Cattle and Swine

Trucking Guide for

Exporters

CONTENTS
Introduction
Preconditioning
Feeding and Watering
Veterinary Care
Stress Reduction
Transport Vehicles
Vehicles' Description
Vehicles' Construction and Accessories
Legal Limitations on Operation of Trucks
Preparation of Transport Vehicles to Carry Animals
Bedding
Ventilation and Temperature Considerations
Cleaning
Maintenance of Transport Vehicles
Loading
Loading Facilities
Loading Chutes
Minimize Stress During Loading
Stocking Densities
Separation of Animals When Loading

Qualifications for Livestock Handlers

Care During Transit
Good Practices For Drivers
What To Do During Adverse Weather
Maximum Transit Time
Use of Rest Stops
Unloading
General Considerations for Unloading
Unloading Chutes and Facilities
Post-transit Feeding, Watering, and Coordination
General Considerations
Cattle
Swine
In Summary
References
Appendix A: Handling Downed Animals
Appendix B: Nationwide List of Rest Stops
Appendix C: Livestock Weather Safety Index

Introduction
In 1998 over 180 million cattle, calves, swine, sheep, and lambs were marketed in the
United States.(1) That same year, U.S. exports of these same species amounted to well
over one million. Whether the animals are destined for domestic markets, border
countries, or to airports and seaports for foreign offshore markets, highway transport
plays a vital role in this marketing process. The keys to a successful outcome are careful
and efficient planning and proper follow-through to assure maintenance of the stock
throughout the handling and transportation process. Such measures will also help
maintain the market value of stock and reduce claims due to injury and mortality. This
guide will address many important aspects of livestock highway transport, from the
planning stage, through loading procedures, and finally, unloading at final destination or
port for onward journey. It is designed as a practical reference for use by shippers,
carriers, receivers, and others in the livestock industry to help assure safe and efficient
livestock highway transport.
Livestock export shipments are subject to numerous regulations; however, the focus of
this guide is on technical aspects of transporting livestock over the road. Although many
species of livestock are commonly carried by truck, the scope of this guide is limited to
cattle and swine.

Preconditioning
The first step in livestock transport is getting animals ready for their trip. Treatment of
animals before transit affects their ability to withstand the rigors of transport, which has a
major influence on their condition upon arrival at final destination. Proper feeding and
watering, appropriate veterinary care, and proficient handling before transport will help
assure trouble-free transport and delivery of healthy stock.
Feeding and Watering
Appropriate pre-transit feeding and watering will help reduce transport stress and
maintain the health of stock during transport. Factors such as what kind of feed animals
are accustomed to, weather conditions, and species influence pre-transit feeding and
watering requirements. Since these factors vary with each shipment, feeding and watering
practices for individual groups of animals should be determined on a case-by-case basis.
The following guidelines were developed from publications on livestock highway
transport and from recommendations of persons who have extensive experience in
carrying livestock over the road.
Pre-transit Diet

Ship only animals that have been on a healthy diet. Well-nourished animals will
have strength and body reserve that will help them withstand stresses brought on
by the rigors of transport.

Provide ample water before transport. How much water animals need before a trip
is influenced by pre-transit diet. Animals that have been on green pasture or
moist feeds get a substantial amount of their water from what they eat.
However, once they are transferred to pens and placed on a diet of hay or dry
feed, their water consumption will increase.

Withhold feed from animals for a few hours before transport during extremely
cold weather. This helps prevent wind chill caused by animals soiling each other
when they are in transit.

Prevent animals from consuming an excessive amount of feed before transport.

Overfilled cattle are uncomfortable during transit and often become ill. This can
bring on nervousness and excessive pushing and shoving.

Avoid giving green feeds, succulent feeds,(2) concentrated feeds(3) and high energy
feeds(4) to mature cattle before transit. However, finished cattle for slaughter that
are acclimated to a high-energy feed may remain on that diet. Green or succulent
feeds will cause animals to have very wet manure, resulting in their soiling each
other during transit. Concentrated feeds and high-energy feeds can cause mature
cattle to have digestive problems.

Condition cattle to good-quality hay(5) or grain-based feed(6) for 7 to 10 days

before transport. This will enable them to better withstand transport and lose less
weight. Cattle that have been fed on pasture will lose the most weight during
transport. Also, cattle will not make best use of feed provided at rest stops unless
previously conditioned to hay.

Feed cattle 50 to 75 percent long hay(7) and 25 to 50 percent grain-based feed for
24 hours before transport. Percentages of hay and grain depend on maturity of
cattle. Older cattle get less grain and more hay. Hay will help to keep their
rumination system functioning. If rumination stops, medication may be needed to
restore normal digestion. Feeding grain-based feed will give cattle energy to help
withstand transport.

Provide cattle with water up to time of transport to help reduce weight loss.
However, do not to let them drink excessively, as they may become sick during
transport.

Special Considerations for Calves

Condition newly weaned calves to hay and/or grain 3 to 4 weeks before transit.
This will reduce transport stress and help prevent sickness during transport.
If feeder calves will travel for more than 8 hours, feed them a grain-based
concentrate for at least 24 hours before shipment. Grain is better than hay for
feeder calves, because they perform better during long-distance shipment.
However, if calves are accustomed to eating hay do not abruptly change their diet.
Allow at least a 4- to 5-day gradual conversion to an all-grain diet.

Special Considerations for Swine

Feed swine lightly with regular swine feed, consisting of ground corn with a soy
base, prior to transport. If swine are not fed prior to transport they may lose
considerable weight during the first part of the trip. Swine should not be fed too
heavily before a trip, because they have a tendency to become ill during transport.
Swine that have been off feed for more than 12 hours may lose weight
excessively. However, they can be kept off feed before short trips to avoid their
becoming sick during transport.

Water Quality

Give good-quality water (8) to stock prior to transport. High salinity may cause
excessive consumption. Water which has a hydrogen-ion concentration (pH) that
is too high or low can cause digestive upsets. Water should be clean and free of
contaminants. Do not give water to animals that contains algae, as some species
of algae are toxic to animals. Animals that are not used to chlorinated water may
shy away from it. Be sure to carefully follow instructions for use of any chemicals
that are added to water for purification.

Animal Background

Make sure that animals in holding areas are not reluctant to consume water. Some
stock may need to be acclimated to feedlot conditions before they will drink
freely. For example, range animals may be reluctant to drink from troughs or
small water dispensers.

Allow animals that have been through handling or sorting to rehydrate before
being loaded.

Veterinary Care
Appropriate veterinary care helps to sustain health of stock during transport and is a legal
requirement under some circumstances.

Assure that animals in export shipment meet health requirements of the importing
country. Examination must be done by a USDA Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Service (APHIS) veterinarian or a veterinarian accredited by APHIS.
Contact the APHIS Area Veterinarian in Charge (AVIC) in any State for
information on examination of animals for export shipment. Addresses and phone
numbers of AVICs can be found in section 6, Livestock Export Inspection
Facilities.

Check with appropriate State authorities to find if any regulations apply. Some
States may have requirements concerning veterinary care for animals in transit
through their jurisdictions.

Give livestock medication for any potential diseases before export shipment.

Stress Reduction
Good handling will minimize stress caused by unfamiliar surroundings, frequent
movement, examination, etc. For more information on handling, see Minimize Stress
During Loading and Qualifications for Livestock Handlers . Appendix A, Handling
Downed Animals, also contains information that pertains to handling.

Precondition animals that are accustomed to isolated range and pasture to the
presence of people. This is one of the ways to reduce transport stress that may
prevent weight loss. The stock will be easier to handle and more willing to enter
strange environments once they are acclimated to people.

