The Universe

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SANTA

CEIDUNS CENTER LANGUAGES
THE UNIVERSE

BY

ZAPATA

BRINGAS

COURSE

CONVERSATION I ENGLISH

LEVEL

BASIC LEVEL

TEACHER

MORENO JESSICA
NEW CHIMBOTE PER
2014
1

CESAR

The Universe
INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION 3
2. DEFINITION OF UNIVERSE 4
3. THEORY OF THE ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE ....5
3.1 BIG BANG THEORY ....5
3.2 INFLATIONARY THEORY .5
3.3 STEADY STATE THEORY 6
3.4 PULSATING UNIVERSE THEORY .7
4. THE GALAXY..7
4.1 MILKY WAY ..8
4.2 THE STARS ..9
4.3THE PLANETS ..10
4.4 THE SATELLITES 10
4.5 ASTEROID .10
4.6 COMET 11
5. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UNIVERSE ..11
5.1 SIZE .11
5.2 SHAPE 12
5.3 COLOUR .13
5.4 COMPOSITION ..13
6. CONLUSIONS 15
7. REFERENCES 16

The Universe

INTRODUCTION

Many people since the beginning of time and since the moment he started our
curiosity about what lies beyond those who know and see them easily been
fascinated by the mysteries surrounding the development and training of our
galaxy. The different theories about its origin, formation of planets have come to
play an important factor in the thinking of people in different times and
environments.

Since the beginning of the first cosmologists Socrates and Plato contemplating the
sun, moon and stars were wondering: what we are, where we come from, where
we are going; through Aristotle, Kepler, Lemaitre, who first discovered the laws
governing the movement of our solar system, to Newton, Einstein, Hubble,
Sandage, Zeldovich, Hawking, and others who have contributed their theories and
findings to determine that the universe is expanding continuously man has wanted
to find the origin of the universe, if we belong to a closed or open system and if this
Universe someday, billions of years, releasing their last breath to cease to exist.

In this monograph I will explain the different theories about the origin of the
universe, evolution, elements which make it up, what are their characteristics and
how the universe looks today.

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2. DEFINITION OF THE UNIVERSE

If you watched the night sky, we see them millions of heavenly bodies, mainly
stars. Alone, or grouped in constellations, always bright. We also see the Sun, the
Moon. We call the entire universe of all that exists in space. It all heavenly bodies,
the

stars,

including

our

planet

"Earth"

where

are

we

inhabit

is

it.

The word Universe derives from the Old French word Univers, which in turn
derives from the Latin word universum. The Latin word was used by Cicero and
later Latin authors in many of the same senses as the modern English word is
used. The Latin word derives from the poetic contraction Unvorsum first used by
Lucretius in Book IV of his De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things) which
connects un, uni (the combining form of unus, or "one") with vorsum, versum (a
noun made from the perfect passive participle of vertere, meaning "something
rotated, rolled, changed")

The Universe is all of spacetime and everything that exists therein, including
all planets,

stars,

galaxies,

the

contents

of

intergalactic

space,

the

smallest subatomic particles, and all matter and energy.

According to a still-more-restrictive definition, the Universe is everything within our

connected space-time that could have a chance to interact with us and vice
versa. According to the general theory of relativity, some regions of space may
never interact with ours even in the lifetime of the Universe due to the finite speed
of light and the ongoing expansion of space. For example, radio messages sent
from Earth may never reach some regions of space, even if the Universe would live
forever: space may expand faster than light can traverse it.
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3. THEORY OF THE ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE

3.1 BIG BANG THEORY

BIG BANG theory or big bang, supposed, made between 12,000 and 15,000
million years ago, all matter in the universe was concentrated in an extremely small
area of space, and exploded. The matter driven out with great energy in all
directions.
Shocks and some disorder caused matter to clump and concentrated more in
some parts of space, and the first stars and the first galaxies formed. Since then,
the Universe continues in constant motion and evolution.
This theory is based on rigorous observations and is mathematically correct from
an instant after the explosion, but no explanation for the zero time of the origin of
the universe, called "singularity".

