February/March 2009

Module Grounding Clips | Bypass Diodes | S-5! Clamps

Op t ima l D e s i gn, I n s tal l ati on & Perfor m anc e

sola r pr ofe ssi onal . c om

Flat Roof Racking

Electrical Test
Equipment
What You Need &
When You Need It

Thermal
System Design
Balancing Seasonal
Production Variations

Solar Power
International
Equipment Highlights
from San Diego 2008

Battery Based
Backup
for Utility-Interactive
Applications

Meridian Solar
ABC Bank
Austin, TX f

SAMPLE issue | Subscribe for Free at solarprofessional.com

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Contents

February/March 2009 Issue 2.2

77

34

Fe a tu re s
34 Electrical Test Equipment
From the must-haves to the occasional rental, 10
categories of test equipment are described along
with common uses for each.
By Blake Gleason

46 Flat Roof Mounting Solutions

A survey of attached, ballasted and hybrid mounting
solutions that includes design and installation tips
for integrators.
By Ryan Mayfield

62 Balancing Thermal Production

Variations
Installers discuss preferred design and equipment
options to minimize thermal system overheating.
By Chuck Marken

46

68 Battery Backup for

Utility-Interactive PV Systems
Many customers like the convenience of battery backup.
Here is a technical introduction for electricians new to
battery-based systems.
By James Goodnight

77 2008 Solar Power International

Equipment Highlights
A rundown of some of the equipment launched at
the conference that caught our technical editors eyes
or generated buzz on the event floor.
By David Brearley & Joe Schwartz

68

S O L ARPRO | February/March 2009

Contents

February/March 2009 Issue 2.2

D e p a r t m ent s
16

FRONT END
10 Contributors Experience + Expertise
14 Mail Feedback from the Field
16 Q & A Technical Questions & Answers

Using S-5! Clamps | Bypass Diodes for

Performance & Safety | Instantaneous Array
Performance

28 The Wire Industry Currents

32 3-phase One IssueThree Viewpoints
Module grounding clips and the NEC

28

92

BACK END
86 Interview An Experienced Perspective
Bills Brooks, PE, Brooks Engineering

90 Training Continuing Education for the Pro

92 Projects System Profiles
Mariani Packing Company, Vacaville, CA
McFeeley Residence, Santa Fe, NM
Page Residence, Sky Valley, CA

95 Advertiser Index

86
8

S O L ARPRO | February/March 2009

f On the Cover

Meridian Solars Alex Petrovich places ballast material in a

POWER-FAB commercial racking system from DPW Solar.
Photo by Jeff Campbell

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Experience + Expertise

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Richard Dean has owned Santa Barbara, California-based

R&M Technologies, a solar design and installation company,
since 1999. Richard is NABCEP certified and has 18 years of
hands-on experience (living off-grid for most of those years)
in solar water pumping and remote water treatment systems,
residential off-grid systems, grid-tied with and without
battery backup and small commercial PV systems. Richard
now works with SunWize Technologies as its West Coast
technical support specialist.

Blake Gleason manages the engineering department at

Sun Light and Power, a 32-year-old solar design/build firm
where he previously was a foreman and built more than
100 residential and commercial PV systems. He possesses
a Masters degree in mechanical engineering, a California
professional engineer license and a California C-10 electrical
license. He is a NABCEP certified Solar PV Installer and a
California certified journeyman electrician.

James Goodnight has 35 years of design and project

management experience covering a broad range of
technical fields. He has been designing and optimizing
PV systems since 2002. Jim began providing technical
consulting and field support to OutBack Power Systems in
2004, and he became its eastern regional sales manager
in 2008. Jims responsibilities include product training and
support for OutBack distributors and customers. He is well
known on the NAWS and OutBack forums as crewzer.
S-5! Attachment Solutions founder Rob Haddock has
35 years of experience in the metal roofing industry.
Rob operated one of the nations largest metal roofing
companies for 15 years with some 10 million square feet
of successful installations nationwide. Today Rob is a
well-known consultant, author, speaker and inventor. He is
an adjunct faculty member at the University of Wisconsin
School of Engineering and director of the Metal Roof
Advisory Group.

w w w. o u t b a c k p owe r.co m

Brian White works for Open Energy Corporation, a

manufacturer of building-integrated photovoltaics. He
designs PV systems and provides engineered drawing
packages for pulling permits. Brian has over 10 years of
electrical and mechanical design experience in the PV
industry, with a primary focus on product packaging and
PV systems design and integration. Utilizing the latest
CAD technologies, Brian specializes in electro-mechanical
drafting and 3-D modeling.

Please Visit www.outbackpower.com/smartre

for More Information on OutBack Powers
Newest Grid-Tie Appliance.

w w w.outback power. co m

SOLAR WATER HEATING

Commercial Residential
Solar Radiant Floor

Publisher/Editor

Joe Schwartz

Managing Editor

Kathryn Houser

26 years

Technical Editor/PV Systems

David Brearley

Technical Editor/Solar Thermal Systems

Chuck Marken

Creative Services

Advertising Director

Kim Bowker

Advertising Manager

Connie Said

Operations Director

Scott Russell

Chief Information Officer

Data Manager

Customer Service & Fulfillment

of industry leadership
New Mazdon HP 200 System

Midnight Oil Design, LLC

Rick Germany
Doug Puffer
Jacie Gray, Shannon Ryan

Proud member of:

Copyright 2008 Home Power Inc. Contents may not be reprinted or otherwise reproduced without written permission.
While SolarPro magazine strives to publish only safe and accurate content, we assume no responsibility or liability for the
use of this information.
Interior paper is made from 85%100% recycled material, including 20%30% postconsumer waste.

Temperature Limited
Condenser

National Electrical Code, NFPA 70 and NEC are registered trademarks of the National Fire Protection Association,
Quincy, Massachusetts.

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mail

Feedback from the Field

The Positive

The Tech

The Forum

Great work on the magazine. Ive learned

a number of things from several articles in
the first two issues. SolarPro is already a
very useful reference. I keep it at my desk.
Dan Rice / Conergy

In John Berdners article Array to Inverter

Matching there is a calculation under the
heading Maximum Strings in Parallel:

N 30 A 7.62 A
I could not find 7.62 A in the text. Where
does this come from?
Chandanmal Jain via
solarprofessional.com tech forum

The excerpt below is part of an active

peer-to-peer discussion on the tech forum
at solarprofessional.com.

As the text indicates, the

intent is to use the modules Imp in this calculation. The module Imp is
equal to 7.2 A, not 7.62 A
as was incorrectly listed
in the equation. So the
calculation should read as
follows:
N 30 A 7.2 A
N 4.17
N4
This suggests that four strings in
parallel may result in acceptable array
configurations. But it is acceptable only on
paper. The minimum number of modules
in series in these examples is 12. Four
paralleled strings of 12 modules in series
results in a total of 48 modules and an
array capacity of 9,360 Wp (48 x 195 Wp).
This array is too large for the 7 kW inverter
specified in the examples and significant
power clipping would result. All four paralleled string configurations result in arrays
that are oversized relative to the inverter.
David

I have been using AutoCAD 2000i for

years and dont know of any feature
that performs that function. AutoDesks
ArchiCAD does just what you are asking
foronly with construction materials. For
equipment schedules and quantities, I use
Microsoft Excel myself. Its not hard, once
you have created the basic worksheet, to
keep expanding a list of components with
description, part number, unit cost per
watt, markup and quantity. ...
I use AutoCAD for almost every
residential PV design. With a few roof
measurements, I can accurately create the
entire surface as a solid model. I create
the roof section where the array will be
mounted, right down to the rafter locations. I can calculate the sun angle and
azimuth, based on data from one of several
Web sites and project shading onto a roof
from another roof area. I have a library of
PV modules, rails, standoffs, Unistrut, etc.
to insert into the DWG file to make everything accurate and to scale.
When Im through, I have an accurately dimensioned printout for standoff
locations, distance between module rows,
distance from roof obstructions and so on
to make the layout on the roof easier.
The rest of the roof drawing does
not need to be perfectly accurate; it just
needs to look correct to the homeowner. I
add a shingle hatch and color and create
a 3-D model of the finished array for the
customer. I color it, rotate it to a pleasing
view and convert it into a PDF file. The
scale rendering gives the customer a clear
idea of how big the system will be; it gives
me accurate working dimensions.
Wizzer

Thank you for another excellent issue.

Your article Next Generation Central
Inverters was insightful and
very well done. Over the past
12 months, we have witnessed explosive growth in
demand for large scale, utility
grade power conditioning
solutions. The next generation of large scale PV installations will require a much
richer set of functionality that
delivers advanced control
capabilities and intelligence,
and you captured this clearly.
One point of clarification: over the
past year, at Satcon we have undertaken
structural changes in order to align and
focus all of our resources on delivering the
next generation of large scale, utility grade
PV and fuel cell power conditioning solutions. In addition to the continued expansion of our solutions portfolioincluding
the recent launch of our 1 megawatt integrated PV solutionwe have reorganized
into a single business unit, from the three
that you mentioned in your article. This
included the recent sales of our Electronics and Motors divisions this past September. These measures have enabled us
to align our entire organization to drive the
innovation that will deliver value to these
larger, more complex projects.
I look forward to your continued
analysis of the large scale, utility grade PV
marketplace.
Michael Levi /
Satcon Technology Corporation
This is simply the best solar magazine
I have ever read. I actually read all the
articles in your magazine. I love it.
Paul Yartz / Green Options Electric
14

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

Correction: Under the column

Neutral sizing requirements in the
2009 Central Inverter Specifications table on p. 48, there is a typo
misidentifying the EGC as the GEC.
For 3-phase, 4-wire systems, the
text should read, Neutral sized per
EGC. The neutral is sized per NEC
690.62, equal to or larger than the
equipment grounding conductor.

Does anyone know how to make AutoCAD

provide equipment schedules and quantities as a function of every array layout?
PT Solar

Q&A

Technical Questions & Answers

Best Practices for Using S-5! Clamps

using S-5! clamps, follow the best practices described below.

Compatibility. Metallurgical
compatibility is always important on
a rooftop where materials will be in
electrolytic contact. SSMR is most often
steel, occasionally aluminum and very
rarely copper, stainless or some other
metal. Steel and aluminum may be
prepainted (coil coated) or bare. The
latter is something of a misnomer. Steel
will always have a protective coating of
pure zinc (galvanized) or an aluminum/
zinc alloy (Galvalume or Zincalume) for
corrosion protection.
Aluminum S-5! clamps are compatible with all these metals except copper. When roofing is copper, brass S-5!

hat are the best design and installation practices when using S-5!
clamps to structurally attach PV systems
to standing seam metal roofs?

tanding seam metal roofing

(SSMR) is the most convenient of
any roof type for mounting PV modules, either crystalline or thin-film. The
seams of SSMR are beam-like elements
that not only add stiffness and flexural
strength to the roof panels, but also
provide expedient attachment points
for a PV system. Joining PV modules
to this roof type can be done with or
without continuous mounting rails
using aluminum S-5! seam clamps.
These patented clamps anchor to the
roof seam by pinching it within the
clamp body with round point setscrews that are in no way invasive to
the roof. The clamp body is machined
with threaded holes to facilitate
anchorage of PV modules or racking
components to the clamp.
The SSMR industry has used this
attachment technology for many
years, and most SSMR manufacturers
endorse and recommend this method
when making attachments of various
ancillaries to their roof systems. It is of
prime concern to all partiesbuilding
owner, roof manufacturer, PV integrator and S-5! Attachment Solutions
that the integrity of the roof system is
maintained and attendant warranties,
if any are in place, are not jeopardized.
The result is a PV-to-SSMR marriage
that provides maintenance freedom for
the expected service lives of both the
PV system and the roof. When properly executed, these methods are not
only dependable and expedient, but
also cost effectivesaving up to $1.00
per watt when compared to other roof
types and mounting systems.
To achieve the perfect marriage
between a PV system and the SSMR

16

S o l a r pr o | February/March 2009

Co u r t es y el ec t ro n co n n e ct i o n . co m

clamps should be used. Somewhere

between the brass clamp and the aluminum PV frame an electrolytic switch
must be made. This can be done with
a passive metal like stainless steel or
with rubber isolators or both.
Some installers might want to
use the galvanic scale to identify
dissimilar metals, but the graphical
galvanic scale is not always a good way
to determine whether one metal is
compatible with another. The reason
is that when metals oxidize, the oxide
layer created is a new material that
may or may not exhibit the electrochemical characteristics of the parent
metal. Therefore, the scale does not
always tell the whole truth.
Another compatibility
issue has to do with the
shape or profile of the
SSMR seam itself and the
S-5! clamp model selected.
Many different seam geometries exist, along with a
number of corresponding
S-5! clamp profiles. Examining and verifying the
dimensions of the seam in
question prior to consulting the S-5! Web site (S-5.
com) can determine the
proper match for a mating clamp. The site shows
various clamp profiles,
nomenclatures and critical
dimensions that should
enable selection of the
appropriate clamp to fit
the SSMR.
Clamp holding
strength. The holding
strength of the S-5! clamp
Aluminum seam clamps Using patented, nonis tested in two different
invasive round point screws, S-5! clamps provide
load directions: parallel
the structural interface between the PV racking
to the seam direction and
system and the beam-like elements of the standperpendicular, or
ing seam metal roofing.

c o n t i n u e d o n pa g e 1 8

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O u r

W O r l d

i s

f u l l

O f

E n E r gy

normal. These replicate drag loads

such as sliding snow and uplift loads
induced by wind effects. Ultimate and
allowable loads (factor of safety = 2)
are published on the S-5! Web site.
Holding strengths are panel specific,
varying with the seam material, gauge
and profile of the SSMR. In order to
determine the appropriate clamp and
allowable load, these variables of the
roof panel system must be identified.
This is most easily done by matching
the manufacturer name and the panel
profile name to the listings on the Web
site. When reviewing this data, keep in
mind that most manufacturers make
more than one profile.
It is also important to recognize,
when relying upon these tested holding strengths, that S-5! Attachment
Solutions can test the strength of the
clamp-to-seam only and not other
elements of the roof assembly, because
these vary with every job. The S-5! connection in most instances exceeds the
strength of other elements in a completed PV-to-SSMR assembly. Think of
a PV system mounted on a rooftop as a
chain of components. The S-5! clamps
attachment to the seam is usually the
strongest link. The weaker links in the
chain may include the SSMR attachment to the structure, the flexural
strength of the SSMR seam or even the
buckling strength of the structure. This
is why it is important not to rely solely
on the strength of the clamp as the
determining factor when populating
attachment frequency.
Clamp placement and population. The frequency of attachment of
the PV system to the roof is critical
but oftentimes misunderstood. There
are no standards per se that spell out
these requirements. A competent
professional must design and specify
the clamp population. PV modules,
for example, are subject to UL 1703,
which states that they should resist
30 pounds per square foot plus a 50%
factor of safety. SSMR in general is
subjected to some of the most exacting
18

S o l a r pr o | February/March 2009

wind tests in the construction industry, including ASTM

E1592, UL 580 and FM4471.
SSMR is a structural element
and is engineered to meet
design wind speeds and resultant negative pressures on
its surface.
The preengineered metal
building industry has standardized roof attachment
around a 5-foot structural
spacing and 2-foot roof panel
width, resulting in clips
anchoring roof panels to
structure every 10 square feet,
on a 2 x 5 foot grid. Other roof
panels used may be 16-inch,
18-inch and in rare cases
Direct attachment Using the S-5! PV Kit
30-inch widths. Occasioneliminates the need for racking. This low-profile
ally, structural purlin spacing
attachment method can save money and more
will also vary from the 5-foot
evenly distribute uplift loads.
standard. The objective when
attaching a PV array to the
SSMR is to distribute the
utilize dual component clips. The top
loads from the PV arrayprimarily
portion moves thermally with the
upliftevenly into and through
panel, while the base portion, which
the SSMR to the building structure.
is attached to structure, is stationary.
Attachment to the building structure
When attaching to this type of SSMR,
is accomplished with clips hidden
the S-5! clamp can be attached at a
within the seams. The conservative
clip location or between clips. Some
and recommended way to distribute
other SSMR typesnormally installed
the load is to determine the frequency
over wood decksrely on differential
of the roof s attachment to the strucmovement between roof clips and
ture, and then duplicate or exceed it
roof panels to accommodate thermal
with the attachment of the PV comcycling. When installing a PV system
ponents to the roof. This is detailed in
on this type of SSMR, the clamp locaS-5! Document SSPV07, which is avail- tions should avoid the panels attachable on the Web site. By following this
ment clips.
approach, you are assured that loads
The above guidelines are valid
are distributed uniformly into the
whether using mounting rails or using
roof system and its attachment to the
direct attachment with the S-5! PV
building structure. Attachment should Kit. One advantage of rails is slightly
be less frequent only when a qualified
better space utilization. Advantages of
engineer has proven adequacy.
direct mounting are economic: the total
Thermal movement also affects
MSRP hardware costs, including S-5!
clamp placement. SSMR is designed
clamps and all interface hardware, are
to respond thermally with dimenaround $0.12/Wp on small systems and
sional change along the length of the
more like $0.06/Wp on very large ones.
Rob Haddock /
panels. This is accomplished at the
S-5! Attachment Solutions /
panel-to-attachment clip interface.
Colorado Springs, CO / S-5.com
Most preengineered metal buildings

C ou r te sy S -5.c om

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Q&A
Bypass Diodes Improve System Performance
and Safety

W
B

hy are bypass diodes built into

photovoltaic modules?

ypass diodes are manufactured

into solar modules for two
reasons: they improve overall system
performance, and they provide an
additional level of product safety and
are therefore required by regulatory
agencies. In order to understand how
these benefits are realized, we need to
define what a diode is.
Definition. A diode is an electronic device that restricts current
flow, primarily to one direction. Some
diodes are made with semiconductor
materials like silicon, germanium or
selenium, and others consist of metal
electrodes in an evacuated chamber
filled with pure elemental gas. Simple
diodes typically have two electrodes:
an anode and a cathode. The anode is
the positive terminal, and the cathode
is the negative terminal. Diodes are
now usually in the form of a transistor
with a p-n (positive-negative) junction
sandwiched between positively and
negatively charged layers of semiconductor materials. In this regard a diode
is very much like a photovoltaic cell.
Three types of diodes have historically been used in PV systems. Of
these, the bypass diode is the most
common in todays systems.
Blocking diode. The role of a
blocking diode is to prevent current
from backfeeding out of batteries
into solar modules at night or during
cloudy conditions. These devices are
found in the positive source circuit
conductor of stand-alone PV systems.
Because todays charge controllers
provide this protection, blocking
diodes are generally found in legacy
systems only.
Isolation diode. The isolation
diode is another device most commonly found in legacy systems. This

20

S o l a r pr o | February/March 2009

diode is installed between two series

strings to isolate a good series string
from one that has failed or become
shaded. Because bypass diodes are
required in todays modules, the use of
external isolation diodes is redundant
and seldom practiced.

produce a maximum power voltage

(Vmp), or operating voltage, of about
0.5 Vdc under standard test conditions. The most common cell configuration for a solar module has 72
cells connected in series to produce
a Vmp of somewhere around 36 Vdc.

Circuit Theory
No cells shaded: Current passes through all
cells. No current passes through bypass
diodes.
One cell shaded: Current bypasses the 24cell series string and passes through the
bypass diode in parallel with that string.
One row of cells shaded: Current bypasses
three 24-cell series strings and passes
through three bypass diodes.
One column of cells shaded: Current
bypasses the 24-cell series string and
passes through the bypass diode in
parallel with that string.
Entire module shaded: Current bypasses
all cells and passes through three bypass
diodes.
Diode

Diode

Diode

Main Terminals

72-cell PV circuit A bypass diode is typically installed in parallel with every 24 cells.

Bypass diode. The primary reason

that bypass diodes are used is to prevent the operating voltage of the module and the series string from getting
too low if a panel has any partial shading. The shaded portion of the panel is,
as the name suggests, bypassed.
A solar module is constructed of
multiple photovoltaic cells that are
electrically connected in series to
increase the output voltage by the
number of cells in the circuit. Regardless of size, solar cells consistently

In a 72-cell solar panel there would

typically be a bypass diode installed in
parallel with every 24 cells.
Effects of partial shading. A
shaded solar cell is not able to pass
as much current or voltage as an
unshaded cell, causing its maximum
power point to drop as a result. The
more the cell is shaded, the more the
power drops. It is far worse to have
one cell shaded by 75% than it is to
have three cells shaded by 25%. As
unshaded cells c o n t i n u e d o n pa g e 2 2

SC250U_Note_092908

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Q&A
try to pass more current than the
shaded cell is capable of handling, it
actually develops a negative voltage
and draws power. As the power output
of a module drops, it pulls the rest of
the panels in the string down as well.
The inverter will begin to derate or
reduce power output, and eventually
the string voltage may drop out of the
inverters operating window.
This is where bypass diodes come
in handy. Under shaded conditions, for
example, one series connected string
of cells might be producing a voltage
drop of -12 Vdc. The bypass diode connected in parallel, however, produces
a voltage drop on the order of -0.7 Vdc.
Electricity, much like water, will follow
the path of least resistance and flow
through the diode. As electricity flows
through the diode, it bypasses the
shaded cells, effectively removing that
series string of cells from the circuit.

This reduces the module output voltage by 12 Vdc. But if bypass diodes
were not included in the circuit, the
impact of the shading would be even
greater. Because the shaded string
of cells draws 12 Vdc, the modules
output voltage would be reduced by
24 Vdc.
Safety first. The worst condition
imaginable with a solar module that
has no bypass diodes is that it causes
a fire. This is unlikely but possible
under certain conditions, such as
when a leaf completely covers one
cell of a series string. Under these
shaded conditions, the cell will draw
power rather than produce power.
This means that while the rest of the
cells are trying to pass current, the
shaded cell is drawing current. The
byproduct, of course, is heat. After
many days of operating under these
conditions, this additional heat and

multiple temperature cycles can

cause soldier joints to weaken. If the
joints weaken and eventually disconnect, it is possible to produce an
electrical arc. The high temperature
from the arc might cause the glass to
shatter, letting oxygen into the glass
laminate that holds the solar cells in
the panel. When oxygen enters the
laminate, the highly flammable EVA
that holds the laminate together can
catch fire.
This scenario clearly needs to be
avoided at all costs. As a result, bypass
diodes are required in all solar electric modules that are certified for use
in the US. Despite the performance
benefits of bypass diodes, this safety
function is the primary reason that
regulatory agencies require them.
Brian White / Open Energy
Corporation / Grass Valley, CA /
openenergycorp.com

nbsolar

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Tel: +86 -(574)87915161, (574)87121761
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22

S o l a r pr o | February/March 2009

Fax: +86 -(574)87131333

d y m @ n b s o l a r. c o m

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Fax: +86 -(574)87131333
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Q&A
Instantaneous Array Performance
ome customers expect that a 4 kW
PV system will produce 4 kW of
power on a sunny day. I know it is not that
simple, but how can I show my customers
that their PV system is operating properly?

for a PV system requires taking three

readings: inverter output power, cell
temperature and irradiance in the
plane of the array. These measurements should be taken under the
same ambient conditions, ideally
at the same time. If the weather is
changing rapidly, this may be a twoperson job.
Field measurements are required
because PV module nameplate ratings are based upon tests performed
under standard test conditions. In
the factory, a module is flash tested at
an irradiance of 1,000 watts/m2 and
a cell temperature of 25C. But in the
field, temperature and irradiance are
dynamic and highly variable.
Tools for the job. Instantaneous
output power is typically displayed at
the inverter. If the inverter happens to
not have a displayor if you have reason to distrust the inverters display
you can use a clamp-style multi-meter
to quantify inverter output power.
Simply capture the inverter ac output
current and multiply this by the grid
voltage. In general, however, the only
tools required for this exercise are a
digital infrared thermometer and an
irradiance meter.