Transport Vehicles
Livestock often spend an extensive amount of time in a vehicle during highway transport.
Livestock in transit are under a great deal of stress because of constant changes in
environment. Vehicle selection can help to reduce stress and greatly influence the success
of any livestock highway shipment by facilitating handling and helping to maintain the
comfort of stock during transport.
Vehicles' Descriptions
Five types of vehicles are commonly used for livestock transport. The following
descriptions and illustrations of these vehicles will help shippers select vehicles that best
suit their needs. Click on the hyperlink after each vehicle description to see illustrations.
Possum Belly Trailer
Length - 46-53 ft (14.0-16.2 m) in 6-in (15.2-cm) increments
Width - 96 and 102 in (243.8 and 259.1 cm)
Configuration - 2, 3, or 4 decks, depending on the species and size of animals to be
hauled
Most common use - Long haul
Special Feature - Equipped with interior ramps for animals to walk to and from decks
Advantages - Designed to make maximum use of space
- Can easily and quickly be adapted to accommodate various size animals
- Can be custom built
- Generally considered best general-use trailer for carrying large lots of
animals over long distances
Disadvantage - May not be well suited for hauling swine, because these animals tend to
resist walking up and down ramps. This results in undue stress. Some possum belly
trailers are constructed with gradual slopes to minimize this problem.
(See figures 1 and 2.)
Straight Trailer
Length - 46-53 ft (14.0-16.2 m) in 6-in (15.2-cm) increments

Width - 96 and 102 in (243.8 and 259.1 cm)

Configuration - 1, 2, or 3 decks, depending on the species and size of animals to be
hauled
Most common use - Long haul
Special Feature - Equipped with interior ramps for animals to walk to and from decks
Advantages - Preferred by some swine shippers because they do not stress animals by
requiring them to walk up and down
as many ramps as some possum bellies
- Can be custom built
Disadvantage - Does not make maximum use of space
(See figure 3.)
Gooseneck Trailer
Length - 16-40 ft (4.9-12.2 m)
Width - 5-7 ft (1.5-2.1 m)
Configuration - One or two decks
Most Common Use - Short haul
Special Feature - Some are equipped with a ramp that is used for loading and unloading
the upper deck
Advantages - Well suited for small lots of animals
- Does not require loading chute
- Some goosenecks with two decks have a ramp for loading the upper deck
- Can be maneuvered in tight spaces
- Can be pulled by a pickup or truck much smaller than a semi tractor
Disadvantage - Not well suited for large lots of animals
(See figure 4.)
Pup Trailers

Length - Usually 20-28 ft (6.1-8.5 m)

Width - Usually 96 and 102 in (243.8 and 259.1 cm)
Configuration - Usually two decks
Most Common Use - Short and long haul
Advantages - Well suited for hauling small lots of animals
- Can be maneuvered in tight spaces
- Can be pulled individually or in tandem (one behind the other) by a semi
tractor or behind a straight livestock
truck
- Can be pulled for a short distance by a farm tractor
Disadvantages - Less space-efficient than some other types of trailers
- When pulled in tandem are subjected to road restrictions placed on
double trailers
(See figure 5.)
Straight Truck
Length - Generally 18-20 ft (5.5-6.1 m), but can be as short as 10 ft (3.0 m)
Width - Varies, but generally no more than 96 in (243.8 cm)
Configuration - Usually one deck
Most Common Use - Short haul
Advantages - Well suited for small lots
- Can be maneuvered in tight spaces
Disadvantage - Not well suited for large lots of animals
(See figure 6.)

Figure 1. Possum belly trailer with punched sides.

Figure 2. Typical configurations for possum belly trailers.

Figure 3. Straight livestock trailer with slatted sides.

Figure 4. Gooseneck trailer with slatted sides.

Figure 5. Pup trailers hooked in tandem.

Figure 6. Straight truck with slatted sides.

Vehicles' Construction and Accessories

Livestock trucks can be constructed or equipped in various ways to meet requirements of
shippers and specific needs of the animals being hauled. Some of the most common ways
follow.
Vehicle Construction

West Coast doors are installed on the sides of livestock trailers near the back.
These doors are used when there is insufficient maneuvering space to permit
trucks to back up to loading areas.

Punch side trailers have solid sides with holes punched for ventilation. These
trailers are the most common. Truckers say that they are stronger and require less
maintenance. Some maintain that punched sides cause less bruising.

Slatted side trailers are constructed with horizontal slats on the sides.

Three-axle trailers are manufactured for hauling heavier loads and better weight
distribution. These trailers are used mainly in the Northwest. Their main
disadvantage is that highway weight limitations may prohibit their use in some
areas (see Legal Limitations on Operation of Trucks).

Air ride suspension systems for livestock trailers are just coming into use. This
type of trailer will provide a smoother ride for animals. When purchasing an air
ride suspension trailer, be sure that it is equipped with an appropriate leveling
valve that will equalize pressure so that weight will be evenly distributed.

Accessories to Meet Special Needs

Sprinkler systems are installed in some trucks used for hauling swine. Swine are
extremely sensitive to temperature extremes and research has shown that
performance will improve if swine in-transit are sprinkled at half-hour intervals
when the ambient temperature is more than 80o F (27o C). These sprinkler systems
may operate from an external water source or trucks may be equipped with
storage tanks. Livestock haulers should note that carrying water on the road to
sprinkle swine will add considerable weight to a truck and make compliance with
legal weight limitations difficult. Shippers and carriers should note that water
leaking from trucks in which swine are sprinkled will contain manure. Authorities
may impose fines if this occurs. Use of good absorbent bedding will greatly help
to minimize this problem (see Bedding). See Livestock Weather Safety Index,
appendix C, for additional information on hauling swine during hot weather.

Caution: Never put a large amount of cold water on overheated swine. This may cause
shock, possibly resulting in death.

Interior lights make night loading easier. Livestock, especially swine, are more
willing to move into lighted trucks.

Partitions are often used when hauling a partial load so that animals can be forced
to stand close together to provide stability. They should also be used to separate
different sizes and species, and to separate sick or injured animals from the rest of
the load. Partitions can also be used in large trucks as baffles to stabilize full
loads, which is especially important during emergency stops. However, using
partitions in full loads may reduce the number of animals that can be carried.
Partitions can also be used to prevent large groups of swine from huddling
together during cold weather shipments to keep warm. When they huddle
together, they may form a large pile which can result in suffocation of swine at
the bottom of the pile. (See Weather Considerations With Regard to Stocking
Density and What To Do During Adverse Weather for additional information on
cold-weather hauling.)

Covers for slatted side trucks and hole plugs for punch side trailers are available
for hauling during cold weather. (See Ventilation and Temperature Considerations
for additional information.)

Legal Limitations on Operation of Trucks

Many laws and regulations govern weight and size of trucks, use of trailers hooked in
tandem (doubles), how many hours a driver may be on the road, etc. Check with
appropriate State agencies for information on laws and regulations that apply to operation
of trucks. "Highway Regulatory Guidelines for Farm Equipment Operators," published
by the Upper Great Plains Transportation Institute, North Dakota State University, Fargo,
ND, contains detailed information regarding laws and regulations governing operation of
trucks. Copies are available free of charge. Call William Dunton at (202) 690-2330 or
write USDA Agricultural Marketing Service, Transportation and Marketing Division,
P.O. Box 96456, Room 1217-S, Washington, DC 20090-6456.

Preparation of Transport Vehicles To Carry Animals

Properly prepared vehicles help to prevent injury to stock, maintain contentment of
animals, and reduce the possibility of disease transmission. Good bedding, adequate
ventilation, thorough cleaning, and careful vehicle maintenance all help to provide a
favorable environment for transport.
Bedding
Proper bedding will help assure safe transport conditions and enhance animal comfort.
Bedding material absorbs animal waste and helps to provide good footing. It also helps to
keep animals warm during cold weather and prevent overheating during warm weather.
Only use bedding that is clean and free of contamination. Sanitation is essential to deter
spread of pests and diseases, especially during export shipment. Four materials are used
for bedding: sawdust, wood shavings, straw, and sand.

