Design of a mixer at microwave frequencies

Aman Gahoi, [email protected]

Lovely Faculty of Science and Technology
Lovely Professional University
Reg no.:-11111771, Roll no.:- A54
Sec:-E1E28

Abstract: - microwave mixers translate the

frequency of electromagnetic signals. This
functionality is vital for an enormous number
of applications ranging from military radar
and surveillance to radio astronomy to
biological sensing. Despite their ubiquity,
however, microwave frequency mixers remain
one of the most misunderstood components
available in the RF/microwave engineers
toolbox.

I. Introduction:A frequency mixer is a 3-port electronic circuit.

Two of the ports are input ports and the other
port is an output port1. The ideal mixer
mixes the two input signals such that the output
signal frequency is either the sum (or difference)
frequency of the inputs as shown in Fig. 1. In
other words: The nomenclature for the 3 mixer
ports are the Local Oscillator (LO) port, the
Radio Frequency (RF) port, and the Intermediate
Frequency (IF) port. The LO port is typically
driven with either a sinusoidal continuous wave
(CW) signal or a square wave signal. The choice
to apply a CW or square wave signal depends on
the application and the mixer. Conceptually, the
LO signal acts as the gate of the mixer in the
sense that the mixer can be considered ON
when the LO is a large voltage and OFF when
the LO is a small voltage. The LO port is usually
used as an input port. The other 2 ports of the
mixer, the RF and IF, can be interchanged as
either the second input or the output the actual
configuration depends on the application. When
the desired output frequency is lower than the
second input frequency, then the process is called
downconversion and the RF is the input and the

IF is the output. The relationship between input

and output frequencies is given by:
fIF =| fLO - fRF |
On the other hand, when the desired output
frequency is higher than the second input
frequency, then the process is called
upconversion and the IF is the input and

the RF is output. A frequency domain

representation
of
downconversion
and
upconversion is illustrated in Fig. 1. Take
careful note of the upconversion casethe close
proximity of the sum and difference frequencies
(fRF1 and fRF2) in the frequency domain
implies that both are available at the RF output
port. This type of upconversion is known as
double sideband upconversion. Single sideband
upconversion is also possible, in which case
either the sum or the difference frequency is
intentionally canceled inside the mixer. Mixers
that
perform
this
more
sophisticated
functionality are called single sideband (SSB)
upconverters (or single sideband modulators).

As Fig. 1 depicts, IF/RF signals tend to be

information bearing signals (as denoted by the
broadened spectra surrounding the RF and IF
center
frequencies).
During
frequency
conversion, the information carried by the RF
(IF) signal is frequency translated to the IF (RF)
output. Therefore, mixers perform the critical
function of translating in the frequency domain.
In principle, any nonlinear device can be used to
make a mixer circuit. As it happens, only a few
nonlinear devices make good mixers. The
devices of choice for modern mixer designers are
Schottky diodes, GaAs FETs and CMOS
transistors. The choice depends on the
application. FET and CMOS mixers are typically
used in higher volume applications where cost is
the main driver and performance is less
important. For the more challenging, high
performance applications, Schottky diode mixers
are used almost exclusively.
II. Single Diode Mixer: Ideal Commutator vs.
Realistic Diode
There are many ways to build a mixer. The
simplest mixer consists of a single diode as
shown in Fig. 2a. A large signal LO and a small
signal RF combine at the anode of the diode. For
an ideal single diode mixer, it is assumed that
the LO is significantly stronger than the RF such
that only the LO has the ability to affect the
transconductance of the diode. We also assume
that the diode switches instantaneously as shown
in Fig. 2b. Devices that possess such
instantaneous transconductance switching are
called ideal commutators and yield the
theoretically optimal diode mixer performance.