A digital infrared thermometer is

the easiest way to obtain a cell temperature reading. This is a great device to
have in your toolbox and can be used
for other purposes in the field. Expect
to spend $100$150 for a quality
meter, regardless of the manufacturer.
Due to the reflective nature of glass,
the device works best when measuring
the temperature on the underside of
the module, not the glass surface.
Measuring irradiance at the array
is easy with the Daystar digital solar
meter (daystarpv.com). This irradiance
meter is accurate within 3% and costs
less than $150. It is a must-have for
your toolbox. When measuring irradiance, make sure that the sensor for the
meter is in the same plane as the array.
Either set the bottom of the Daystar
meter on a module or hold the side of
the device flush with a module frame.
In this case, the three field measurements gathered are:

output power: 2,953 W

cell temperature: 54C

irradiance: 830 W/m2
System deratings. In addition to
these three field measurements, it is
essential to estimate overall system
efficiency. This step c o n t i n u e d o n pa g e 2 6

24

S o l a r pr o | February/March 2009

Current (A)

Current (A)

Every installer has been there. You just

wrapped up another fine installation,
closed your disconnects and everything
fired up as expected. Then your customers come along. They read the display
on the inverter and say: So, if we just
bought a 4 kW system, why is it producing only 2,953 watts? This is a perfectly
sunny day. Somethings wrong!
This is a common concern, and
given the large capital investment
most customers makea legitimate
one. If your customers do not have
confidence that their system is performing properly, they will convey
that message, intentionally or not, to
friends and neighbors.
With that in mind, in response to
this query I recommend running a
short series of tests and providing the
results to your client. The quick procedure that I illustrate here will instill
confidence in your technical abilities,
your companys customer support and
the newly installed PV system.
Example study.
4.50
4.50
The following example
4.00 1,000 W/m2
is an actual study of a 4
4.00
kW, grid-direct PV sys3.50
3.50
800 W/m2
tem in Santa Barbara,
3.00
3.00
75
C
California. The system
2.50 600 W/m2
2.50
consists of 20 Sanyo
50 C
2.00
HIP-200BA19 mod2.00
25 C
400 W/m2
ules and a single SMA
1.50
1.50
SB4000US. Each series
0 C
1.00
1.00
200 W/m2
string consists of five
0.50
0.50
200 W modules with
0.00
four strings paralleled
0.00
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
to the inverter. The
Voltage
(V)
Voltage (V)
system was installed in
Dependence on Irradiance
September 2008.
Dependence on Temperature
Verifying instantaSanyo 200 spec sheet Irradiance and temperature in the field affect instantaneous module output.
neous output power

D at a co u r t es y s an yo .c o m

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C ou r te sy n re l.gov/ r re dc

Q&A

Table 1 Using the PVWATTS calculator to estimate total system efficiency is a

subjective exercise, but one that the system designer or installer is uniquely
qualified to perform.

takes into account systemic factors

such as wire losses and inverter
efficiencythat reduce instantaneous
output power. These losses are not easily measured, but they have generally
accepted ranges in a properly designed
and installed PV system. I recommend
using the PVWATTS dc-to-ac derate
factors for this purpose. Even though
PVWATTS is intended to calculate
energy production, the derate calculator is easily adapted to estimate
instantaneous output power losses.
The derate values selected for
this system are illustrated in Table 1,
a PVWATTS v.1 screen capture. The
Sanyo modules have a power tolerance of -0%/+10%, so I chose a module nameplate derate value of 1.05.
The SMA SB4000US has a weighted
efficiency rating of 96%, so I used an
inverter and transformer derate of
0.96. Because total system line losses
of less than 2% are typical of many
high dc voltage grid-direct PV systems,
I used a derate value of 0.99 for both
the dc and ac wiring. The ac wiring, in
26

S o l a r pr o | February/March 2009

this case, is less that 15 feet in length.

This is a new installation, so I used an
age derate value of 1.00 and a soiling
derate value of 0.99. For older systems,
I recommend an age derate value of
1% per year. Since the system being
tested is operational and in full sun,
the maximum values are used for
system availability and shading, 0.995
and 1.00 respectively. Default values
for mismatch, diodes and connections,
and sun tracking were used.
Using the logic above, I arrived at
an estimated 0.948 overall dc-to-ac
derate factor for this system.
Sample calculations. The
PVWATTS derate factor is defined as
a decimal value and is therefore ready
for use. It just remains necessary to
convert cell temperature and irradiance to decimal values. These decimal
values will then be combined and
applied to the array STC rating.
In the case of irradiance, it is very
easy to convert the Daystar solar
meter field measurement to a decimal value. Output power is directly

proportional to the intensity of the

sunlight striking the array, and rated
power assumes an irradiance of 1,000
W/m2. In this case the measured irradiance is 830 W/m2, meaning that the
intensity of the sunlight on the array is
83% of STC. The decimal derate factor
of irradiance is therefore 0.830.
To convert the temperature measurement to a decimal derate value,
first compare cell temperature in the
field to cell temperature at STC. In this
case, the temperature differential is
54C25C, for a differential of 29C.
The next step is to locate and apply
the modules temperature coefficient
of maximum power. For the Sanyo
HIP-200BA19 the Pmax coefficient is
-0.29%/C. Applying this coefficient to
the 29C cell temperature differential
results in a temperature derate value
of -8.41% (29C x -0.29%/C = -8.41%).
The decimal equivalent of this derate
value is 1.00 0.0841, or 0.916.
After converting these three individual derate values to decimal equivalents, they are multiplied together for
a total instantaneous and systemic
derating:

0.948
PVWATTS
0.830 Irradiance
x 0.916
Temperature
0.721
Total

The final step in this exercise is

to apply the calculated total derate
value to the arrays dc nameplate
rating: 4,000 W_STC x 0.721 = 2,884
W. If the PV system in this example is
operating properly, its instantaneous
output power will be approximately
equal to 2,884 watts. An acceptable
range of variation is -5%/+5%, so we
would expect the system to be producing between 2,740 and 3,028 watts.
Considering that the instantaneous
output power reading at the time of
the test was 2,953 watts, my customers
and I can have confidence that this PV
system is working optimally.
Richard Dean / R&M Technologies /
Santa Barbara, CA / rmtec.net

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the

Wire

Industry Currents

SolarWorld Opens North

Americas Largest Cell
Manufacturing Facility
Solectria
Introduces
Integrated Panels
with Higher
Output Power
[Lawrence, MA] Solectria

[Hillsboro, OR] On October 17, SolarWorld USA opened a new cell manufacturing facility in Hillsboro that will ramp up to 500 MW production capacity by 2011.
The 480,000 square foot factory, formerly owned by Japans Komatsu Group, was
purchased for $40M. More than $500M will be invested in the new facility, which
houses both crystal growing and cell manufacturing equipment. SolarWorlds
Vancouver, WA, plant will continue crystal growth activities. The third SolarWorld
USA plant, located in Camarillo, CA, has been retooled and dedicated exclusively
to module assembly. The new Hillsboro facility is expected to employ 1,000 people
when it reaches full production capacity in 2011.
The history of the companies behind SolarWorld USA is a
long and interesting one. In 2006,
SolarWorld AG acquired the crystalline photovoltaic module manufacturing assets of Shell Solar.
Shell Solars US facilities had
previously operated as Siemens
Solar and Arco Solar, which dates
back to 1977. Today, SolarWorlds
family of companies is dedicated
exclusively to solar energy. The
opening of the Hillsboro facility is a sign of the companys continued growth and
investment in global photovoltaic supply. The Pacific Northwest possesses a hotbed of talent in both silicon manufacturing and clean technologies. Oregon is the
obvious choice for where to undertake this new level of solar cell manufacturing,
stated SolarWorlds US Chief Operations Officer, Boris Klebensberger.
SolarWorld USA / 800.947.6527 / solarworld-usa.com

28

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

Renewables has expanded

its offering of integrated panel
assemblies. The complete line of
Solectria string inverters, ranging
from 1.8 to 5.3 kW, is now available for use in panel assemblies.
Built to order and easy to install,
the panels can be specified with
any two inverters. This means
that integrators can customorder panel assemblies with
two unique MPPT inputs and
a capacity of up to 10.6 kW. In
addition to one or two inverters,
panel assembly options include
dc and ac disconnects, a revenue grade meter and Solrenview
or Fat Spaniel monitoring. We
pride ourselves in offering the
most convenient and specifiable
products on the market, said
Brad Sherman, sales associate
at Solectria Renewables. Our
American-made integrated panel
assemblies are a big hit with our
customers. Custom builds in our
factory save time and money in
the field.
Solectria Renewables / 978.683.9700 /
solren.com

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NABCEP Fee Increases Announced

[Malta, NY] NABCEP, a national credentialing body for renewable
energy practitioners, has announced fee increases effective
January 17, 2009. NABCEP says its fee increases are being
implemented in order to cover the costs associated with developing and administering high quality certifications. Continuing
Education Provider fees will increase from $100 to $200 per two
years. Fees for Solar PV and Solar Thermal Certification Exams are
affected as follows:

Application fee will increase from $50 to $100.

Initial Certification Exam fee will increase from $200 to $300.

Repeated Certification Exam fee will increase from $150 to $200.

Recertification fee will increase from $200 to $300.
The new certification fees will not be implemented until after the application deadline for the March 14, 2009 Solar PV and Solar Thermal Certification
Exams, but will apply for the exams scheduled on September 12. These are the
first fee increases since NABCEP established its certification programs in 2002.
NABCEP / 800.654.0021 / nabcep.org

Littelfuse Releases Up-LINK Remote

Indication Fuseholder
[Des Plaines, IL] Littelfuse, a worldwide leader in circuit protection products and solutions, has just released a new remote indication fuseholder
that is sure to attract a following. Mechanically the touch-safe fuseholder is
equivalent to those you are probably already using: DIN rail mountable, 600
Vdc rated, standard dimensioned and intended for use with Class CC fuses.
Functionally, it is in a class all its own. When used in conjunction with a user
customized programmable logic controller, Up-LINK technology inside the
fuseholder connects to an existing network or system and notifies end users
in the event of a fuse failure. This enables facility operators to monitor fuse
status remotely. It can also go one step further, providing service technicians
with specific instructions, such as the exact location of the failure, replacement fuse specification and necessary personal protective equipment. An
LED indication light in the face of the fuseholder provides a local indication
to the point of failure. Maintenance personnel arriving at a 72-string combiner box, for example, can easily pinpoint a blown fuse upon opening the
combiner door. The
Up-LINK fuseholder
from Littelfuse is ideal
for remote applications, critical equipment
andespecially if it is
a PPAyour next PV
project.
Littelfuse / 800.832.3873 /
littelfuse.com

30

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

Acme Cable Clips

Available from
Wiley Electronics
[Saugerties, NY] Wiley Electronics,

designer and manufacturer of WEEB

grounding products and the Acme
Solar Site Evaluation Tool (ASSET),
is dedicated to the advancement
of renewable sources of energy. As
suggested by its product portfolio, it
is also dedicated to identifying and
meeting the needs of solar installers,
from project development to implementation. The latest addition to its
family of products is the Acme Cable
ClipPV, a stainless steel cable clip
specifically designed to secure double
jacketed PV Cable. NEC 690.35
requires PV Cable, also referred to as
PV Wire, for use with transformerless
inverters. As a result, more module
manufacturers are using PV Cable for
their factory installed leads. An Acme
Cable ClipPV can secure two PV
Cables side by side. The original Acme
Cable Clip is available for use with
USE-2 single conductor cable. Both
cable clips mount inside standard
module frames, making cable routing clean, convenient and permanent.
Acme Cable Clips from Wiley Electronics are designed to last as long as the
PV system.
Wiley Electronics / 845.633.2065 / we-llc.com

SOLAR ENERGY
INTERNATIONAL
Training tomorrows PV Workforce

www.solarenergy.org

3-phase

One IssueThree Viewpoints

Module Grounding Clips and the NEC

anguage in Article 690.43 of the

2008 NEC allows the use of new
array grounding methods and hardware typically referred to as module
grounding clips. The article states,
Devices identified and listed for
bonding the metallic frames of PV
modules shall be permitted to bond
the exposed metallic frames of PV
modules to the metallic frames of
adjacent PV modules. In addition,
several module and rack manufacturers and system integrators have
developed system kits that utilize
grounding clips as well as lug sets to
bond between mounting rails. Whats
your take on this new language in
the 2008 NEC? What are the implications for these grounding methods
with regard to safety and the longterm integrity of these electrical
bonding methods?

IEC 61730 Will Test and

Document Module Grounding
John Wiles / Southwest
Technology Development
Institute / Las Cruces, NM /
nmsu.edu/~tdi/
Article 110.3(B) of the National Electrical Code requires that the instructions and labels provided with a listed
product be followed. PV modules
are marked for grounding at specific
points. Installation instructions specify
grounding at the marked points and
do not generally address grounding
the module at mounting holes or at
other locations.
A few manufacturers have published technical bulletins that show
other grounding methods. These
bulletins may or may not have been
reviewed by UL where they differ from
the listed grounding points. Also,
even if reviewed, they may not be in
32

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

compliance with all NEC requirements

or might describe grounding techniques that have not withstood the
test of time.
I have been making formal and
informal inputs to UL for several years
concerning module grounding and
requiring manufacturers to tighten
up documentation and procedures.
In addition, I have been encouraging
manufacturers to have their modules
tested with new grounding products
and to include this information in their
instruction manuals. This way, the AHJs
will not have any questions, and the
installation will be code compliant.
The PV team at UL has stated that it
is not sure that the UL grounding standard, UL 467, is suitable for evaluating
devices and methods used for grounding PV modules. A UL task group, of
which I am a member, is developing a
change to the module standard UL
1703 (soon to be IEC 61730) that will
test and evaluate new grounding
devices with actual PV modules during
the module listing process.
UL issued an interpretation of
UL 1703 in August 2007 that says
that manufacturers must specify, in
the module instruction manual, the
grounding method(s) and materials
that must be used to establish the
external field-made grounding connections. These methods and materials will be evaluated as part of the
module listing process and will apply
to all existing listed modules and
their instructions as they come up
for review. For example, any threaded
connection used for grounding must
be capable of being torqued and
loosened 10 times without damage
to the connecting parts. This requirement will probably end the practice
of driving a thread cutting/thread
forming screw into the module frame
for grounding.

Finally, when using a new grounding method that does not result in an
electrically continuous wire to each
PV module, grounding continuity
must be addressed. One of the oldest
requirements in the Code is to make a
grounding connection first and break
it last (250.124(A)). Consider a module
with an internal ground fault to the
frame. If the circuit conductors are left
connected, and the module is unbolted
from the grounded rackdisconnecting the frame grounding first rather
than lastthe module frame may be
energized with up to 600 volts to the
grounded rack.
For the grounding method we
currently use at the Southwest
Technology Development Institute,
see Appendix G in the latest version
(1.6) of the PV/NEC Suggested Practices manual, available here: nmsu.
edu/~tdi/Photovoltaics/Codes-Stds/
Codes-Stds.html

New Test Standard for Modules

Will Speed Acceptance
Bill Brooks /
Brooks Engineering /
Vacaville, CA /
brooksolar.com
Much controversy has surrounded the
little stamped stainless steel clips used
for grounding PV modules since their
introduction a few years back. Basically, they were created to resolve the
problem that simply clipping or bolting
anodized aluminum PV module frames
to their support racks is insufficient to
produce an electrical bond between
two anodized surfaces.
The Wiley Electronics Equipment
Bond clip, commonly called a WEEB,
addresses the concern over making
an electrical bond to the rail and
makes it simple to bond the rail to

the equipment-grounding conductor. Since the clip is made of stainless

steel, it is not subject to corrosion
and dissimilar-metal issues, and it
creates an oxygen-free connection
without antioxidant compound or
labor intensive grinding.
So why does controversy surround
the WEEB? The problem lies in the test
standard for PV modules known as
UL 1703, which has no provisions for
such equipment. To date UL has not
tested grounding methods for PV
modules. The only test required is to
verify that the module has sufficient
conduction so that a ground can be
taken off any grounding point on the
module. This test involves testing the
frame screws or other attachment
elements that hold the frame together;
it has nothing to do with any attachments to a module.
To remove all doubt about the
WEEB product, an additional step
was needed. The solution was to come
up with new language in UL 1703
that would address how to allow new
grounding methods without having
to individually test each method. This
language specifies the characteristics
of the module frame, including crosssectional area and coating thicknesses,
so that products can be developed and
tested on a generic frame. The revision
was sent to the UL Standards Testing
Panel in December for final approval,
with the hope that this new language
will be in the standard soon.
So where does that put us now?
I have been encouraging jurisdictions around the US to allow the use
of grounding clips based upon their
merit shown in the testing done by the
listing agency. WEEBs pass UL 467,
which requires that the grounding
connection stay intact when enough
current passes through the connection
to fuse the wire connected to it. Since
a 6 AWG wire can be connected to the
outgoing lug on the support rail, over
1,000 amps could be passed through
this connection for up to 4 seconds.

That is enough current to burn a 6

AWG copper wire apart and will easily
melt a lay-in lug off a PV module.
A few module manufacturers have
provided documentation to local jurisdictions stating that they allow the use
of WEEBs for bonding their modules.
This has helped many installers overcome specific permitting or inspection
issues. As a rule, we can use whatever
grounding methods are stated in the
listing literature from the module manufacturers. Much of this information
has been recently updated and several
manuals now allow multiple methods
when previously none were mentioned.

Bonding Modules to Rails

Improves System Grounding
Brian Wiley /
Wiley Electronics /
Saugerties, NY / we-llc.com
Prior to 2008, Article 250.136 of the
NEC described a method of grounding
equipment to a mounting structure,
thus allowing these new grounding methods. Additional language in
Article 690.43 of the 2008 NEC makes
this explicit, stating: Devices listed and
identified for grounding the metallic
frames of PV modules shall be permitted to bond the exposed metallic
frames of PV modules to grounded
mounting structures.
In the past, it was common for
installers to ground only module
frames and not the mounting structure. In my opinion, this neglects the
most common failure mechanism, a
pinched wire between module frame
and mounting rail that could just as
easily energize the rail as energize the
frame. When bonding the frames to the
mounting rails, one is forced to also
ground the mounts, and the resulting
system is safer.
The older method of grounding
an array generally used a wire strung
between each element of the array. It

was common to use wires as small as

10 AWG andwhere inspectors
deemed that the equipment ground
was subject to physical damage
as large as 6 AWG. Compare this to
some mounting rails I have measured,
which are 263 mm2, or approximately
equivalent to a 500-kcmil wire. The
rail has almost 20 times the crosssectional area of a 6 AWG wire. As a
result, resistance in the rail is an order
of magnitude lower than in the wire.
It therefore provides a much safer
ground. It is worth noting that module
frames typically have similar crosssectional areas and should provide an
equally effective ground.
Another factor to remember in
transient faults is that the overall
impedanceinductance combined
with resistanceof the conductor may
limit the effectiveness of a ground.
Large conductors have lower inductance than small conductors. Straight
mounting rails have a lower inductance
than a meandering loop of wire. Where
there are a number of mounting rails
in parallel, the impedance is reduced
proportional to that number. Again,
newer grounding equipment will have
lower impedance and therefore be
safer. This also applies for protection
against lightning.
The long-term integrity of all
methods of grounding arrays is a big
question. There is anecdotal evidence
that older methods of grounding that
are still being accepted by inspectors
do not hold up well; but there is not
yet an accepted standard for testing
grounding methods. This means that
individual manufacturers can evaluate
their own products, but the Nationally
Recognized Testing Laboratories cannot evaluate all grounding methods
in a consistent way. Until agreed upon
standards are published, inspectors
and installers can use the NEC as a
guideline but will have to use their
common sense, experience and good
judgment to decide what grounding
methods are acceptable.
solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

33

Of the many tools you use to install and

maintain a PV system, electrical test
equipment may not be your first priority.
But a PV system is only as good as the
electrical energy it produces.

Electrical
Test Equipment
By Blake Gleason

Safety in Testing
The first consideration when choosing and using
electrical test equipment is technician safety. All
those burdensome working clearance requirements in NEC 110.26 were designed to help make
34

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

testing and maintaining energized equipment a relatively

safe endeavor. Proper tools, proceduressuch as lockouttagoutand personal protective equipment are necessary
as well. Read and follow NFPA-70E, Electrical Safety in the
Workplace, for more safety details (see Resources).
Be sure to read the test equipment manual thoroughly,
both for safety and proper use guidelines, and for ideas for
new and better ways to use the equipment. Also make sure
your test equipment is appropriate for the application. ANSI/
ISA-S82 defines four categories of electrical test equipment
user risk. The higher the available voltage and fault current in
a given test location, the higher the category. In general, Category I is low-power electronics; Category II is branch circuits;
Category III includes feeders
and panelboards; and Category
IV covers service entrances. All
professional-grade, power electrical test equipment should
be certified and marked on the
device for 1000 V Cat III or 600
V Cat IV.
Co u r t e s y g re e nl e e. c om

ow do you know all circuits are working? How

do you know the system is safe against shock
hazards and fire? How can you be confident
the system will continue working until the
next scheduled maintenance? How can you
find the problem when some part of the system
stops working or when you are not sure whether it is working as well as it could be?
The answers to these questions can be found with electrical
test equipment, which is essentially a set of measuring tools.
The quantities that can be measured include voltage, current,
resistance, capacitance, power, energy, frequency, power factor, phase angle and temperature. Many of these quantities
can be measured in both ac and dc, and most can
be logged over time. They can be measured with
highly accurate equipment or with a simple tool
that reports only presence or absence.
Perhaps your old analog voltmeter will do
just fine. But here is a look at what this category
of equipment could and should be doing for you,
including examples of specific tools, what to look
for, how and when to use them on PV systems and
some idea of cost.

Safety first When using electrical test

equipment, like this Greenlee GT-95
voltage tester, personal protection
equipment should include appropriately rated insulating gloves.

Quality Equipment
As with most tools, you tend
to get what you pay for with
electrical test equipment.
Most high quality electrical
test equipment is available
through your usual electrical

Test equipment categories

The following 10 categories of test equipment are arranged
in order from more common tools to highly specialized

instruments. Tools at the beginning of the list probably have

permanent places in most installers tool belts or at least on
every truck in the fleet. Tools toward the end of the list might
live in the shop or might even be rented as needed from an
electrical tool supplier.
Each category includes a brief description of the tool
and what it can measure, some available features and possible applications, and some examples of particular models.
Where cost information is given, it is the approximate list
price at press time.
Voltage detector. A voltage detector lets you know whether
there is voltage present in the area being tested. This minimal
yes-or-no information is most often useful when checking for
the absence of voltage for safety reasons or the presence of
voltage for troubleshooting reasons. The tool usually works
for ac voltages by induction and does not require contact with
exposed terminals or other conductive parts. It needs only to
be within about 0.25 inch to a few inches of a conductor to
detect live voltage. The voltage detector is just thata tool
that detects voltage. It does not need to have current flowing,
or even to have a complete circuit, to sense the presence of

C ou r t es y g reen le e. com

supply wholesaler. Almost everything is available for purchase online. Just beware of too-good-to-be-true prices.
About five years ago, I monitored eBay for two months before
finally snapping up a new, in the box Fluke 337 clamp meter
for half of its retail price. It has worked at least as well as my
other test equipment since then, but it felt like a gamble at
the time. I could have wound up with a low quality knockoff or a genuine but refurbished brand-name product, out of
warranty or out of calibration.
If you decide that your needs will be met by lower cost,
consumer grade equipment, you can find these at the local
hardware store or Radio Shack. Just do not expect consumer
grade equipment to perform like a professional tool, out of
the box or over time. Even if both tools have the same feature
list, the professional tool offers extra value.
Durability. Test equipment almost always includes complicated, sensitive electronics, and it will not serve any purpose
if those are damaged. A professional tool is designed to survive years of daily use and abuse, including being dropped,
shoved into your tool belt, left in the rain and bounced endlessly in the truck. It will have to work reliably over a wide
range of job site temperatures. So avoid equipment designed
for laboratory use where possible. A professional tool will
have proper fusing and input protection to protect you and
itself from the occasional incorrect use and surprising surges
you subject it to.
Accuracy. Professional equipment should have very high
accuracy, repeatability and resolution (see sidebar, p. 41).
Even though a low quality meter might show three digits to
the right of the decimal place for a voltage measurement,
likely it is not very accurate in the millivolt range. High
quality equipment will be backed by specifications, certifications and warranties that give you confidence in your
measurements and the decisions you make based on those
measurements.
Support. Professional equipment will come with good
support from the manufacturer. You can be sure your
equipment was calibrated to a high standard, and you
can have it recalibrated as necessary. Manuals, technical
and application notes and other documentation will be
thorough and informative. The warranty period will be
meaningful.
Interestingly, the first three PV installer foremen I asked
selected a different favorite brand for their primary meter
Fluke, Greenlee and Idealbut all of them chose high quality
products and manufacturers, despite their initial high cost.
All of the example models cited below for the various test
equipment categories come from reliable manufacturers.

