable on continuous scale (e.g. weight or
time) or on yes-or-no basis

(b) Histograms and Bar chats

A histogram summarizes data measured on a continuous scale, showing
the frequency distribution of some quality characteristic. A bar chart is a
series of bars representing the frequency of occurrence of data
characteristics measured on a yes-or-no basis.
(c) Pareto Charts
When managers discover several quality problems that need to be
addressed, they have to decide on which to tackle first. Vilfredo Pareto
proposed that most of an "activity" is caused by relatively few of its
factors. In a restaurant quality problem, the activity could be customer
complaints and the factor could be "discourteous waiter".
Pareto's concept, called the 80-20 rule, is that 80 per cent of the activity
is caused by 20 percent of the factors. Thus, by concentrating on the 20
per cent of the factors, managers can attack 80 percent of the quality
problem.
A Pareto chart is a bar chart on which the factors are plotted in
decreasing order of frequency along the horizontal axis. The chart has
two vertical axis, the one on the left showing frequency and the one on
the right showing the cumulative percentage of frequency curve,
identifies the few vital factors that warrants immediate managerial
attention.
(d) Scatter diagram
A scatter diagram is a plot of two variables showing whether they are
related or not and can be used to clear doubt about a factor causing one
quality problem. Each point on the scatter diagram represents a data
observation.

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(e) Cause-and-Effect Diagrams

One way to identify a design problem that needs to be corrected is to
develop a cause-and -effect diagram that relates a key quality problem to
its potential causes. The diagram helps management to trace customer
complaints directly to the operations involved.
The cause-and-effect diagram is also known as a fishbone diagram. The
main quality problem is labeled as the fish's "head", the major categories
of potential causes as structural "bones" and the likely specific causes as
"ribs". The diagram below is used to illustrate this.
Figure 19.1
People
Training

Materials
printing

communication

Bad printing
job

Absenteeism
Poor ink
Paper quality
Electric
power
failure

Obsolete Machine
Machine maintenance

Others Process

From Figure 19.1, the head or problem is bad printing job. The main
causes forming the structural bones are people, material, process and
other causes. These all have specific causes.
(f)

Graphs
Graphs represent data in a variety of pictorial formats, such as line
graphs and pie charts. Line graphs represent data sequentially with data
points corrected by line segments to highlight trends in the data. Pie
charts represent quality factors as slices of a pie, the size of each slice is
in proportion to the number of occurrence of the factor.

3.5.7 Data Snooping

Each of the tools for improving quality may be used independently, but their
power is greatest when they are used together. Managers may need to shift data
to clarify the issues involved in deducing the causes. This process is called data
snooping.

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3.6 National and International Quality Standards

3.6.1 National Quality Standards
Products and services quality are standardized by various public and private
agents in Nigeria. These could be trade unions, professional bodies or
government agencies e.g. licencing office. Accountants, Engineers e.t.c. have
their professional bodies that maintain standard in their profession. The
Nigerian University Commission for instance, maintains standard and quality
of university education in Nigeria.
The National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control
(NAFDAC) is saddled with responsibility of maintaining standard in food and
pharmaceutical industry.

3.6.2 International Quality Standard

Companies selling in international markets may have difficulty complying with
varying quality documentation standards in countries where they do business.
To cope with this problem, the international organization for standardization
devised a set of standards called ISO 9000 for companies doing business in the
European Union. Also, a new set of standards, ISO14000, were devised for
environmental management systems.
(a) The ISO 9000 standards is a set of standards governing documentation
of a quality programme. Companies become certified buy proving to a
qualified external examiner that they have complied with all the
requirements. Companies thus certified are listed in the directory for
potential customer to know that such companies can own-up their claims
on their products. This tells nothing on the actual quality of the product.
The ISO 9000 consists of 5 documents: ISO 9000 - 9004
(b) ISO 14000 - An Environmental management system.
The ISO 14000 standards require participating companies to keep track
of their raw materials use and their generation, treatment, and disposal
of hazardous wastes. The standard is to ensure improvement in
environmental performance. ISO 14000 is a series of 5 standards
covering the following areas.

Environmental management system

Environmental performance evaluation
Environmental labeling
Life-cycle assessments

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CONCLUSION

Total quality management is a big challenge for all modern businesses.

Products and services will meet customers expectations for satisfaction if they
have good quality for their money value. Good quality is not a thing to be
inspected for in a product after final production but a thing that is built into the
product from the beginning of the production process. Everyone in the firmmanagement, employees and all the units need to be carried along in quality
management. Contacts have to be maintained with customers too as their
perception of quality changes over time.

