UNIT-2

MINERALOGY
Crystallography
Crystallography is that branch of science which deals with all the aspects of
crystals, that is, their formation from the melts, their internal structure and
their external shape or morphology.
ELEMENTS OF A CRYSTAL
The angle between the crystal faces
The relationship of these faces with reference to certain assumed lines passing
through the crystal and also the arrangement of these faces.
Crystal Faces
Any crystal will have one or more types of external surfaces which may be
regular or modified geometrical figures such as a square, a rectangle, a
triangle, a trapezium or a rhombus.
Such an external regular surface on a crystal is called a face.
A crystal may have only two faces of the same geometrical shape or it may
have up to forty-eight faces of a combination of geometrical shapes.

Interfacial Angle
The angle at which any two adjacent faces are placed on the crystal with
respect to each other is called an interfacial angle
A Danish Scientist, made an observation was later on enunciated as a law
of Constancy of Interfacial Angles and stated as below
stated as below:
The angles between the corresponding faces of a crystal of a given
substance measured at the same temperature, have a constant value,
irrespective of size, shape and number of these faces.
GONIOMETER
A simple instrument used for the measurement of interfacial angles is known
as goniometer.
It is simply a protractor having a rotating bar pivoted at its centre.
For taking measurements, the edge between the two faces of the given crystal
is made o lie parallel to the axis of rotation of the bar.

 When the protractor has double graduations, internal and external,

measurements with goniometer will give two values, total being 180.
Of these two values, one is called the internal solid angle and the other is
external angle between the face and the extension of the other. This latter
mentioned as interfacial angle.

Symmetry
Symmetry is a property of fundamental importance for a crystal. It can be
studied with reference to three different characters, commonly called elements
of symmetry. These are:
a plane of symmetry
an axis of symmetry
centre of symmetry.
A Plane of Symmetry
Any imaginary plane passing through the centre of a crystal in such a way that
it divides the crystal in two exactly similar halves is called a plane of
symmetry.
In other words, a plane of symmetry is said to exist in a crystal when for each
face, edge or solid angle there is another similar face, edge or solid angle
occupying identical position on the opposite side of this plane.

An Axis of Symmetry
It is defined as an imaginary line in a crystal passing through its centre in such
a way that when a crystal is given a complete rotation along this line a certain

crystal face (taken as a reference face) comes to occupy the same position at
least twice.
Types
Axis of Binary or twofold symmetry.
This requires that a crystal must be rotated by an angle of 180 to bring
the reference face occupy the same position.
Axis of Trigonal or threefold symmetry.
It is that axis (imaginary line) on which a crystal must be rotated by an
angle of 120for a reference face to occupy the same position again in
space.
Axis of Tetragonal or fourfold symmetry
It is that axis on which the crystal must be rotated by an angle of 90 to bring a
reference face in the same position in space.
Axis of Hexagonal or sixfold symmetry
In which a rotation of 60 is required to fulfill the condition of repetition of a
reference face.
Centre of Symmetry
A crystal is said to possess a centre of symmetry if on passing an imaginary
line from some definite face, edge or corner on one side of the crystal through
its centre, another exactly similar face or edge or corner is found on the other
side at an equal distance from the centre.
MINEROLOGY
Mineralogy is that branch of geology which deals with various aspects related
to minerals such as their individual properties, their mode of formation and
mode of occurrence.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
(1) COLOUR
The colour of any object is a light dependent property: it is the appearance of
the particular object in light (darkness destroys colour).
On the basis of colour, a mineral may belong to any one of the three types:
Idiochromatic having a characteristic, fairly constant colour related
primarily to the composition of mineral. Metallic minerals (e.g. of
copper group) belong to this category.
Allochromatic having a variable colour; the variety colour is
generally due to minute quantities of colouring impurities thoroughly
dispersed in the mineral composition. non-metallic minerals like
quartz, calcite, fluorite and tourmaline etc.
Pseudochromatic showing a false colour. Such an effect generally
happens when a mineral is rotated in hand; it is then seen to show a set
of colours in succession..
Some of the peculiar phenomena connected with colour in minerals are briefly
explained below.
Play of Colours
It is the development of a series of prismatic colours shown by some minerals
on turning about light.
The colours change in rapid succession on rotation and their effect is quite
brilliant and appealing to the eye.
These are caused by the interference of light reflected from numerous
cleavage surfaces of the mineral. Example: diamond.