Warning for PV installers! Most noncontact voltage detectors, like the Greenlee GT-11 shown here, will not detect dc
voltage; do not rely on them completely for electrical safety,
especially on the roof.

voltage. Most models are designed primarily for 120 and 240
Vac detection, but many will detect ac from 12 V all the way
up to 600 V.
The voltage detector is a small, low-cost tool that should
always be within reach. Many models are designed in the
form of a large pen and often have a pocket clip. These can
find a permanent home in your shirt or overalls pocket
or one of the crayon slots in your tool belt. Common uses
solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

35

E le c tr i c al Te s t E qui pment

C ou r te sy fl uk e . c o m ( 2 )

charge controller set points, and 060 V for typical

include checking whether a particular
48 V battery banks. These ranges can be auto-ranging
receptacle or circuit is live, checking
or set manually. Beware of buying a DMM intended
whether you have power at the far end
of an extension cord, checking for ac
for higher voltage work, which might only have the
voltage in a wall before drilling, check0600 V range. If this is the case, it will have poor
ing for ac voltage in a panel before
accuracy at low voltage levels.
working on it and tracing a wire or
DMMs commonly include many additional features. In my experience, low cost, low quality multicable on a broken circuit to find the
meters often have ten or more additional features,
break.
only two of which could realistically be useful, and
There are many off-brand voltage
only one of which actually works most of the time. On
detectors available for as little as a few
higher quality, moderate cost DMMs, the extra feadollars. For something that will last a
tures are usually limited, so you need to know which
long time and be reliable, I recommend
ones you want. Besides the standard multiple-range
a model from a quality manufacturer,
voltage, current and resistance (continuity) settings,
such as the Fluke 1AC-II ($27) or the
I find these additional features useful on occasion:
Greenlee GT-11 ($15).
Size matters Voltage
testers
like
this
Fluke
capacitance, temperature, frequency, diode checker
Voltage tester. A voltage tester does
T+Pro
are
a
good
fit
for
and LCD backlight.
one job, and it should do it well. It
measuring
string
voltCapacitance is mostly used to check a given
identifies whether there is voltage
ages
on
rooftops
due
to
capacitor
to determine whether it is damaged. Tempresent at the points being tested and
their
compact
size.
perature
usually
requires a separate thermocouple
indicates the nominal voltage level
and
is
probably
better
measured with a dedicated
and the actual voltage. This tool is
instrument.
Frequency
is
useful
to verify that the grid is
somewhat redundant if you already have a good multi-meter
within
specified
tolerances,
or
that
an engine generator is
(see below), which has more functionality and better accuproducing
a
frequency
that
is
compatible
with a batteryracy over a wider range of voltages. However, if your multibased
inverter.
A
diode
checker is used
meter is oversized, small voltage testers like the Greenlee
to
verify
suspect
blocking
and bypass
GT-95 ($91) and Fluke T+Pro ($92) could be more convediodes
in
PV
circuits.
Finally,
make sure
nient: They fit easily into a tool pouch and can tell you at
that
the
LCD
screen
has
a
backlight
you
the dc disconnect or combiner box whether you plugged
can
turn
on
in
low
light.
Both
the
Fluke
the right number of modules into each string.
87V ($392) and the Greenlee DM-860
Digital multi-meter. If you have only one piece of elec($366) have all of these features.
trical test equipment, it has to be a multi-meter. Almost
If your DMM comes equipped with
all of these tools are now digitalthus the term digistraight-tip
probe leads only, you should
tal multi-meter (DMM)with LCD screens. A DMM is
buy
at
least
one clamp-style tipcomseveral different meters in one package, as the name
monly
referred
to as an alligator clipfor
implies. At a bare minimum, all DMMs measure voltage
your
test
leads.
This clamp is quite useand current. Many will measure both ac and dc voltage
ful
when
you
are
making many measureover a wide range (0600 V or more), as well as ac and dc
ments
with
one
lead
on the same point.
current up to about 10 A. Another very common feature
For
example,
when
measuring openis the ability to measure resistance, including a threshcircuit
string
voltages
in
a 36-string comold below which continuity is announced, often by a
biner
box,
you
can
clip
one lead to the
tone. This feature proves extremely useful when checkgrounded
busbar,
and
then
use one hand
ing multiple wires for continuity. It allows you to look at
to
probe
each
string
and
the
other hand
the wires while listening for the continuity tone, rather Select features
Higher
quality
digital
to
write
down
the
voltages.
The alligathan looking back and forth between the wires and a
multi-meters
offer
tor
clip
works
a
lot
better
than
trying to
display screen.
very
specific
feature
balance,
wedge
or
tape
the
straight-tip
For general use with PV systems, the DMM must be
probe against a grounded busbar.
able to measure up to 600 Vdc for higher voltage, grid- sets from product to
product.
Some,
like
this
tied string inverter systems, and 600 Vac for electrical
Clamp meter. A clamp meter is an
services up to 480 V. For battery systems, the DMM Fluke 87V, will be better important variation of a multi-meter
must have low voltage dc ranges, such as 05 V with suited for PV applicathat specializes in quick and easy meamillivolt resolution for individual battery cells and tions than others.
surement of current. c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 3 8
36

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

E le c tr i c al Te s t E qui pment

C ou r te sy ide a lin du str ie s.c om

Standard DMMs can measure current only by interrupting Max and Min is largeor whether the voltage tends to be
the circuit being measured and inserting the meter into the unusually high or low, at least during the monitoring period.
circuit. Clamp meters, on the other hand, do not require This simple procedure will not solve grid problems, but
contact with any conductive element in order to measure it might alert you early in the planning process to potential
the current in a wire or busbar. Most importantly, a clamp interconnection issues and trigger the use of more sophistimeter does not require interrupting the measured circuit cated tools and methods, or at least a call to the local utility.
at all. While standard DMMs are usually limited by internal Using the Max/Min function while measuring dc PV sourcefuses to measuring a maximum
circuit current or voltage will provide a sense of how
of 10 A, for example, clamp
much the particular inverter MPPT algorithm varies
meters can measure hundreds
these values. Applying the Max/Min/Avg function to
or even thousands of amps.
the inverter output current during a part of the day
These meters measure ac curwhen clouds are passing shows how severe the worst
rent by induction and dc curdrop in PV production is relative to the best times. It
rent by the Hall effect.
might even give you a glimpse of the elusive edge-ofDo you need to pay extra
cloud effect, which would reveal itself as a Max value
for a clamp meter to be able to
well above the expected output.
measure true rms current for
Inrush, or peak, monitoring is similar to the Max
PV work? In general, you can
function, but it is specifically intended for measurassume that the dc current on
ing very brief surges in current, such as the inrush
PV circuits should be close to
current to a motor at startup. This function can also
flat dc, and the ac current on
be used to measure the highly variable inrush curinverter output circuits should
rent for an isolation transformer. When large central
be very close to sine-wave ac,
inverters used to leave their accompanying isolation
which means that a true rms Get current Working with a
transformers connected at night, grid energy was
meter will give the same reading clamp meter deep inside a live
wasted to keep the transformer energized all night. A
as a non-true meter. If you are panel can make reading the
solution employed by integrators and supported by
troubleshooting because some- display difficult. This Ideal 61-774
manufacturers was to install a contactor on a timer
thing has gone wrong, however, clamp meter comes with a secbetween the transformer and the interconnection
that assumption may be false. ondary LCD screen in addition to
circuit breaker to disconnect the transformer from
Perhaps the inverter is mal- a data hold function that captures
the grid at night. In the morning, when this contacfunctioning, and there is a lot of and holds readings taken in tight
tor would suddenly connect the transformer, if the
ripple on the dc or distortion on spaces.
grid happened to be in just the right part of the cycle
the ac.
relative to the magnetics of the transformer, the
A handy feature of clamp meters is that even when the extraordinarily high inrush current to the transformer would
meter is measuring voltage, hanging the device from its clamp intermittently trip the overcurrent protection on the grid
allows for two-handed operation of test leads. But these tools side of the transformer. Sun Light and Power learned this
offer many more important functions as well. For example, lesson the hard way. The inrush function on my clamp meter
many DMMs and clamp meters, such as the Ideal 61-774 was the tool I used to capture this fleeting phenomenon.
($246) and the Fluke 337 ($386), will include these features:
The data hold function on a clamp meter allows you to
Max/Min/Avg, inrush or peak current capture and data hold. capture and hold a reading on the display. When you measure
Max/Min/Avg is a quick and easy way to do very basic current by clamping onto a hard-to-reach wire in the back of
datalogging. This function continuously monitors voltage or a live panel, it can be useful to push the hold button and then
current and reports the maximum value and minimum value remove the meter from the panel to read the display.
Infrared thermometer. An infrared thermometer allows
for the time period measured. If you would like to know how
high the open-circuit dc voltage on your PV array gets on quick surface temperature measurements without touching
a cold morning before the inverter turns on, you could set the object being measured. This can be very useful for idenup your DMM to monitor the voltage and come back after tifying wire terminations, fuse holders and circuit breakthe inverter turns on to read the Max voltage. Similarly, if ers that are operating at higher temperatures than normal.
you are evaluating a site for PV, it might be interesting to These hot spots indicate an overload condition, a malfuncrecord both the Max and Min ac voltage at the main panel tioning device or a high-resistance connection, any one of
or at the location of your proposed intertie. These values which could soon be a major safety or PV production issue.
can identify a soft gridmeaning the difference between Use an infrared thermometer to scan all c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 4 0
38

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

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solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

39

C ou r te sy e xte c h .c om

E le c tr i c al Te s t E qui pment

Avoid surface glare Infrared thermometers, like the Extech 42512,

work by measuring the black-body
radiation of the surface being
measured, so they can be tripped
up by surfaces with high emissivity
like shiny metal conduit or aluminum
busbars. Either adjust the emissivity
setting, if your model has one,
or temporarily apply a piece of nonshiny tape to the metal.

of the fuse holders in a dc combiner box or all of the circuit

breakers in an ac accumulation panel. If any of the overcurrent devices are hotter than the others, you immediately
know you have a problem. You can also use an infrared
thermometer to quickly scan other parts of the system to
help identify performance concerns. Scan a few module cell

temperatures, rooftop conduits, inverter bodies and heat

sinks. Are they within expected range? Are they within their
specified operating range? Are they in the same range as
they were last week when everything was working perfectly?
Products like the Fluke 62 ($100) and the Extech 42512 ($156)
will help you find out.
Circuit tracer. A circuit tracer can be used to easily identify which wires, receptacles and loads go with which circuit.
When wires are covered in walls or buried underground, the
circuit tracer quickly maps everything out without interrupting power or requiring you to uncover anything. It typically
uses two units: a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter plugs into a receptacle or uses induction for noncontact
injection of a signal into the circuit, which the receiver
detects at a panelboard or other location.
There are a few common uses of a circuit tracer in PV
work. In battery backup retrofit projects, the customer will
want particular outlets, both lighting fixtures and receptacles, to be moved into a new, dedicated load subpanel. A circuit tracer makes quick work of identifying both the hot and
neutral wires of these circuits in the existing breaker panel.
Next, if on a commercial project you somehow end up with
40 strings worth of unlabeled homerun wires at the combiner box, you can use the tracer to efficiently identify which
is which, without doing tedious continuity tests. Finally, the
circuit tracer is an excellent tool for quickly determining the
exact location of an unintended open circuit or fault. Each
of these tasks could be accomplished by other means, but

C ou r t e s y i d e al in d us t r ie s . co m

Circuit identification A circuit tracer, like the

Ideal 61-956, is useful when separating out
circuits for battery backup. It can turn a twoperson project into a one-person task.

40

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

PCs running custom analysis software and a full-time plant

manager to operate the whole thing.
In between, there are several options. DMMs and clamp
meters that have Min/Max/
Avg functions can be used for
very basic, short-term logging.
There are also advanced logging DMMs, such as the Fluke
287 ($525), which can log for
hundreds of hours. The data can
be displayed on the LCD screen
or uploaded to a PC for further
analysis. Of course, you have to
Hard to part with Advanced
logging digital multi-meters, like
the Fluke 287, can log data for
hundreds of hours and upload to
a PC later, but this requires leaving the meter behind at the site.

C ou r te sy f lu k e .c om

a circuit tracer can save a lot of time. In addition, it can be

safely used on live circuits. Check out the Amprobe AT-4004
CON ($945), which works up to 4 miles, and the Ideal 61-956
($737), which uses direct coupling and is effective up to 15
feet underground.
Datalogger. There are many times when instantaneous
measurement of an electrical value does not provide
enough information to accurately diagnose a problem or
confirm that a PV system is working as it should. This type
of spot measurement will not divulge peak values, minimum values, trends or averages. To measure these and
other time-dependent quantities, you need a datalogger.
Datalogging can be accomplished with a wide variety of
equipment. The diverse categories of equipment offer a
correspondingly wide variety of features, accuracy, complication and cost.
At the low end of the technology, residential customers
can write down the total accumulated production from their
inverters every day on a clipboard hanging in the garage. At
the high end, $150,000 might buy you hundreds of distributed
sensors with live connections to several dedicated industrial

Accuracy, Repeatability and Resolution

epending on the intended use for the information gathered from a particular test, measurements may need
high resolution, accuracy and repeatabilityalso known as
precisionor all three. Resolution is the smallest increment
that a tool can measure and display. Accuracy specifies the
maximum difference between the actual value of the quantity
being measured and the value read by the measuring tool. A
measuring tool or measuring procedure has high repeatability
or precision if duplicate measurements of the same quantity
yield the same result.
For example, when you use a DMM to measure the operating voltage of a grid-tied PV string with an expected value of
450 Vdc, the DMM range might be 0600 Vdc. If the display
has four digits, it will probably have a resolution of 0.1 V, or
100 mV. Accuracy is typically a percentage of the measurement plus a floor, which is a minimum error due to problems
such as drift and offset that is expressed as digits or counts
of the least significant digit. For the 600 V range, the accuracy
might be 2% plus 15 digits, which means 9 V (2% of 450 V)
plus 1.5 V (15 counts of the least significant digit: 0.1 V), for
a total accuracy for this measurement of 10.5 V. We would
expect to read between 439.5 V and 460.5 V (450 +/- 10.5 V) if
the true value being measured was indeed 450 V.
One consequence of the floor of accuracy is that a measurement taken in the low end of a range will have relatively
low accuracy. For example, if we use the same 600 Vdc range
tool to try to measure the voltage of a 2 V cell in a battery

bank, we will be disappointed by both the resolution and the

accuracy of the measurement. The resolution will still be 0.1 V,
which is already 5% of the measurement value. The accuracy
will be 40 mV (2% of 2 volts) plus 1.5 volts (15 counts of 0.1
volts), for a total of 1.54 V of uncertainty in a 2 V measurement. Clearly, we need a different tool with a lower range for
this measurement.
The specified accuracy of a particular measurement
device will be valid over a narrow temperature range only,
usually around room temperature. Manufacturers can provide
data that shows how reduced the accuracy will be at very hot
or very cold temperatures. High quality DMMs typically have
approximately twice the uncertainty at freezing temperatures
as they do at room temperature.
Finally, the accuracy of a particular unit will tend to
degrade over time, so your decade-old meter probably
has much less accuracy than shown on the specification
sheets. Manufacturers and metrology labs can recalibrate
your test equipment using expensive, very high accuracy,
high resolution equipment that has been calibrated by
even higher accuracy, higher resolution equipment and so
on back to the standard at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). This recalibration should be
done often enough for you to have confidence that your
equipment has the accuracy you need for your applicationsannually is typical, but refer to the manufacturers
recommendation. {
solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

41

Most monitoring systems eventually upload

data to a Web-based display that can be used
for monitoring, showing-off and triggering service calls. Five-year data plans range
from free to many thousands of dollars for
larger systems. The more portable types of
electrical test equipment detailed in this
article can be carried on your truck and put
to good use verifying a PV systems DAS at
commissioning or when the DAS produces
questionable data.
Detailed decision Datalogging tools, like the
Megohm-meter. A megohm-meter is
ELITEpro Logger from Dent Instruments and the
essentially a device used for measuring
HOBO U23-004 from Onset Computer Corporahigh values of resistance, primarily for the
tion, allow an in-depth look at the exact set of data
purpose of testing electrical insulation.
you decide is most important for energy analysis,
These are commonly referred to as Megtroubleshooting or system commissioning.
gers or Megger testers, after the manufacturer, Megger, a full-range electric test
leave your fancy DMM at the site for hundreds of hours to equipment company best known for its line of insulation
acquire that data.
testers. What does this high resistance test have to do with
A better option is a dedicated datalogger. These can typi- PV? A good example is preventing one of the most common
cally accept a large variety of inputs from several sensors so problems with dc wiring on PV systems large and small:
that, for example, you can log current and voltage on three ground faults.
phases as well as temperature and decibel level to evaluate
A ground fault is basically an unintentional, low resistance
the operating conditions of your large central inverter. They path between current-carrying conductors and conductive
can also record more data points for longer periods and can equipment or equipment-grounding conductors. If a modbe programmed to record at almost any interval. The data is ule frame has mistakenly been clamped c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 4 4
uploaded to a PC for graphing and analysis.
When seeking out a datalogger, pay attention to how
many and what type of data channels you wish to record, how
much storage you need and what environment the logger will
operate in. Onset Computer Corporation, maker of the popular HOBO line of dataloggers, has a broad selection of small,
inexpensive, stand-alone logging devices for almost any application. If you and your co-workers cannot agree on the daily
temperature profile right behind the module backsheet, for
instance, you could deploy some HOBO U23-004 ($129) units
behind a few arrays to find out for sure. A more industrial,
very flexible model of datalogger is the Enernet K20 ($1,600
with display, without any sensors), which has many power,
analog and digital channels. If you need to log only voltage
and current for power and energy readings, the Dent Instruments ElitePro Logger ($1,000 without CTs) is a great, small
packageabout the size of a cell phonewith storage of up to
100,000 records and integrated software for the PC.
The most well known type of datalogging product for both
solar thermal and PV systems is typically installed permanently and is known as the monitoring system or data acquisi- Find faults before they happen Performing insulation tests
tion system (DAS). These products range from simple inverter- with the Fluke 1550B at system commissioning and during
integrated cards ($0$100) to fully instrumented, weather periodic, preventative maintenance visits should allow you to
station enabled, string (or even individual module) monitor- identify insulation problems before they cause an unexpected
ing, building load analyzing arrangements ($3,000$10,000+). system shutdown or worse, a fire or shock injury.
42

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

Co ur t es y f lu ke .c o m

Co ur te sy o nse tc o mp. c o m

C ou r te sy de n ti nstr ume nts. c o m

E le c tr i c al Te s t E qui pment

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Co u r t e s y a mp ro b e. c o m

C ou r te sy da y sta r pv. c o m

power supplies. The harmonics,

onto a module lead or homerun wire, there is a
as well as spikes and sags in voltgood chance the insulation on the wire is pinched
age, can cause errors and sudden
so thoroughly that a very low resistance connection to the grounded frame or rack exists. This
shutdowns in PV inverters. Use a
catastrophic fault is relatively simple to identify.
power quality analyzer to evaluHowever, as anyone who has tried to find the
ate existing building loads and
dreaded intermittent ground fault knows, an
corresponding grid quality to
identify potential compatibility
unintentional connection to ground is often not
issues with inverters or to trouso obvious and might take several blown GFDI
bleshoot ac error codes on large
fuses or inverter faults and multiple site visits to
system inverters. Having a tool
finally solve.
like the Amprobe DM-III ($3,295)
With a standard DMM, you can check for
in your truck when responding
continuityresistance of less than about 30
to a mysterious 225 kW inverter
Ohmsand moderate values of resistance.
shutdown might help you idenHowever, to properly characterize the insulation
tify the problem in one visit.
on conductors, you need a source of controlled
high voltage dc and an accurate, very low range Performance characterization The
I-V curve tracer. An I-V curve
ammeter. The combination of these two func- Daystar DS-100C I-V curve tracer can
tracer is a highly specialized
tions yields an accurate high range ohmmeter, be used to verify the performance of the piece of electrical test equipwhich in turn is the basic engine of an insulation entire arrayup to 50 kWor to identify ment suitable for characterizing
defective or damaged modules.
tester such as the Megger MIT400 ($574).
a PV cell, module, string or entire
Many more advanced features allow meaarray. By applying a varying load,
surement of the various components of the undesirable the unit can calculate the peak power, internal series resiscurrent, including capacitive, polarization, leakage and con- tance and internal parallel resistance of the module or group
ductive. These measurements can be performed by the Fluke of modules. This characterization can be useful for verifying a
1550B ($3,518), and the results are useful for identifying both module or system and for identifying and proving defective or
immediate isolated damage due to poor installation work- damaged modules for warranty claims. There are several Euromanship or traumasuch as a fire or an earthquakeand pean manufacturers of commercial-grade I-V tracers, such as
gradual deterioration due to poor manufacturing, improper PV-Engineering. New Mexicobased Daystar also makes an I-V
specifications or environmental conditions.
curve tracer, the DS-100C ($23,250).
Power quality analyzer. Power
quality is a broad term. In general,
g C O N TAC T
ac power is of high quality when it
Blake Gleason / Sun Light and Power / Berkeley, CA /
stays at the nominal voltage under
blake@ sunlightandpower.com / sunlightandpower.com
all load conditions and the waveform is very close to a perfect 60
Manufacturers
Hz sine wave (in the US). A power
Amprobe / 877.267.7623 / amprobe.com
quality analyzer is a sophisticated
Daystar / 575.522.4943 / daystarpv.com
datalogging current and voltage
Dent Instruments / 800.388.0770 / dentinstruments.com
meter that identifies and reports
Enernet Corporation / 315.449.0839 / enernetcorp.com
power quality issues on the cirExtech Instruments / 781.890.7440 / extech.com
cuits it is connected to. One of
Fluke Corporation / 800.443.5853 / fluke.com
the typical uses for this tool is to
Multitasking In addidetermine the amount of higherGreenlee / 800.435.0786 / greenlee.com
tion to analyzing power
order harmonics present on the
Ideal Industries / 800.435.0705 / idealindustries.com
quality, the Amprobe
voltage waveform. The cause of
Megger / 800.723.2861 / megger.com
DM-III also tests insulathese harmonics, which are a form
Onset Computer Corporation / 800.564.4377 / onsetcomp.com
tion and measures
of distortion, are often nonlinear
PV-Engineering / 49.2374.505096 / pv-engineering.de
ground resistance, mak- loads such as lighting ballasts;
ing it a useful tool for
variable-frequency motor drives;
Resources
the routine maintenance
computer, printer and other office
National Fire Protection Association / nfpa.org (NFPA-70E safety standard)
of PV systems.
electronics; and uninterruptible
44

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

Flat

Roof

Mounting Systems

By Ryan Mayfield

Solutions
for the
Wide Open
Commercial
Landscape

46

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

n increasing number of PV systems are being installed in commercial applications across the
US. While many of the available
roof areas at the commercial
facilities are considered flat, even
flat roofs have a minimal slope
to them. Often a rise of 0.25 inch over a 12-inch run
referred to as a 1/4:12 pitchis typical. So these are
more properly thought of as low slope applications.
While low pitch roofs are very often a dream installation site for many solar integrators, they present a
number of design and installation challenges: valleys
and ridges for drainage, the drains themselves, vents,
exhaust fans, rooftop units, curbs and parapets. All of
these have to be taken into account during the design
process. In this article I examine the design constraints
and considerations for flat roof mounting techniques.
I also outline commercially available racking solutions
for a variety of roof structures.

C ou r te sy roof sc re e n .c om

pa tr i c k b y rd . c o m

C ou r t e s y me r id i an so l a r. c o m

Attached rack design While attached racking systems

require roof penetrations, the structural designer has the
ability to maximize spans and minimize penetrations, as
illustrated by this RoofScreen solution.