Sawdust is absorbent and light. Softwoods, such as pine, are better than
hardwoods because they are more absorbent. Sawdust is good for warm-weather
shipments because it does not generate heat and it can be moistened to help keep
animals cool. Sawdust bedding should be used for swine shipments when the
ambient temperature is more than 60o F (16o C).

Wood shavings have much the same characteristics as sawdust.

Straw is highly absorbent and light. It generates heat that helps keep animals
warm during cold weather shipments. However, the heat-generating
characteristics of straw are a disadvantage when temperatures are high. Heatsensitive animals, such as swine, should never be bedded with straw during warm
weather. Another disadvantage of straw is that when it becomes saturated, it
causes slippery conditions. Some truckers do not like straw bedding because it
clogs trailer drains, thus making cleaning difficult.

Sand is absorbent and like sawdust and wood chips it can be moistened to help
keep animals cool. A major advantage of sand, unlike other bedding materials, is
that when it gets wet, it will still provide extremely good footing. Some truckers
like to have sand handy during loading and unloading to throw on the floor of the
truck near the tailgate, because bedding often is pushed away from this area,
causing the floor near the tailgate to become slippery. The main disadvantage of
sand is that it is abrasive. Some truckers prefer not to use sand because it wears
trailer floors. Another disadvantage is that it is heavier than other bedding
materials.

Deciding how much bedding to put in a truck requires judgment based on factors
such as the amount of time animals will be in transport, species, and time of year.
Generally, sawdust and wood shavings should be about 2 in (5 cm) deep, straw 34 in (8-10 cm) deep, and sand at least 1 in (3 cm) deep.

Ventilation and Temperature Considerations

Poor air circulation, unfavorable air composition, and temperature extremes can greatly
affect animals already stressed by constant handling and changes in environment.
Transport vehicles must allow enough air to satisfy breathing requirements of animals,
and air change must be great enough to control the concentration of gases and odors.
Sufficient ventilation must be provided, especially during hot weather, to compensate for
animals' increased respiration. Ventilation must also be sufficient to dissipate any buildup
from animals' natural heat production. During cold weather, precautions should be taken
to assure that animals do not become excessively chilled.
Ventilation

Holes in punch side trailers are flared so that a vortex is created. This enhances
ventilation by drawing air into trailers when they are moving.

Diesel exhaust fumes have an adverse effect on livestock. Studies have shown
that it takes animals weeks to recover from effects of prolonged exposure. Calves
hauled on top decks of trailers pulled by tractors that had exhaust stacks 14-24 in
(36-61 cm) below the roof did not gain weight after transport as fast as those
hauled on the bottom decks of those trailers. Differences have been observed up
to 70 days after transport. Exhaust stacks on tractors that pull livestock trailers
should be at least as high as the trailer roof.

Temperature

Some livestock trailers are equipped with nose vents that can be opened during
hot weather to enhance ventilation. They are especially important to maximize
ventilation when trucks are not moving. Always close these vents during cold
weather.

Side covers are available for slatted side trucks used for hauling swine or other
temperature-sensitive species. These covers shield all or part of truck sides during
cold weather hauls. How much of the truck sides are covered depends on ambient
temperature, number of animals being hauled, travel time, and condition of
animals.

Plastic plugs are available for covering holes in punch side trailers used to haul
swine or other temperature-sensitive stock when temperature is low. Again, how
much of the truck sides are covered depends on ambient temperature, number of
animals, travel time, and condition of animals.

Background of animals is a major consideration when deciding how much

protection they need from temperature extremes during transport. For example,
cattle transported from Florida to New England in January may be sensitive to
abrupt temperature decreases. Conversely, animals transported from New England

to Florida during the winter may have difficulty adjusting to abrupt temperature
increases. Animals from colder regions may also be sensitive to temperature
increases if transported to warmer regions during the summer. Also, livestock that
have been kept indoors may react unfavorably when exposed to outdoor
conditions.

For related information on ventilation see Weather Considerations With Regard to

Stocking Density and What To Do During Adverse Weather.

Cleaning
Clean trucks are especially important for export shipment because all livestock export
shipments must meet the importing countries' regulations designed to protect against
entry of diseases and pests. Trucks used for export shipment must be thoroughly cleaned
and disinfected before loading livestock. The following practices are commonly used to
assure that livestock trucks are clean and disease free.

Wash out with a high-pressure hose or scrub trucks used for export shipment
before loading. All caked-on waste should be washed from walls and floors.

Use disinfectant in the washing process. It may be mixed with the wash water or
be applied from disinfectant containers during washing out or scrubbing. Use only
disinfectant recommended for animal facilities. Be sure to follow the
manufacturer's instructions and observe all safety precautions. In some cases,
exporters may be required to use a disinfectant approved by the USDA's Animal
and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). A list of approved disinfectants
may be obtained by contacting the office of an APHIS Area Veterinarian In
Charge (AVIC) in any State. See section 6 (Livestock Export Inspection
Facilities) for addresses and phone numbers of AVICs

Use hot water as an alternative to clean and disinfect trailers. The temperature
should be at least 180o F (82o C).

Clean manure from trucks to assure that legal weight limits are met.

Be careful not to pollute ground water, lakes, and streams and comply with all
environmental laws and regulations when disposing of waste and water used for
cleaning trucks.

Use waste from truck cleaning as fertilizer, if desired. Some livestock carriers
collect solid waste by screening water being drained from trailers during washing.
They also collect water from washing and store it in ponds. Both the solid waste
and water are given to farmers who spread them on their fields.

Maintenance of Transport Vehicles

Any delay or injury to animals during transport can be costly. Delays caused by
mechanical breakdowns can seriously disrupt carefully planned schedules which are
extremely crucial to export shipments. Poorly maintained vehicles may also be unsafe to
operate. If vehicles' interiors are not properly maintained, animals may sustain injuries
during transport. These injuries may result in decreased value of stock, require costly
emergency veterinary services, and can even necessitate destruction of animals. The
following precautions will help prevent mechanical breakdowns, assure safe vehicle
operation, and prevent injury to stock.
Preventing Breakdowns and Assuring Safety

Maintain trucks and trailers as recommended by manufacturers.

Service and replace tires, brakes, and lights as needed, and comply with all laws
and safety regulations.

Preventing Injury to Stock

Keep interiors of transport vehicles in good repair so that there are no sharp edges
or protrusions, such as nails, bolts, and hinges, on which animals may cut
themselves.

Make certain that truck floors and ramps have non-slip surfaces or are covered
with bedding material to prevent animals from slipping.

Ensure that floors have no holes or loose planks which animals may step through.

Maintain truck gates that slide up to open, so that they will not fall on animals.

Loading
Injury and stress are likely to occur during loading. Conditions during loading can also
significantly influence how animals fare during transport. This section discusses proper
design of loading facilities and equipment, helpful techniques for minimizing stress when
loading livestock, appropriate stocking densities in transport vehicles, necessary
separation of animals in a load, and qualifications for livestock handlers.
Loading Facilities
Properly designed loading facilities (pens, alleyways, ramps, etc., in areas where animals
are grouped for loading) enhance efficiency of livestock transport by minimizing stress,
preventing injury to animals, and making loading quick and easy. Important design
considerations prevent injury to stock and facilitate loading by taking advantage of
animals' natural behavior.
Safety Design Considerations

Ensure that loading facilities are free of protrusions that can cause injury to
animals.

Maintain gates that slide up to open and use them carefully, so that they will not
fall on animals.

Design facilities that will be used for large-framed animals with the animals' size
in mind. Research has shown that large-framed animals are more likely to
experience bruise-causing impacts during handling.