5.0

SUMMARY

Total quality management is built on three principles: customer-driven focus,

employee involvement, and continuous quality improvement. Quality means a
variety of things to customers. A customer may make a qualitative judgment
about whether a product or service meets specified design characteristic.
Another may make qualitative judgment about value, fitness for the customer's
intended use, product or service support, and aesthetic reasons. One TQM
responsibility of marketing is to listen to customers and report their changing
perceptions of quality.
Quality can be used as a competitive weapon. World-class competition requires
businesses to produce quality products or services efficiently Responsibility for
quality is shared by all employees in the organizations. Managers too need to
develop skills for teaching their subordinates.
Continuous improvement involves identifying benchmarks of excellent
practices and instilling a sense of ownership in employees so that they will
continually identify product, services or process that need improvement.
Quality management is important because of its impact on market share, price,
and profits and because of the costs of poor quality. The four categories of
costs associated with quality management are prevention, appraisal, internal
failure, and external failure. Benchmarking is a comparative measure used to
establish goals for continuous improvement. Forms of benchmarking are
competitive, functional and internal concurrent engineering improves the match
between product design and production process capabilities. Quality
improvement requires close cooperation among functions (design, operations,
marketing, purchasing etc.)
Keys to controlling supplier quality are buyer's approach and specification
management. The buyer must consider quality, delivery, and cost.
Approaches to organizing and presenting quality improvement data include
check lists, scatter diagrams, cause-and-effect diagrams, Pareto charts, bar
charts, graph and control charts.

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Quality management in Nigeria is done by various public and private agencies.

NAFDAC monitors quality in the food and drugs industry.
Tow sets of standard, governing the documentation of quality programmes at
the global level are ISO 9000 and ISO 14000.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

A semiconductor has 3 components in series. Component I has a reliability of
0.96, Component 2, 0.98 and component 3, 0.97 what is the reliability of the
semiconductor

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Cordero, S.T. (1987): Maintenance Management. Englewood Cliffs N.J.
Fairmont Press. Craither, N (1996): Production and Operations
Management. 7th ed. Belmont, California: Wadswonth
Publishing Company
Hayes, R.H. and K.B. Clerk (1980): "Why Some Factories are more
Productive than Others" Harvard Business Review 64,
No 5: 66-73.
Tombari, H (1982): "Designing a Maintenance Management System"
Production and Inventory Management 23, No 4 : 139 - 147
Stevenson, W.J. (1976): Production/Operations Management 5th ed. Burr
Ridge, Ill. Richard D. Irwin.

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UNIT 5

PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

MAINTENANCE AND RELIABILITY

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 An Overview of Maintenance
3.2 Approaches to Maintenance
3.2.1 Preventive Maintenance (PM)
3.2.2 Breakdown Maintenance (BM)
3.3 Replacement Decisions
3.4 Machine Reliability
3.5 Secondary Maintenance Responsibilities
3.6 Current Trends in Maintenance Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0

INTRODUCTION

This unit is on maintenance, which encompasses all these activities that relate
to keeping facilities and equipment in good working order and makes necessary
repairs when breakdowns occur, so that the system can perform as intended.
The general objectives for the unit are set below.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to

(i) Explain the importance of maintenance in production systems.
(ii) Describe the range of maintenance activities
(iii) Describe and differentiate between reactive and proactive approaches to
maintenance.
(iv) State how the pareto phenomenon pertains to maintenance decisions.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1

An Overview of Maintenance

Maintaining the production capability of an organization is an important

function in any production system. It is through this that production equipment
are adjusted, repaired and kept in good operating conditions. The reasons for
keeping equipment and facilities in perfect operating condition are not only to
avoid interruption to production, but also to keep production cost low, keep

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product quantity high, maintain safe working conditions, and avoid late on late
shipments to customers.
When equipments malfunction in both manufacturing and service industries,
the consequences have a direct impact on:
(i) Production capacity: Naturally, equipment sidelined by breakdown
cannot produce. This way, the capacity of the system is reduced.
(ii) Production costs: Since machines are not functioning, workers too
would be made idle. This situation cause labour costs per unit to
increase. Apart from this, when machine malfunction causes scrap
products to be produced, unit labour and material costs increase.
Furthermore, maintenance department budgets include such costs as the
costs of providing repair facilities, repair crew, preventive maintenance
inspections, standby machines, and spare parts.
(iii) Product and service quality: Usually, poorly maintained equipment
produces low -quality products.
(iv) Employee or customer safety: Worn-out equipment is most likely to
fail at any moment while in operation. These failures can cause injuries
to workers, as well as to customers (especially in the services sector)
(v) Customers satisfaction: Whenever production equipment breaks down,
the initial after math is that products cannot be produced according to
the master production schedules. In essence, customers may not receive
products when promised.
For better maintenance management, maintenance department are usually
developed within organizations. A maintenance manager is usually a plant
engineer, who reports to either a plant manager or a manufacturing manager.
Generally, the organizational level of the department depends on the
importance of maintenance to a particular organization.
Maintenance activities are often organized into two categories:
(1)