Ballasted rack design Because ballasted systems, like the

Power Tube CRS from DPW Solar, rely on system weight
to resist wind uplift and other live loads, low profile, low tilt
arrays are common.

Mounting Techniques
Three main options when racking a PV array on a flat roof exist:
attached, ballasted and a hybrid option that uses both ballast
and structural attachments. The latter is often referred to as a
minimally attached system. Each has its own advantages and
disadvantages that need to be weighed against each other.
Attached. A structurally attached type of system relies on
penetrations in the roof surface and connections to the framing. Several options for fastening the racking system to the
building are available. Acceptable methods will be determined by the building construction method and an engineering review. Attachment details may include standoffs welded
or screwed in place, curbs integrated into the roofing or steel
grids suspended above the roof surface. In some cases direct
attachment to steel or concrete deck material is structurally
adequate; in other cases attachment to trusses or rafters is
required. The advantages of attached racking systems include
reduced dead loading to the structure, the ability to engineer
specific requirements for live loads, increased options for array
tilt and the ability to have an array that is level regardless of
roof drainage features.
Ballasted. Ballast mounts rely solely on the weight of the
array, racking system and additional material, like concrete
pavers, to hold the array to the roof. Their biggest advantage is
the lack of roof penetrations. This does not eliminate the need
for working with a roofing contractor, but it can significantly
reduce the coordination required between the roofer and the
PV installer. These arrays can generally be installed while
maintaining the roof warranty. But in order to do so, the
installation must be coordinated with the original roofer or
solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

47

Balance of system One of the benefits of the higher profile

typical of structurally attached racking systems is that they
can serve as a scaffold for other rooftop components.

an approved representative for the roofing manufacturer.

Ballasted systems need to be carefully analyzed due to the
increased roof loading imposed by the array. Also, many
ballasted systems will be limited to a pitch of 20 or less to
minimize wind uplift forces.
Hybrid. A minimally attached, or hybrid, system takes
advantage of both attached and ballasted features. A
hybrid racking system will require a minimum number
of penetrations and some level of ballasting. The concept
for the hybrid system is rather simple: the fewer penetrations used, the more ballasting required and vice versa. An
example of the trade-off between attachment and ballast is
published in the UniRac RapidFoot Installation Manual. The
RapidFoot attachment foot has a maximum uplift rating of
1,200 pounds. Installing one RapidFoot attachment per 15
modules results in a ballast reduction of 3.84 pounds per
square foot, whereas one attachment per every six modules
reduces the ballast requirement by 8.70 pounds per square
foot. This allows the system designer to optimize the racking system design based on known building factors, such
as its load bearing limit and the spacing of its structural
support members.
Attached Racking Systems
In some cases, attached systems may be the only option
available to designers. Compared to ballasted systems, for
example, structurally attached mounts result in the least
dead load to the building. For projects where minimizing
48

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

dead loading is a design driver, an attached racking system is

ideal. High wind areas may also require an attached mounting solution. Even in moderate wind zones, positive attachment to the building is often required in order to have array
tilts in excess of 20.
Structurally attached racks offer many advantages. On
flat roofs in North America, for example, achieving the optimal energy output per array capacity will generally require
an attached solution. These racking systems have the additional flexibility of making the array slope and orientation
independent of the roof deck. This means the array can be leveled, which is visually appealing. It also means that the racking system is less likely to interfere with the roof s ability to
shed water or debris. Not only can the array span a ridge or
valley along the roof, but also roof drains may be more easily
avoided. Roof maintenance, replacement and repair may also
be simpler with a structurally attached system. In general, the
array angle can be dictated in the initial design. In some cases,
tilt angle can be adjusted after installation. Modules can often
be arranged in either landscape or portrait orientation with a
varying number of modules on a given rack.
Whatever the selection criteria, designers can choose
from several structurally attached racking systems.
DPW Solar. POWER-FAB Roof/Ground Mounts are available
in a variety of configurations, manufactured by Direct Power
and Water. As the name suggests, this is a mounting structure
appropriate for use on the ground or on the roof. In the latter case, the roof itself serves as the foundation. The rack utilizes structural aluminum angle and stainless steel hardware.
Attachment options are L-feet, ideally used in conjunction
with flashed stanchions. The product line offers one-piece or
telescoping legs. A 20 to 65 tilt angle is standard.
c o n t i n u e d o n pa g e 5 0

Co u r t e s y n a ma s t e so l a r.c o m

C ou r te sy m e r idia n sola r. c o m

F la t R oof M ou nt i ng Syst ems

Minimally attached Ballasted racking manufacturers that

offer an attachment detail, like this post anchor from SunLink,
provide a hybrid mounting solution for designers that offers
significant design flexibility.

WHEN CONSIDERING A PV MOUNTING SOLUTION,

CONSIDER THIS: WE DELIVER

FREEDOM
&
FLEXIBILITY

FLEX I B LE TILT SO L UTIO NS

S CA LA B LE F R OM K W T O M W

A R C H I TEC TURAL AE STHE TIC S

F LAT R OOF B A LLA S T S OLU T I ON

Offering installers Freedom and Flexibility to install on a

variety of structures with a wide selection of PV modules.
Highly engineered mounting technology designed with
experienced customer input, Unirac mounting solutions provides installers
with a cost-effective custom designed solution that is quick and easy to install,
and is backed by our renowned technical support.
Go to www.unirac.com for more information
on Uniracs PV mounting solutions.

MOBILE ACCESS
to installation instructions
at www.unirac.com/mobile

F la t R oof M ou nt i ng Syst ems

Professional Solar Products (ProSolar). ProSolar manufactures SolarWedge and Solar Wedge XD racking systems.
Both systems are designed for low tilt angle applications
on flat roofs. The Solar Wedge XD utilizes a deeper rail and
allows for attachment spans up to 8 feet. The footings are
designed to work in conjunction with the ProSolar support
rail and offer integrated leveling hardware. Array angle
options are 5, 10 or 15. Components are stainless steel
and aluminum.
RoofScreen. The Solar Racking System from RoofScreen
is a modular, commercial racking system designed to minimize roof penetrations. Each system is custom designed and
engineered per the specific job requirements and comes with
a certified plan set. Allied Tube and Conduit, a division of
Tyco, supplies specially galvanized steel tubes per the system

Flat Roof Racking Selection Criteria

Structurally Attached
Racking System

design. Footings consist of a base support in varying lengths

for different insulation, a flashing and base assembly.
Schletter. The Flat-Roof System from Schletter accommodates a wide variety of applications, including structural
attachment. Connected options from Schletter include
the FR-CompactVario and the FR-Connect-DT. Attachment options vary by roof type. Schletter offers a variety
of tilt support legs depending on the module used, as well
as different support racks for varying lengths between roof
penetrations. Design support includes the AutoCalculator
configuration tool and the ShadeCalculator for determining
inter-row spacing.
UniRac. UniRac offers two structurally attached mounting
solutions. The first is a tilt-up version of its SolarMount rail
system, with high or low profile tilt angle options. Adjustable
legs are also available. Manufacturer supplied attachments include standoffs and the
FastFoot, which attaches to concrete, metal
or wooden decks. The second structurally
attached racking option is the UniRac Large
Fully Ballasted
Array (U-LA) system. The U-LA mounting
Racking System
structure is intended for use in a ground
mount application or on rooftops. U-LA
Higher
components, in combination with steel pipe
supplied by the contractor, form a truss-like
Lower
support structure. UniRac SolarMount rails
are used to mount the PV modules. Designed
Low: pre- and post-installation
inspection may suffice
to accommodate a wide range of applications, this is a highly customizable mounting
510 psf or higher
solution, one that can be engineered to span
long distances or to withstand strong winds.

Cost for racking

components

Lower

Installation labor
cost

Higher

Coordination
between trades

High: penetrations need

flashing and sealing

Typical roof loading

Typically lower than ~3

psf

Roof maintenance &

replacement

Easier

More difficult

Typical tilt angle

range

545

020

Height off roof

Higher

Lower

Discrete, low profile

Not always the case

Often the case

Roof population

May be able to cover

more of the roof

May require larger setbacks and

more equipment work-arounds

Energy yield

Potentially higher kWh

per kW

Good for rooftop power density

and annual energy harvest

Accommodates low
profile obstructions
on roof

Yes

Less accommodating

Accommodates roof
pitch changes

Yes

Less accommodating

Impact on roof
drainage

Minimal

Design around potential

problem areas required

Meets seismic code

requirements

Yes

May need adhesives or

structural attachments

Table 1 Site conditions or system goals may lead system designers to chose
one category of mounting solutions over another.
50

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

Ballasted and Hybrid

Racking Systems
The main advantage to ballasted racking
systems is the reduction or elimination
of roof penetrations. But there are other
advantages as well. These systems often
result in decreased labor costs, as they are
generally faster to install. The total labor
savings may even exceed the increased
material cost for the racking system. These
are low profile, low tilt angle mounting
solutions. For this reason they are seldom
visible from the ground, especially where a
parapet wall exists. Where a 100% ballasted
solution is not possible or desirable, many
ballasted racking manufacturers provide
an attachment detail designed for use with
their product. As the number of anchors is
increased, the amount of ballast required
for these systems is reduced.

Co ur te sy na ma ste so l a r. c o m

Approved layout Once a ballast array is engineered by the

manufacturer, any layout changes in the field could require
the manufacturers approval if the product warranty is to
remain valid.

While these systems are customizable and convenient,

they are not suitable for every application. The roof structure may not support the additional dead load. Ballasted
racking systems also have their own inherent limitations
as specified by the manufacturer. There are basic wind
speed restrictions, for example, seismic rating limits and
limits on the sites exposure category. In addition to these
engineering limitations, there are also certain site conditions that the ballasted racking manufacturer may not
support. Common site restrictions may include edge and
corner of roof setback requirements, maximum allowable
roof slope and a maximum building height of 60 feet.
In some cases there are array shape restrictions specified by the manufacturer. Unauthorized layouts and even
unapproved layout changes may void the racking manufacturers warranty. Fortunately, many manufacturers
have configuration tools or provide design support to the
installer. In many cases, the location of ballast materials
varies from the edges to the middle of the racking system,
for example, so it is very important to follow any plans provided by the manufacturer and all design guidelines and
installation instructions.
A brief survey of the manufacturers of ballasted or
minimally attached racking solutions follows. These are
aluminum products with stainless steel hardware that are
suitable for commercial flat roof applications of varying
scale. Most warranties are for 10 years, but finish warranties may be briefer.
DPW Solar. Direct Power and Water manufactures two
fully ballasted in place racking products. The POWER-FAB
Ballasted Roof Mount is a nonpenetrating family of products
most appropriate for small array configurations. This product line can accommodate tilt angles up to 45 and is
designed for 90 mph maximum wind speeds and exposure
category C. The bottom of the rack is covered with EPDM
rubber to increase friction and protect the roof. The POWER

FAB Power Tube CRS is a low profile racking system specifically designed for commercial installations. The Power Tube
CRS will accommodate a design wind speed of 125 mph at
a 5 tilt and a wind speed of 90 mph at a 10 tilt. At either
tilt angle, it is designed for exposure category C and seismic
zone 4. Each north-south Power Tube rail is installed with
an EPDM strip on its bottom. These UV resistant pads protect the roof and increase the systems coefficient of friction.
EPDM pads are also adhered to the bottom surface of the
ballast trays.
Krannich Solar. The fully ballasted K2 mounting system for
flat roofs available from Krannich Solar is typically configured for array tilt angles of 10, 15 or 20. Higher tilt angles
are an option if the roof will support the load. The basic
design is a mounting triangle that sits atop flat rails that contain the required ballast materials. Few tools are required for
assembly. The hardware provided, such as T-head bolts, simplifies installation.
PanelClaw. The Polar Bear is the first commercial flat
roof mounting system available from PanelClaw. The PanelClaw hardware, from which the company takes its name,
grabs the inside of the module frame at four corners. Modules tilt up in the support base for easy installation and
maintenance. This system utilizes a nonrail based architecture with a low component count. A rear wind deflector
is utilized. The Polar Bear racking system is acceptable for
wind exposure categories B, C, and, upon request, D. It is
compatible with EPDM, TPM, PVC and tar and gravel roofs.
A roof connector option is available for minimally attached
designs. The array tilt varies depending upon module
width, but a 10 to 15 range is typical.
Schco. The SolarEZ Flatroof Mounting System is a
ballasted commercial racking system from Schco. It will
accommodate five array tilt angles ranging from 7.5 to
37.5. The system is designed to accommodate snow loads
up to 30 pounds per square foot. It can also accommodate
wind speeds up to 120 mph. The system can be designed
for exposure categories B, C or D. The installation manual
explains how to calculate ballast requirements. Structural
attachment to the roof can also be accommodated.
Schletter. The FR-Windsafe is the ballasted or minimally
attached commercial flat roof racking system available
from Schletter. The system includes a rear deflector to minimize wind uplift loads. A variety of attachment options
are available, depending upon roof type. The configuration tools previously mentioned help with array layout and
schematic drawings.
SunLink Corporation. The SunLink commercial flat roof
mounting system is a non- or minimal-penetrating system that utilizes a unique panelized architecture. Once
installed, these panels of modules tilt up, making array wiring or roof access and maintenance easier. Flashable posts
solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

51

with a stainless steel clamp arm are used

for making mechanical attachments. Wind
deflectors are installed on the north end of
the array. Array tilt angles of 5, 10, 15 or 20
are possible. Design support and as-built documents are provided by the manufacturer, as
is a 15-year standard product warranty.
UniRac. The RapidRac G10 from UniRac is
a low parts count, ballasted mounting system
for commercial flat roofs. The product uses a
fixed array tilt angle of 10. It offers integrated
WEEB grounding and supports the use of PV
laminates. Support includes an online estimator and configuration tool. Code compliance
documentation is included with the installation manual. With many RapidFoot attachments, the RapidRac G10 can be installed as
light as 2 pounds per square foot; it can also
be installed as a fully ballasted, zero penetraHidden from view Structurally attached racking systems in general may
tion system with a higher roof loading.
Proprietary products. Not all ballasted, have a higher roof profile, but the SolarWedge mounting solution from
commercial flat roof racking systems are ProSolar allows for a discrete, low profile installation.
available through direct sales or distribution. In some cases integrators are supported directly by direct sales. Commercial racking products developed by
module manufacturers with proprietary racking solutions. PowerLight, like PowerGuard roof tiles, are likewise availThe Schott Solar FS racking system is a notable example. able to SunPower commercial dealers. These products are
Schotts FS racking system is primarily used with the com- notable in part because they have been deployed in the
panys ASE-300 series of modules and is available through field for a relatively long period of time. c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 5 4

Ballasted Racking Comparison Chart

Manufacturer

Attachment
Option

Wind
Deflector

Tilt
Access

Slip
Sheet

Model

Typical Tilt Angle

DPW Solar

Ballasted Roof Mount

up to 45

DPW Solar

POWER-FAB Power Tube CRS

5, 10

K2 Flat Roof System

10, 15, 20

Bear Claw

10 to 15

Schco

SolarEZ Flatroof

7.5 to 37.5

Schletter

FR-Windsafe

5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30

SunLink

5, 10, 15, 20

RapidRac G10

10

Krannich Solar
PanelClaw

SunLink
Corporation
UniRac

Table 2 For more information on these ballasted or minimally attached products, consult the manufacturers product brochures
or installation manuals.
52

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

C ou r te sy prosola r.c o m

F la t R oof M ou nt i ng Syst ems

SOLUTIONS FOR EVERY SOLAR MOUNTING APPLICATION

Power Tube CRS

Ballasted Roof Mount
TM

Large Ground Mounts

Top-of-Pole

Power Rail
Parallel to Roof Mount

Power Box Enclosures

TM

TM

ph: 800.260.3792 web: www.power-fab.com e-mail: [email protected]

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solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

53

F la t R oof M ou nt i ng Syst ems

54

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

C ou r t e s y m er i di a n s o la r.c o m

C our te sy sunl i nk . c o m

Design Drivers
bitumen (MB) roof covering
When beginning the design
and multiple membrane roofing
process, the goal of the PV
systems.
system should be clearly idenBUR is one of the most comtified. Does the client need
mon types of low slope roofing
a minimum number of kilomethods. BUR consists of two
watt-hours generated, as is
or more layers of felt reinforcthe case in many LEED projing piles topped with a cap
ects? Has a certain system
sheet or aggregate, very often
size in kW been established,
asphalt. Another method is MB,
as is common in RFP situawhich consists of one or more
tions? Or is the client looking
layers of polymer-modified
for the biggest system possiasphalt sheets. The sheets are
ble? Aesthetic issues, such as
either adhered or mechanically
street visibility, may influence
attached to the substrate or held
product selection. Structural Ease of access Racking systems with a tilt up feature
in place with a ballast layer.
issues may also dictate cer- can make it more convenient to wire the array and to
Another popular roofing
tain approaches. This would access the roof for maintenance or repairs.
method is using a membrane
be the case if the roof could
such as synthetic rubber like
not structurally support a ballasted mounting system. Very EDPM or a thermoplastic like thermoplastic polyolefin
often a combination of design considerations will need to be (TPO) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Each type can be used
taken into account.
in low slope applications and has similar qualities. When
As a PV designer or integrator, your input into these installing PV on these roof surfaces, it is imperative to
design drivers will help guide the client to an optimal sys- work in conjunction with a properly licensed roofing contem. In a situation where the energy yield needs to be maxi- tractor to maintain the roof s warranty.
mized in a limited space, for example, thin film products
Before specifying a PV system on any of these roof
may be eliminated. There may be applications where using types, be sure that you have selected a racking solution
a product integrated into the roofing membrane is the most that is compatible with the roof itself. With ballasted sysadvantageous solution (see sidebar p. 55). Also, knowledge tems, a slip sheet is often used between the roof and the
of the local building and planning department requirements racking system. It is important to make sure that the slip
will help establish some basic system guidelines.
sheet material is compatible with the roofing. Verifying
Familiarity with the local planning department and its compatibility may mean consulting the roof continued on page 56
requirements can save a number of hassles and
redesigns up front. Some municipalities require
that all rooftop equipment not be visible from
street level. While traditional rooftop units (RTUs),
such as HVAC systems, can be placed behind roof
screens, generally PV arrays cannot be hidden
in this manner. Therefore, the PV array may be
required to be lower than any parapet wall in order
to properly hide it. The inverter and associated
equipment may also be of concern to the planning department. Careful consideration, proper
documentation and clear communication will be
required if any of this equipment is to be placed
outside and in public view.
Beyond customer requirements and those of the
local AHJ, the following are important design considerations for any PV installation on a flat roof.
Roof type. There are a number of common flat roof Nonrail based With nonrail based solutions like the Schott FS rackassemblies that installers may encounter on commer- ing system, mounting bases are typically laid out across the roof in
cial facilities, such as built up roofing (BUR), modified advance. The modules are then dropped into place.

PV Integrated into Roof Membrane

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

55

C ou r te sy sola r in te gr a te d.c om

ith the increased use of membrane roofs such as vinyl Multi Contact connectors located on the top of the module.
and TPO, PV integrators, building owners and archi- This allows for the wiring connections to be made on the
tects are eager to incorporate solar electric systems into roof surface, minimizing roof penetrations. Modules listed at
these roofs. Through the use of BIPV modules, these roofs 450 W with a relatively large footprint (48 inches x 96 inches)
can have minimal penetrations or roof loading considerations. still maintain a distributed weight less than 1.7 pounds per
Typically, thin film technologiesamorphous silicon (aSi) in square foot.
Solar Integrated. Operating internationally, but headparticularare used in these applications, although there are
quartered in Los Angeles, California, Solar Integrated offers
crystalline modules for use in BIPV arrays on flat roofs.
Some of the immediate benefits of such systems include a product that is intended to be mounted on TPO or vinyl
integrating the PV array into the roof and thereby eliminating roofs. The product incorporates two to six UniSolar lamithe potential damage associated with adding an array onto nates bonded onto a single-ply roofing membrane. Within
a membrane roof. The structural element is nearly eliminated the membrane, the laminates are wired together, and the
due to the low additional weight added to the roof surface. individual assembly has a single wiring harness. All wiring
Depending on the shading characteristics of
the roof, a greater portion of the roof may be
available for installing PV as the wind loading
issues of the roof edge will be minimized.
The first trade-off that comes to most
installers minds is the reduced energy output due to the flat array mounting. Depending
on geographic location, this can have a significant impact when compared to an array
mounted at even a slight angle, like 5 or
10. There is also the concern about high cell
temperatures due to a lack of airflow around
the cells. Another trade-off is the reduced
output due to dirt and debris collecting on
the array. The fact that aSi products tend to
tolerate heat and shading better than crystalline products may alleviate some of these
concerns.
Lightweight solar roof The flexible BIPV solar roofing product from Solar
Coordination between roofing contractor Integrated combines amorphous silicon modules and an energy efficient
and electrical contractor will be even more roofing membrane. The completed installation weighs just 12 ounces per
important when the PV array is integrated square foot.
into the roof. While BIPV arrays are becoming more popular, they are not as common as traditional, connections for the Solar Integrated product occur below
framed module installations. With a framed module instal- the roof membrane and are therefore sealed and protected
lation, the footings and potentially racking systems can be from the elements.
United Solar Ovonic (Uni-Solar). Manufactured in Auburn
handled directly by the roofing or construction contractor
with limited input from the electrician. With BIPV products, Hills, Michigan, Uni-Solar PV laminates (PVL) are now availboth parties will need to be in constant communication able for TPO and EPDM membrane roof structures. These
possibly working together directlyto verify proper instal- are the same laminates that are applied to the pans of
metal standing seam roofs. PVL from Uni-Solar come with
lation techniques.
Manufacturers of BIPV products for flat roof applications the bonding adhesive factory installed; their installation
requires some modifications from the standard process.
include the following.
Open Energy. Located in Grass Valley, California, Open Module wiring is achieved on the top side of the laminate.
Energy manufactures a BIPV product that uses crystalline Roof slopes have to be 1/2:12 or less for the PVL product
cells encapsulated into a PV membrane. The modules utilize to be applied. {

manufacturer. This is especially true with membrane roofs.