The mixing process takes place due to the

switching response of the diode I-V curve to the
strong LO signal. As the diode is forced open
and closed by the LO, the small signal RF is
chopped. When we analyze the Fourier
components of the output signal from a
commutating (or switching) mixer diode (Fig. 3a
and Fig. 3c), we find that the possible output
products follow the relation
fIF =nfLO + fRF (n is ODD only)

Thus, in the ideal case of a perfectly switching

commutator, only odd harmonics of the LO are
allowed to mix with the fundamental RF tone.
Unfortunately, the transfer function of the ideal
commutator can never be achieved in the real
world. Actual Schottky diodes necessarily
possess some amount of turn-on transition as
shown in Fig. 2c. Moreover, the RF will
modulate the diode transconductance to some
extenteven if the RF is very small. The
combination of realistic diode I-V characteristics
and transconductance modulation by the RF
signal causes additional mixing products (often
referred to as spurs). Thus real diodes produce
all possible harmonic mixing components! The

time domain signal and associated frequency

spectrum generated by a realistic Schottky diode
are depicted in Fig. 3b and Fig. 3d.
Mathematically, the frequency components
generated by a single diode are given by:
fIF = nfLO mfRF (m and n are ALL integers)
Because we only want one desired output
frequency (when n=1 and m=1), the existence of
all other harmonic terms creates significant
problems. Elimination of these distortion
products is a key goal in mixer design.
This simplified analysis illustrates several
important attributes of frequency mixers:
a) Mixing is caused by the switching
behavior of the diode.
b) The majority of unwanted harmonics are
caused by the nonlinear intermodulation of
the RF and LO signals in the transition
region of the diode.
c) The best mixers use diodes that closely
approximate the ideal commutator.
d) The lower the RF power, the better the
spurious performance (since the LO will
control the diode transconductance more
effectively).

III. Mixer Balance

High performance mixers are designed using
four or eight diodes. The evolution of the mixer
circuit from the single diode unbalanced type to
the multi-diode balanced type is described in this
Section.
Sophisticated mixer designs make use of circuit
symmetry to create balance. In fact, virtually
all commercially available mixers make use of
some kind of mixer balancing. Mixer balancing
offers several advantages: inherent isolation
among all mixer ports (and hence band
flexibility), cancellation of most intermodulation
products, common mode signal rejection, and
improved
conversion efficiency.

To solve this problem, clever engineers realized

that wideband single-balanced mixers with low
loss and independent input and output frequency
bands could be created using the classic four
port hybrid junction. The hybrid junction (aka
the magic tee or the 180o hybrid), depicted in
Fig. 4, is a two input, two output, four port
circuit that provides mutual isolation between
input ports and equal power division at the
output ports. One immediately sees the
applicability of the hybrid junction for mixers:
the input LO and RF sources will be isolated
from one another, thus providing frequency band
independence and equal power division to the
load. The input/output transfer characteristics
are listed in Fig. 4. Notice that the output signals
are differentially phased (i.e. 180o phase shifted)
when a signal is input to port 2. Output signals
are in phase for inputs into port 1.
The hybrid junction provides a natural method
by which to create the single balanced mixer as
shown in Fig. 5.Additionally, two diodes are
used instead of one.

Key features of the single balanced mixer

include:
a. Isolation
(and
hence
frequency
independence) between RF and LO ports.
b. 50% reduction in the total number of
intermodulation products.
c. Common mode noise cancellation (good for
noisy LO).
d. Higher conversion efficiency than the single
diode mixer.
IV. Mixer Performance Metrics
What makes a good mixer? Welllots of
things. We will now address some of the criteria
by which to judge, and ultimately choose, a
mixer.
A. Conversion Loss
The most important mixer metric is conversion
loss. Conversion loss is defined as the difference
in power between the input RF power level and
the desired output IF frequency power level. In
other words:
CL = P (RF) P (IF)
where P (RF) and P (IF) are in dBm and CL is in
dB. For example, if the input RF is -10 dBm and
the downconverted IF output signal -17 dBm,
then the conversion loss is 7 dB.
The theoretically optimum conversion loss for a
passive diode mixer is 3.9 dB and can be
calculated using equations derived by
Henderson. Typical values of conversion loss
range between about 4.5 to 9 dB, depending on
the mixerthe additional losses are caused by
factors such as transmission line losses, diode
series resistance and mixer (im)balance. In
general double balanced mixers have less
conversion loss than triple balanced mixers
because of circuit losses. Another important
trend is that wider bandwidth mixers tend to
have higher conversion loss in part due to the
difficulty in maintaining circuit balance over the
entire bandwidth.
B. Isolation
Isolation is a measure of the amount of power
that leaks from one mixer port to another. As
was described previously, port isolation is