3.2 INFLATIONARY THEORY

The Alan Guth inflationary theory attempts to explain the earliest moments of the
universe. It is based on studies of very strong gravitational fields, like those near a
black hole. It assumes that a single force was divided into the four we now know,
producing birth to the Universe.
The initial thrust virtually nil lasted a while but was so violent that even though the
pull of gravity slows the galaxies, the universe is still growing. You can not imagine
the Big Bang as the explosion of a material point in a vacuum, because at this
point all matter, energy, space and time were concentrated. There was no
"outside" or "before." Space and time are also expanding with the Universe.

The Universe

3.3 STEADY STATE THEORY

Many believe that the universe is an entity that has no beginning or end. It has no
beginning because it started with a big bang or will collapse, in the distant future, to
be reborn. The theory that opposes the thesis of an evolutionary universe is known
as "steady state" or "continuous creation" and was born in the early twentieth
century.

The proponent of this idea was the English astronomer Edward Milne and
according to her, the data collected by the observation of an object located millions
of light years, must be identical to those obtained in the observation of the Milky
Way from the same distance. Milne named his thesis "cosmological principle".

In 1948 astronomers Herman Bondi, Thomas Gold and Fred Hoyle took up this
thought and added new concepts. Thus was born the "perfect cosmological
principle" as an alternative for those who rejected outright the theory of the Big
Bang.

This principle establishes, first, that the universe has a genesis or end, since the
interstellar matter has always existed. Second, he argues that the general
appearance of the universe is not only identical in space but also in time.

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3.4 PULSATING UNIVERSE THEORY

Our universe would be the latest of many encountered in the past, after several
explosions and contractions (heart).
The moment when the universe collapses on itself attracted by its own gravity is
known as "Big Crunch" in the scientific environment. The Big Crunch would mark
the end of our universe and the birth of a new one, after the subsequent Big Bang
that formed.

If this theory were to have full support, the Big Crunch would happen in about 150
billion years. If we refer to the calendar of Sagan, this would be within about 10
years from December 31

4. THE GALAXY

The stars we see with the naked eye in the sky, or a telescope of small power,
belong to our galaxy. A galaxy is made up of billions of stars and star clusters,
separated from each other by vast distances. The galaxies are held together in a
particular order and move at high speed.
The galaxies are distributed over the sky, but is not isolated but is grouped in
certain regions of space. It is estimated that there are in the universe a hundred
billion galaxies. The nearest known galaxy and the Milky Way.

The Universe
These are divided into several groups or types for its apparent shape and display
were achieved thanks to powerful telescopes.
A) Elliptical Galaxies: are spherical or flattened shape. They consist of very old
stars and are accumulated in the center of the galaxy. Of the known account
for 20% of the oldest.

B) Spiral Galaxies: flattened-shaped lenses with a full core of very bright young
stars. 75% of galaxies are known such as ours.

C) Irregular Galaxies: show no geometric or symmetrical shape and represent

5% of the known total.

4.1 MILKY WAY

The Milky Way is our galaxy. The Romans called it "Milk Way." It's big, spiral and
may have some 100,000 million stars, including the Sun. The solar system is in
one of the spiral arms, about 30,000 light years from the center and about 20,000
end.

In total some 100,000 light years in diameter and has a mass of over two billion
times that of the Sun. Every 225 million years the Solar System completes one
revolution around the center of the galaxy. It moves at about 270 km. per second.
We can not see the bright center that opaque materials, cosmic dust and cold gas,
which leave no spend luz.La stand Milky Way is shaped like a convex lens.

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The core has a central elliptical and about 8,000 light-years across. The stars of
the nucleus are more clustered than the arms. All around there is a cloud of
hydrogen, some stars and star clusters.

The Milky Way is part of the Local Group, together with the Andromeda galaxy
(M31) and Triangulum (M33), the Magellanic Clouds (satellites of the Milky Way),
the galaxies M32 and M110 (Andromeda satellites), galaxies and nebulae smaller
and smaller systems. In total there are 30 galaxies that occupy an area of about 4
million light years across. The whole group orbits the large Virgo cluster of
galaxies, about 50 million light years.

4.2 THE STARS

Are the most important building blocks of galaxies. Stars are massive shining
spheres of gas due to its huge nuclear reactions. When due to the gravitational
force, pressure and temperature inside a star is strong enough, nuclear fusion of
atoms starts, and start to emit a dark red light, which then moves to the upper
state, which is which is our sun, later, by modifying the inner nuclear reactions,
dilate and finally cooled.