Change of Colours.
It is similar to play of colours except that the rate of change of colours on
rotation and their intensity is rather low.Example: labradorite.
Iridescence
Some minerals show rainbow colours (similar to those appearing in drops of
oil spilled over water) either in their interior or on the exterior surface. This is
called iridescence.
Tarnish
This may be described as a phenomenon of change of original colours of a
mineral to some secondary colours at its surface due to its oxidation at the
surface. Example: Bornite and Chalcopyrite.
(2) LUSTRE
It is the shine of a mineral. Technically speaking, it is intensity of reflection of
light from the mineral surface and depends at least on three factors:
(1) The refractive index of the mineral.
(2) The absorption (of light) capacity of the mineral.
(3) The nature of reflecting surface.
Classification of lustures
Metallic lusture
Metallic lusture are characteristic of high density, high refractive index and
opaque minerals like galena, pyrite and chalcopyrite.
Non-Metallic Luster
The reflection may vary from very brilliant shine as that of diamonds to very
feeble greasy luster of olivine and nepheline.
Streak
It is an important and diagnostic property of many colored minerals. Simply
defined, streak is the colour of the finely powdered mineral as obtained by
scratching or rubbing the mineral over a rough unglazed porcelain plate.
Colourless and transparent minerals will always give a colourless streak that
has no significance.
(3)HARDNESS
Hardness may be defined as the resistance, which a mineral offers to an
external deformation action such as scratching, abrasion, rubbing or
indentation. Hardness of a mineral depends on its chemical composition and
atomic constitution.
F.Mohs proposed a relative, broadly quantitative scale of hardness of minerals
assigning values between 1 and 10.
(4) CLEAVAGE
It is defined as the tendency of a crystallized mineral to break along certain
definite directions yielding mote or less smooth, plane surfaces. mineral.
A mineral may have cleavage in one, two or three directions.
Since cleavage directions are always parallel to certain crystal faces in a
mineral, these may be described as such.
For instance, cubic cleavage (galena and haylite), rhombohedral cleavage
(calcite) and prismatic cleavage, basal cleavage and octahedral cleavage.
(5) PARTING
It is a property of minerals by virtue of which it can split easily along certain
secondary planes.

 Parting is actually due to the presence of secondary twin-planes and gliding

planes along which the mineral may split easily.
Parting is attributed to the presence of a substance of different composition
along the parting planes or to the stresses that might have operated during or
after the formation of the particular crystals. Ex: cordonum
(6) FRACTURE
The appearance of the broken surface of a mineral in a direction other than
that of cleavage is generally expressed by the term fracture.
Common types of fractures are:
Even When the broken surface is smooth and flat. Example: chert.
Uneven When the mineral breaks with an irregular surface which is full of minute
ridges and depressions. It is a common fracture of many minerals. Example: Fluorite.
Conchoidal The broken surface of the mineral shows broadly concentric rings or
concavities which may be deep or faint in outline. In the latter case, the fracture may
be termed as subconchoidal. Example: Quartz.
Splintry When the mineral breaks with a rough woody fracture resulting in rough
projection at the surface. Example: kyanite.
Hackly The broken surface is highly irregular with numerous sharp, fine, pinching
projections. Example: Native Copper.
Earthy. The surface is smooth, soft and porous. Example Chalk.
(7) TENACITY
The behaviour of a mineral towards the forces that tend to break, bend, cut or
crush it is described by the term tenacity.
Sectile When a mineral can be cut with a knife, it is described as sectile.
Malleable If the slices cut out of it can be flattened under a hammer, it is said
to be malleable.
Brittleness Most minerals exhibit the property of brittleness, by virtue of
which they change into fine grains or powder when scratched with a knife or
when brought wider the hammer.
Flexible A mineral is said to be flexible when it can be bent, especially in thin
sheets. Chlorites are flexible.
Elastic Some minerals are not only flexible but elastic, that is, they regain
their shape when the force applied on them is removed. Micas are best
example. The flexible and elastic fibres of asbestos can be woven into fireproof fabric.
As such, in terms of tenacity mineral may be sectile, brittle, flexible, plastic and
elastic, the last two qualities being of diagnostic importance.
(8) STRUCTURE (Form)
The physical make up of a mineral is expressed by the term structure and is
often helpful in identifying a particular mineral.
Following are a few common structural forms (habits) observed in minerals
Tabular The mineral occurs in the form of a flattened, square, rectangular or
rhombohedral shape. In other words, flattening is conspicuous compared to
lengthwise elongation. Examples: Calcite, orthoclase, barite etc.