Construct flooring in loading facilities of rough concrete or provide other non-slip

surfaces to ensure good footing for animals.

Animal Behavior Design Considerations

Cover loading chutes, especially new ones, with hay or straw, so that animals will
be less reluctant to walk on them. Livestock prefer to walk on soft surfaces rather
than steel or concrete.

Fit gates that clang with rubber bumpers, so that they will not cause animals to
balk.

Use gates made of mesh or bars in loading facilities, so that cattle can see through
them. Cattle tend to turn back when they see no avenue of escape. However, sides
of ramps, alleyways, crowd pens used to assemble stock immediately before
loading, etc., should be solid to prevent animals from seeing people and other
distractions that may cause them to balk. Crowd gates (gates to crowd pens)
should also be solid to prevent animals from turning back.

Design loading facilities so that sharp turns and complex movements, which are
confusing to animals, are avoided. Wide sweeping curves will facilitate animal
movement.

Design facilities so that animals do not have to cross floor drains. Livestock often
resist walking over grates.

Provide lighting in loading facilities that is even and diffused. Wide-angle vision
and poor depth perception cause livestock to be extremely sensitive to differences
in lighting. Some shadows can cause animals to balk. Avoid sharp contrasts, such
as those caused by slatted shades. Also avoid harsh light that shines in animals'
eyes. Cover lights with diffuser screens to avoid this.

When loading livestock at night, light alleyways and loading chutes with
increasing intensity toward the truck. This takes advantage of cattle and swine's
natural tendency to move toward light. Illuminating truck interiors will induce
animals to enter. Livestock are often reluctant to move into a dark area.
Persuading animals to enter a dark single-file chute can be difficult.

Loading Chutes
Loading chutes are inclined ramps enclosed on both sides that livestock walk on to enter
transport vehicles. They may be permanently mounted or portable. Permanently mounted
chutes usually have steel sides and steel or concrete ramps. Portable chutes are usually
constructed completely of steel. Sides of loading chutes are generally as high as the
animals' heads. All loading chutes should have specific characteristics that facilitate
movement of animals and help to prevent injury. They should be designed for the species
and size of animals for which they are to be used.
Cattle

Cattle loading chutes should be narrow so that animals can go single file into a
truck. This takes advantage of cattle's natural tendency to follow a leader.
Animals cannot turn around in the chute. Appropriate width of chutes varies with
breed and age of animals. Chutes should not be made wider than necessary. If
chutes are too wide, two animals can wedge if one tries to turn. This will result in
delays and possible injury to stock.

Swine

Swine loading chutes should be constructed so that animals can walk single file
into a truck, or two abreast. Swine vary greatly in size, so chutes must be the
appropriate width for the animals to be loaded. Do not use chutes that are 1
animals wide, because this will cause animals to wedge in the chute, possibly
resulting in injuries to stock and shipment delays.

Cattle and Swine

Permanently mounted chutes used for cattle and swine should have steps or cleats
to reduce slippage. Distance between cleats and dimensions of steps should match
the stride of the animals using the chute.

Steep chutes can cause slippage, especially in the winter. The slope of a
permanently mounted chute should be no more than 20 degrees. The slope of
portable adjustable chutes should not exceed 25 degrees. Swine tend to resist
walking on steep slopes. If there is sufficient space, the slope of permanently
mounted chutes for swine should be 15 degrees.

Loading chutes should have non-slip surfaces to prevent animals from falling.

Loading chutes that are used during daylight should be oriented north or south, so
that animals will not have to look directly into the sun.

Telescoping side panels and self-aligning bumpers on chutes help prevent animals
from jumping out through the gap between the back of the truck and the chute.

Loading chutes should be as short as possible, so that a handler can get to both
ends quickly.

Solid sides on loading chutes prevent animals from seeing outside. Even relatively
insignificant things, such as reflections from car bumpers, can frighten animals
and cause them to stop or try to move back. Sides should be high enough so that
animals cannot see over them.

Minimize Stress During Loading

Transport stress brought on by unfamiliar surroundings and frequent handling is one of
the most significant problems encountered during livestock highway transport. Stress can
contribute to transport-related illnesses. Take the following measures to help reduce
loading stress:

Preplan livestock shipments. Transport vehicles should arrive on schedule to

minimize time animals must be held in loading facilities. After letting animals
settle for a few minutes, the vehicle should leave as soon as possible. This will
help to prevent heat buildup and minimize time animals must be in the vehicle.

Avoid mixing animals that are unfamiliar with each other to avoid fighting.

Always keep handling time to a minimum. This will help keep animals settled.
Livestock will lose more weight when they are moving than when they are quiet.

Sort animals before loading. Group animals by size, species, origin, etc., prior to
loading the truck.

In the event cattle are dipped,(9) allow them to dry thoroughly before loading.

Protect animals from freezing rain and sleet. Precipitation in this form can be
deadly to animals. Even cattle with heavy coats will not be protected against
chilling caused by saturation of freezing precipitation. Be certain to protect
animals from prolonged exposure.

Construct loading chutes and facilities according to prescribed recommendations

(see Loading Facilities).

Move animals with minimal excitement. Exciting animals more than necessary
will not only result in increased stress levels but will increase susceptibility to
bruise or other injury. Always move slowly and quietly around livestock. Yelling
and beating animals (especially swine) will make them difficult to handle.
Handling animals in an easy and friendly manner will minimize stress.

Do not rush animals. Let animals follow the leader at their own pace.

Be sensitive to differences in animal behavior due to breed and animal

background. For example, Angus cattle are more excitable than Herefords, and
swine raised indoors move more slowly than swine raised outside.

When moving cattle, be aware of their flight zone. This is the area around an
animal in which it feels secure. When a handler enters the flight zone, the animal
moves away and will stop when the handler leaves the flight zone. Size of the
flight zone depends on tameness of the animal.

Use either a wide canvas slapper or an electric prod to drive animals. Cattle can
also be driven with a plastic bag on a stick. They will quickly move away from
the sound of the plastic. Never strike animals with such objects as sticks, pipes,
canes, or forks.

Use electric prods sparingly. They are somewhat controversial. Some livestock
industry personnel prefer not to use electric prods. Excessive use of prods can
drive animals into a frenzy. This is an especially important consideration when
handling swine. If a swine is prodded several times in rapid succession, it may
have a heart attack.
Caution: Never continue to prod a swine that lies down.

After loading, let animals settle for a few minutes before moving the truck.

Special Considerations for Swine

Movement of swine through loading facilities will cause exertion. For example, a
swine's heart will beat much faster than usual when it is climbing a loading chute.

Swine may suffer heart attacks due to overexertion. When a swine's heart starts to
race, it will lay down to bring its heart rate to a safe level.
Caution: An overexerted swine must always be allowed to rest.

If a swine collapses from overexertion, don't throw cold water on it. This will
shock its system and may kill it. Instead, wet the ground around the swine to
provide evaporative cooling.

Porcine Stress Syndrome (PSS) is the leading cause of swine deaths during
transport. Swine with PSS will suddenly lie down, pant, and tremble. The skin of
white swine may have a red, splotchy appearance. Swine showing these
symptoms must be allowed to rest or they are likely to die.

When the temperature is over 80o F (27o C) sprinkle swine before loading to
prevent them from becoming overheated.

Caution: Never put a large amount of cold water on overheated swine. This may cause
shock resulting in death.

Stocking Densities
As with all modes of transport, one of the most vital decisions that must be made prior to
livestock highway shipment is how many animals to load. Improper stocking density may
result in excessive shrinkage, injury to stock, delivery of sick animals, and even fatalities.
Livestock carriers should be sure to keep trucks within legal weight limitations and
distribute loads evenly. Failure to do so may result in fines and cause vehicles to be
unstable and difficult to control while on the road. Assure proper stocking density by
following good loading practices, anticipating weather conditions, and considering size
and condition of stock. There is a stocking density chart below.