On termination of hydrogen, nuclear reactions of heavier, more energetic elements

that convert into a red giant star originate. Eventually, it becomes unstable, while
launching into space most of the stellar material. This process can last 100 million
years, until all the nuclear energy is exhausted, the star contracts and the effect of
gravity to be small and dense, in the form of white dwarf, blue or brown. If the initial
star is several times more massive than the Sun, your cycle may be different, and
instead of a giant, can become a supergiant and end their lives in an explosion
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called a supernova. These stars may end up as neutron stars. Even larger sizes of
stars can consume all its fuel very quickly, becoming a supermassive black hole
called entity.

4.3 THE PLANETS

Planets are bodies orbiting around a star that, as defined by the International
Astronomical Union, must also meet the condition of having cleared its orbit of
other major rocky bodies, and have sufficient mass for its strength gravity
generates a spherical body. For bodies orbiting around a star that do not meet
these features, it is spoken of dwarf planets, planetesimals or asteroids. In our
solar system there are 8 planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune, Pluto considered since 2006 as a dwarf planet. In late 2009,
outside our solar system have been detected more than 400 extrasolar planets, but
technological advances are allowing this number to grow apace.
4.4 THE SATELLITES
Natural satellites are stars orbiting planets. The only natural satellite of the Earth is
the moon, which is also the closest to the Sun TV. The main satellites of the
planets in the solar system are listed (included in the listing Pluto, considered by
the IAU as a dwarf planet).
4.5 ASTEROID
Asteroids are minor planets, especially those of the inner Solar System. The larger
ones have also been called planetoids. These terms have historically been applied
to any astronomical object orbiting the Sun that did not show the disk of a planet
and was not observed to have the characteristics of an active comet, but as minor
planets in the outer Solar System were discovered, their volatile-based surfaces
were found to resemble comets more closely and so were often distinguished from
traditional asteroids. So the term asteroid has come increasingly to refer
specifically to the small bodies of the inner Solar System out to the orbit of Jupiter.
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The Universe
They are grouped with the outer bodiescentaurs, Neptune trojans, and transNeptunian objectsas minor planets, which is the term preferred in astronomical
circles. In this article the term "asteroid" refers to the minor planets of the inner
Solar System.

4.6 COMET
A comet is an icy small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun,
heats up and begins to out gas, displaying a visible atmosphere or coma, and
sometimes also a tail. These phenomena are due to the effects of solar radiation
and the solar wind upon the nucleus of the comet. Comet nuclei range from a few
hundred metres to tens of kilometres across and are composed of loose collections
of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. The coma and tail are much larger and, if
sufficiently bright, may be seen from the Earth without the aid of a telescope.
Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many different
cultures.

5. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UNIVERSE

5.1 SIZE
Very little is known with certainty about the size of the universe. You can have a
length of billions of light years or even have an infinite size. An article 200311 says
establish a lower bound of 24 gigaparsecs (78,000 million light years) for the size
of the universe, but there is no reason to believe that this bound is tight in some
way (See shape of the Universe). but there are different size thesis; one of them is
that there are multiple universes, another is that the universe is infinite
The observable (or visible) universe, consisting of all matter and energy that
affected Glad we could from the Big Bang given the limitation of the speed of light,
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The Universe
is certainly finite. The comoving distance to the end of the visible universe is
around 46,500 million light years in all directions from Earth. Thus, the visible
universe can be considered as a perfect sphere with the Earth at the center, and a
diameter of about 93,000 million years luz.12 Note that many sources have
published a wide variety of incorrect figures for the size of the universe visible: from
13,700 to 180,000 million light years.

In the universe the distances between the stars are so great that if we wish to
express in meters, would have to use very large numbers. Because it is used as
the unit of length light year is the distance that light travels in a year.

At present the universe model most commonly accepted is that proposed by Albert
Einstein's General Relativity, proposing a "finite but unbounded" universe, ie, that
despite having a measurable volume has no limits, analogous to the surface of a
sphere, which is measurable but unlimited.

5.2 SHAPE
Closed universe: if there is too much material and energy density will be very
high. The universe will bend inward and spherical. It will be a finite universe. The
severity will be stronger than the expansion, all matter and the universe will
eventually collapse grouping. This end is called the Big Crunch.