Roof condition. Naturally, PV systems, especially
ones ballasted in place, should be installed only on
roofs that are in good condition. This means verifying the age of the roof and the remaining length of
any warranties. It also means surveying the roof for
stress, damage or other existing problems. Note if
and where water is ponding, for example, taking
notes and pictures. Also note the condition of edge
and flashing details. These notes and photographs
may prove useful later.
Another important consideration is the roof wear
and tear resulting from the actual PV installation.
Cardboard or slip sheet material can be used to minimize wear in high traffic areas. Yellow Spaghetti Roof Aerodynamic Mounting systems utilizing rear wind deflectors, like
Walkway Rolls are commonly used to protect a flat the PanelClaw system available from groSolar, have decreased
roof during the installation of a PV system. Whenever exposure to wind uplift forces and may be able to meet a higher
drilling or cutting, be sure to collect the metal shav- design wind speed or exposure category.
ings. Finally, never drag components into place on
any roof. Always lift and place components down in an effort sites latitudemay require significant distances between
to preserve the roof s integrity.
rows to eliminate inter-row shading. (See Calculating
Keep in mind that even if the roof manufacturer gives Inter-Row Spacing, December/January 2009, SolarPro
an application a thumbs-up, not all racking manufactur- magazine.) In areas with substantial snowfall, an increased
ers support their products on every roofing system. Be sure tilt angle may be required in order to effectively shed the
to read the manufacturers installation instructions and snow off the array.
understand any application-specific restrictions relevant
Structurally, the biggest trade-off for an increased tilt
to your project. This is especially true when specifying or angle is the increased wind loading that the array will expedeploying a ballasted racking system, which has a greater rience. There can be significant uplift forces imposed on
impact on the roofing membrane or the roofing system the array depending on the array location and wind exposure category. If the PV racking is ballasted, this results
than an attached system.
PV integrators will also want to contract with either the in a greater dead load on the building; if it is structurally
original roof installer or another manufacturer-approved attached, more attachments may be required. The rack
roofing contractor. Roofing contractors will verify that the manufacturer or an engineer needs to determine if heavier
roof is in good condition before the project is started; after gauge materials spanning the footings should be used.
A lower tilt angle is often best when a ballasted rack
the PV installation is finished, they will complete a follow-up
system
is desired. The live loads imposed on the array will
inspection of the roof. Request a written report for both visbe
minimized
in this situation, resulting in reduced ballastits. This subcontractor will also seal requisite penetrations
ing
weights
or
fewer roof penetrations to keep the array in
for attached racking systems or patch any accidental memplace.
Mounting
the array at a lower tilt angle reduces its
brane penetrations. To best prepare for the unexpected,
wind
exposure
and
structural requirements. It also reduces
always have the roofing contractor provide PV installation
the
potential
energy
yield per installed array capacity.
technicians with a suitable sealant product and instrucWhile
this
sounds
unfortunate, there is an interesting
tions for temporarily patching the roofing material. Workers
trade-off
at
work.
Reducing
array tilt minimizes inter-row
should mark any temporary patches and track these locashading.
This
allows
rows
of
modules to be mounted closer
tions so that they are easily located later. This will allow the
together,
effectively
maximizing
the available array capacroofing contractor to make all repairs to the roof in a single
ity.
Rooftop
power
density
increases
as array tilt is lowered.
site visit at the projects completion.
Increasing
the
amount
of
power
that
a roof can facilitate
Low angle vs. high angle. If the decision was made to
will
generally
increase
its
annual
energy
harvest as well.
install framed modules at an angle off of the roof surface,
A
quick
check
on
a
flat
roof
scenario
in
Portland, Oregon,
one of the first design considerations is to determine the
illustrates
this.
According
to
PVWATTS,
an
array mounted
right angle to mount the array. To maximize the PV arrays
at
30near
optimum
for
energy
yield
energy output, the optimal anglegenerally close to the
c o n t i n u e d o n pa g e 5 8
56

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

C ou r te sy g ro So l a r. c o m

F la t R oof M ou nt i ng Syst ems

m ollyoh a llor a n .c om

F la t R oof M ou nt i ng Syst ems

modules will need to be cleaned frequently

to keep the array performing at its peak.
Studies have been performed on losses associated with soiling with varied results. Each
site will require an assessment of the soiling
potential and best methods to mitigate the
problem. In some cases, increasing the tilt
will reduce soiling, especially at the bottom
edge of the array.
Roof loading considerations. The structural
element of rooftop PV systems can often be
10 Tilt
one of the most difficult for designers and
25,583 kWh/yr
integrators to overcome. Nearly every commercial roof structure will need to be analyzed by a structural engineer in order to
30 Tilt
verify the roof s ability to withstand any addi18,144 kWh/yr
tional loading. The American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE) publishes the Minimum
Shade-to-Power Density Study
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE 7-05) to establish the design loads
Increasing yields As the results of this shade-to-power density study
used in the US. Many jurisdictions use the
illustrate, both array capacity on the roof and annual energy harvest are
International Building Code (IBC) as a guideincreased at a lower array tilt angle.
line, which in turn references ASCE 7-05. It is
also very common for jurisdictions to have
will produce 6% more annual energy compared to an array additional requirements based on the IBC above and beyond
of the same capacity mounted at 10. But given a limited roof the general requirements. The current IBC was released in
area, the lower PV tilt angle will allow for as much as 50% 2006 and, like the NEC, is released on a 3-year cycle.
Loads to be considered include dead loads from the PV
more array capacity. This is a location where 1,080 kWh is
array
and associated equipment, as well as live loads such
produced annually per installed peak array kW. So in this sceas
wind,
snow, rain and seismic events. The IBC has spenario, the additional modules mounted at a lower angle will
cific
definitions
for loadslive loads, dead loads and nomiresult in both a larger overall system as well as higher energy
nal
loadsthat
will have an impact on the arrays design.
production values.
In order to properly evaluate the PV system, the engineer
needs to have an understanding of the PV array to be
At 30 tilt:

8 rows of 12 modules = 96 x 175 Wp = 16.8 kWp
installed, approximate locations for all rooftop equipment

16.8 kW x 1,080 kWh/yr/kWp = 18,144 kWh/yr
and the structural as-built plan set for the building.
The first load to be considered is the dead load of the
At 10 tilt:
PV array. Typically, a framed module and associated pen
12 rows of 12 modules = 144 x 175 Wp = 25.2 kWp
etrating racking system will add less than 3 pounds per

25.2 kW x 0.94 x 1,080 kWh/yr/kWp = 25,583 kWh/yr
square foot. While this may seem like a minimal load,
the combination of dead loading from the PV array plus
Maintenance. Another early consideration for design- live loads such as wind, seismic events and snow loaders is the level of system maintenance that the client is ing needs to meet the minimum code-prescribed levels in
willing to perform. As more and more systems are being order to meet ASCE and IBC requirements. Generally, balspecified and sold by energy production rather than initial lasted racking systems will have dead loads greater than 5
system size, maintenanceparticularly cleaning mod- pounds per square foot; depending on site variables, a balulesbecomes an important consideration. Letting the lasted system may require excessively large dead loads.
rain deal with washing the modules may not be sufficient
Wind loading is another significant consideration. The
for some commercial systems. The location of the array IBC publishes a map of the US, IBC Figure 1609, that indiwill play an important role in this decision. At installations cates the basic wind speeds to be used in designs. The valin agricultural settings, for example, where there is a high ues listed are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds
level of dust and particulate matter settling on the array, at an elevation of 33 feet in an area classified as exposure
58

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

Co u r te sy uni r a c . c o m ( 2 )

Attachment detail At sites with a structural concrete or metal roof deck, the UniRac FastFoot can be used to make a
mechanical attachment to the decking using appropriate fasteners and ferrules cut to the depth of any built-up insulation.
Additional hardware is used to connect the RapidRac to the FastFoot.

C (open terrain with scattered obstructions). Wind loading

can have a major impact on the PV array characteristics
tilt angle, array location and mounting method in particular.
The design wind loads in portions of the southeastern coast
of the US are based on a 150 mph wind speed, for example,

while the design wind speed on the West Coast is as low as

85 mph. In special wind regions, the local authority determines the exact requirements.
PV array size will partially be dictated by the wind loading at the edge of the building. Edges of roof structures have

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solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

59

C ou r te sy blu e oa k e n e r g y. c o m ( 2 )

F la t R oof M ou nt i ng Syst ems

to requiring a combination of ballasting and

minimal roof penetrations.
How much roof can you cover? One common
desire PV designers encounter is to fill the
roof with as much solar as possible. While it is
tempting to do a shading analysis of the roof
and then find a way to fill in every nonshadowed corner, this is generally not considered
good practice and will not win any friends on
the construction or maintenance crews.
Roofs are not a barren wasteland where
no one will ever venture again. Very often
existing HVAC and other RTUs will require
maintenance. It is important to remember
that there will be people on the roof, and you
do not want the PV array to be compromised
in any way due to clearances, or lack thereof,
around the rooftop equipment. It is common
to see tie-in points built into the roof for window
washers. If these are present, it is best
Site challenges A detailed site survey is the first step in designing a PV
system for a challenging flat roof application.
not to place a PV array between these and
the edge of the roof. If there are existing walk
pads
on
the
roof,
it is also good design practice to avoid
greater wind loads than the center of the roof, requiring addiimpeding
those
paths.
tional structural considerations closer to the roof edge. Wind
There should always be walkways designed into the
tunnel tests can help define the wind drag and uplift forces
PV
array. This is helpful for both the installation crew as
imposed on the array. Racking manufacturers often have this
well
as future maintenance technicians. These personnel
data available for engineering calculations. In some cases
will
likely
have tool belts and tool boxes in tow, so there
racking manufacturers provide detailed design and installashould
be
some walkways wide enough for this level of
tion instructions that include edge or corner setback requireactivity.
People
should be able to pass one another withments. Often additional ballast material is required in these
out
damaging
the
array. Regardless of the space between
regions with a ballasted racking system.
Snow loads are another variable load consideration. rows, it is good practice to provide paths so that people
PV arrays mounted at an angle to the roof surface dis- are not tempted to make shortcuts through the array. If the
tribute snow in a variety of ways. Snow will tend to drift distance between the rows is sufficient for walkways, give
along the roof and collect along the backside of the modules, increasing the load on the roof. It is also possible for
the array to collect snow during a storm and then shed
that snow once the sun comes out. This will increase the
point loading on the front side of the array. The IBC has
minimum snow load requirements listed on a map of the
US. Many geographic areas have multiple snow load values
listed, based on elevations. There are other locations on
the map listed as CS, an abbreviation for case study. In
these areas, the local building department publishes the
required snow loading values.
Seismic loads must also be factored into the structural
calculations. ASCE 7-05 and Section 1613 of the IBC cover
earthquake loads and seismic design categories. In order
to meet the seismic requirements with a ballasted system,
ASCE 07-05, section 13.4 will need to be addressed. Local
Service access Wide front and rear setbacks, along with
jurisdictions often have prescribed requirements, ranging regular walkways, will make this array and any other rooftop
from using ballast weight as the sole means of placement equipment easy to service and maintain.
60

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

HOMERUN

TM

careful consideration to conduit and racking runs between

the rows. Elevated conduit should be considered trip hazards and labeled where appropriate, especially at intersections with walkways.
Another best practice is to set a perimeter around RTUs
to allow easy access on all sides of the equipment. A general minimum setback of 4 feet is a good target value. There
will also be minimum NEC requirements for working clearances around the live components; Article 110 defines these
requirements based on nominal voltage to ground. The NEC
dictates a minimum 3 feet of working depth. If a minimum
perimeter around these units is established, regardless of
shading, the PV array will not impede on the other mechanical units located on the roof.
Last but not least, the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) imposes requirements for the safety
of installation and maintenance crews. The distance that the
workers are from the roof edge dictates whether or not they
have to be roped in. Depending on the array layout and future
foot traffic on the roof, this requirement may not only apply
during the installation but also during future service calls.
Setbacks and fall protection requirements are often determined by the parapet wall height. As a general rule, any workers within 6 feet of the roof edge will need to be harnessed, but
the height of the surrounding parapet wall may dictate different setback requirements. The installing contractor should
verify compliance before construction begins.

COMBINER BOXES
The industry standard
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combiner boxes

Type 4 and Type 4X metallic and

nonmetallic enclosures are available
to meet your projects needs.

Meets UL Listing
requirements for
NEC 2008 690.8

g C O N TAC T
Ryan Mayfield / Renewable Energy Associates LLC / Corvallis, OR /
[email protected] / renewableassociates.com
Resources
ASCE Publications / 800.548.2723 / pubs.asce.org
Manufacturers
DPW Solar / 800.260.3792 / power-fab.com
Krannich Solar / 856.802.0991 / usa.krannich-solar.com
Open Energy Corporation / 858.794.8800 / openenergycorp.com
PanelClaw / 978.965.2150 / panelclaw.com
Professional Solar Products (Pro Solar) / 805.486.4700 / prosolar.com
RoofScreen / 866.766.3727 / roofscreen.com
Schletter / 520.618.0180 / schletter-inc.us
Schott North America / 914.831.2200 / us.schott.com
Schco / 860.655.9502 / schuco-usa.com
Solar Integrated / 323.231.0411 / solarintegrated.com
SunLink Corporation / 415.925.9650 / sunlink.com
SunPower / 408.240.5500 / sunpowercorp.com

www.blueoakpvproducts.com

UniRac / 505.242.6411 / unirac.com

United Solar Ovonic (Uni-Solar) / 248.475.0100 / uni-solar.com
Yellow Spaghetti / 800.325.3605 / yellowspaghetti.com

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

61

PQ
Thermal
Balance
Strategies
for Avoiding
Glycol System
Overheating

In any location, even one

with mild winters, a hard
freeze can burst the tubing in solar collectors that
utilize water as the heat
transfer fluid. In freezing
climates, using glycol antifreeze instead provides
the most reliable freeze
protection for collectors.
However, on the other end of the temperature scale, collector overheating during the summer months or when buildings are unoccupied will break down the buffers in the glycol
that prevent acidity, and this breakdown compromises the
solutions protection against freezing. In the best case this
requires a service call to replace the glycol; in the worst case
it can destroy collectors.
Intense summer irradiance and higher temperatures
combine to provide solar collectors with ideal conditions for
making hot water. But conditions can be too ideal. When the
collector area to storage capacity is oversized or a thermal
space heating system has a seasonal load imbalance, overheating can occur. Basic shifts in usage patterns, like not
using hot water during vacations or dormitory vacancies,
can also result in overheating.
Solutions to the overheating problem are numerous and
varied. Some are passive; some are active; some are easy retrofits; and some are best accomplished during installation.
While a drainback system design is an easy overheating protection solution, some thermal professionals question these
systems effectiveness against freeze protection. Several
other approaches that protect against system overheating
are practiced. I asked some seasoned contractors and inventors for their solutions. Some of their ideas address smaller
systems, and some can be deployed on systems of any size.
Their cool answers to the overheating problem follow.

Installers discuss
preferred design and
equipment options to
minimize thermal
system overheating.

62

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

By Chuck Marken

Perspectives on
Over-Temperature Control

Rob Stout, Southwest Solar Design

A steep tilt angle is Robs choice to mitigate summer

temperatures in the combination space heating and
domestic hot water systems he designs and installs in
northern New Mexico. On combined DHW and radiant
floor systems, he has been using a 70 tilt from horizontal since 1999 with good success.

Bristol Stickney of Cedar Mountain Solar was very helpful

in the 90s as we evolved what we called Rob's ideal solar
system. Ive since been moving toward simplicity of design.
With the collectors tilted at 70 from horizontal, there is
less collector area pointed at the summer sun. This, combined with the efficiency drops above 150F, tends to stall
collection at about 170F. By mid August, as the suns path
gets lower, the collectors are typically generating more
energy than is needed for DHW; but this is just the right
time of year to preheat high mass slabs. Over several years,
Ive been increasing the mass of the slab with compacted
soil over rigid insulation and increasing the slab thickness
to 4 inches. The most recent has 14 inches of mass over 3
inches of rigid insulation.
The slab surface temperature in summer is 70F or
slightly less. By dumping some heat into the floor starting mid August, the mid September slab temperature rises
to about 75F and starts to provide some heat to the living
space. More importantly, the temperature deeper down in
the mass has come up from the 60F range. I don't have this
seasonal swing data logged, but by giving the mass 3 to 4
months of minimal heat input during the summer due to
the 70 collector tilt, I would imagine the temperature at the
bottom of the mass has lost much of its stored heat.

Bristol Stickney, Cedar Mountain Solar Systems

Bristol employs active control strategies to minimize

overheating in solar thermal space and domestic water
heating projects.

We install two-stage heating thermostats in every heating

zone of a project that has thermal mass embedded radiant
heat. Solar heat is used to achieve the high set point of the
two thermostat set points, and boiler heat to achieve the low
set point. This allows regulated heat banking in the floors
mass.
When the room thermostat high limit is satisfied, we
also cycle the solar collectors at a safe high temperature
usually from 200F to 180Fcooling the collectors just
enough by turning on the coolest zone in the house. This
typically allows the collectors to operate within an acceptable temperature range without affecting slab surface or
room temperature.
We also use the reradiate feature by running the system
at night to cool the tank. We use dc, PV-powered pumps in all
of our systems, so there's always collector circulation, even
during in a power outage. To reradiate, we use temperature
controls and an ac/dc converter to turn on the PV pump at
night as needed.

Barry Butler, Butler Sun Solutions

C ou r te sy bu tle r su n so l u t i o n s . c o m

Fluid management system Designed by Butler Sun

Solutions, this passive thermal system cooling component
incorporates a 16 psi radiator cap and a small-finned tube
radiator with a surface area of 1.8 square feet.

must pass through the liquid-to-air heat exchanger first.

The differential temperature between the outside air and
the steam causes heat to be removed from the steam and be
delivered to the outside air. This heat loss to the surrounding
air condenses most of the steam back to water, which then
finds its way back to the solar collector. The small amount of
steam that blows past the radiator cap and enters the overflow reservoir is condensed as it bubbles through the fluid in
the reservoir. It is held there as liquid for reintroduction into
the system upon cooling at night.

Steve Baer, Zomeworks

When most people think of antifreeze, they probably

think of cars or trucksnot solar water heaters.
The auto industry is where Barry went for an overtemperature solution. He designed a system component
that incorporates a 16 psi radiator cap placed after
a small-finned tube radiator. Barry has been operating one of these devices in conjunction with a twocollector propylene glycol system using Peak Sierra Pet
Safe Antifreeze for over 20 years. The system has been
regularly stagnating for several weeks a year since 1986.
He checks the condition of the propylene glycol solution
at least once a year to see how it is doing. The solution
still has a pH of 8.6 and, according to Barry, looks and
smells like it just came off the shelf.
The over-temperature radiator has about 1.8 square feet
of surface area capable of protecting the solar system from
excessive boil over and fluid loss caused by stagnation. Stagnation occurs when solar energy is being absorbed in the
solar collector, and no fluid flow is removing the heat. In this
case the fluid in the solar collector will boil at 16 psi, creating steam at 256F. The steam makes its way out of the top of
the solar collector and toward the radiator cap. However, it

The patented Tide Tank is Steves idea of a multiuse

product. The Tide Tank, in addition to solving the
overheating problem, also works as an expansion tank,
check valve and pressure relief. I think this is a simple
and elegant solution with a less than elegant appearance. The Tide Tank is not currently available for
purchase, but Steve is working on a model with a lower
profile that will be in the future.
The tank works on the property of the antifreeze solutions expanding physically when it becomes hot. The tank
is placed at a point above the highest point of the collectors
and must be precisely filled on installation. Once the tank is
filled to the right level, at the right temperature, the overflow
valve is closed. The system is ready for operation.
The antifreeze is routed out of the collector to a pipe
located high in the Tide Tank. This pipe is higher than the
return to the heat exchanger and acts as a check valve to prevent losses at night due to thermosyphoning. As long as the
heat transfer fluids temperature stays below the fill set point
of about 170F, the system operates like any other closed
loop antifreeze system. When the solution temperature
rises above 170F, it exits the tank in the over-temperature
solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

63

T he r m al B al an ce

Pressure relief

installed in soil, careful fill selection and

compaction control are necessary to preTide Tank
vent damaging PEX tubing.
Additionally, using a swimming pool
From collector
or hot tub as the diversion load is a good
Over-temperature
Over-temperature fluid level
relief
option, if available. The swimming pool
Operation fluid level
may be the best option since it's a virtually endless dump load. Of course, it's better to first heat the swimming pool from
Back of collector
Fill/overflow
solar, before the DHW. With the Federal
tax credits for solar hot water systems, I
can configure the system as a DHW sysFinned-tube
tem with a large pool dump. This uses the
radiator
dumped heat to great benefit. Note that
diversion systems dumping to a hot tub or
pool usually require a stainless steel heat
exchanger, which tend to be expensive. But
this can still be a cost effective approach
From
To heat
when the collectors are significantly overpump
exchanger
sized for the summer load.
Finally, some controllers have a holiday
Tide Tank plumbing Steve Baer of Zomeworks designed the Tide Tank
more than 20 years ago. The tanks functionality is driven by the property of
mode that will circulate the system at night
the antifreeze solution physically expanding as its temperature increases.
to keep the tank temperature from getting
too high. The holiday mode can work for
systems where the potential for overheatoverflow pipe. The overflow is piped to a finned tube radiator
ing
is
minimal
and
occasional. This over-temperature control
on the back of the collector, cooled and returned to the pipe
approach
is
best
used
with flat plate collectors, since evacugoing to the heat exchanger.
ated tube collectors are well insulated and do not lose much
heat via radiation to the night sky.

Kelly Keilwitz, Whidbey Sun & Wind

To control summer overproduction in the combination

space heating and DHW systems he installs near the
Washington State coast, Kelly uses a number of techniques, from steep collector tilt angles to PEX loops
used as diversion zones to dissipate heat.
Tilting the collectors at latitude plus 30 (about 70 to 75
from horizontal in my service area) limits heat production
during the summer months. This is a steep tilt angle for 4 x
10 foot collectors and is structurally easier to achieve with
evacuated tube collectors, which have less wind resistance.
A radiant fan-coil heater installed in the crawl space is
a fairly expensive option. These units are readily available
in many heat outputs for different sized systems. Another
approach I use is to install PEX tubing loops in the soil under
patios, new slabs that would otherwise not have been heated,
greenhouse beds and crawl spaces. The concept is to store
the diverted heat in a way that benefits from annualized solar
heating. While the annualized heating concept isnt very efficient, it does make some use of excess system heat. If in-floor
heating is already being installed, running extra diversion
loops typically doesnt add much to overall project cost. When
64

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

Additional Over-Temperature
Control Solutions
Drainback systems. Why not use a drainback design to begin
with? Some designers and installers just do not like them.
The systems earned a poor reputation in some places from
bad controls, substandard installations, sagging tubes and
stacking pumps. In some locations, the drainback is the
choice of installers, and antifreeze systems are the last
resort. Personally, I like drainback systems when the collectors can be installed on the roof. Drainback systems offer
great freeze protection if all design and installation rules are
adhered to. Overheating potential is solved with a simple
high limit on the differential control. Many large thermal
arrays are ground mounted out of necessity, which makes
drainback system designs difficult or even impossible to use.
In these cases, the typical choice is to install an antifreezebased system.
Apricus Heat Dissipator. Evacuated tube manufacturer
Apricus has a system component called the Heat Dissipator
(HD) that can be used to limit the temperature in its evacuated tube systems if overheating potential c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 6 6

Harvest the power of

the

Season after season,

the sun gives its light to the earth,
allowing life to bloom.

Sun

Every day a limitless crop of free,

clean energy reaches our planet.
Stiebel Eltron manufactures all the tools you
need for a successful thermal solar harvest.
And weve been doing so since 1976.
From our highly efficient flat plate collectors and
storage tanks to our complete line of mounting
hardware, pump stations, controllers, and
accessories, we have it all.

Stiebel Eltron is your one stop solar shop.

SOLKIT 2 includes:

Stiebel Eltron is the

authorized distributor
of Thermomax
vacuum tube collectors
for New England.

2 x SOL 25 PLUS
Flat Plate Collectors

Pump station with

SOM 6 Controller

SBB 300 Plus Storage Tank

Because every installation is

different, we have a full line of
SOLKITS and mounting
hardware kits available. All
components and accessories are
available for individual sale.

Simply the Best

800-582-8423
17 West Street
West Hatfield, MA 01088
[email protected]

www.stiebel-eltron-usa.com

T he r m al B al an ce

Water returning

Three-way

from solar collector

valve

To storage

C ou r te sy a pr ic u s.c o m ( 2 )

tank

Heat Dissipator

exists. The Heat Dissipator is a finned copper tube heat

exchanger that is installed on the return line from the
solar collectors. When the temperature in the storage
tank exceeds 176F, the controller switches a solenoid that
directs the solar return flow through the component before
returning it back into the standard flow line. Alternatively,
a thermostatic mixing or tempering valve set to a suitable
temperature can be used, providing mechanical, automatic
regulation of flow through the HD. As the hot water passes
through it, heat is dissipated via the aluminum fins to surrounding air, with the vertical fin arrangement promoting a
passive air current.
Covering the collectors. This can be a simple task or onerous as hell, depending on where the collectors are. Most
system owners do not like this option, but it is worth mentioning because some do not mind. Covering and uncovering collectors usually happens at HVAC changeover times
and can be scheduled appropriately.
Check valve bypass. Installing a pipe parallel with the
check valve can help prevent collectors from overheating.
A ball or gate valve (most pros prefer ball valves) is placed
in the pipe and is normally closed. Whenever the system is
prone to overheat, the valve is opened. When open, the system will thermosyphon at night and lose heat to the night
sky by radiating through the collectors. As with all night
radiation designs, this works well only with flat plate collectors because of the superior insulation of evacuated tubes.
66

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

Proprietary devices. Some collectors have built-in overtemperature protection. EnerWorks and Thermomax Technologies both incorporate overheat devices that limit the
maximum collector temperature.
The EnerWorks collector model COL-4x8-TL-SG1-SD10
has a patented temperature-limiting device that vents out
excess heat. This feature is designed to minimize or eliminate the effects of overheating during a typical summer
vacation2 to 3 weeks without hot water use. A thermally
actuated spring, located inside the collector at the top,
Check valve bypass
A simple bypass valve
fitted with a gate valve
can be used to manually enable nighttime
reradiation via flat plate
collectors to lower tank
temperature during
building vacancies.
Co u rt es y aa as o l ar. co m

Apricus Heat Dissipator The Heat

Dissipator is designed for use with
Apricus evacuated tube collectors
and passively cools collector fluid via
aluminum heat fins.