Figure 7. Stocking density chart.

Loading Practices With Regard to Stocking Density

Always decide before shipment how many animals to put in a transport vehicle.
Consider truck size, body shape and weight of animals, condition of animals, and
weather conditions.

Avoid overcrowding. It will cause excessive weight loss and stock will look bad
at destination. Overcrowded loads tend to contain downed animals at destination.
Any savings in hauling charges, due to reduced cost per head, will most likely be
lost due to deterioration of stock. Animals that are loaded too densely become
uneasy and perspire heavily, particularly during hot weather. Excess moisture
produced from urine, manure, and breathing will cause hair and skin to become
damp. When floors become exceptionally wet, animals may fall frequently.
Animals that go down will have difficulty getting up and may be trampled
resulting in injury or death. Cattle that are loaded too densely may also jam at the
truck door during unloading. Overly tight loading should be avoided even for very
short hauls.

Partition transport vehicles if less than a full load is to be shipped. When animals
are loaded too loosely, they may not have enough support and fall frequently
during transport. Partitions in large trucks will also serve as baffles against excess
movement during acceleration and braking and are especially important during
emergency stops.

Distribute weight evenly throughout the transport vehicle. If the load consists of
different size animals, use partitions to distribute animals so the load will be
balanced. This will also protect smaller animals from being trampled.

Weather Considerations With Regard to Stocking Density

During cold weather, tight loading may tend to decrease weight loss because
animals will stay warmer.

Tight loading during hot weather will contribute to heat buildup and cause
fatigue. Overly fatigued animals will tend to lie down at destination and they will
be reluctant to eat and drink. This is an especially important consideration for
swine transport, because swine are very heat sensitive. Tight loading of swine
during hot weather will increase death losses. During hot weather reduce stocking
density for swine. They should be loaded less tightly in the back of the transport
vehicle to avoid heat buildup. Stocking density for cattle should also be reduced
slightly during hot weather. (See What To Do During Adverse Weather and the
Livestock Weather Safety Index, appendix C, for additional information.)

When determining stocking density by weight, keep in mind that wet or rainsoaked animals will weigh more than dry animals.

When deciding stocking density during hot weather, bear in mind that animals
produce heat, most of which must be dissipated. Table 1 (below) gives heat
production figures for several sizes of cattle and swine.

Table 1. Animal heat production

Type of Animal Animal Weight
Heat Production
Lb

Kg

Pig

25

11

Hog

550

249

Calf

300

Cow

1000

Total Heat Production

Btu/Hr./ Lb Kj/Hr./Kg

Btu/Hr.

Kj/Hr.

20

225

220

16

3850

3984

136

11

1500

1496

454

3000

3178

Stocking Density With Regard to Condition and Size of Stock

Use good judgment when deciding how many animals to put in a transport vehicle.
Determinations can't be made by weight alone because animals vary in size and body
shape. Many factors influence how many animals can be loaded in a truck.

Breeds that tend to be especially tall and narrow can be loaded more densely than
breeds that tend to be short and wide.

Horned animals may need to be loaded less densely, because horns and tips can
cause bruises; how much less depends on size and sharpness of horns.

Pregnant animals should be loaded less densely. They will require more room to
get up if they go down.

Separation of Animals When Loading

Under some circumstances an animal or group of animals may need to be separated from
others in a load to avoid injury during transport. Some examples follow:

Separate different species and vastly different size animals.

Isolate pregnant animals.

Avoid mixing swine and cattle from different farms during transport to avoid
fighting.

Segregate horned animals from hornless animals.

Qualifications for Livestock Handlers

Proper loading techniques and adequate training of animal handlers contribute greatly to
safety and efficiency of loading. Despite good facilities, poor handling will cause undue
stress, possibly resulting in reduced quality of stock and injury to animals. Good handling
depends on handler's attitude and understanding of how animals will react.

Ensure that persons who handle livestock have a basic understanding of animals'
behavior and physical needs.

Impress handlers with the effect their actions can have on animals in their charge.

Teach handlers that use of persuaders such as prods and whips should be
minimized.

Ensure that there is a commitment to proper handling from everyone, from the top
down, involved with the livestock shipment.

Develop training programs for handlers when necessary.

Care During Transit

Appropriate care during transport will help assure delivery of healthy stock and prevent
in-transit injuries. Proper care should be a priority, no matter the length of the trip.
Sometimes animals lose more weight on short hauls than on long hauls. There is a reason
for this. Animals traveling long distances get first class service--no crowding, good
bedding, and rest stops at proper intervals with free access to feed and water. Animals
traveling only a short distance don't always get this quality care because it is sometimes
thought to be unimportant for short trips. This section contains recommendations on good
practices for drivers, what to do during adverse weather, maximum transit time, and use
of rest stops.
Good Practices for Drivers
Truck drivers play one of the most important roles in livestock highway transport.
Usually they must take sole responsibility for the welfare of animals on the road. How
drivers operate vehicles, how much time they spend checking on animals' welfare, and
how well they are prepared to deal with emergency situations greatly influences the
outcome of any livestock highway shipment. Drivers who observe the following
procedures will help assure arrival of stock in good condition.

Start out slowly and avoid fast stops. Fast starts and stops, taking curves too fast,
etc., will knock animals down.

Keep loaded livestock trucks moving, especially during hot weather. This will
maintain a constant air flow that will help keep animals cool and prevent buildup
of gases from animal wastes.

Plan to make periodic stops during transport to check welfare of stock (Are there
any downers? Do any appear ill? Are they too cold or overheated?). Also make
vehicle security inspections when checking animals during a stop. Make sure load
partitions are in place and secure, trailer doors are securely closed, and bedding is
sufficient. Generally, stops should be 4 to 5 hours apart. However, drivers need to
use judgment when deciding how often to stop to check animals, considering
condition of animals, weather, and road conditions.

Be prepared to make decisions or get instructions promptly about care of stock

regarding weather conditions, animals' need for food or water, and what to do
with sick or injured animals.

What To Do During Adverse Weather

Exposure to temperature extremes and other adverse weather can have a detrimental
effect on livestock. Extremely high or low temperatures will stress animals, possibly
causing excessive weight loss, illness, or death. Be sensitive to climatic conditions at
animals' origin and destination.

Hot Weather

Haul livestock at night or early in the morning during hot weather. Occasionally it
may be advisable to postpone transport until weather conditions become more
favorable. The Livestock Weather Safety Index, appendix C, gives details on
hauling during hot weather. Although this chart was developed primarily for
swine transport, it can serve as a general guideline for cattle, too.

If possible, sprinkle swine during transit when the temperature is more than 80o F
(27o C). Although this may not be feasible on the road, studies have shown that
sprinkling swine at -hour intervals during transit, when the temperature is above
80o F (27o C), considerably improves performance and slaughter yields. Swine
that are sprinkled in-transit are also quieter and more content. This reduces
trampling and crowding. Some trailers built for hauling swine have built-in
sprinkler systems. Shippers and carriers should be aware that water from
sprinkling that drains onto road surfaces will contain manure. Some authorities
may impose fines if this occurs. Carrying water will also add considerable weight
to a truck.

Caution: Never put a large amount of cold water on swine that are overheated. This
may cause shock resulting in death.

Use appropriate bedding material for hot weather.

Provide drinking water to animals as often as possible during hot weather.

Cold Weather

Protect livestock from wind chill during cold weather. Swine are especially
sensitive to chill cross winds (see table 2, below). Air movement through trucks
can be restricted by using side covers or plastic plugs described on page 17 to
partially block air movement through trailers. Be careful to maintain adequate
ventilation.

