Source: DESIGN OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS

Chapter 14

Suspended-Growth Biological
Treatment
1.0

2.0

INTRODUCTION

14-8
14-9

2.3 Feeding and Aeration

Patterns

1.1 Process Description

14-25

1.2 Historic Overview

14-10

2.3.1 Conventional

14-25

2.3.2 Contact Stabilization

14-25

1.3 Activated Sludge

Environment

14-11

2.3.3 Step Feed

14-26

1.4 System Components

14-12

2.3.4 Tapered Aeration

14-26

PROCESS CONFIGURATIONS
AND TYPES

14-12

2.1 Basin Shape

14-13

2.5.1 Pure Oxygen

14-29

2.1.1 Complete Mix

14-13

2.1.2 Plug Flow

14-14

2.5.2 Sequencing Batch

Reactors

14-31

2.1.3 Oxidation Ditch

14-15

2.1.4 Aerated Lagoon

14-18

2.5.3 Activated Carbon

Addition

14-34

2.1.5 Deep Shaft

14-20

2.5.4 Integrated Systems

14-35

2.4 Selectors

14-27

2.5 Other Variations

14-29

14-21

2.6 Solids Separation

14-35

2.2.1 Conventional

14-21

2.6.1 Clarifiers

14-35

2.2.2 Low Rate

14-21

2.6.2 Membranes

14-36

2.2.3 High Rate

14-24

2.6.3 Flotation

14-36

2.2 Loading Rates

14-1
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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-2