Heat Dissipator
plumbing A three-way
valve diverts hot transfer
fluid from the collectors,
cools it passively and
returns it to the return line.

operates the over-temperature protection device. An air

baffle at the back of the collector, also located at the top,
opens to allow the hot air inside the collector to vent out.
Fresh, cooler air comes in through an opening at the bottom, thereby cooling down the absorber. The collector has
an internal air channel that allows air to flow in natural
convection. When the temperature is low enough, the air
baffle closes, and the air in the channel acts as an insulator to keep the heat inside the collector. The temperature
of the heat transfer fluid is maintained at approximately
260F when the device is activated. In addition, the vent
is completely passive and mechanicalno electricity is
required.
Thermomax Technologies also has a patented temperaturelimiting device. In the Mazdon system, the Memotron tube
includes a bi-metal snap disc that limits the maximum collector
temperature to 250F. At this temperature, the disc closes and
plugs the neck of the heat pipe, thereby preventing the return of
the condensed fluid and thus heat transfer. The disc retracts at
temperatures below the maximum programmed limit, allowing
the condensed fluid to return to the lower section of the heat
pipe, and the collector returns to normal operation. The manufacturer notes on its Web site that, Memotron is not a design
feature for seasonal (radiant heating) thermal applications. A
heat dump must be considered (space heating applications)
when the collected energy exceeds load.
Keeping it cool. Overheating solutions are high tech, low
tech and in between. Hopefully, one or more will work for
you if you ever run into the problem. Are there any other
answers? Sure there are. If you have any methods to solve
antifreeze system overheating, be sure to join the discussion online at solarprofessional.com.
g C O N TAC T

Controllers
Have you discovered them yet?

and
s US
meet nal codes
atio
intern

Chuck Marken / SolarPro Magazine / Ashland, OR /

[email protected] / solarprofessional.com
Steve Baer / Zomeworks / Albuquerque, NM / zomeworks.com
Barry Butler / Butler Sun Solutions / Solana Beach, CA /
butlersunsolutions.com
Kelly Keilwitz / Whidbey Sun & Wind / Coupeville, WA /
whidbeysunwind.com
Boaz Soifer / Cedar Mountain Solar Systems / Santa Fe, NM /
cedarmountainsolar.com
Rob Stout / Southwest Solar Design / Taos, NM / [email protected]

Visit www.resol.com
Benefit from 30 years experience in
solar thermal control technology

RESOURCES
Apricus / 203.488.8215 / apricus.com
EnerWorks / 519.268.6500 / enerworks.com
Thermomax Technologies / 410.997.0778 / thermomax.com

[email protected]

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

67

Grid

Down Power
Utility-Interactive Battery
Backup System Design

Up

C o ur t es y o ut b ac k p o we r. co m

By James Goodnight

any photovoltaic system designers and installers

have considerable training and experience with
utility-interactive, grid-direct (UIGD) systems. Comparatively few have training or experience with utilityinteractive, battery backup (UIBB) systems and their nuances.
This technical introduction is intended for the latter audience
and highlights the differences between the two system architectures, components, design details and NEC requirements.
Incorporating battery backup increases a systems parts count,
68

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

complexity and cost per installed watt, but it may prove to be

a desirableif not an essentialfeature to some customers.
As with gird-direct systems, some jurisdictions, like California, require minimum performance specifications for UIBB
inverters. The list of eligible inverters published by the California Energy Commission includes UIBB inverters manufactured by OutBack Power Systems and Xantrex Technology.
Accordingly, the generally similar UIBB system architecture
employed by these two companies is the only one addressed

in this article. In this architecture, UIBB systems include an

array combiner, charge controller and a battery bank, along
with other balance-of-system components.
Theory of Operation
Like grid-direct systems, UIBB systems reduce energy consumption from the utility grid, export excess energy back to
the grid and utilize inverters that meet UL 1741 anti-islanding
requirements. As with grid-direct systems, UIBB systems harvest energy from the sun during the day, and the grid powers
all loads at night. The battery bank is maintained at or near
float voltage and is primarily charged by the PV subsystem
and, as necessary, from the grid via the inverters built-in charger. This architecture results in a fairly efficient system that
avoids most of the inefficiencies associated with daily battery
cycling (discharging and recharging).
When the grid fails, the UIBB systems inverter immediately
disconnects from the grid, just as with a grid-direct PV system.
But instead of the home or office going dark and quiet, the system transfers to battery power select loads previously assigned
to a subpanel. This is the UIBB systems key advantage.
The batteries can power the backup loads for a few hours
or days, depending upon several variables: the power demands
of the combined loads being backed up, the size of the array,

the available insolation and the size and health of the battery bank. In residential applications, backed-up loads often
include lighting, refrigeration, home electronics, cell phone
chargers, computer equipment and the like. In business applications, lighting, data and computer equipment are often
deemed critical loads that require an uninterruptable power
source. Once grid power is restored, all loads are transferred
back to the grid, and the inverters built-in charger and the PV
array recharge the battery bank. Once the bank is recharged,
the system returns to normal operation.

UIBB System Components

PV array. In almost all cases, PV arrays in UIGD systems are
configured for higher dc output voltage than in UIBB systems.
In grid-direct systems, modules are configured in series strings
to achieve temperature-corrected open-circuit voltages as
high as 600 Vdc. The maximum power voltages of these strings
may be as high as 550 Vdc, depending on the operating characteristics of the specified inverter. However, the operational
input voltage limit for OutBack and Xantrex charge controllers is in the 140 to 145 Vdc range, with absolute maximum
limits of 150 Vdc. The 150 V hard stop limit of these controllers
requires that UIBB arrays be configured using shorter, lower
voltage strings with several strings wired in parallel. Apollo
Solar manufactures controller models with an absolute maximum voltage of 200 Vdc. Note that these controllers cannot
Utility
Utility-interactive grid-direct (UIGD) system
grid
be networked on a communications level with OutBack and
Xantrex UIBB inverter systems.
To illustrate configuration differences between typical
Loads UIGD and UIBB arrays, consider the following examples. In
a grid-direct application, a 4 kW array of 20 Evergreen ES-A
200 modules (11.05 Imp, 18.1 Vmp, 12.0 Isc, 22.5 Voc) might
PV array
dc
Inverter
ac
Service
disconnect
disconnect
entrance
consist of a single 4,000 W series string. In some locations,
it is possible to connect 20 of these modules in series and
Illustration 1 UIGD systems harvest, condition and feed solar still have headroom for the low temperature voltage corenergy directly to the grid with minimal equipment or system
rection factor covered in NEC 690.7. In a UIBB application,
maintenance requirements.
the same 4 kW array might be configured with five 200 W
modules per series string
Utility
Utility-interactive, battery backup (UIBB) system
with four 1,000 W strings
grid
in parallel. Similarly, a 2.76
kW array consisting of 12
REC SCM-230 modules (7.8
Main
Imp, 29.4 Vmp, 8.3 Isc, 37.1
loads
Voc) could be wired with
PV array Combiner
dc
GFP
Charge
Battery
Inverter
ac
Service
three 230 W modules per
disconnect
controller
bank
disconnect entrance
series string and four 690
W strings in parallel. Either
Illustration 2 Compared to grid-direct systems, UIBB
of these array configuraBacked-up
systems require additional components and add
tions will satisfy NEC 690.7
loads
design complexity but offer uninterruptable power for
and practical voltage calSubpanel
critical loadsa highly desired system function for
culation requirements for
some customers.
arrays exposed to both cold

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

69

G rid D ow n Pow er U p

B
Evergreen Solar ES-A-200 modules

UL-listed
fused combiner

C
PV+

PV Out to GFP &

Charge Controller

PV

MODULE SPECS
Pmp
200

STRING SPECS
Pmp
1,000

ARRAY SPECS
Pmp
4,000

Vmp

18.1

Vmp

90.5

Vmp

90.5

Imp
Voc

11.05
22.5

Imp
Voc

11.05
112.5

Imp
Voc

44.20
112.5

Isc

12.00

Isc

12.00

Isc

48.00

Co u r t es y mi d n i t e s o la r. co m & o u t b a c kp ow er.c om

Diagram 1 Typical maximum voltage ratings of MPPT charge controllers used in battery-based systems require lower string
voltages than arrays configured for grid-direct systems. Combiner boxes are used to provide overcurrent protection for each
string and to combine the grounded and ungrounded circuits at dedicated busbars.

and hot environments. (For additional details on optimizing

array, charge controller and battery matching in UIBB systems, see sidebar to the right.)
Because arrays in UIBB applications operate at lower
voltages, the required series/parallel configurations result in
higher total array currents. That current must still be considered continuous per Code, and 690.8 applies when calculating the arrays output circuit current and determining
compatibility with a charge controller. For this reason, the
size of an array coupled with a controller rated at 60 A is
typically limited to a maximum Isc of 48 A at STC.
Combiner boxes and series string OCPDs. The higher voltage PV arrays used in residential grid-direct PV systems
are generally composed of one or two series strings connected in parallel at the inverter. Combiner boxes with an

Common array combiners MidNite Solar and OutBack

Power Systems manufacture combiner boxes that are commonly used in residential and small business systems. Circuit
breakers rated at 150 Vdc are available for these combiners.
70

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

PV Array Matching to Charge

easoned designers and installers are familiar with the

maximum voltage calculations and temperature correction
factors (TCFs) described in NEC Article 690.7. These temperature correction factors must be applied for both grid-direct and
battery-based systems. This section of the Code was revised in
2008. One change is that it now includes instructions for applying the Voc temperature coefficient as provided by the module
manufacturer. Table 690.7 is also now more finely granulated,
but this table is intended for use only when manufacturer published temperature coefficients are unavailable.
At first glance, the voltage window between a 150 Vdc
rated charge controller or circuit breaker and a nominal 48 Vdc
battery bank may seem to be wide. However, a delicate design
exercise is often required. An extreme, but common, example
is found in areas where ambient temperatures range between
-40C and 40C (-40F and 104F). This includes many locations
in the southwest and Rocky Mountain states. Winter temperatures lead to early morning module output voltages substantially above Voc specifications at STC. Similarly, high ambient
temperatures in summer can significantly reduce an arrays
midday operational voltage. For systems with 48 V battery
banks, the challenge is twofold. Allowing for NEC Article 690.7
calculations, the array voltage must not exceed 150 Vdc in
cold temperatures. Ideally, to maintain uninterrupted operation,
the array voltage should not exceed the controllers operational
input voltage limit.

Example String Size and Operating Characteristics for -40C to 75C Operating Temperature Range
Manufacturer

Day4Energy

Model

48-MC-160

48-MC-165

48-MC-170

ES-A-200

ES-A-205

160

165

170

200

205

Voc (STC)

28.30

28.60

28.80

22.50

Vmp (STC)

22.60

22.95

23.04

18.10

Isc (STC)

7.70

7.80

7.90

Imp (STC)

7.08

7.19

7.38

Tc Voc (V/C)

-0.11

-0.11

-0.11

W (STC)

Evergreen

Tc Voc (%/C)
Modules in Series
String STC Voc

Kyocera

REC

Sharp

SolarWorld

ES-A-210

KD-135-GX-LP

SCM-230

ND-V230A1

SW225

210

135

230

230

225

22.80

23.10

22.10

37.10

37.00

36.80

18.40

18.70

17.70

29.40

30.30

29.50

12.00

12.10

12.20

8.37

8.30

8.24

8.17

11.05

11.15

11.23

7.63

7.80

7.60

7.63

-0.32

-0.32

-0.32

-0.34

-0.36

-0.34

-0.08

113.2

114.4

115.2

112.5

114.0

115.5

110.5

111.3

111.0

110.4

String STC Vmp

90.4

91.8

92.2

90.5

92.0

93.5

88.5

88.2

90.9

88.5

NEC Voc -40C

141.8

143.0

143.8

135.9

137.7

139.5

136.5

135.9

137.0

134.8

Est. Vmp at 75C*

72.3

73.4

73.7

72.4

73.6

74.8

70.8

70.6

72.7

70.8

*cell temperature

Table 1 Individual module specifications and the temperature

range at a given site are used to determine the optimal number of modules in series to prevent overvoltage at extreme
low temperatures and ensure high enough voltage during hot
ambient temperature conditions.

Controller and Battery Bank

Using the 125% temperature correction factor (TCF) for
-40C environment specified in NEC 690.7 (backup 2008,
default 2005), an arrays STC Voc should be no higher than
116 V in order for the array to remain below 145 V. Since STC
Vmp is typically about 80% of STC Voc, the array STC Vmp
upper limit is about 93 V. Conversely, the arrays high temperature operational voltage should be high enough to meet the
battery banks target voltages for the absorption and equalization cycles, and there has to be enough headroom to overcome voltage drop in the wiring and inside the controller.
Assuming a target voltage of 62 V and a 4 V drop in the
array wiring and controller, a hot array must be able to deliver
66 V. If a very hot arrays operational voltage of 66 V is 25%
below STC specification, then the arrays STC Vmp should
be about 88 V. Combining the two limits, the sweet spot for
the arrays STC Vmp lies between 88 V and 93 V. This would
appear to be a fairly narrow target, and, in fact, it once was
difficult to achieve. Fortunately, there are currently many PV
modules available with output specifications other than the
traditional 12 V or 24 V nominal values. Table 1 contains
examples of many modules with specifications that indicate
they will operate satisfactorily over a wide range of ambient
temperatures. For UIBB applications, many additional PV
models are available for applications involving lesser extremes
in ambient temperatures and target charge voltages. {

overcurrent protection device (OCPD) per series string are

usually not required for these systems per NEC 690.9. In
some cases, three series strings may be connected in parallel in grid-direct systems without requiring an OCPD for
each string.
Typical residential PV arrays for UIBB systems often
require four or more series strings wired in parallel with provisions for a dc-rated OCPDcircuit breaker or fusein-line
with each series string. OCPD ampacity values are selected
based on module Isc specifications at STC and calculations
from NEC 690.8. Also, every PV module has a maximum OCPD
rating specified by the manufacturer. Combiner boxes provide both overcurrent protection and a means to combine the
grounded and ungrounded circuits at dedicated busbars.
DC disconnect. PV systems require a dc disconnect where
the arrays dc circuits enter the building per NEC 690.13
and 690.14. For UIBB systems, the dc disconnect is usually
between the array combiner box and the charge controller.
This disconnect is typically mounted outside at an accessible
location, with the systems electronics mounted inside.
Ground fault protection. Article 690.5 of the 2008 NEC generally requires ground fault protection (GFP) for PV systems, in
part to reduce fire hazards. UIBB systems commonly include
a GFP device at the input to the charge controller. A GFP
device is typically a distinct system component, although it
is a standard feature on the Xantrex XW controller.

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

71

C ou r te sy o utba c k po w e r. c o m & xa ntre x. c o m

G rid D ow n Pow er U p

Higher voltage High power charge controllers manufactured by OutBack Power Systems and Xantrex Technology
offer MPPT and voltage step-down options that increase
daily energy harvest and minimize homerun cabling costs
respectively.
Charge controller. UIBB systems require a charge controller between the PV array and the battery bank. Todays high
power PV charge controllers are technological marvels compared to equipment that was available a handful of years ago.
Most modern controllers can be user programmed to meet
a wide variety of battery manufacturers charging specifications. High power controllers typically include maximum
power point tracking (MPPT), temperature compensation
functions for adjusting target charge voltages, and dc-to-dc
voltage step-down that allows a high voltage array configuration to be used in conjunction with a lower voltage battery bank. Customers and batteries both benefit from these
features through greater energy harvest, higher system efficiency and more accurate charging.
In a UIBB system, the charge controller has two primary
functions. First, the controller optimizes PV output by tracking the arrays maximum power point throughout the day
as temperature and irradiance levels fluctuate, maximizing
energy harvest. Second, in the event of a utility outage, the
controller will prevent battery overcharging if the buildings
loads are not sufficient to consume the energy being generated by the array. When utility power is restored, the controller again delivers the maximum output of the array to
loads and the grid.
Charge controllers operate differently in UIBB systems
than they do in stand-alone systems. Rather than limit charge
current in the absorption and float stages, they deliver all
current available at the systems sell setting. Accordingly, the
controllers are typically networked with and controlled by
the systems inverter. For optimal system performance, the
72

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

controller and inverter should be from the same manufacturer and networked.
One key specification to consider is the charge controllers continuous output current rating. This specification,
along with a systems nominal battery voltage, generally
defines the maximum array size the controller can manage.
For example, a controller rated at 60 A dc continuous output
current and used in a system with a 48 V nominal battery
bank can effectively manage an array rated at about 3 kW
at STC. An 80 A controller can effectively manage an array
rated at about 4 kW at STC. It is important to check the manufacturers product specifications, user manuals and online
tools for guidance on array sizing. Extreme environmental
conditions or array configurations may affect these values.
NEC Articles 690.7 and 690.8 cover calculating array design
voltage and currents. (See Resources for manufacturers Web
sites with detailed equipment specifications.)
Battery bank. Batteries are the key distinction between
UIGD and UIBB system architectures. Batteries add components, complexity and cost to a utility-interactive PV system,
but these concerns can be mitigated through careful requirements analysis and system design. NEC Articles 480 and 690
address requirements for battery-based PV system installations, such as disconnects, ventilation and location.
The rechargeable lead acid battery has been around for
almost 150 years. Options today include flooded-cell lead
acid (FLA) and valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA). The latter is available in absorbent glass mat (AGM) and gel variants. Quality deep-cycle FLA batteries are readily available.
These batteries are robust, and their cost is relatively low.
However, they require regular cell watering and equalization. This maintenance can be significantly reduced with the
use of automatic battery watering systems. High capacity
VRLA batteries are also readily available. This sealed battery
type is spill proof and eliminates the need for cell watering,
but VRLA batteries are more sensitive to overcharging than
FLAs. Outgassed electrolyte cannot be replaced if the batteries are inadvertently overcharged. For optimal operation and
longevity, banks should be made up of identical batteries of
the same manufacturer, model and date of manufacture.
Battery performance is directly linked to ambient temperature, so batteries should be protected from extremes. Except
in very mild climates, batteries are typically housed in unoccupied indoor spaces such as garages or dedicated outbuildings. Manufacturers specifications are typically based on a
25C (77F) reference temperature, and temperatures above
or below this reference point will temporarily affect battery
capacity. For example, the usable capacity of a battery bank at
0C (32F) is about 80% of the rated capacity. Conversely, batteries operating at temperatures above 25C will deliver a bit
more capacity, but their longevity will be reduced if they are
repeatedly exposed to extreme high temperatures.

C ou r te sy troja n ba tte r y.c om , rollsba tte r y.c om , c on c orde ba tte r y.c om & e a stpe n n - d e k a . c o m

Installer preference varies Optimal battery selection is often based on the specific application, maintenance requirements
and the installers past experience, good or bad, with various models. Choices for UIBB systems include Trojans new L16-RE
series, Surrettes FC-420 flooded lead calcium, Concordes PVX-2580L AGM and Dekas 8G8D gel batteries.

FLA batteries emit hydrogen gas when they are being

charged. In sufficient concentration, hydrogen gas can be flammable and even explosive. NEC 480.9(A) requires provisions
for sufficient diffusion and ventilation of the gases. Outgassing
and ventilation is more of a concern for FLA batteries than for
VRLA types, but VRLA batteries can also outgas significantly if
they are overcharged. This can easily be avoided by configuring
the charge controller set points properly during installation.
Both battery types should be placed in a protective enclosure
to guard against inadvertent contact per NEC 690.71(B)(2).
NEC 690.74 allows for flexible, fine-stranded cables
sized 2/0 AWG and larger for battery interconnections and

500Ah
@6Vdc

500Ah
@6Vdc

500Ah
@6Vdc

500Ah
@6Vdc

500Ah
@6Vdc

500Ah
@6Vdc

connection to nearby equipment. This Code section should

be read thoroughly to ensure compatibility between cabling,
terminals and lugs. Cables should be sized in accordance
with NEC 310.16 and other adjustment factors based on conditions of use.
In UIBB systems, the battery bank must be sized to power
the assigned backup loads for a certain minimum period of
time. A homes entire load is rarely backed up. Rather, specific
loads determined to be critical or simply requested for convenience by the customer must be scaled to realistic expectations. For example, a healthy 48 V x 250 Ah battery bank can
store 12 kWh of energy if discharged 100%. Assuming 90%

500Ah
@6Vdc

500Ah
@6Vdc

Total: 500 Ah @ 48 Vdc nominal

Series configuration Achieving the desired battery capacity with a single series string creates equal charge/discharge rates
between all batteries in the bank.

250Ah
@12Vdc

250Ah
@12Vdc

250Ah
@12Vdc

250Ah
@12Vdc

Series string 1: 250 Ah @ 48 Vdc

250Ah
@12Vdc

250Ah
@12Vdc

250Ah
@12Vdc

250Ah
@12Vdc

Total: 500 Ah @ 48 Vdc nominal

Series string 2: 250 Ah @ 48 Vdc

Series/parallel configuration Two strings wired in parallel will result in minimal variations in charge/discharge rates between
strings and, compared to a single series string bank configuration, offer some redundancy if a single battery or cell fails.