AMES WIND CHILL INDEX

For Cattle and Shorn Sheep
(Dry Animals)
Actual Temperature

Wind Speed
MPH KPH
10
16
20
32
30
48
40
64

Table 2. Wind chill charts

F C F C F C F C F C F C
0 -18 10 -12 20 -7 30 -1 40 4 50 10
Wind Chill Factor
-10 -23 0 -18 9 -13 19 -7 29 -2 39 4
-27 -33 -17 -27 -7 -22 2 -17 12 -11 22 -6
-43 -42 -33 -36 -23 -31 -13 -25 -3 -19 6 -14
-50 -46 -40 -40 -30 -34 -20 -29 -10 -23 0 -18

F C
10 -23

-20
-37
-53
-60

-29
-38
-47
-51

Note: All Centigrade temperatures were converted from Fahrenheit and rounded to the nearest
whole number.

WIND CHILL INDEX FOR SWINE

F
Wind Speed

50 10 40

Actual Air Temperature

C F C
F
C
F
4

30

-1

20

-7

10

-12

-18 -10 -23

-5

-21 -15 -26

MPH

KPH

Wind Chill Factor

48

36

27

-3

17

-8

-15

10

16

40

29

-2

18

-8

-15

-8

-22 -20 -29 -30 -34

15

24

35

23

-5

10 -12

-5

-21 -18 -28 -29 -34 -42 -41

20

32

32

18

-8

25

40

30 -1 15

-9

-1 -18 -15 -26 -28 -33 -38 -39 -55 -48

30

48

28 -2 13 -11 -5 -21 -18 -28 -33 -36 -44 -42 -60 -51

35

56

27 -3 11 -12 -6 -21 -20 -29 -35 -37 -48 -44 -65 -54

40

64

26 -3 10 -12 -7 -22 -21 -29 -37 -38 -52 -47 -68 -56

45

72

25 -4

-13 -8 -22 -22 -30 -39 -39 -54 -48 -70 -57

50

80

25 -4

-13 -9 -23 -23 -31 -40 -40 -55 -48 -72 -58

-16 -10 -23 -23 -31 -34 -37 -50 -46

Note: All Centigrade temperatures were converted from Fahrenheit and rounded to the nearest
whole number.
Above charts were developed by Dr. David Ames of Colorado State University and published by
the Livestock Conservation Institute.

Swine hauled in cold weather tend to huddle together in piles. This sometimes
results in death of swine at the bottom of the pile. Death occurs because as
ambient temperature rises, swine on the top are still chilled and will not move, but
rising temperatures result in excessive heat buildup toward the bottom and center
of the pile. Bedding heavily with straw which will generate heat and using
partitions to separate animals into small groups will help prevent this.

Keep animals as dry as possible during cold weather. Shipment of wet animals
may cause death from wind chill. Even the heavy coats of cattle will not protect
them from wind chill when saturated.

Protect animals from prolonged exposure to freezing rain and sleet. Precipitation
in this form can be deadly to animals. Even the thick coats of cattle will not
protect them against chilling caused by saturation of freezing precipitation.

Maximum Transit Time

When livestock are in transit too long, their health will be adversely affected. This section
explains some factors that should be considered when determining how long animals
should be on a truck.

Keep transit time to a minimum. Studies have shown that animals continue to lose
weight as long as they are in a truck. Trucks should be on the road as soon as
possible after loading. Once trucks reach destination, unload animals as soon as
possible.

Mature cattle have been delivered in good condition after being carried for as long
as 48 hours. However, experienced transporters feel that cattle should not be
carried for more than 30 to 40 hours without rest. Generally, feeder calves should
not be in transit for more than 34 hours without rest. Swine have been carried for
as long as 36 hours without rest. However, they are stress-sensitive animals and
therefore cannot withstand the rigors of transport as well as cattle. Deciding how
long animals should be on the road requires good judgement. Maximum transit
time depends on many factors such as weather, species, and condition of animals.

Anyone who plans a livestock shipment should be aware that more rest stops than
necessary may not be beneficial. Some experienced livestock transporters
maintain that stress involved with frequent unloading and reloading of animals
will defeat the benefits of rest. Research has shown that loading and unloading
wilder cattle may be more stressful for them than riding in a vehicle. However,
research results indicate that this does not affect fairly tame cattle. They appear to
be stressed more by confinement in a moving vehicle. Swine are stressed by

frequent handling. Shippers and carriers should also note that whenever animals
are moved off or on a truck, there is possibility of injury.

There is much controversy about how long to rest animals in transit. Generally,
experienced transporters say 8 to 12 hours is the minimum rest time for animals
that have been in transit for 24 hours or more. The amount of time animals must
be rested depends on many factors, such as weather, condition of stock, species,
and time in transit before reaching the rest stop. Decisions on rest time must be
made on a case-by-case basis.(10)

Use of Rest Stops

Rest stops are facilities where animals in transit for extended periods can be rested, fed,
and watered during their journey. These facilities have holding pens and equipment to
unload and reload stock. These pens may be located indoors or outdoors. Feed and water
are usually provided by the operators. Improper feeding, watering, or poor care at rest
stops can adversely affect stock. However, requirements of individual groups of animals
vary, so feeding and watering practices should be determined on a case-by-case basis.
Feed

Provide mature cattle a diet consisting of 50 to 75 percent good-quality hay and

25 to 50 percent grain-based feed at rest stops, depending on the maturity of the
animals. Avoid feeding green, succulent, concentrated, and high-energy feeds (see
footnotes 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). However, feeder cattle that are acclimated to highenergy feed may stay on that diet. Green or succulent feeds will cause animals'
manure to be wet. This may result in their soiling each other when they are in
close proximity during transport. Soiling can result in excessive wind chill during
cold weather. Concentrated feeds and high-energy feeds may cause mature cattle
to have digestive problems.

Provide feeder calves a grain-based concentrate feed at rest stops. However,

abrupt changes in their diet may cause them to become sick. So if calves are
accustomed to eating hay, it should be included in their diet.

Give swine typical swine feed, consisting of ground corn with a soy base. This
feed may be pelletized or ground. Be careful not to overfeed swine during rest
stops, because it may cause them to become ill when transport resumes.
Withholding feed from swine for a few hours before departure will help avoid
this.

Water

Provide livestock with good-quality, clean water at rest stops (see footnote 8 for a
reference on water quality for livestock). High salinity will cause animals to drink
more, possibly resulting in excess consumption. Water with a too low or too high

pH can cause digestive upsets. Do not give water containing algae to animals.
Some species of algae are toxic. Some animals may shy away from chlorinated
water. Be sure to carefully follow instructions for use of any chemicals that are
added to water for purification.

Consider feeding animals before providing water. Some experienced cattle

transporters prefer this because if cattle have immediate access to water, they may
drink excessively and not eat. This is important during hot weather.

Give cattle access to water up to time of departure, but be careful not to let them
drink excessively. Cattle that consume large amounts of water tend to become ill
during transport.

Allow swine free access to water as much as possible during transport. This will
help reduce weight loss.

Assurance of Proper Care

Consider having an attendant accompany large shipments to assure that animals

are properly cared for. The attendant can make sure that livestock are supplied
adequate food and water at rest stops, and that they are given sufficient rest time.

Be certain that feeding and watering facilities are adequate for the type of stock
being transported. Calves may not be able to eat or drink from dispensers made
for larger animals. Range animals may not drink freely from troughs or small
water dispensers. If rest facilities are not adequate, a rest stop may serve only to
prolong transport stress.

Be certain rest facilities' managers take precautions to prevent spread of disease.

Animal holding facilities should be kept reasonably clean and, when necessary,
disinfected.