3.0

Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

14-36

3.1 Carbon Oxidation

14-37

3.2 Nitrification

14-41

3.3 Design Considerations

14-45

3.3.1 Temperature

14-45

3.3.2 Dissolved Oxygen

14-45

3.3.3 Nutrients

14-46

3.3.4 Toxic and Inhibitory

Wastes

14-46

3.3.5 pH

14-46

3.4 Design Approach

4.0

4.1.2.2 PhoStrip Process

PROCESS DESIGN FOR

CARBON OXIDATION
AND NITRIFICATION

14-46

3.4.1 Influent Characteristics

14-46

3.4.2 Volume of Aerobic

Reactor Basins

14-47

3.4.3 Aerated Lagoons

14-49

3.4.4 Waste Sludge

Generation

14-51

3.4.5 Oxygen Demand

14-52

3.4.6 Return Activated Sludge

Requirements

14-54

3.4.7 Solids/Liquid Separation

14-54

PROCESS DESIGN FOR

NUTRIENT CONTROL
4.1 Enhanced Biological
Phosphorus Removal
Processes

14-55

14-55

4.1.1 Process Principles

14-55

4.1.2 Process Configurations

14-56

4.1.2.1 Anaerobic/Oxic

14-56

4.1.3 Factors Affecting

Performance

14-59
14-60

4.1.3.1 Influent
Characteristics

14-60

4.1.3.2 Integrity of the

Anaerobic Zone

14-61

4.1.3.3 Aerobic Zone

Impacts

14-62

4.1.3.4 pH

14-64

4.1.3.5 Solids and

Hydraulic
Retention Times

14-64

4.1.3.6 Temperature

14-68

4.1.3.7 Solids Capture

14-69

4.1.3.8 Secondary
Release and
Recycle Load
Management

14-71

4.1.3.9 Carbon Sources

14-73

4.1.3.10 Key Design

Considerations

14-75

4.2 Nitrogen Removal Processes

14-76

4.2.1 Process Principles

14-76

4.2.2 Process Configurations

14-90

4.2.2.1 Single-Sludge
Processes

14-90

4.2.2.2 Time Cyclic

Processes

14-96

4.2.3 Nitritation and

Denitritation

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

4.3 Phosphorus and Nitrogen

Removal Processes

14-99

4.3.1 Process Principles

14-99

4.3.2 Process Configurations

4.3.2.1 Five-Stage
Bardenpho
2

4.3.2.2 A /O
4.3.2.3 University of
Cape Town

14-101
14-101
14-102

14-3

4.4.2.4 Two-Stage
Fermenter

14-119

4.4.2.5 Unified
Fermentation
and Thickening

14-119

4.5 Other Design

Considerations

14-120

4.2.1 Baffles

14-120

14-106

4.5.1.1 Interzone Baffles 14-121

4.3.2.4 Virginia
Initiative Plant

14-108

4.3.2.5 Johannesburg

14-109

4.5.1.2 Intrazone Baffles to

Create Plug-Flow
Characteristics
14-121

4.3.2.6 PhoStrip II

14-110

4.3.2.7 Time Cyclic

Processes

14-111

4.4 Adding External Carbon

to Suspended-Growth
Nutrient Removal

14-111

4.4.1 Dosage Locations

14-113

4.5.1.4 Mixing Chimney 14-122

4.4.1.1 Process Feed

14-114

4.4.1.2 Anoxic Zone

Feed

14-114

4.4.1.3 Anaerobic Zone

Feed

14-115

4.4.2 Fermentation

4.5.1.3 Intrazone Baffles

to Create a
Racetrack
Zone
14-122

14-115

4.4.2.1 Activated
Primary
Sedimentation

14-117

4.4.2.2 Complete-Mix
Fermenter

14-117

4.4.2.3 Static Fermenter 14-118

4.5.1.5 Nitrified MixedLiquor Pump

Baffle
14-122
4.5.2 Mixing

14-122

4.5.2.1 Blending
Streams

14-122

4.5.2.2 Mechanical
Mixing
Maintaining
Solids in
Suspension

14-123

4.5.2.3 Aeration
Maintaining
Solids in
Suspension

14-123

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-4

Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

4.5.2.4 Degasification
4.5.2.5 Scum/Foam
Control
5.0

6.0

14-124
14-124

ANAEROBIC TREATMENT
OF WASTEWATER

14-125

5.1 Introduction

14-125

5.2 Microbiology

14-127

5.3 Process Configurations

14-128

5.4 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge

Blanket

14-128

5.4.1 Description

14-128

5.4.2 Installations

14-131

5.4.3 Design Considerations

14-132

5.4.3.1 Reactor Sizing

14-134

5.4.3.2 Gas/Liquid/
Solids
Separation

14-137

5.4.3.3 Gas Production

14-140

5.4.3.4 Sludge
Production

14-141

5.4.3.5 Alkalinity

14-141

6.3 Process and Equipment

Design Approach
6.3.1 Biological Process
Design

14-147
14-147

6.3.1.1 Solids Retention

Time
14-150
6.3.1.2 Mixed-Liquor
Suspended
Solids
Concentration

14-150

6.3.1.3 Oxygen
Transfer

14-151

6.3.2 Equipment System

Design

14-152

6.3.3 Equipment System

Procurement

14-152

6.4 Pretreatment

14-153

6.4.1 Fine Screens

14-153

6.4.2 Primary Clarifiers

14-153

6.5 Membrane Bioreactor

Design

14-154

MEMBRANE BIOREACTORS

14-142

6.5.1 Mixed-Liquor
Recycle Pumping

14-154

6.1 Introduction

14-142

6.5.2 Mixing

14-156

6.2 Components and

Configurations

14-142

6.5.3 Aeration (Bioreactors,

Membrane Tanks)