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73

G rid D ow n Pow er U p

inverter efficiency and limiting battery depth of discharge to

50%, this bank could supply 12 kWh x 90% x (100% 50%)
= 5.4 kWh, or 2.7 kWh per day for two days. This amount of
stored energy could typically power an Energy Star refrigerator for two days, for example, along with intermittent use of
compact fluorescent lighting, a small TV, a computer and a
cell phone charger.
Wiring batteries in series increases bank voltage. Wiring
batteries in parallel increases amp-hour capacity at the nominal battery voltage. Configuring multiple strings in parallel can
lead to performance problems due to differing voltage drops in
interconnection cabling and differences in the internal resistance of individual batteries. This usually results in unequal
charge/discharge rates between strings and decreased operational life. Therefore, a single series string of batteries or a
maximum of two series strings in parallel is recommended.
Specifying higher capacity, lower voltage battery models will
help limit the number of parallel strings required.
Deep-cycle batteries are best served with multi-stage
smart chargers. The charging algorithm typically includes
bulk, absorb, float and equalization modes. Smart chargers
automatically switch from one mode to the next depending
on a combination of battery voltage, charge current, battery
temperature or time. Multi-stage charging algorithms are
included in charge controllers and inverter/chargers from
OutBack, Xantrex and other manufacturers. Charging batteries at their correct target voltages for the absorption,
float and, if needed, equalization stages is critical to their
performance and longevity. Carefully review battery manufacturers instructions for set points and conditions of use.
FLA batteries require periodic equalization to desulfate
their plates and destratify the electrolyte. VRLA batteries
are sealed, and many do not require equalization or special
conditioning charges.
The reference temperature for battery charger set points
is typically 25C. Many battery manufacturers use this temperature reference for their charging set points, but several
use other temperatures, such as 20C (68F) or 27C (80F).
These charging set points must be corrected for the chargers
reference temperature before the charger is programmed. A
common temperature compensation specification is -0.005
V/2V cell/C. For example, if a 48 V (24 cell) battery banks
absorption set point at 20C is 58.0 V, its 25C set point will
be: 58.0 V + (-0.005 V/cell x 24 cells x (25C 20C)) = 58.0
V 0.6 V = 57.4 V.
Battery charging and discharging are chemical reactions,
and all chemical reactions are affected by temperature. Charger voltage set points must be increased for cold batteries
and decreased for hot batteries. A remote battery temperature sensor attached to the bank will send temperature data
back to a smart charger, and the charger will automatically
adjust target voltages.
74

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

Finally, battery safety is paramount, as batteries are typically large and heavy, and they contain diluted sulfuric acid.
Personnel should always wear protective clothing, including
gloves and goggles, when handling batteries. A container
of baking soda should be kept handy to neutralize any acid
spills. Personally, I believe people should use the buddy system when working with large batteries.
Battery/inverter disconnect. Battery banks are capable of
discharging thousands of amperes if short-circuited. This
condition creates a serious hazard to personnel and to equipment. Accordingly, battery-based PV energy systems require
an appropriate dc rated OCPD between the battery bank and
inverters dc inputs, which also serves as a means of disconnect to satisfy NEC 480.5. Battery OCPDs are covered in NEC
690.8 and 690.9. The Carlingswitch F-series is an excellent
example of an UL-listed, high-count switching operation,
high current dc circuit breaker with a high Amperes Interrupt Rating (AIR). Circuit breakers like these are available
from MidNite Solar, OutBack and Xantrex, as well as from
some electrical supply distributors.
Inverter/charger. Two primary differences between UIGD
and UIBB inverters are that the latter have built-in battery
charging functionality and a lower dc bus voltage. As in UIGD
systems, UIBB inverters convert dc energy from the PV array
to ac to power loads and feed the grid when excess energy is
generated. During a utility outage, both inverter types disconnect from the grid to meet UL 1741 anti-islanding requirements, but UIBB inverters continue to operate and invert
dc energy from the array or the batteries to power assigned
backup loads. When utility power is present, the UIBB inverters built-in charger occasionally helps keep the batteries
charged. Under normal circumstances, the charger may intermittently operate for brief periods at night if the battery voltage falls below a minimum value.
The inverter or inverters in UIBB systems have three main
wiring terminal locations. The wiring assignments correlate
to the inverters three main functions. The battery terminals
are the dc connections from the batteries. These large, heavyduty terminals are designed to handle the relatively high dc
current from the charge controller and batteries. The ac-in
terminals provide for a bi-directional connection between
the inverter and the main power panel. When the inverter
is producing more energy than is required for the assigned
backup loads, excess is exported from the ac-in terminals
to the main power panel. When the PV system is producing
less energy than is required by the assigned backup loads, or
when the charger is operating, then grid supplied power is
imported via the same ac-in terminals. The ac-out terminals
connect to the subpanel to supply ac power to the assigned
backup loads.
AC disconnect. Many utilities require a lockable ac disconnect for PV generation systems. This disconnect is usually

Utility-interactive
battery backup
inverters Inverter
models manufactured
by OutBack and
Xantrex are the main
component in the
companies fully
networked solutions.
Co u r te sy ou t backpo wer.co m & xantrex.com

located outdoors near the utility meter for easy access. Additionally, NEC 690.15 requires an ac disconnect for maintenance purposes. This disconnect typically consists of one
or more circuit breakers located near the systems other ac
and dc breakers for grouping purposes. Multiple breakers
can be mechanically interlocked to allow for normal operation, bypass operation or total disconnect. In the event of
an inverter failure, this bypass operation allows for backup
loads to run directly from the utility grid while the inverter
is removed for service.
Integration products. Products to integrate UIBB system
hardware are available from MidNite Solar, OutBack Power
Systems and Xantrex Technology. These products speed
integration and installation, and they provide for attractive
and NEC-compliant installations. Examples include mounting plates; dc enclosures for terminals, shunts, breakers and
wiring; and ac enclosures for terminals, breakers and wiring.
In some cases, the ac enclosure can be used as the subpanel
for the assigned backup loads.
Service entrance and subpanel connections. The inverters
ac-in terminals are connected to the main power panel via
dedicated ac circuit breakers. For UI systems, the sum of
the current ratings for the inverter breakers plus the main
breakers must not exceed 120% of the busbar ratings per
NEC 690.64. This is a fairly straightforward exercise for UIGD
inverters, as their backfed breakers are sized based on their
rated output current.
The circuit breaker sizing exercise for UIBB systems is more
complex, as the battery-based inverter/chargers input current rating can be as high as 60 A, which may require an 80 A
breaker. Since the NEC requires that the load center rating be
based on the size of the breakers, the addition of such a large
breaker could violate the 120% rule. Accordingly, it is vital that
this breaker-and-busbar calculation be made early in the design

process. If an existing distribution panels rating is too small,

the inverters maximum ac input current setting may have to be
reduced. Alternately, a larger panel may be required.
The inverters ac-out terminals are connected to a subpanel dedicated to backed-up circuits. The subpanel and its
breakers should be sized for the inverters output current
specifications along with the branch circuit requirements.
Note that UIBB inverters typically have 60 A transfer switches.
The transfer switch ampacity rating will also dictate the total
combined load that the subpanel can service.
g C O N TAC T
James Goodnight / OutBack Power Systems / Arlington, WA /
[email protected]
Resources
Apollo Solar / 203.790.6400 / www.apollo-solar.net
Carling Technologies / 860.793.9281 /
magnetic-circuit-breakers.carlingtech.com
Concorde Battery / 626.813.1234 / concordebattery.com
East Penn Manufacturing (Deka) / 610.682.6361 /
www.eastpenn-deka.com
Evergreen Solar / 508.357.2221 / evergreensolar.com
MidNite Solar / 425.374.9060 / midnitesolar.com
MK Battery / 800.372.9253 / mkbattery.com
OutBack Power Systems / 360.435.6030 / outbackpower.com
REC / 509.765.2106 / recgroup.com
Rolls Battery Engineering (Surrette) / 800.681.9914 / rollsbattery.com
Trojan Battery Company / 800.423.6569 / trojanbattery.com
Xantrex Technology / 408.987.6030 / xantrex.com

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

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76

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

2008 Solar Power

International Conference

Equipment Highlights
from San Diego
By David Brearley and Joe Schwartz

See you in San Diego was repeated again and again in email
messages throughout the industry as the 2008 Solar Power International Conference, held
last October in San Diego, drew near. The timely passage of the 8-year ITC extension only

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

Co u r t e s y s o l are l ec t r ic p o we r. o r g

served to further elevate the anticipation and excitement preceding the event.
The 2008 conference, presented
by Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) and Solar Electric Power
Association (SEPA), drew close to
18,000 registered attendees and
over 400 exhibitors, nearly doubling
the 9,500 attendees and 210 exhibitors that participated in the 2006
conference in San Jose, California.
With photovoltaic system
designers back at their computers and installers boots back on
the ground, we offer a rundown of
some of the equipment that was
launched at the conference, caught
our technical editors eyes or generated a good deal of buzz on the
event floor.
77

2 0 08 S ol ar Pow er Int erna t i o na l C o nf e r enc e

[Photovoltaics]
REC launches A-Series modules in the US. REC
Group, the worlds most vertically integrated solar company,
announced that its A-Series solar modules are now available in the
US. The A-Series modules feature locking MC4 connectors, doubleinsulated output wiring and specially treated glass for low light
performance. Designed to withstand heavy snow and wind conditions, the product is backed by an impressive 63-month limited
warranty on materials and workmanship. While the wafers, cells
and modules are made in Scandinavia, the polysilicon originates
in Moses Lake, WA, where REC operates the worlds first dedicated
solar-grade silicon plant. Because this highly efficient, next generation silicon plant operates in a region that uses hydroelectric
power, REC believes that its products offer the fastest energy payback and the smallest carbon footprint in their class. REC Solars
A-Series modules are available in the US through AEE Solar.
g REC Solar / 888.657.6527 / recsolar.com
Open Energy introduces new SolarSave PV
tiles. Open Energy Corporation, a developer of BIPV products
and other clean energy solutions, is releasing a new version of
its SolarSave PV tiles. The higher power, higher efficiency tiles
are 48 W each, 4 feet in length and available in three colors:
slate grey, brown and terra cotta. This means that the SolarSave
PV tiles can be matched with a variety of concrete roofing tiles,
addressing the aesthetic concerns of many homeowners. The
new BIPV tile will be available in Q1 2009 through Eagle Roofing
Products, a concrete tile manufacturer. Eagle Roofing provides
training, solar permit packages and rebate financing to roofing
contractors entering the solar installation business. Since Open
Energy and Eagle Roofing began their Solar Roof program in
January 2008, more than 900 roofing and electrical contractors
have been trained to install PV systems.
g Open Energy Corporation / 858.794.8800 / openenergycorp.com
SCHOTT to manufacture PV module for US.
SCHOTT Solar introduced a new 225 W polycrystalline PV
module for the US market. The Poly 225 is the result of customer
feedback and market analysis. A module of this size is ideal for
a wide range of commercial and residential applications, said
Mac Moore, executive VP of sales and marketing. The Poly 225
will complement the 310 W module currently manufactured in
Billerica, MA. It will also be the first module produced at the
companys North American flagship manufacturing facility in
Albuquerque, NM. The 200,000 square-foot plant will initially
employ 350 people and have an annual PV output of 70 MW. The
site is designed for future expansion and will also manufacture
receiver tubes for concentrating solar power plants. Look for the
SCHOTT Solar Poly 225 to start rolling off automated manufacturing lines in the spring of 2009.
g SCHOTT North America / 914.831.2200 / us.schott.com

78

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

[Central Inverters]
Xantrex GT500 available for North American
market. Xantrex Technology, a subsidiary of Schneider Electric,
has added a 500 kW grid-tied inverter to its GT Series product line.
The Xantrex GT500 is intended to meet the growing demand for large
commercial and utility scale PV projects in North America. The GT500
is available with two 3-phase ac output options. Utilizing an integrated isolation transformer, the inverter output is 480 V. A medium
voltage option is also available. This option uses an external medium
voltage transformer with a customer selected primary voltage. In this
configuration, the inverter can interface directly with utility transmission voltages. Overall system efficiency is improved by eliminating an
internal low voltage transformer. Using the latest switching technology and a high efficiency transformer, Xantrex expects the GT500 to
achieve a California Energy Commission-rated efficiency of 96.5%.
Optional features will include an integrated subarray string combiner
and subarray string current monitoring.
g Xantrex Technologies / 604.422.8595 / xantrex.com
Magnetek central inverters receive UL listing.
Magneteks Aurora PVI-Central-50 and PVI-Central-100 photovoltaic
inverters are listed to UL standards for grid interconnection in the
US and Canada. The inverters have also been added to the CECs list
of eligible equipment with an efficiency of 95%. Designed for 3-phase
commercial PV applications, the Aurora PVI-Central inverters are
available with a 208 or 480 Vac output. Light sensors are used to
disconnect the transformer at night, minimizing tare losses. Both
inverters feature a common NEMA 1 enclosure package, meaning
the PVI-Central-100 offers pretested and configured scalability in the
same footprint as the PVI-Central-50. An optional string combiner box
is available for the PVI-Central-50 to parallel and protect PV source
circuits. The 50 kW and 100 kW Aurora PVI-Central inverters are
manufactured by Power-One and exclusively branded and distributed
in North America by Magnetek.
g Magnetek / 800.288.8178 / magnetek.com
Advanced Energy expands Solaron product
portfolio. Advanced Energy has added a 500 kW utility scale,
grid-tied solar inverter and a remote PV tie (RPT) accessory to
its Solaron line of products. Like the companys 333 kW inverter,
the Solaron 500 kW uses a bi-polar, transformerless architecture.
The new inverter offers the largest core engine in North America,
despite having the smallest footprint and lightest weight in its
class. It will also offer industry-leading efficiency, with an expected
CEC efficiency of 97.5%. Taking advantage of a bi-polar array configuration, the Solaron RPT accessory allows the array neutrals to
be connected in the field, without returning to the inverter. The
large neutral conductors and conduit are replaced with 16 AWG
wire, for a significant reduction in material and installation costs.
When used with AE Solaron inverters, the RPT accessory can
reduce the distance that dc current travels by half compared to
conventional 600 Vdc distribution.
g Advanced Energy / 800.446.9167 / advanced-energy.com

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2 0 08 S ol ar Pow er Int erna t i o na l C o nf e r enc e

[String and Microinverters]

groSolar and Motech Industries announce
partnership. An exclusive distribution agreement was
announced between groSolar and Motech Industries. groSolar, a
solar solutions provider with a broad distribution network, will have
exclusive rights to distribute the Motech PVMate inverters in North
America. The PVMate inverters are CEC listed with weighted efficiencies of 95.5%96%. The single-phase, grid-direct inverters interconnect at 208 or 240 Vac and range in capacity between 2,700 and 5,300
watts. Motech, the worlds sixth largest provider of solar cells, started
manufacturing grid-tied solar inverters in 2006. Partnering with
groSolar allows the Taiwanese company to leverage an established
international sales channel. On the decision to partner with Motech,
Jeff Wolfe, groSolar co-founder and CEO, said, Motech has successfully developed a series of PV inverters that perform at high efficiency,
enable greater flexibility for system designers and allow easier installation and service for system installers.
g groSolar / 800.374.4494 / grosolar.com
Enphase backs product with 15-year warranty.
Enphase Energy will provide an industry-leading 15-year standard warranty on its complete line of microinverters. Included in the Enphase
Entrust warranty is a 100% uptime energy production guarantee. Any
energy lost due to the malfunction of an Enphase product will be reimbursed at a rate of $0.20/kWh for a period of up to one month. Thanks
to the Enphase Enlighten Web-based monitoring tool, contractors will
be alerted to component failures immediately. The Enlighten Web site
provides a graphical representation of every modules performance,
instantaneously and over time. In addition to visualization, the site
offers analytical tools that can distinguish, for example, between daily
or seasonal power loss due to shading or a sudden malfunction. Any
unexpected shortfall in energy production triggers an alert. Contractors
can then schedule a maintenance trip at their convenience, knowing
that the customer will be reimbursed for the lost energy.
g Enphase Energy / 877.797.4743 / enphaseenergy.com
Fronius IG Plus inverters listed with CEC.
Fronius USA officially released its IG Plus grid-connected inverter
line for the North American market. Originally launched in Europe
as a 4 kW, single-stage inverter in November 2007, larger capacity
2- and 3-stage units were released the following year. These 8 kW and
12 kW IG Plus inverters account for the bulk of the more than 75 MW
of installed IG Plus capacity in Europe. The North American IG Plus
inverter line consists of nine CEC listed models, ranging from 3 kW
to 12 kW. The single-phase inverters in this product line can interconnect at 208, 240 or 277 Vac. Taking advantage of the inverters 3-stage
design, two 3-phase inverters round out the IG Plus product line. All
multistage IG Plus inverters match the number of active power stages
to instantaneous output power requirements and also rotate the
master power stage. This practice optimizes performance and
balances the hours of operation across each stage.
g Fronius USA / 810.220.4414 / fronius-usa.com
c o n t i n u e d o n pa g e 8 2

80

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

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[Racking]
Conergy showcases SolarGiant ground mount.
Conergy designed its SolarGiant NA ground mounted array structure
specifically for the commercial through utility scale North American
PV market. That means it is designed to withstand wind loads up
to 120 mph and snow loads of 20 psf, while still being cost effective.
The SolarGiant NA is constructed using aluminum rails and stainless steel assembly parts, which provides maximum durability and
longevity. The product warranty is 10 years. The key to SolarGiants
cost effectiveness is that module installation and grounding are
quick and convenient. Slide-in rails allow modules to be slid into
place. Module grounding is achieved using specially designed WEEB
clips that were developed in conjunction with Wiley Electronics.
Proprietary Electriwedge hardware locks the modules into place.
The fixed-tilt SolarGiant racking system can be field set for 1530.
The foundation may consist of a conventional pier detail or a surface
mounted concrete footer.
g Conergy USA / 888.396.6611 / conergy.us
PanelClaw flat roof racking available from
groSolar. PanelClaw has released its first commercial flat roof
mounting system, the Polar Bear. Independently tested at Colorado
States Wind Engineering and Fluids Laboratory, the Polar Bear is
ballasted and non-rail based. A mechanical roof attachment option is
available. Boasting an extremely low parts count, the PanelClaw system
consists of just three componentssupport, claw and deflectorand
two fasteners. A tilt-up design simplifies installation and roof maintenance. Electrical grounding hardware for the racking is factory
installed. The base of each support comes with a preinstalled slip sheet
that is compatible with EPDM, TPM, PVC, and tar and gravel roofs. An
installed system weight of 37 psf is typical. The final tilt angle of the
array is 1015, depending upon the width of the module. An easy-touse array configuration tool is available for designers. US made with a
10-year warranty, PanelClaw is available exclusively from groSolar.
g PanelClaw / 978.965.2150 / panelclaw.com
Allied increases focus on solar market. Allied
Tube & Conduit has identified solar as the number one growth market
of the 70 markets the company serves. Headquartered in Harvey, IL,
Allied Tube & Conduit is the largest business unit of the well-known
Tyco Electrical and Metal Products division of Tyco International.
The division headquarters is also the largest production facility for
products that include Flo-Coat and Gatorshield galvanized steel
tubing. Additional business units include Allied Electrical Conduit,
Unistrut Strut Channel, Allied Standard Pipe and AFC Cable Systems.
Service offerings include Unistrut Construction Specialty Contracting and Unistrut Fall Protection Systems and Certification. Steel is
becoming an increasingly popular material for custom built mounting
structures for commercial and industrial scale PV array fields. Allieds
product range of in-line galvanized steel products includes round,
square and rectangular tubing, and angle and roll form channels in a
variety of galvanized finishes for advanced corrosion protection.
g Allied Tube & Conduit / 800.882.5543 / alliedtube.com
c o n t i n u e d o n pa g e 8 4

82

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

Introducing
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2 0 08 S ol ar Pow er Int erna t i o na l C o nf e r enc e

[Data]
Draker releases Sentalis Performance Interface 3.0. Darker Laboratories believes that getting the right
information into the right hands is the best way to manage renewable
energy system performance. Its solution is the Sentalis Performance
Interface 3.0, a robust, graphical user interface with an intuitive
dashboard. A real-time Flash overview is complemented by the ability
to graph performance over time, looking at a variety of metrics and
indicators. Just one user account is required to manage all projects.
An internal client administrator sets up individual user accounts, configures multiproject overviews and defines specific project settings.
Alarm thresholds are configured by the administrator, and mail or text
messages are routed to individuals or a group as specified. Service
calls and resolutions are tracked internally. Additional options from
Draker include customized reporting functions for PBI, PPA or REC
accounting and a Flash enhanced Sentalis Public Interface.
g Draker Laboratories / 802.865.3866 / drakerlabs.com
Wattbot provides qualified lead referrals.
Wattbot is a Web-based lead referral service for providers of clean
energy solutions. The goal of Wattbot is to speed up market penetration
for technologies like PV and solar thermal. It is one part green building
information clearinghouse and one part database, matching providers and consumers. For contractors, Wattbot offers prequalified leads,
potentially cutting sales cycle times in half. For potential consumers,
Wattbot provides personalized information and advice on what systems
are best suited for their application. The provider side of Wattbot was
launched in San Diego, and there is no cost to sign up and create a company profile. The consumer side of the site goes live on January 27, 2009.
Starting in February, scored leads ranked 1 to 5 according to quality will
be available to providers for a fee of $20$200, depending upon quality
and technology. Start using Wattbot for free by entering promo code
DFG476 for a $500 account credit.
g Wattbot / 866.928.8268 / wattbot.com
3Tier releases solar map. Founded in 1999 by atmospheric scientist Kenneth Westrick, 3Tier has developed a suite of
energy assessment tools for electricity generation fueled by solar,
wind and hydro resources. In October, 3Tier released the first comprehensive, contiguous and high-resolution solar map for the entire
Western Hemisphere. The dataset developed for the mapping project is approximately three times the resolution of existing industry
solar data standards for the US and includes hourly values for global
horizontal irradiance, direct normal irradiance and diffuse irradiance
based on a period of 11 years (19972007). 3Tiers products include
the free FirstLook prospecting tool available at firstlook.3tiergroup.
com. At the opposite end of its product spectrum, 3Tier offers FullView Site Analysis Reports and custom FullView Comprehensive
Reports. The latter includes on-site resource measurement for dataset
direct calibration. Major benefits of 3Tiers comprehensive analysis
are increased investor confidence and accurate resource assessment
for large scale projects.
g 3Tier North America / 206.325.1573 / 3tiergroup.com
84

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

[Of Interest]
Trojan Battery launches new RE Series. Trojan
Battery Company has been serving the renewable energy market for
decades. The release of the RE Series battery line highlights the companys commitment to the market and its efforts to create and optimize battery models for photovoltaic applications. The new RE Series
consists of three battery models: L16RE-2V (1,110 AH at the 20-hour
rate, 2 Vdc nominal), L16RE-A (325 AH at the 20-hour rate, 6 Vdc
nominal) and the L16RE-B (370 AH at the 20-hour rate, 6 Vdc nominal). All models come standard with L-style terminals, durable Polyon
cases and a 7-year limited warranty. The introduction of Trojans 2-volt
nominal group 903 battery is a long awaited product launch. At 119
pounds, the battery can be easily transported and positioned. The
2 Vdc architecture minimizes the need for parallel battery strings,
allowing for more consistent charge and discharge rates throughout
the battery pack.
g Trojan Battery Company / 800.423.6569 / trojanbattery.com
Platt offers photovoltaic equipment line. The
wholesale component of the industry has been anticipating the distribution of PV equipment by electrical supply houses. Platt, with close to
100 branches throughout California, Idaho, Montana, Utah, Washington and Oregon, has taken this step. Its expanding PV equipment line
includes SolarWorld Sunkits, Suntech modules, Blue Oak combiners,
UniRac mounts and PV Powered single- and 3-phase inverters. Additional
equipment for PV installations includes Multi Contact extension cables,
Cutler-Hammer and Square D disconnects, Littlefuse fuseholders and
KLKD fuses, as well as lay-in lugs and module cable clips. In addition, all
of the standard supply house materialsconduit, fittings, cable, kWh
meters and bases, wireways, you name itare on hand. Finally, while no
PV-specific training is currently offered, Platt does offer training opportunities on topics ranging from 2008 code changes to power quality. Most of
the available courses provide continuing education credit hours.
g Platt / 503.641.6121 / platt.com
Kyocera to build new plant for next generation cells. Kyocera Solar showcased its most powerful module to date in San Diego. The 220 W model features new backcontact cells that yield an energy conversion efficiency of 18.5%.
Also on display was an all-black module using back-contact
cells that is rated at 187 watts. These next generation products
are expected to be available in 2010, about a year after ground
is broken on a new manufacturing plant. Kyocera Corporation
announced that construction will begin in early 2009 on what will
be the Kyocera Groups largest manufacturing facility in Japan.
Kyocera is building its new large scale solar cell manufacturing
facility in Yasu City, Shinga Prefecture. The new facility is expected
to enable Kyocera to reach a global solar output of 650 MW by
March 2012. This is more than double the companys projected
output for 2008. The size and scope of Solar Power International
illustrates the rapid growth of the industry, stated Steve Hill,
president of Kyocera Solar.
g Kyocera Solar / 800.223.9580 / kyocerasolar.com

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

85

Interview

An Experienced Perspective

Bill Brooks, Brooks Engineering

Optimizing the US Photovoltaic Industry since 1988
ill Brooks, principal of Brooks
Engineering, is a registered professional engineer in both North Carolina
and California. A consultant to the
PV industry on a variety of topics
performance, troubleshooting and
traininghis primary focus since 1992
has been the analysis and testing of
PV systems for utility interconnected
applications. In 1998, Bill established a
program in California that has trained
over 7,000 inspectors, electricians and
installers. He has written several technical manuals for the PV industry that
are now widely used in California and
beyond. His experience includes work
on the technical review committees for
the National Electrical Code on photovoltaics and the Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE) for utility
interconnection standards.
David Brearley, technical editor for
Solar Pro, interviewed Bill over the phone
recently, catching up with him on the East
Coast where he was leading a PV training.
DB: What is the demand for training like
these days? Are you teaching more and
more classes to more and more people
every year?

BB: I do a tremendous amount of

teaching. My goal is not to teach entrylevel people, although I do that. There
are quite a few other companies out
there that provide really good entrylevel training, like the Solar Living Institute. Solar Energy International does a
lot of training around the country, and
trainings are springing up at community colleges.
I am not trying to compete with
those classes. Instead, I am looking
at where we need more information
in our industry. I think that is on the
86

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

gpostph oto.c om

Bill Brooks, PE Intending no disrespect to the excellent PV manuals that he

and others have written, Bill thinks that the NJATC textbook Photovoltaic Systems
by Jim Dunlop is the preeminent manual available today.

design side of things. A lot of poor

design exists in the industry. On the
large scale, if you make mistakes you
do the wrong thing more often. So
learning to do things right can have a
bigger impact on a 1 MW plant. There
is a huge need to train contractors and
designerstrying to prevent people
from reinventing the wheel, from making the same mistakes that have been
made for years, and getting people off
on the right foot.
DB: Are you doing any training that
reaches out to the conventional electrical
trades, like for the IBEW or the National
Joint Apprentice and Training Committee
(NJATC)?