Unloading
Good unloading facilities and equipment and proper handling help assure completion of a
successful shipment. Much of the information contained in the loading section of this
guide also applies to unloading. This section explains factors that are unique to
unloading.
General Considerations for Unloading

Position trucks so that they line up properly with chutes.

Cover chutes with bedding when unloading swine. This will help entice them out
of the truck. The bedding will help cover the strange smell of the chute.

Attend to any animals that arrive sick or injured as soon as possible. Call a
veterinarian if necessary. Refer to appendix A for detailed information on
handling animals that are so sick or so badly injured that they cannot get up.

Unloading Chutes and Facilities

Unloading chutes are inclined ramps that animals walk on to exit transport vehicles. They
may be permanently mounted or portable. Permanently mounted chutes usually have steel
rail fences on the sides and steel or concrete ramps. Portable chutes are usually
constructed completely of steel. Good unloading chutes should be constructed as follows.

Use wide chutes for unloading, because animals will go more readily into a wide
area. Chutes used only for unloading should be 8 feet wide. This type of chute
should not be used for loading.

Construct unloading chutes with a non-slip, level landing at the top. It is easier for
animals to exit a truck if they can step onto a level surface, as opposed to an
immediate downward slope. This is especially important for swine. Cattle that are
unloaded onto chutes that begin with stair steps or ramps may fall and are wary of
going down the chute. This necessitates increased use of physical force by
handlers which results in increased bruising. Landings should be 3 feet long for
swine and 5 feet long for cattle.

Be certain that chutes provide good footing. They should be constructed of rough
surface concrete, have cleats, stair steps with deep groves, or other non-slip
surfaces. Distance between cleats and dimensions of steps should match the stride
of the animals being unloaded.

Illuminate chutes and unloading areas during night unloading. Livestock feel
more comfortable moving into a lighted area.

Exceptions to using chutes: In some cases, chutes are not used in unloading livestock at
destination. For example, when cattle in export shipment are unloaded at an airport they
are often moved directly from trucks into airline pallet pens.

Post-transit Feeding, Watering, and Coordination

Proper post-transit care will help stock to recover as quickly as possible from effects of
transit and regain lost weight. Good care at destination will also help maintain the health
of stock. The following feeding, watering, and shipment coordination practices will help
assure that stock return to their pre-transit condition as soon as possible.
General Considerations

Give animals an opportunity to rehydrate their body tissue as soon as possible

after transit. This is especially important after hauls lasting 8 hours or more.

Try to provide feed and water of the same quality that animals have been getting
before transport. This will encourage them to fill back up rapidly. Animals have
difficulty adjusting to feed and water that differs in quality from that to which
they are accustomed.

Provide restful and relaxing conditions at destination. Loss of stomach fill from
transport can be partially, if not fully, regained under conditions that encourage
eating.

Be aware that animals that are not acclimated to the climate where they are
delivered may need special care, such as protection from cold, or shading and
ventilation to minimize effects of hot weather (see Temperature).

Cattle

Provide cattle with good-quality hay after transport (see footnote 5 for definition
of good-quality hay). This makes them much more likely to drink and regain lost
weight.

Consider providing hay to cattle before water. Some experienced cattle

transporters prefer this, because if cattle have immediate access to water, they
may drink excessively and not eat. This is important during hot weather.
However, do not withhold water for a prolonged period. The absolute maximum
time water should be withheld is 2 to 3 hours.

Rest cattle, if needed, after transport before they can eat and drink enough to fill
their stomachs.

Feed and water calves immediately upon arrival.

Illuminate pens for arriving animals. Some experienced stockmen claim that cattle
arriving late at night are slow to settle down and begin eating and drinking. This is
probably because they are disoriented. Cattle and swine are not nocturnal animals.

Arriving cattle are unfamiliar with the layout of the pen area into which they are
unloaded and do not know locations of feed and water dispensers.
Swine

Feed swine lightly after transport. If they eat too heavily, they may become sick.
They should be provided regular swine feed consisting of ground corn with a soy
base. This feed can be pelletized or ground.

Provide swine with water immediately after transport.

In Summary
Livestock highway transport is an important link in the export chain. What happens to
animals on their way to a port or to their final destination after a voyage or a flight can
make or break an export shipment. Paying close attention to the important aspects of
livestock highway transport and how they influence the outcome of a shipment will
enhance export sales.

Preconditioning greatly affects how animals withstand the rigors of transport.

Appropriate vehicle selection contributes to maintaining contentment of stock

while on the road.

Proper vehicle preparation helps to prevent injury and disease transmission during
transport.

Good loading techniques and appropriate stocking density help to prevent injury
and minimize stress.

Responsible care during transit helps to maintain health of stock.

Proper unloading practices help to prevent injury and further stressing of already
tired animals.

Good post-transit care helps to assure successful highway shipment by preventing

injury and helping stock to recover from the rigors of transport.

The recommendations on carrying out livestock highway shipment contained in this

guideline are provided as tools for use in planning and implementing livestock highway
shipments. When followed, they will help to maintain health of stock, assure humane
treatment of animals, maintain market value, and reduce claims resulting from mortality
and injury.

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Appendix A: Handling Downed Animals

Despite the best efforts of all involved in livestock transport, animals are sometimes
injured so severely or become so ill that they are unable to stand. When this occurs,
whoever is responsible for the animals must quickly decide how to handle the situation.
Prompt action is essential. Inaction is inhumane. Humane treatment is the first priority
whenever an animal becomes sick or injured. The following recommendations will help
to determine the best course of action when an animal goes down.
Deciding How To Handle the Situation

Determine as quickly as possible how to handle a downed animal. Some livestock

transportation experts recommend calling a veterinarian to help determine if the
animal should be treated or humanely destroyed.

Decide whether to destroy an animal on the spot or transport it to a slaughter

house. Which is best depends on availability of implements and/or drugs needed
to destroy the animal, proximity of the slaughter house, and availability of
transportation.

Use a captive bolt stunner(11) or a firearm to destroy animals if drugs cannot be

used. Shoot cattle in the center of the forehead and swine in the center of the
forehead just above the eyes. The captive bolt stunner is safer to use because it
does not fire a free bullet.

Be aware that entering a truck loaded with cattle or other large stock to care for a
downed animal can be dangerous. Animals may panic and trample handlers.

Allow sick or injured animals to fully recover before transporting.

Helping Downed Animals To Get Up

Help downed cattle to get up, if possible. If an animal is lying on its side, lift its
head to the vertical position. If the animal's legs are underneath it, push up on its
shoulders. These techniques will often enable an animal to get up. Several
attempts to get the animal up should be made and the animal should be allowed to
rest briefly between each attempt.

Help unsteady cattle to walk. Holding an animal's tail will help it maintain its
balance.

Handling Animals That Cannot Get Up

Use any of the following methods or combination of methods to handle downed animals:

Gently roll downed animals to move them. Do not drag or lift animals by their
limbs unless there is no other alternative. If the animal can be saved and there is
no alternative to dragging, it should be dragged the minimum distance to where a
more suitable moving method can be used.

If the animal must be lifted by its limbs, use the uninjured limbs and place pads
where any chains or cables will be attached.

Do not drag animals by the neck. Use a rope around the animal's shoulders or pull
it by uninjured limbs, if there is no other alternative.

Use a heavy duty, two-wheeled cart made for moving boxes to move downed
swine and other smaller livestock. The cart should be equipped with a large
platform. Push the platform under the animal, and tilt the cart back to move the
animal onto the platform. A second person should be available to steady the
animal on the platform.

Use a wide board or piece of conveyer belt to move downed livestock. When a
conveyer belt is used, the end that is pulled should be reinforced with a metal strip
to prevent buckling. Gently roll the animal onto the board or conveyer belt. The
board or belt can then be carried or dragged. Once the animal is on the board or
conveyer belt, it can be pulled by a tractor.