obtained through mixer balance and the use of

hybrid junctions. Unfortunately, there will
always be some small amount of power leakage
between the RF, LO and IF ports. Isolation is the
difference in power between the input signal and
the leaked power to the other ports. In other
words, if we place an input signal at the LO port
and measure the power available at the RF port
at that LO frequency, the isolation in dB is given
by:
P (L R) =Pin (@LO) -Pout (@RF)
Note that isolation is approximately reciprocal:
the port 1 to port 2 isolation will track closely
with the port 2 to port 1 isolation. Hence, a
single measurement can be performed to
determine the isolation in both directions. Three
types of isolation are commonly quoted in
microwave mixers: L-R isolation, L-I isolation
and R-I isolation.
L-R isolation is the leakage of the LO into the
RF port. Typical L-R isolation values range
between about 25-35 dB. L-R isolation is critical
in frequency downconversions because LO
power can leak into the RF circuitry. If there is
poor L-R isolation, LO power can contaminate
the RF line by either interfering with the RF
amplifier or by leaking to other parallel mixing
channels causing cross-channel interference.
Poor L-R isolation can also cause problems in
frequency upconversions when the LO
frequency is very close to the RF output
frequency (when the IF frequency is at or near
DC). In this case, no amount of filtering can
separate the arbitrarily close RF signal and LO
leakage. This can result in interference between
the RF and LO and a degradation in the RF
output circuitry.
L-I isolation is the leakage of the LO into the IF
port. L-I isolation tends to be the worst of the
three types of mixer isolation with typical values
ranging from 20-30 dB. When there is poor L-I
isolation, the biggest issue occurs when the LO
and IF frequencies are close such that the LO
contaminates the IF circuitry, as when the LO
leakage is strong enough to saturate the IF
amplifier. Beyond this, poor L-I isolation can
cause conversion loss flatness problems.

The final mixer isolation metric is R-I isolation.

Values of R-I isolation typically range between
25-35 dB. Most systems designers will not find
R-I isolation to be a major issue since the RF
and IF powers tend to be orders of magnitude
smaller than the LO power. Therefore, LO
isolation problems are the primary concern of
systems engineers. R-I isolation, instead, is a
major concern for mixer designers because it
serves as a diagnostic metric for the overall
conversion efficiency of the mixer circuit. When
the R-I isolation is high, the mixer circuit is well
balanced and thus the conversion loss tends to
be low. In mixers with bad R-I isolation (<20
dB), the conversion loss is higher and the
conversion loss flatness is poor.
C. Noise Figure
As long as the quality of the diode is closely
monitored, the noise figure of the mixer can be
approximated by the conversion loss. Generally,
the cumulative noise figure will limit the
minimum detectable signal in the receiver.
Hence, when choosing mixers for low power
applications, conversion loss should be as low as
possible.

V. Summary
The sole purpose of the microwave mixer is to
provide either the sum or difference frequency
of the two incoming signals at the output. The
goal of a mixer designer is to create a circuit that
performs this frequency translation efficiently
and without distortion. For optimal performance,

hybrid mixers using Schottky diodes remain the

technology of choice for state-of-the-art system
designers. This is due, in part, to the fact that
RF/microwave mixer performance is dependent
on both the quality of the diodes used and the
sophistication of the surrounding circuitry
involved.

VI. References
[1] Marki, F.A., Miniature Image Reject
Mixers And Their Use In Low-noise Front-ends
In Conjunction With Gaas Fet Amplifiers,
Circuits, Systems and Computers, 1977.
Conference Record. 1977 11th Asilomar
Conference on, pp. 159-162, 7-9 Nov 1977.
http://www.markimicrowave.
com/menus/appnotes/noise.pdf.
[2] Mixer Evolution, The Balanced Mixer
Family
Circle.
Application
Note.
http://www.markimicrowave.com/
menus/appnotes/balanced.pdf.
[3] Marki, F. and Marki, C., T3 Mixer Primer:
A mixer for the 21st Century, Marki
Microwave,
Morgan
Hill,
CA,
http://www.markimicrowave.com/menus/appnot
es/t3_ primer.pdf, 2010.
[4]
Henderson,
B.
C.,
Predicting
Intermodulation Suppression in DoubleBalanced Mixers, Watkins- Johnson Company
Technical Notes. Vol. 10, No. 4, July/ August
1983.