Open universe: if the density of matter and energy is very low, the universe will
bend outward. Have the shape of a saddle. Be an infinite universe in infinite
expansion. Gravity is so weak that there can be no stars, no planets, even atoms.
The matter will separate and disintegrate to be reduced to elementary particles.
The universe will grow cold and die. This end is called the Big Chill.
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The Universe

Universe plane: if the amount of matter and energy is right, the density becomes
balanced. It is what is called critical density. Then the Universe is flat. Gravity and
the expansion will be in equilibrium. The universe will expand, but more and more
slowly.
Today it is believed that the Universe is nearly flat, but there are still many doubts,
since it is proven that the universe is expanding faster and faster, and this seems
to contradict the theory.

5.3 COLOUR
Historically it was believed that the universe is black, because it is what we see
when looking at the sky on a clear night. In 2002, however, astronomers Karl
Glazebrook and Ivan Baldry said in a scientific paper that the universe is actually a
color that decided to call cosmic cut coffee. This study was based on measuring
the spectral range of the light from a large volume of the Universe, synthesizing the
information provided by a total of more than 200,000 galaxies.

5.4 COMPOSITION
The current observable universe appears to have a geometrically flat spacetime
containing a mass-energy density equivalent to 9.9 10-30 grams per cubic
centimeter. The primary constituents appear to consist of 73% dark energy, 23%
cold dark matter and 4% of atoms. So the density of atoms equivalent to a single
hydrogen nucleus for every four cubic meters in volume. The exact nature of dark
energy and cold dark matter remains a mystery. Currently there is speculation that
the neutrino (an abundant particle in the universe), have, however minimal, a
dough. Checked this fact, it could mean that energy and dark matter does not exist.

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During the early stages of the Big Bang, it is believed that equal amounts of matter
and antimatter were formed. Matter and antimatter should eliminate each other on
contact, so that the actual existence of matter (and the absence of antimatter) is a
violation of CP symmetry (See CP Violation), so it may be that particles and
antiparticles not have exactly the same or symmetrical properties, or may simply
physical laws that govern the universe enhancing survival of matter over
antimatter. In this sense, it has also been suggested that dark matter may be the
cause of baryogenesis to interact differently with matter than antimatter.

Before the formation of the first star, the chemical composition of universe
consisted primarily of hydrogen (75% of total mass) with a lesser amount of
helium-4 (4He) (24% of total mass) and other other elements. A small portion of
these elements was in the form of deuterium isotope (H), helium-3 (He) and
lithium (7Li). The interstellar matter in galaxies has been enriched constantly by
heavier elements, generated by fusion processes in stars and scattered as a result
of supernova explosions, stellar winds and the ejection of the outer covering of
mature stars.

The Big Bang left behind a stream of background photons and neutrinos. The
temperature of the background radiation has decreased steadily with the
expansion of the universe and now mainly consists of microwave energy
equivalent to a temperature of 2'725 K. The current density of the background
neutrinos is about 150 per cubic centimeter.

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6. CONCLUSIONS

1. Our universe is something that will take years to understand and know.
Possibly new technologies help us to enter more deeply to all that is out
there.

2. Over time, different cultures have interpreted the universe with its own
mythology that until now is the basis of their worldview.

3. Space is a dimension, infinite or not, allowing us to maintain theories and

speculation since so far we do not know whether they are true or not.

4. The majesty of the night sky has attracted us for thousands of years with the
ultimate hope that we will reveal a reason for our existence here.

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7. REFERENCES

1. EINSTEIN, Albert. The principle of relativity. Dover Publications N.Y. 1952.

2. HAWKING, Stephen. Historia del Tiempo. Editorial Crtica. 1992.

3. HAWKING, Stephen. The large structure of space-time. Cambridge

University Press. 1980.

4. ISAZA, Jos Fernando. Colapso Gravitacional. Biblioteca Banco Popular.

Textos Universitarios. 1993

5. OVERBYE, Dennis. Corazones solitarios en el Cosmos. Editorial Planeta,

1991.

6. PORRAS, William. El Universo: abierto, cerrado, su origen y destino.

Revista Armada. No.67. 1994.

7. ROYAL GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Particle Physics And Astronomy

Research Council. Cuaderno de Informacin No.9. Agujeros Negros. 1998.

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