Use a front-end loader to move downed animals in holding facilities. One person
operates the loader and one or two others roll the animal into the bucket. Moving
downed animals with a loader is easier and more humane if the standard bucket is
replaced with a larger, specially designed bucket with a hinged lid that will
prevent the animal from falling out.

Use a forklift equipped with a platform, with the front edge angled down to
facilitate rolling the animal. Bare forks should never be shoved under a downed
animal. The platform can also be equipped with straps to prevent the animal from
falling off.

Caution: Never push an animal against a wall or fence to get it into a loader bucket or
onto a forklift platform.

Consider using a frame on four wheels with slings that is manufactured especially
for moving downed animals. It can fit into tight spaces and has large wheels that
allow easy movement over rough surfaces.

If a hoist is needed to load an animal onto a truck, be certain to use the

appropriate size sling.

Separate downed animals from other stock, if they must be carried on the same
truck.

Tie downed animals if they must be carried on a truck. The animals' movement
during transport, especially involuntary movement, may cause unnecessary pain
and further injury.

Consider using a livestock trailer with side doors, as they greatly facilitate
handling of downed animals. Cattle that go down in the belly compartment of a
semi-trailer without side doors are very difficult to remove humanely. If it is not
possible to move the animal onto a board or piece of conveyer belt and drag it out,
humanely destroy the animal in the trailer.

Appendix B: Nationwide List of Rest Stops

The following animal transit rest stops are approved by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). There are other
facilities (stockyards, etc.) throughout the United States that may be used to rest animals
in transit. However, when exporting livestock, compliance with Federal regulation may
require use of the following facilities.
Adair Cattle Feed and Rest Station
Route 1, Box 355
Adair, OK 74330
Contact for Arrangements: Don Eastin
Phone: (918) 785-2386
Facility Manager: Jim D. Eastin
Phone: (918) 785-2681, or (800) 754-1241
Kinds of Animals Accepted: All Species Livestock
Capacity of Facility:
400 cattle weighing 1,000-1,200 lb (454-544 kg) each
Number of Pens: 10 Indoor
Sizes of Pens: 20 by 52 ft (6.1 by 15.8 m)
Type of Loading and Unloading Facilities Available:
Fixed concrete chute, 48-in (121.9-cm) high
Distance From Major Highways:
Located on U.S. 69 at mile marker 199 on east side, or 7 mi (11.3 km) south of Big Cabin
exit off Interstate 44
Cheyenne Stockyard
350 Southwest Drive
Cheyenne, WY 82007
Facility Managers: Dr. Jay Dee Fox and Carol Franzen
Phone: (307) 634-7333
Kinds of Animals Accepted: All Species Livestock
Capacity of Facility:
1,500 cattle weighing 1,000 lb (454 kg) each
3,000 swine weighing 200 lb (91 kg) each

Number of Pens:
70 Indoor
8 Outdoor
Size of Pens:
20 by 40 ft (6.1 by 12.2 m)
Types of Loading and Unloading Facilities Available:
Chutes for all types of livestock trucks
Distance From Major Highways:
Located 1 mi (1.6 km) east of Interstate 25 on Lincoln Way
C&R Midwest Quarantine Station
35W090 Lathrop Lane
Dundee, IL 60118
Facility Managers: Randy Lathrop and Peggy Lathrop
Phone: (847) 428-5806
FAX: (847) 428-3788
Kinds of Animals Accepted: All Species Livestock
Capacity of Facility:
450 cattle weighing 1,200 lb (544 kg) each
600-700 swine weighing 250 lb (113 kg) each
Number of Horse or Bull Stalls: 50
Size of Stalls: 10 by 10 ft ( 3 by 3 m)
Number of Pens:
7 Indoor Pens
7 Outdoor Pens
Size of Pens: Varies from 20 by 40 ft to 44 by 80 ft (6.1 by 12.2 m to 13.4 by 24.4 m)
Type of Loading and Unloading Facilities Available:
Chutes for all types of livestock trucks
Distance From Major Highways:
Located on U.S. Route 31, 5 miles (8.0 km) from exit for U.S. 31, north on Interstate 90
KCI Export Facility
12600 NW Prairie View Road
P.O. Box 20462

Kansas City International Airport

Kansas City, MO 64195-0462
Facility Managers:
Maria Bustamante
Phone: (573) 751-4570
FAX: (573) 751-2868
Michael Webber
Phone: (816) 243-3160
FAX: (816) 243-3171
Kinds of Animals Accepted: All Species Livestock
Capacity of Facility:
188 cattle weighing 1,000-1,500 lb (454-680 kg) each
1,050 swine weighing 100-150 lb (45-68 kg) each
Number of Pens: 22 Indoor
Size of Pens:
Sixteen 10 by 10 ft (3.0 by 3.0 m)
Four 20 by 15 ft (6.1 by 4.6 m)
Two 8 by 9 ft (2.4 by 2.7 m)
Number of Pens: 32 Indoor
Pen Size: 7,000 ft2 (650.3 m2)
Type of Loading and Unloading Facilities Available: Two chutes for semi trailers
Distance From Major Highways:
Airport highway and street system connects directly with Interstate 29, Interstate 435, and
State Highway 291
Pennsylvania Holstein Association Farm
1806 River Road
Middletown, PA 17057
Facility Manager: William Allen
Phone: (717) 944-1374
FAX: (717) 944-2551
Kinds of Animals Accepted: Cattle
Capacity of Facility: 800 cattle weighing 1,000-1,100 lb (454-499 kg) each

Number of Pens: 16 Indoor

Size of Pens: 60 by 60 ft (18.3 by 18.3 m)
Type of Loading and Unloading Facilities Available:
Chutes for all types of livestock trucks
Distance From Major Highways:
6 mi (9.7 km) from Interstate 81; 4 mi (6.4 km) from Pennsylvania Turnpike; 6 mi (9.7
km) from Interstate 83

Appendix C: Livestock Weather Safety Index

How to Read This Chart

Check a weather forecast for
temperature and humidity.
Locate the expected temperature
in the column on the left. Extend
that temperature in a straight line
across the chart until it intersects
with a line from the expanded
relative humidity.
Temperatures above 100o F (38o
C) are always DANGER, and it
the relative humidity is above 25
percent, the situation is
EMERGENCY.

If the intersection of temperature and

humidity on the chart is in the ALERT
range, load 10 percent fewer hogs and
plan to deliver them to market by
11:00 AM.
If the index is in the DANGER zone,
load 20 percent fewer hogs and haul
them at night.
If the index is in the EMERGENCY
zone, postpone hog shipments until the
weather moderates.

Courtesy of Livestock
Conservation Institute
1

. Excludes interfarm sales within States.

. Green and succulent feeds are fresh pasture, fresh hay, or fresh grain.

. Concentrated feeds are high protein feeds consisting of corn and soybean meal, vitamin supplements, and
little or no roughage.
4

. High-energy feeds are high carbohydrate feeds consisting mainly of corn, milo, barley, or oats with 15%
or less roughage.
5.

Good-quality hay is free from rot, mold, foreign material, and coarse stems.

6.

Grain-based feed consists of corn, milo, barley, or oats

. Long hay is bailed from field, not chopped or pelletized

8.

See the following reference for detailed recommendations on water for livestock: National Research
Council. Subcommittee on Nutrient and Toxic Elements in Water. Nutrients and Toxic Substances in Water
for Livestock and Poultry: A Report. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC 1974.

. Immersed in a chemical solution to control external parasites.

10

. Federal law requires that livestock in interstate commerce be in transit for no more than 28 hours
without food, water, and rest. However, this law applies only to rail shipments.

11

. A captive bolt stunner is a device that operates like a firearm and drives a cylindrical
object out of a barrel for a limited distance. It is placed against an animals' head when it
is to be fired.