Elongated When the mineral is in the form of a thin or thick elongated, columnlike crystals. Examples: Beryl, quartz, hornblende.

Bladed The mineral appears as if composed of thin, flat, blade-like overlapping a

parts. Example: Kyanite.

Lamellar. The mineral is made up of relatively thick, flexible, leaf-like sheets.

Example: Vermiculite.
Foliated. The structure is similar to lamellar in broader sense but in this case the
individual sheets are paper thin, even thinner and can be easily separated. Example:
Muscovite (mica)
Fibrous. When the mineral is composed of fibres, generally separable, either quite
easily (example: asbestos) or with some difficulty (example: gypsum)

FIBROUS

RADIATING

Radiating. The mineral is made up of needle like or fibrous crystals which appear
originating from a common point thereby giving a radiating appearance. Example:
Iron pyrites
Granular The mineral occurs in the form of densely packed mass of small grain-like
crystals. Example: Chromite

GRANULAR
GLOBULAR
Globular or botroiydal, when the mineral surface is in the form of rounded, bulb- like
overlapping globules or projections. Example: Hematite
Reniform. It is similar to globular but the shape of the bulbs or projections resembles
to human kidneys. Example: Hematite.

Reniform(Hematite)

Mammillary (Malachite).
(xi) Mammillary. It is similar to globular but the projections are conspicuous in size,
overlapping in arrangement and rounded in shape. Example: Malachite.
Specific Gravity
In mineralogy, the term specific gravity is used more frequently than density and
signifies the ratio between the density of a mineral and that of water at 40 Celsius.
Since it is a ratio it has no units. Specific gravity of quartz is, for instance, 2.65. The
specific gravity is also termed relative density.
QUARTZ
Definition
Sandstones are mechanically formed sedimentary rocks of Arenaceous
Group.

 These are mostly composed of sand grade particles that have been
compacted and consolidated together in the form of beds in basins of
sedimentation.
The component grains of sandstones generally range in size between 2mm
and 1/16 mm. Silica in the form of very resistant mineral QUARTZ is the
dominant mineral constituent of most sandstones.
Composition
Some varieties of sandstone are made up entirely of quartz.
Besides quartz, minerals like felspars, micas, garnet and magnetite
may also be found in small proportions in many sandstones.
In some sand stones the component grains may be cemented together
by a cementing material that may be siliceous, calcareous, argillaceous
or ferruginous in composition.
In other sandstones, the component minerals may be welded together
by natural pressures from overlying sediments
Texture
Sandstones are, in general, medium to fine-grained in texture.
The component grains show a great variation in their size, shape and
arrangement in different varieties.
Thus, when the texture is determined on the basis of the grade of the
component grains, three types are recognized:
The individual grains may be round or angular in outline, loosely
packed or densely packed and in simple or interlocking arrangement.
The shape and mutual arrangement of the component grains, or the
texture, is greatly responsible for the engineering and other properties
of sandstone.
In fact, the properties of porosity and permeability of these rocks are
the critical parameters that make them useful or useless in different
situations.
Co lour
Sandstones naturally occur in a variety of colours: red, brown, grey and
white being the most common colours.
The colour of sandstone depends on its composition, especially nature
of the cementing material.
Types
Siliceous Sandstones
Silica (Si0) is the cementing material in these sandstones.
The quality of the siliceous cement is so dense and uniform that a
massive compact and homogeneous rock is formed.
This is named QUARTZITE.
This type of sedimentary quartzite, when subjected to loading fractures
across the grains showing clearly very Constituent silica of the rock.
Calcareous Sandstones
These are those varieties of sandstones in which carbonates of calcium
and magnesium are the cementing materials.
Argillaceous Sandstones
These are among the soft varieties of sandstone because the cementing
material is clay that has not much inherent strength.