buildings and grounds, and

(2)

equipment maintenance. Buildings and grounds is responsible for the

appearance and functioning of buildings, parking lots, Lawns, fences,
etc. The buildings and grounds workers include electricians, welders,
pipe fitters, steamfitters, painters, glaziers, carpenters, janitors, and
grounds keepers.

The equipment maintenance group is responsible for maintaining machinery

and equipment in good working condition, and making all necessary repairs.

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This group can include such workers as machineries, mechanics, welders,

oilers, electricians, instrument calibrators, and electronic technicians.
The degree of technology of the production processes, the amount of

investment in plant and equipments, the age of the buildings and equipment,
and other factors will affect how maintenance departments are organized, the
required workers skills, and the overall mission of maintenance departments.

3.2 Approaches to Maintenance

Decision makers have two basic options with respect to maintenance. The first
is option reactive and this is to deal with breakdowns or other problems when
they occur. This is commonly referred to as breakdown maintenance (B M).
The second option is proactive, the purpose of which is to reduce breakdowns
through a programme of lubrication, adjustment, cleaning, inspecting, and
replacement of worn parts. This is generally knows as preventive maintenance
(PM).
Usually a trade-off is made between these two basic options that will minimize
their combined cost. For instance, with no preventive maintenance, breakdown
and repair costs would be tremendous. In addition, hidden costs, such as cost
production and the loss of wages while the equipment is not in service must be
considered. Cost injury and damage to other equipment and facilities or to
other units in production must also be taken into consideration.
However, beyond a certain point, the cost of preventive maintenance activities
exceeds the benefit. The best approach really, is to seek a balance between
preventive maintenance costs and breakdown maintenance costs. This concept
is illustrated in Figure 20.1
Figure 20.1
Minimum Annual
Cost
Minimum
Maintenance cost
Total
Preventive
Maintenance cost

Minimum
Level of
Preventive maintenance

Optimum

Amount of Preventive Maintenance

As figure 20.1 shows, some minimum amount of PM is necessary to provide
the mini mal amount of lubrication and adjustment to avoid a complete and

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imminent collapse of the production system. At this minimal level of PM, the
cost of breakdowns, interruption to production, and repairs is so high that total
production, and repair is so high that the production cost is beyond practical
limits. This is mainly a remedial policy, i.e., fix the machines only when they
breakdown or will not operate any longer. As the PM effort is increased,
breakdown and repair cost is reduced. Note that the total maintenance cost is
the sum of the PM and the breakdown and repair costs. Also observe that at
some point, for each piece of equipment, addition spending for PM is
uneconomical because PM costs rise faster than breakdown and repair costs
fall. Conceptually, operations managers seek to find the optimal level of PM
where total maintenance costs are at a minimum both for each piece of
equipment and the entire production system. Let us examine both the PM and
BM into some detail.

3.2.1 Preventive Maintenance (PM)

As you must be aware by now, the goal of PM is to reduce the incidence of
breakdowns or failures in the plant or equipment in order to avoid the
associated costs. These can include loss of output, idle workers, schedule
reduction; damage to other equipment, products, or facilities, and repairs,
which may involve maintaining inventories of spare parts, repair tools and
equipment, and repair specialists.
In particular, PM can be an important factor in achieving operation's strategies.
For example, a PM program can be essential to the success of a productfocused positioning strategy. In product-focused positioning strategies,
standardized product designs are produced along production lines where these
are little, if any in-process inventories between adjacent operations. Hence, if a
machine breakdown at one operation, all other downstream operations will
soon run out of parts of work on. Therefore, an extensive PM programme in
such system will reduce the frequency and severity of machine breakdowns.
PM programmes are similarly essential in automated factories, where systems
of automated machines operate continuously without the need for production
workers (i.e. workless factories). In such an environment, a large number of
maintenance workers would be needed to keep the machines adjusted,
lubricated, and in good operating condition.
Very often, PM is periodic, and it can be programmed according to the
availability of maintenance personnel as well as to avoid interference with
operating schedules. PM is generally programmed using some combination of
the following three options.
(i) The result of planned inspections that reveal a need for maintenance
(ii) According to the calendar (passage of time)
(iii) After a pre-determined number of operating hours.