BB: I worked with NJATC training

centers in California, back in 2002.

The California Energy Commission

was able to get them to host a series
of 30 or 40 trainings around the state.
I have also done a variety of trainings
with the IBEW, both on the national
level and on the local level. There is no
question that they are going to be a
major player in the PV industry in the
future. They have to be, quite frankly.
We do not have enough trained
peoplecertainly not in the PV industry. As the industry grows, it has to
attract people from the more mainstream trades: the electrical trades,
the roofing trades, the glazing trades
and all the rest. To think otherwise is
nave. And it is a good thing. It means
we have arrived, that we are not an
industry on the fringe.
c o ntin u e d o n pa g e 8 8

Featuring OSEIA Professional

Training Conference
April 28 May 1
Public Expo
May 2 3

Northwest Solar Expo 2009 is the fourth annual event offering professional training and
business to business networking opportunities, along with current renewable energy and
energy efficiency options that families and businesses can implement today.
Professionals Only April 28 May 1
Open to Public May 2 3

www. NWSolarExpo.com
For sponsorship and/or information call (503) 570-6295

Interview

g po stpho to . c o m

The utility side of things

was such a huge barrier
20 years ago. A 2 kW
system might cost you
$30,000 in engineering
studies and take 3 years
to complete the reviews.

DB: You also see more professional

engineers entering the industry today. You
were ahead of that curve. How did you
get started in the solar industry living in
North Carolina?

BB: What got me interested in the

energy field was growing up in the 70s
with the oil embargo. I remember gas
lines when I was a kid. A lot of people
went to burning wood, my family
included. It made me energy conscious.
Then, in my senior year at NC State
University, I took a solar class. When
I went into graduate school, I ended
up working with that instructor. It just
so happened that he was starting the
North Carolina Solar Center with, interesting enough, oil overcharge funds.
So in 1988, after the settlements came
through, I was one of the founding staff
members of the North Carolina Solar
Center. I worked there for 10 years.
DB: How did that lead to codes and
standards work?

BB: I was trying to do my graduate

project with a PV system. I knew the
utility had a grid-connected PV system
that they had been testing for years. I
also knew they were done with their
testing. So I recommended that they
donate the system to the university.
They thought that was a good idea
and agreed. I then went through the
process of designing a system to go
on the solar energy house at North
Carolina State University. We dismantled the system, brought it over to the
university and went to connect it to
88

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

the utility grid. That is when the utility

basically said, Oh no, we dont know
enough about that system to let you
connect it to the grid.
That opened my eyes to the fact that
utility companies were not necessarily
honest about their opposition to solar.
That started my career working on
utility interconnection issues. Over the
course of the next 10 years or so, I was
heavily involved in the development
and establishment of the test requirements for PV systems and inverters.
That meant getting down to the nittygritty of what the actual issues were
and resolving those issues with the
utility companies, getting past all the
rhetoric. My strategy has been if you
have a technical issue, lets talk about
it and deal with it.
That strategy has been pretty effective over the years. I helped develop the
interconnection standards for the State
of New York, which then had a fairly
large influence on the IEEE standards
for inverters. Then, in California, a
working group was established for
developing interconnection standards
for all distributed generators, called
Rule 21. I was in the right place at the
right time and became the technical
facilitator for that group. This included
PV, of course, but many other types of
generators as well.
Outside the interconnection arena,
much of my career has been spent
looking at what I call implementation issues. If the money side of a
PV project makes sense for whatever

reasonwhether its through tax incentives, rebates, whateverthen what is

preventing the project from actually
being done?
The utility side of things was such
a huge barrier 20 years ago, it was
ridiculous to even think about doing PV.
A 2 kW system might cost you $30,000
in engineering studies and take 3 years
to complete the reviews. Obviously that
was a fiasco. Even if the system was free,
it still was not worth doing the project.
DB: Im curious, were there actually early
inverter failures that the utilities could
point to? Why was there so much resistance on the part of utilities?

BB: We are talking about gridconnected inverters. At that time,

there were maybe 30 to 50 inverters.
It was a statistically irrelevant number.
You could not make the argument,
We have 50 grid-connected inverters out there, and we have never had
a problem with any of them. The
response would be, Well, okay. Call
me back when you have 100,000.
When you say you have a 4 kW
generator, the instant understanding
that you create in the mind of a utility
person is somebody with a gas generator hooking up to the grid. There are
numerous cases of linemen injured
and killed from those things. So the
resistance had nothing to do with PV
systems. It had to do with the perception of small generators. That is the
utilitys frame of reference. Once you
understand that frame of reference,
you can go from there to what is different about PV inverters. You go through
all the details of inverter testing and
protection and safety.
Ultimately, success came from
winning the hearts and minds of
protection engineers who were
influential. Those people became the
ones who carried the water to their
colleagues. You know, today we are
in that 100,000 range, and we are still
doing well. That means we did a good
job at the beginning.

Save
the Date
for the first-ever
PV America
a conference for
the PV industry!

Philadelphia June 8 10, 2009

The Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) and the Institute

Exhibit Sales
Are NOW Open

of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) present the

premier PV-focused industry conference and trade show in
the U.S. Programming from IEEEs renowned Photovoltaic

Go to www.seia.org for more

information or call Paul Bascomb
at 800-564-4220 to reserve your
space today.

Specialists Conference (June 7 12, 2009) is paired with

SEIAs policy and market development expertise to give you
the most current updates on PV technology, industry trends
and business opportunities. All proceeds of the event go
toward advocacy work to advance policy and expand
the U.S. solar industry market.

Who Should Attend:

PV manufacturers, distributors
and installers

Connect with industry professionals and policy-makers

Industry financiers, analysts

and investors

Learn about emerging PV markets in the U.S., such as PV

Americas host city of Philadelphia and the Mid-Atlantic.

Project developers
Researchers, educators and
technical specialists

Gain cutting-edge technical information on PV cell design,

materials, manufacturing, and deployment.

Federal, state and local

government officials

Hear updates on state, regional and national business and

legislative issues that impact the industry.

.and you!

Go to www.seia.org for more information!

Dont miss the first ever PV America!

Presented by:

Partners:

Sponsored by:
Solar Advocate:

Solar Supporter:

Solar Contributor:

Training
Industry-specific training and educational opportunities are essential to the success of your business.
Whether you are training new employees or in need
of NABCEP continuing education credits, SolarPro
is proud to offer this training schedule as a resource
to you and your business. Manufacturers, community colleges, renewable energy associations and
other dedicated training centers are invited to
become subscribers and register events online at
solarprofessional.com/training.

January
Solar Thermal Overview
Buderus Solar
Jan 19
Londonderry, NH
$120
buderussolar.com
Advanced PV Design ONLINE
Solar Energy International
Jan 19 Mar 1 ONLINE
$795
ISPQ/N-EL
solarenergy.org
Solar 101 Hands-On
DC Power Systems
Jan 20 Jan 21
North Carolina
$350
dcpower-systems.com
Solar PV Designer
Solar Staffing
Jan 20 Jan 21
Oakland, CA
$395
solarstaffing.com
PV Design & Installation
Intensive
Solar Living Institute
Jan 21 Jan 25
Hopland, CA
$850
N
solarliving.org

90

Continuing Education for the Pro

Training accreditation key

ISPQ

Institute of Sustainable Power Quality program or provider

N-EL

NABCEP PV Entry Level Certificate of Knowledge approved

provider

N-TP: PV NABCEP Board recognized training provider for PV installer

exam qualification
N-TP: ST NABCEP Board recognized training provider for solar

thermal installer exam qualification
N-CE

NABCEP continuing education credit provider

Instructor is NABCEP certified

Solar Thermal Installer Training

Silicon Solar
Jan 22
Orlando, FL
$200
solarthermaltraining.org

PV 101
Solar Depot
Jan 29
Corona, CA
$295
solardepot.com

Advanced Grid-Tied Case

Studies
DC Power Systems
Jan 22
North Carolina
$250
dcpower-systems.com

February

Solar PV Sales & Estimator

Solar Staffing
Jan 23
Oakland, CA
$195
solarstaffing.com
PV 101
Solar Depot
Jan 23
Petaluma, CA
$295
solardepot.com
Solar PV Installer
Solar Staffing
Jan 26 Jan 27
Oakland, CA
$295
solarstaffing.com
Solar Boot Camp
Boots on the Roof
Jan 26 Feb 1
Fremont, CA
$3,495
N-EL/N-TP:PV/N
bootsontheroof.com

S o l a r Pr o | February/March 2009

PV 101
Solar Depot
Feb 3
Sacramento, CA
$295
solardepot.com
PV 101
Solar Depot
Feb 4
San Diego, CA
$295
solardepot.com
NABCEP Test Preparation
DC Power Systems
Feb 9 Feb 10
Healdsburg, CA
$350
dcpower-systems.com
NABCEP PV Entry Level
Certificate
Applied Professional Training
Feb 8 Feb 13
Carlsbad, CA
$1,195
N-EL/N-TP: PV/N-CE
aptc.edu
Fronius IG Plus & DATCOM
Fronius USA
Feb 12 WEBINAR
fronius.com

Solar Thermal Installation &

Design
Solargenix Energy
Feb 16 Feb 17
Chicago, IL
$350
N-CE/N
solargenixchicago.com
Solar Hot Water
Solar Energy International
Feb 18 Feb 20
Fontana, CA
$595
ISPQ/N-EL
solarenergy.org
AEE Solar Dealer Conference
Classes
AEE Solar, Fronius & other
suppliers
Feb 18 Feb 21
Mesa, AZ
$295
N-CE
aeesolar.com
PV Design & Installation
Intensive
Solar Living Institute
Feb 20 Feb 24
Hopland, CA
$850
N
solarliving.org
PV System Design for
Engineers & Designers
High Sun Engineering
Feb 23 Feb 25
San Francisco, CA
$985
N-CE
sunengineer.com

Grid-Tied PV
Solar Energy International
Feb 23 Feb 27
Fontana, CA
$895
ISPQ/N-EL
solarenergy.org
PV Design & Installation
Solar Energy International
Feb 23 Feb 28
Tucson, AZ
$995
ISPQ/N-EL
solarenergy.org
Basic PV & Site Assessment
altE university
Feb 26 Feb 27
Hudson, MA
$300
workshops.altenergystore.com
Intermediate PV Design &
Installation
altE university
Feb 28 Mar 2
Hudson, MA
$450
workshops.altenergystore.com

March
NABCEP PV Entry Level
Certificate
Applied Professional Training
Mar 9 Mar 13
Carlsbad, CA
$1,195
N-EL/N-TP: PV/N-CE
aptc.edu
Introduction to SDHW
for Installers
altE university
Mar 10
Hudson, MA
$150
workshops.altenergystore.com
Solar Water Heating Design &
Installation
altE university
Mar 11 Mar 13
Hudson, MA
$500
workshops.altenergystore.com

PV Design & Installation

Intensive
Solar Living Institute
Mar 11 Mar 15
Hopland, CA
$850
N
solarliving.org

Solar Hot Water

Solar Energy International
Mar 30 Apr 2
Guemes Island, WA
$745
ISPQ/N-EL
solarenergy.org

Entry Level Program

Step Up Education
ONLINE
$995
solarclassesonline.com

Grid-Tied PV
Solar Energy International
Mar 30 Apr 3
Salt Lake City, UT
$895
ISPQ/N-EL
solarenergy.org

Fronius IG Plus & DATCOM

Fronius USA
Mar 12 WEBINAR
fronius.com
PV Design & Installation
Solar Energy International
Mar 16 Mar 21
Austin, TX
$995
ISPQ/N-EL
solarenergy.org

Have a professional training

you would like to post?
Visit:
solarprofessional.com/
training

Anytime
PV Installer
Step Up Education
ONLINE
$1,295
solarclassesonline.com

PV Design ONLINE
Solar Energy International
Mar 16 Apr 26 ONLINE
$795
ISPQ/N-EL
solarenergy.org
Build a Winning Solar Strategy
Conergy at Electric West
Mar 17
Las Vegas, NV
TBD
N
electricshow.com
Investment Grade Solar
Feasibility Studies
UC Berkeley Extension/
NorCal PV
March 21 May 2
San Francisco, CA
$525
norcalpv.com

Advanced PV Systems
Solar Living Institute
Mar 23 Mar 27
Hopland, CA
$895
N
solarliving.org
Advanced PV Design ONLINE
Solar Energy International
Mar 23 May 3 ONLINE
$795
ISPQ/N-EL
solarenergy.org

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

91

Projects

System Profiles

COMMERCIAL GRID-DIRECT PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM:

Mariani Packing Company

Overview
DESIGNER: Brian Browning,

commercial project engineer, groSolar,

groSolar.com
PROJECT MANAGER: Frank Griffin,
VP of construction, groSolar
DATE COMMISSIONED:

December 3, 2008
INSTALLATION TIMEFRAME: 90 days
LOCATION: Vacaville, CA, 38.3 N
C ou r te sy su n e dison .c om

AVERAGE SOLAR RESOURCE:

5.5 kWh/m2/day
RECORD LOW/AVERAGE HIGH
TEMPERATURE: 16 F / 96 F
ARRAY CAPACITY: 1.11 MW STC
AVERAGE ANNUAL AC PRODUCTION:

Equipment Specifications
MODULES: 5,835 Evergreen Solar

ES-190, 190 W STC, +2.5%/-2%,

7.12 Imp, 26.7 Vmp, 8.05 Isc, 32.8 Voc
INVERTERS: 3-phase, 480 Vac

system, 4 SMA Sunny Central SC

250U, 250 kW each, 600 Vdc
maximum input, 300600 Vdc
MPPT range.
ARRAY: Four 1,4401,470 module
subarrays: 15 modules per string
(2,850 W, 7.12 Imp, 400.5 Vmp, 8.05
Isc, 492.0 Voc), 9698 strings per
inverter (273.6279.3 kW, 683.5697.8
Imp, 400.5 Vmp, 772.8788.9 Isc,
492.0 Voc)

ARRAY INSTALLATION: SunSeeker

Single-Axis Tracker system from
Thompson Technology Industries, 68
rows with five tracking drive motors.
ARRAY COMBINER: 64 ReadyWatt

combiner boxes
SYSTEM MONITORING: SunEdison

Energy and Environmental Data

System (SEEDS)

92

Thompson Technology Industries (TTI)

designed the single axis tracking system, which resulted in a 12% increase in
energy production over a 30 fixed tilt
system.
Installed on seven acres of land
owned by Mariani, the 1.1 MW grid-tied
PV system is expected to supply about
23% of the facilitys electrical needs. The
system cost nothing to Mariani, which
purchases its solar electricity under a
solar power services agreement at longterm predictable rates equal to or less
than retail prices.

ariani Packing Company wanted

to install a solar electric system at
its Vacaville, California, packing facility
because it is fiscally sound and environmentally responsible. Now instead
of just relying on the sun for plums,
apricots, blueberries, apples and other
fruit, the company also harvests clean,
green electricity.
groSolar partnered with MP2 Capital
and SunEdison to design and construct
the system. One of the biggest design
challenges was fitting the PV array, working around easements, underground
utilities, drainage ditches and property line constraints. Blue Oak Energy
provided electrical engineering services.

S o l a r pr o | February/March 2009

Co u r t e s y b l u e oa k en e rg y. co m

1,795 MWh

The fast installation and our financing

partners quick acceptance were proof
of the quality of groSolars design/build
construction management approach, which
resulted in the lowest cost and highest
quality. We chose TTI, for example, for their
durable product, competitive price and ability to drive down our installation costs. The
SunSeeker Tracking System not only has
robust design and construction, but also
was quick and efficient to install.

Jeff Wolfe, CEO, groSolar

solar
inter

North America

Exhibition

and

Conference

400 EXHIBITORS | 15,000 VISITORS | 1,600 CONFERENCE ATTENDEES

July 14 16, 2009

San Francisco | California | Moscone Center

PHOTOVOLTAICS | SOLAR THERMAL TECHNOLOGY | SOLAR ARCHITECTURE

ADDITIONAL TOPICS:
Concentrating Technologies
Production Technologies
Financing | Project Planning
Installation | Policy Implementation
Co-located with

w w w. i n t e r s o l a r. u s

R E S E R V E Y O U R E X H I B I T I O N S P A C E T O D AY A N D S E C U R E
A P L AC E W I T H T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L S O L A R I N D U S T RY !

Projects
RESIDENTIAL SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM:

McFeeley Residence
Overview
DESIGNER: Bristol Stickney, partner

and technical director, Cedar Mountain

Solar, cedarmountainsolar.com

C ou r te sy c e da r m ou n ta in sola r. c o m ( 2 )

INSTALLATION TEAM: Larry Israel and

Jerome Perea, installation technicians;
Jeff Stampfer and Louie Vasquez, field
supervisors, Cedar Mountain Solar
DATE COMMISSIONED: Nov. 2008
INSTALLATION TIMEFRAME:

Approximately 500 man-hours over

15 months from radiant rough-in
through controls calibration
LOCATION: Santa Fe, NM, 36.6 N
SOLAR RESOURCE: 6.5 kWh/m2/day
ANNUAL HEATING DEGREE DAYS:

6,092, base 65F

RECORD LOW TEMPERATURE: -18F
COLLECTOR AREA: 480 square feet
AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION:

24 MWh (calculated)

Equipment Specifications
COLLECTORS: 24 custom-made

SolarSkies SS-20 collectors, 20 square

feet each
ARRAY: 24 collectors in parallel, piped
in two banks of 12
STORAGE/HEAT EXCHANGER:

Oventrop two-coil 115 gallon SDHW

tank; Crown flat-plate heat exchanger
PUMPS: Two Laing D5 Strong PV-direct
collector circulating pumps, two Taco 007
radiant floor circulators, Taco 007 SDHW
production pump, Taco 0010 boiler circulator, Taco 006 SDHW recirculator
CONTROLS: Two Tekmar 155, two
Tekmar 152 thermostatic mixing valves,
12 Honeywell 5220 two-stage heating
thermostats, two Taco ZVC406
enclosures, Taco SR504, Tripp-Lite
ac/dc converter
FREEZE CONTROL: Closed loop

antifreeze
COLLECTOR INSTALLATION:

Custom-made ballasted racking,

foam roof, 189 azimuth, 60 tilt

94

ressel Construction, a high-end

D
Santa Fe custom homebuilder, and
AIA architect Rad Acton designed and

built the McFeeley residence in the

Las Campanas subdivision of Santa Fe.
Cedar Mountain Solar had SolarSkies
model SS-20 collectors custom-made
to meet the demand for a particularly
low-profile array installation. These collectors have 10-foot horizontal headers
and were mounted in 12 rows of two
collectors each.
The design is based on primary and
secondary piping, with each heating load
and heat source connected to a central
loop of insulated copper piping. Solar
heat is delivered to the primary loop via
a flat plate heat exchanger. The primary
loop is connected to the bottom coil in
a dual-coil domestic hot water storage
tank, allowing for domestic hot water
production from either the boiler or the
solar array.
Heating loads include 12 radiant
heating zones, a custom-built hot tub
and domestic hot water. System controls
prioritize solar heat over boiler heat for
all loads. Two-stage thermostats are
installed in every heating zone. Solar
generated heat is used to achieve the
high set point and boiler heat to achieve
the low set point. This allows regulated
heat banking in the floors mass. The

S o l a r pr o | February/March 2009

system is designed to cool select zones

by circulating heat from the floors
through the collectors at night.

One of this projects greatest challenges

was the atypical hot tub management
keeping it at or close to design temperature
at all times to best utilize the radiant tubing
installed in the masonry of the tub. Racking the collectors without stand-offs on a
foam roof was also really tricky as the roof
was, by design, not quite level and foam
roofs tend to have some variation in their
surfaces.

Boaz Soifer, general manager,

Cedar Mountain Solar

Advertiser Index
Company

Page

Company

AEE Solar
Alternate Energy Technologies/Thermafin
Apollo Solar
Bernt Lorentz GMBH & Co. KG
Blue Oak PV Products
Caleffi Hydronic Solutions
Conergy
DC Power Systems
Direct Power and Water
Enphase Energy
Fabrico
Fronius USA
Fullriver Battery USA
groSolar
Intersolar US
Krannich Solar
Magnum Energy
MK Battery
Ningbo Solar
Northwest Solar Expo
OutBack Power Systems
Phocos USA

19
81
1
5
61
27
17
IFC
53
43
9
13
39
15
93
95
25
57
22, 23
87
10/11
95

PV America
RESOL Elektronische Regelungen GmbH
Rostra Vernatherm
S-5!
SCHOTT Solar
SMA America
Solar Depot
Solar Energy International
Solarnetix
solarprofessional.com
SolarWorld California
Solectria Renewables
Stiebel Eltron
SunWize Technologies
Sun Xtender
Surrette Battery Company
Thermomax
Trina Solar
Trojan Battery
UniRac
Xantrex
Zomeworks

Page

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o

89
67
39
59
37
21
IBC
31
53
83
BC
4
65
3
76
45
12
2
29
49
7
91

95

Projects
RESIDENTIAL THIN-FILM PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM:

Page Residence
Overview
DESIGNER: Mike Rango, project

engineer, SunWize Power Systems

Division, sunwizesystems.com
LEAD INSTALLER: Mike Scott,
installation foreman, SunWize Power
Systems Division
DATE COMMISSIONED: October 2008
INSTALLATION TIMEFRAME: 20 days
LOCATION: Sky Valley, CA, 33.8 N
AVERAGE SOLAR RESOURCE: 6.9

kWh/m2/day
C ou r te sy su n wize .c om (2)

RECORD LOW/AVERAGE HIGH

TEMPERATURE: 13 F / 107 F
ARRAY CAPACITY: 24.6 kW STC
AVERAGE ANNUAL AC PRODUCTION:

50 MWh

Equipment Specifications
MODULES: 410 Kaneka G-SA060,

60 W STC, +10%/-5%, 0.9 Imp,

67.0 Vmp, 1.19 Isc, 91.8 Voc
INVERTERS: Four SMA SB6000US,

6 kW each, 600 Vdc maximum input,

250480 Vdc MPPT range.
ARRAY: Two 100 and two 105 module
subarrays: five modules per string
(300 W, 0.9 Imp, 335.0 Vmp, 1.19 Isc,
459.0 Voc), 2021 strings per inverter
(6,0006,300 W, 18.018.9 Imp,
335.0 Vmp, 23.825.0 Isc, 459.0 Voc)
ARRAY INSTALLATION: Ground
mount, ProSolar Ground Trac, 180
orientation, 15 tilt
ARRAY COMBINER: Eight Blue Oak
PV Products HBC12 with 3A fuses
SYSTEM MONITORING:

SMA Sunny Portal

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96

he array size for this desert home

in Southern California is based on
the maximum 108% of past usage, the
state limit for rebate eligibility. Kaneka
thin-film modules were selected for
their low cost and aesthetic appeal
as well as their performance in high
temperature conditions. The property
provided ample, comparatively flat,
unshaded, south-facing land for a large
ground mount system.
The project was relatively straightforward in terms of design and construction, but not without some
challenges. One was the 775-foot
distance from the array to the main
panel, requiring significant trenching
and careful conductor sizing.
The array site itself presented
some obstacles. Rocks had to
be removed and a 3-foot slope
from the northeast corner of
the array to the southwest
corner had to be overcome
without grading.
The main challenge
with a ground mount in this

S o l a r pr o | February/March 2009

configuration is aesthetics. Lining the

eight sections up took careful planning
and execution. String lines, lasers and
precise measurements were required to
keep edges and heights uniform. A local
fence company was contracted for part
of the work. Its crew was more efficient
at digging, pouring footings, setting
posts and using standard schedule-40
galvanized pipe.
The most unusual aspect of the design
was the five module string size limitation,
due to the Kaneka module voltage. This
resulted in 82 strings, a necessity for more
combiner boxes and additional attention to
routing and wire management.

Mike Rango, SunWize

polarwerk.de

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