Ferruginous Sandstones
As the name indicates, the cementing material is an iron oxide
compound.
On the basis of mineralogical composition, following types of sandstones
are commonly recognized:
Arkose
This is a variety of sandstone that is exceptionally rich in felspar
minerals besides the main constituent quartz.
It is believed that these rocks are formed due to relatively quick
deposition of detritus derived from weathering and disintegration of
crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks like granites and .gneisses
respectively.
Arkose rock generally occurs in horizons that can be genetically related
to some crystalline massif occurring in close neighborhood.
Creywacke
These are broadly defined as grey coloured sandstones having a
complex mineralogical composition.
They contain a fine-grained matrix. In this matrix, grains of quartz and
some felspars are found embedded side by side with fragments of rocks
like felsites, granites, shales etc.
The exact composition of the matrix is so complex that it may not be
easily determined in most cases.
The minerals and rock-constituents are generally angular to subangular
outlines indicating least transport before compaction.
Flagstone
It is a variety of sandstone that is exceptionally rich in mica dispersed
in parallel or sub parallel layers.
The abundance as well as arrangement of mica, typically muscovite,
renders the stone weak and easily splitting. Hence its use in load
bearing situations is not recommended.
Freestone
It is a massive variety of sandstone that is rich in quartz and does not
contain bedding planes or any mica.
It is compact, dense, massive and a strong rock suitable for
construction demanding high crushing strength.
Ganister
It is another type of sandstone consisting of angular and subangular
quartz grains and cement of secondary quartz with some kaolin.
Uses
Sandstones of hard, massive and compact character are very useful
natural resources.
They are most commonly used as materials of construction: building
stones, pavement stones, road stones and also as a source material for
concrete.
The Red Fort of India is made up of red sandstones.
Shale
Definition
Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock of argillaceous (clayey)
composition.

 Shales are generally characterized with a distinct fissility (parting)

parallel to the bedding planes and are made up of very fine particles of
silt grade and to some extent of clay.
Besides fissility, some shales show the laminated structure.
Composition
The exact mineralogical composition of shales is often difficult to
ascertain because of the very fine size of the -constituents.

FELSPAR GROUP
The felspar are the most prominent group of minerals making more
than fifty percent, by weight, crust of the Earth up to a depth of 30km.
The group comprises about a dozen or so minerals of which 3-4 may be
easily described as the most common minerals in rocks.
Chemical Composition
In chemical constition, felspars are chiefly alumino silicates of Na,
K and Ca with following general formula:

in which W = Na, K, Ca and Ba and Z = Si and Al. The Si : Al shows a

variation from 3:1 to 1:1.
Atomic Structure
At atomic level, the felspars show a continuous three-dimensional
network type of structure in which the Sio4 tetrahedra are linked at
all the comets, each oxygen ion being shared by two adjacent
tetrahedra.
The Si04 tetrahedra is accompanied in this network by AIO4
tetrahedra so that felspars are complex three dimensional framework
of the above two types of tetrahedra.
The resulting network is negatively charged and these negative
charges are satisfied by the presence of positively charged K, Na, Ca
and also Ba.
Crystallization
The felspar group of minerals crystallise only in two
crystallographic systems:
Monoclinic and Triclinic.
Classification
Felspars are classified both on the basis of their chemical composition and
also on their mode of crystallization.
Chemically, felspar fall into two main groups:
The potash felspars and
The soda time felspars.
Common members of the two groups are as follows:

Potash Felspars
Orthoclase (K AL Si3O8), Sanidine (K AL Si3O8) and Microtine ( K AL
Si3O8)
Soda-Lime Felspars
These are also called the plagioclase felspar and consist of an
isomorphous series of six feispars with two components: Na Al
Si3O8 and Ca Al2 Si2 08 as the end members.
The series is also known as Albite-Anorthite series.
Albite
Labradoirte
Oligoclase
Bytwonite
Artdesine
Anorthite
Physical Properties
They are generally light in colour, (because of absence of Fe and Mg),
Have lower specific gravity (generally around 2.6),
Have a double cleavage and a hardness varying between 6 6.5.
AUGITE Ca (Mg, Fe, Al) (Al, Si)2O6
Crystal System
Monoclinic; occurs usually in short prismatic crystals and as a granular mass.
Cleavage
Prismatic [ and good. Commonly shows parting parallel to base (001).
Colour
Variable, depending on chemical composition; occurs in shades of grayish, green and
black.
Hardness
56
Sp. Gravity
3.25 3.55 (Depending primarily, on iron content).
Lustre
Commonly vitreous.
Composition
A complex Fe-Mg silicate.
Optical
Optically (+); strongly pleochroic when rich in iron and titanium.
Occurrence
A very common ferro-magnesian mineral of igneous rocks. The basic and ultra basic
rocks are specially rich in augite.
HORNBLENDE Ca2Na (Mg, Fe) (Al, Fe) [ SiAl)4 O 11]2 [OH]2
Crystal System
Monoclinic, crystals long, slender and prismatic.
Cleavage
Perfect, prismatic, parallel to [110]; Prismatic.
Colour
Dark green, dark brown, black.
Hardness
5.5 to 6
Sp. Gravity

3.0 to 3.47 (variable, depending on composition).

Lustre
Vitreous.
Streak
White, with greenish tint.
Composition
Highly variable and complex; broadly an aluminous amphibole.
Optical
Under microscope hornblende crystals generally appear in six-sized outline. The
mineral section shows strong pleochroism, an oblique extinction and is commonly
optically (-)
Occurrence
Hornblende is a common rock-forming mineral in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Amphibolite, a metamorphic group of rock may be made up chiefly of hornblende.
Because of their widespread occurrence, hornblende and augite are taken as
representative minerals from the amphibole and pyroxene groups respectively.
Varieties
About half a dozen varieties of hornblende have been differentiated on the basis of
variation in its chemical composition
BIOTITE
Crystal System
Monoclinic; commonly occurs in tabular sheets or short prismatic plates.
Cleavage
Highly perfect and basal
Colour
Black, deep green variety is also found.
Hardness
2.5 3.1
Sp. Gravity
2.7 to 3.1, increases with iron content.
Streak
Colourless
Optical
Optically (.-), strongly pleochroic in thin sections under microscope.
Occurrence
Commonly found in igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks like gneisses. It is rare in
sedimentary rocks compared with muscovite.
MUSCOVITE
Crystal System
Monoclinic; commonly occurs in platy form with pseudo symmetry of hexagonal or
orthorhombic type.
Cleavage
Eminent, basal (001)
Colour
Colourless in thin sheets; as a mass may appear pale yellow.
Hardness
2.53.0
Sp. Gravity
2.7 to 3.1
Lustre

Pearly on cleavage faces; Vitreous.