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Normally, PM is performed just prior to a breakdown or failure because this

will result in the longest possible use of equipment of facilities without a
breakdown. Predictive maintenance is an attempt to determine when to perform
PM activities. It is generally based on historical records and analysis of
technical data to predict when a piece of equipment or part is about to fail. The
effectiveness of PM often depends on how good the predictions of failures are.
A good PM effort relies on complete records for each piece of equipment. Such
records must include information like date of installation, operating hours,
dates and types of maintenance and dates and types of repairs.
A new concept, known as Total Preventive Maintenance (TPM) is being
practiced in Japan. Companies operating TPM usually have their workers
Perform PM on the machines they operate, rather than use separate
maintenance personnel for that task. The TPM is consistent with Just-In-Time
(JIT) systems and lean production, where employees are given greater
responsibility for quality, productivity, and the general functioning of the
system.

3.2.2 Breakdown Maintenance (BM)

Though the risk of a breakdown can be drastically reduced on by an effective
PM programme, occasional breakdowns may still occur. Actually, firms with
good preventive practices have some need for breakdown programmes. It is
obvious that organisations that rely less on PM have an even greater need for
effective ways of dealing with breakdowns.
Very much unlike PM, breakdowns cannot be scheduled. Rather they must be
dealt with on an irregular basis (i.e. as they occur). The following approaches
are being used to deal with breakdowns:
(i) Standby or backup equipment that can be quickly pressed into service
(ii) Inventories of spare parts that can be installed as needed, thereby
avoiding lead times involved in ordering parts, and buffer inventories, so
that other equipment will be less likely to be affected by short-term
downtime of a particular piece of equipment.
(iii) Operators who are able to perform at least minor repairs on their
equipment.
(iv) Repair people who are well trained and readily available to diagnose and
correct problems with equipment.
The extent to which any organisation pursues any or all of these approaches
depends on how important a particular piece of equipment is to the overall

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production system. At one extreme is the equipment that is the focal point of a
system (e.g. vital operating parts of a car, such as brakes, transmission, ignition
and engines or printing presses for a publishing house). At the other extreme is
the equipment that is rarely used since it does not perform any important
function in the system, and equipment for which substitutes are readily
available. What is the implication of this? Usually, breakdown programmes are
most effective when they take into account, the degree of importance a piece of
equipment has in the production system, as well as the ability of the system to
do without it for a period of time. For these types of situations, the Pareto
phenomenon exists: A relatively few pieces of equipment will be extremely
important to the functioning of the system, thereby justifying considerable
effort and/or expense; some will require moderate effort or expense; some will
require moderate effort or expense and many will justify little effort or
expense.

3.3 Replacement Decisions

These are situations when breakdowns become frequent and/or costly. The
manager is thus faced with a trade-off decision in which costs are important
consideration. What is the cost of replacement compared with the cost of
continued maintenance? At times, a question like this is difficult to resolve,
most especially if future breakdowns cannot be readily predicted. The manager
may thus, need to examine historical records in order to project future
experience.
Another important factor is technological change. For instance, newer
equipment may have some features that favour replacement over either
preventive or breakdown maintenance. At the same time, the removal of old
equipment and the installation of new equipment may cause disruptions to the
system, which may actually be greater than the disruptions caused by
breakdowns. In addition, employees may have to be trained to operate the new
equipment. Finally, forecasts of future demand for the use of the present or new
equipment must be taken into account.

3.4 Machine Reliability

It is necessary for you to know the concepts of reliability and their relationship
to maintenance management. Machine reliability is the likelihood of a machine
breaking down, malfunctioning, or needing repairs in a given time period or
number of hours of use. If machine reliability can be increased, the incidence
of machine breakdowns and the cost of the havoc caused in production by
breakdowns can also be reduced.
There are three approaches to improving machine reliability: over-design,
design simplification, and redundant components. All these take place by the
time a machine is designed. Over design means enhancing a design to avoid a

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particular type of failure. For instance, if a machine has only a few independent
critical interacting parts, then over design may be an effective way of
increasing machine reliability.
Design simplification implies a reduction in the number of interacting parts in a
machine. Since there are now fever parts that can fail, machine reliability
increases when the number of interacting part s is reduced. Redundant
components are the building of backup components right into the machine so
that if one part fails, its backing is automatically substituted. These three
approaches can be sued together or separately to design more reliable
machines.