Streak
Colourless
Optical
Optically ()
Occurrence
It is the most common variety of all the micas and occurs in abundance in acidic
COAL

igneous rocks such as granites and pegmatities and also in metamorphic rocks (mica
schists). It is a common accessory mineral of sedimentary rocks.
Varieties
Muscovite is a good electrical insulator and finds extensive use in electrical industry
and for making fire proof material.
CALCITE
Crystal System
Hexagonal-Rhombohedral.The mineral occurs in great variety of crystals: tabular,
rhombohedral, prismatic, thin and elongated.
Cleavage
Highly perfect, rhombohrdral. Parting is also common.
Colour
Pure calcite is white and transparent. Milky-white, opaque varieties are also common.
Small proportions of impurities give various tints to calcite: pink, red, violet, blue,
green and black.
Hardness
3
Specific Gravity
2.71.
Lustre
Vitreous. Earthy in massive varieties.
Optical
Under microscope calcite appears as shapeless patches showing one or more sets of
cleavages and interference colours of high order
Occurrence
Calcite is one of the most common rock forming minerals in sedimentary rock.
Limestones are almost entirely made up of calcite and the dolomites contain this
mineral to a good proportion. The recrystallized variety of calcite makes the wellknown metamorphic rocks marbles. Calcite is principally a secondary mineral formed
from the carbonate rich water of sea and oceans.
Varieties
Calcite occurs in numerous varieties including Aragonite, Iceland spar, Satin spar and
chalk The Iceland spar is a transparent crystalline variety valued as a source material
for optical instruments.

COAL

The term coal is generally applied to a sedimentary formation of highly carbonaceous

character that is derived from vegetable matter involving set of processes such as
burial, compaction and biochemical transformation.
Some varieties of coal are very rich in volatile matter.

Chemical Composition
Coal is composed chiefly of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, traces of
sulphur and phosphorous, carbon being the major component.
Coals may contain varying properties of mineral matter which may be residues of
the mineral constituents of the plants from which coals are derived.
The chemical composition of coal may be in the following range.
. Carbon (60-90 percent),
. Oxygen (2 - 20 percent).
. Hydrogen (1-12 percent)
. Nitrogen (1-3 percent).

Classification
.,
Coal is divided into four major classes: Peat, Lignite, Bituminous coals and
Anthracite.
PEAT
Definition
It is essentially a partly changed vegetable matter in the first stage of
transformation to coal.
The vegetable structure is easily visible and the evidence of its being in the
process of transformation is also clearly seen.
Peat is generally composed of remains of moss-like plants but occasionally may
contain reeds and partially altered portions of trees of higher order.
Chemically, it is very rich in moisture and consists of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur
and nitrogen as important constituents.
Types
Two types of peat are commonly recognized
(i) Bog Peat, which is evolved out of lower type of vegetation, like mosses.
(ii) Mountain Peat, that is decomposed and partially altered form of higher types of
trees.
Uses
Peat is a low value fuel in its application. It finds uses where available in abundance as
(i) domestic fuel, (ii) gas purifier, (iii) for steam raising, (iv) in thermal power stations and
also as a soil treatment material.
LIGNITE
Definition
It is a variously coloured (brown, black or light grey, earthy) variety of coal of
lowest rank.
In lignite, transformation of vegetable matter to coal-like material is almost
complete.
It is compact and earthy in texture and has a brown streak. Fibrous texture is also
shown by some lignites.
Composition
A typical lignite has following composition:
. Fixed carbon: 50 percent; oxygen: 20-25 percent.
. Hydrogen: 05 percent; nitrogen: 02-05 percent, and
. Sulphur 01-02 percent.
Uses
Lignites are used as domestic fuels and also in industry for distillation and
gasification.
This variety of coal has also been used in steam locomotives and for producing

gas.
BITUMINOUS COALS
Definition.
It is also known as the common coal, sometimes as coking coal and is, in fact, the
most common and important variety of commercial coals.
In this, the original vegetable matter has been fully transformed into
carbonaceous material so that it forms a hard, brittle and compact mass.
It burns with a yellow flame.
Types and Composition
The common bituminous coal is sometimes distinguished into three different
types on the basis of its carbon content: sub-bituminous, bituminous and semibituminous coals.
In the sub-bituminous coals, the volatile constituents and moisture make the bulk
of the coal matter. They possess no caking power (see below). Carbon is
generally between 63-75 per cent and oxygen between 10-20 per cent.
The proper bituminous coals often show a typically banded structure and are
quite rich in carbon and poor in moisture content.
Their carbon content ranges between 70-90 per cent and the volatile matter is also quite
high: 20 to 45 percent.
ANTHRACITE
It is a coal of highest rank in which original organic source has been completely
transformed into carbonaceous substance.
Anthracite is very hard, jet black in colour, compact in structure and showing an
almost metallic (steel grey) luster.
It is difficult to ignite and burns with a typically blue flame without emitting any
smoke.
Formation of Coal
Two types of sources yielded vegetable material for the formation of the coal:
(i) the higher vegetation including herbs, shrubs and trees, growing on the plains,
plateaus, sub-mountainous and mountainous areas and characterized with wood tissue
rich in cellulose and lignin (50-70%) and protein (10-15%); this type of source has
been named as the humic sediment;
(ii) the lower vegetation, comprising chiefly planktonic algae, as is often found at the
bottom of lakes and seas, submerged under water. This source has been named as
sapropelic sediments.
Indian Occurrences
India is one of five major producers of coal in the world.
It is endowed with huge reserves of common or bituminous coal, chiefly of noncoking types.
Fairly good but localized deposits of peat, lignite and anthracite have also been
mined at different places.
On the basis of their occurrence relative to geological age, coal deposits of India
are often classified into two groups: Lower Gondwana Coals and Tertiary Coals,
the former being of great economic importance.
(A) The Gondwana
About 98 percent of coal annually produced in India comes from formations of
Lower Gondwana age
The Gondwana coal are derived from coal seams that occur interbedded
commonly with sandstones and shales and sometimes with limestones.
It is believed that these coals have been formed from Glossopteris types of
vegetation deposited in shallow type of basins where they were transported by
streams of fluvio-glacial and fluvial origin.
Their occurrence in coal-bearing formations separated by totally barren (with
respect to coal) formations are indicative of repeated climate changes during the

Permian times- the geological period of their formation.

The lower Gondwana coals are mainly of bituminous type, Major coalfields
belonging to this class occur in Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh.
These are:
(B) The Tertiary Coals
These coals are found in the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal
Pradesh, Nagaland and Jammu and Kashmir.
The Makum coalfield of Assam, spread over an area of 150 sq.km, is an
important example, in which reserves of 235 million tones are estimated to occur.
The coal is high in volatile matter (38-51%) and low in moisture content (2 to 9
percent). It is regarded as an ideal type for chemical industry.
The Jangalgali and Kalakote coalfield of Jammu (Jammu and Kashmir state) are
of semianthracitic type and low in moisture content 'and sulphur.

(C) The Lignite Deposits

India has only scarce occurrence of lignite type of coal. Important deposits reported
so far occur in Tamil Nadu, Pondichery, Kutch, Kerala and Uttar Pradesh.

Of these, the Neyveli lignite field in Arcot district of Tamil Nadu is the most
important which holds about 2600 million tones of the estimated total of 2900 million
tones of lignite deposits in the country.

PETROLEUM
Definition
Petroleum is a general term applied to a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and
some other compounds that occur in a liquid form entrapped within the rocks of
the surface of the earth.
It is also termed as mineral oil and crude oil.
The crude oil may be colour less or various shades of green or even black.
Chemical Composition
Crude oil is chiefly a complex mixture of hydrocarbons which occur in an
isomeric combination, that is, in inter-related brms.
The main hydrocarbons that constitute crude belong to
. Paraffins (methane, ethane, propane and butane).
. Napthanes series and aromatic hydrocarbon.
Besides hydrocarbons, small quantities of compounds of sulphur, (e.g.
thiopane, thioether, mercaptanes), nitrogen and oxygen are also present in
varying properties.
The natural gas which is often associated with petroleum deposits is made up
of gaseous hydrocarbons of the paraffin group (mentioned above) besides with
an admixture of lowboiling liquid hydrocarbons like pentane and hexane.
Origin of Petroleum
These are
(i) the nature of the source material;
(ii) the process that resulted into the transformation of source material to the crude oil,
(iii) the environment that controlled such a transformation,
(iv) the migration of the oil from the place of actual (likely) formation to the present
occurrence and
(v) also the complex chemical composition.
(A) Source Material
Inorganic theories suggest various possibilities like:

(i) Reaction of alkali-metals (which are common in the interior of the earth) with
carbon
dioxide forming
acetylides that combine with water to form hydrocarbons.
(ii) Reaction of iron carbide with percolating waters at very high temperature and pressure
that leads
to the formation of hydrocarbons
(iii) Concentration of cosmic hydrocarbons that existed in the beginning of the earth,
when it
was still
in astral state, followed by their absorption by substratum on cooling
of the earth and
subsequent concentration
in the coolest layers of the lithosphere.
(iv) Decomposition of the terrestrial waters that percolated down into the body of the
earth by
radioactive
and other sources into hydrogen and oxygen and combination of
hydrogen so formed with
carbon
of magma rich in that gas.
Organic Theories
These form the generally accepted view regarding the parent material of the oil. All
such theories suggest an essentially organic nature for the source material of
petroleum.
Sufficient evidence exists to prove that there have been huge accumulations of
organic matter - both of vegetable and animal kingdom - in geological times.
Transformation
It is commonly accepted that the organic source material (of either type) is
transformed into oil-like liquid through a set of stages.
In the first stage, the carbon-rich organic remains collected over long geological
times undergo biochemical decomposition through the agency of microorganisms.
This change may result in conversion of original mass into thick, heavier,
bituminous substance that subsides under its own weight to lower zones of higher
temperature and higher pressure.
The bituminous material undergoes activated degeneration in an oxygen free
environment resulting in the liquid, gaseous a:1d solid fractions of hydrocarbons.
Environment
Various views have been expressed regarding this aspect of the problem also and
the most important conclusion is that oils were evolved out of organic debris
deposited in anaerobic environment (places free of oxygen).
The most ideal site for such conditions to prevail would be the cut off gulfs or
isolated branches of seas where lack of oxygen could have been easiiy caused by
non-circulation and virtual stagnation of water. T
to support a continuous supply of organic debris to ensure good accumulation,
this anaerobic layer should be succeeded by an upper oxygenated surface zone
where source organisms could thrive.
Migration
The sedimentary formations in which the oil occurs at present are called
reservoirs or pools.
These are not always the same rocks in which the oil was originally formed. The
reservoir rocks may be situated at exceedingly large distances from the original
site of oil formation.
The journey of oil from the source to a reservoir rock is termed as migration and
has been explained in various ways.
Compaction of the source material is thought to be chiefly responsible for oil
migration and it is believed to take places by a method called interface capture
operating somewhat in the following manner:
(i) A clay bed with appropriate concentration of organic matter is deposited; it is

loose and water-rich in the beginning.

(ii) Overburden increases due to continued sedimentation. This leads to expulsion of
water by squeezing effect. Simultaneously, oil formed in the clay layer is also
expelled alongwith the water.
INDIAN OCCURRENCES
India, like many other countries of the world, is oil-deficient and imports huge
quantities annually to meet its demands. At present, oil is extracted mainly from
oil reserves in Assam, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
In Assam, oil is extracted from the oil fields of Digboi, Nahorkatiya, Badarpur
and Makum.
The oil formations belong to Tipam (sandstone) series in Digboi and to Barail
series in the Nahorkatiya field.
These rocks range in geological age from Oligocene to lower Miocene.
The well-known oilfields (and gas fields) Western India are: the Ankleshwar oil
field of Gujarat, the Cambay gas fields, the Nawagam oil field and the Bombay
High oil and gas field.

UNIT-2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Part A
Define crystallography?
What are the physical properties of minerals?
Define interfacial angle?
Define the term cleavage?
Define lusture?
Define the term coal?
Define petroleum?
Explain the mineral augite?
Explain the mineral hornblende?
what are the classification of feldspar group?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Part-B
Explain the physical properties of minerals in detail?
Explain the composition and occurrences of coal?
Explain the composition and occurrences of petroleuml?
Explain in detail about the feldspar group?
Expain the following minerals: (a) augite (b)biotite (c) calcite