3.5 Secondary Maintenance Responsibilities

As earlier mentioned, all maintenance departments are responsible for the
repair of buildings and equipment and for performing certain preventive
maintenance inspections, repairs, lubrication, and adjustments.
Additionally, some particular responsibilities have traditionally been added to
these departments. For instance, housekeeping, janitorial, window cleaning,
ground keeping and painting services are now usually performed by
maintenance departments. These activities often embrace all areas of the
facility, from restrooms to offices to production departments to warehouses.
Within some plants, it is usual to find the area around each production worker's
immediate workplace being cleaned by the worker, while the appearance and
cleanliness of all other areas are the responsibility of the maintenance
department.
Again, in some organisations, additional activities such as new construction,
remodeling, safety equipment maintenance, loss prevention, security, public
hazard control. Waste disposal and recycling and pollution control
responsibilities have been assigned to their maintenance departments.

3.6

Current Trends in Maintenance Management

There is no doubt that production machinery today is far more complex than it
was some years ago. For instance, computerised controls, robotic (especially in
developed countries) new technology in metallurgy, more sophisticated
electronic controls, new methods in lubrication technology and other
developments have resulted in the way complex machines are maintained.
Consequently, special training programmes are being mounted to give
maintenance workers the skills necessary to service and repair today's
specialised equipment. In addition, subcontracting service firms have evolved
to supply specialised maintenance services. It is now common to see
computers, automobiles, office machines, and other equipment and facilities

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being serviced by outside subcontracting firms. In particular, their specialised

training and fee structure, which is usually based on an as needed basis,
combine to offer competent service at reasonable cost.
Furthermore, other technologies that reduce the cost of maintenance while
improving the performance of production machines are now available. An
example here is the network of computerized temperature - sensing probes
connected to all key bearings in a machine system. When bearings being to fail,
they overheat and vibrate, thus causing these sensing systems to indicate that a
failure is imminent. Consequently, the massive damage to machines that could
happen when bearings fail can therefore be avoided.
Another modern trend is the application of computers to maintenance
management. There are at least five general areas in maintenance that
commonly use computer assistance. These are:
(i) Scheduling maintenance projects
(ii) Maintenance cost reports by production department, cost category and
other classifications
(iii) Inventory status reports for maintenance parts and supplies
(iv) Parts failure data, and
(v) Operations analysis studies, which may include computer simulation,
waiting lines (queuing theory), and other analytical programmes.
In spite of the fact that computers, robots, and high-tech machinery are
important concerns in maintenance management today, people concerns may
actually be at the heart of better maintenance. Hence, one important trend is the
involvement of production workers in repairing their own machines and
performing PM on their own machines. In this regard, widening the scope of
workers' jobs to include maintenance of their machines, would not only
improve maintenance, but may actually result in numerous side benefits.
From this discussion, it is very clear that maintenance today in production and
operations management (POM) means more than simply maintaining the
machines of production. Since POM has broadened its perspectives from
minimizing short range costs to other, long-range performance measures such
as customer service, return on investment, product quality, and providing for
workers' needs, maintenance too, has broadened its own perspectives. Hence,
maintenance in the present day means that the prompt supply of quality
products and services is what is maintained, not merely machines.

4.0

CONCLUSION

You have learned in this unit, the importance of keeping production equipment
adjusted, repaired, and in good operating condition. You also learned the direct

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impacts of equipment malfunctioning on both manufacturing and service

industries. You were again thought that maintenance today means more than
simply maintaining the machines of production. In addition, prompt supply of
quality products and services is also maintained.

5.0

SUMMARY

Maintaining the productive capability of an organisation is an important

function. Maintenance includes all of the activities related to keeping facilities
and equipment in good operating order and maintaining the appearance of
buildings and grounds.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE (SAE)
1. List the costs associated with equipment breakdown
2. What are three different ways preventive maintenance is scheduled?
3. Explain the term predictive maintenance and the importance of good
records.

6.0
1.
2.

7.0

TUTOR - MARKED ASSIGNMENT QUESTION

What are the current trends in maintenance management?
Discuss the approaches being used to deal with breakdowns

REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Cordero, S.T. (1987): Maintenance Management. Englewood Cliffs N.J.

Fairmont Press. Craither, N (1996): Production and Operations
Management. 7th ed. Belmont, California: Wadswonth
Publishing Company
Hayes, R.H. and K.B. Clerk (1980): "Why Some Factories are more
Productive than Others" Harvard Business Review 64,
No 5: 66-73.
Tombari, H (1982): "Designing a Maintenance Management System"
Production and Inventory Management 23, No 4 : 139 - 147
Stevenson, W.J. (1976): Production/Operations Management 5th ed. Burr
Ridge, Ill. Richard D. Irwin.