14-156

6.5.4 Permeate Pumping

and Gravity
Permeation

14-156

6.5.5 Instrumentation and

Process Control
Systems

14-158

6.2.1 Responsibility for

Process Performance

14-143

6.2.2 Historic Overview

and Applications

14-144

6.2.3 Influent Quality

14-146

6.2.4 Effluent Quality

14-146

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

6.6 Membrane Bioreactor

System Equipment
6.6.1 Process Air and Air
Scour Equipment
Systems

7.0

8.0

14-159

14-159

14-5

8.2.1 Porous Diffuser

Systems

14-173

8.2.2 Nonporous Diffusers

14-177

8.2.3 Other Diffused Aeration

Systems
14-177

6.6.1.1 Biological
Process Blowers

14-159

6.6.1.2 Air Scour

Blowers

14-160

6.6.2 Cleaning Systems

14-162

6.6.3 Chemical Feed Systems

14-162

6.6.4 Backpulse Pumping

and Backwashing

14-164

8.3.1 Radial Flow Low Speed

14-182

6.6.5 Service Air Systems

14-164

8.3.2 Axial Flow High Speed

14-182

6.6.6 Tank Isolation and

Drain Pumps

8.3.3 Aspirating Devices

14-183

14-164

8.3.4 Horizontal Rotors

14-183

6.6.7 Waste Activated Sludge

Management Systems

14-165

WET-WEATHER
CONSIDERATIONS

14-165

7.1 Introduction

14-165

7.2 Flow Reduction

14-166

7.3 Aeration Tanks

8.2.3.1 Jet Aeration

14-177

8.2.3.2 U-Tube
Aeration

14-180

8.2.3.3 Countercurrent
Aeration

14-180

8.3 Mechanical Surface

Aerators

14-180

8.4 Submerged Turbine

Aerators

14-185

8.5 Air Supply System

14-187

8.5.1 Air Filtration

14-188

14-166

8.5.1.1 Types of
Air-Cleaning
Systems

14-188

7.3.1 Aeration Tank Settling

14-166

8.5.1.2 Filter Selection

14-189

7.3.2 Step-Feed or ContactAeration Mode

14-167

8.5.1.3 Design
Considerations

14-189

7.4 Secondary Clarifiers

14-169

OXYGEN-TRANSFER
SYSTEMS

14-169

8.1 Introduction

14-169

8.2 Diffused Aeration

14-172

8.5.2 Blowers

14-190

8.5.2.1 Turndown

14-191

8.5.2.2 Selection

14-191

8.5.2.3 Control

14-192

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-6

Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

8.5.3 Air-Piping Materials

14-192

8.5.4 Air-Piping Design

14-193

8.5.5 Pure-Oxygen
Generation

14-194

8.6 Mixing Requirements

14-196

8.7 Aerator Design and Testing

14-197

8.7.1 Equipment
Considerations

14-198

8.7.2 Clean Water Testing

14-200

8.7.3 Transformation of
Clean Water Test Data
to Clean Process
Water Conditions
8.8 Process Water Testing
8.9 Aeration System
Maintenance
9.0

9.2.4.2 Dissolved-Oxygen
Concentration
14-212
9.2.4.3 Selectors

14-212

9.2.4.4 Process
Configuration

14-212

9.2.4.5 Selective Wasting

and Foam
Control
14-213
9.2.4.6 Chemical
Addition

14-213

9.2.4.7 Energy Gradient

Optimization
14-214
14-201
14-203
14-204

9.3 Clarifier Sizing Approaches 14-215

9.3.1 Overflow Rate

14-215

9.3.2 Solids Loading Rate

14-217

9.3.2.1 State Point

Analysis

14-217
14-220
14-222

SECONDARY
CLARIFICATION

14-205

9.1 Introduction

14-205

9.3.2.2 Daigger
Approach

14-205

9.3.2.3 Keinath
Approach

14-205

9.3.2.4 Wilson Approach 14-222

14-208

9.3.2.5 Ekama-Marais
Approach

9.2 Suspension Characteristics

and Settleability
9.2.1 Characteristics
9.2.2 Factors That Affect
Settleability

14-226

9.3.3 Side Water Depth

14-227

9.3.4 Weir Loading

14-227

9.3.5 Redundancy

14-227

9.2.3 Measures of
Settleability

14-211

9.2.4 Techniques to
Improve Settleability

14-211

9.3.6 Effect of Flow Variations 14-228

9.2.4.1 Food-toMicroorganisms
Ratio Control
14-211

9.3.7 Summary of Sizing Steps 14-228

9.3.8 Shapes

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

9.3.9 Batch and Other

Clarification

14-230

9.5 Circular and Other

Radial Flow Designs

14-7

14-249

14-231

9.5.1 Flow Patterns

14-250

9.4.1 Flow Patterns

14-231

9.5.2 Diameter

14-251

9.4.2 Dimensions

14-234

9.5.3 Side Wall Depth

14-252

9.4.2.1 Length

14-234

9.5.4 Inlet Geometry

14-253

9.4.2.2 Width

14-235

9.5.4.1 Center Feed

14-256

9.4.2.3 Depth

14-235

9.5.4.2 Peripheral Feed

14-267

9.4 Rectangular Design

9.4.2.4 Flow Distribution

to Parallel Units 14-235

9.5.5 Interior Baffles

14-269

9.5.6 Scum Removal

14-271

9.4.2.5 Inlet Geometry

9.5.7 Outlets

14-274

14-236

9.4.2.6 Flow Distribution

within Clarifiers 14-236
9.4.2.7 Inlet Design

14-236

9.4.2.8 Inlet Baffles and

Flocculation
Zones

14-241

9.4.2.9 Interior Baffles

14-241

9.4.2.10 Stacked
Clarifiers

14-242

9.4.2.11 Scum Removal 14-244

9.4.2.12 Outlets

14-244

9.5.7.1 Peripheral Weir

14-275

9.5.7.2 Cantilevered
Double or
Multiple
Launders

14-276

9.5.7.3 Launders
Suspended from
the Bridge

14-276

9.5.7.4 Submerged
Orifices

14-276

9.5.8 Sludge Withdrawal

14-277

9.4.2.13 End-Wall Effect

and Other
Launder Design
Considerations 14-244

9.5.8.1 Scrapers

14-277

9.5.8.2 Hydraulic
Suction

14-278

9.5.8.3 Hoppers

14-282

9.4.2.14 Weir Loading

Rates

14-246

9.5.8.4 Collection Rings

and Drums
14-284

9.4.2.15 Submerged
Launders

14-246

9.4.2.16 Sludge
Withdrawal

14-247

9.5.8.5 Drive Location

14-285

9.5.8.6 Floor Slopes

14-285

9.5.9 Other Considerations

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-8

Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

9.5.9.1 Return
Activated Sludge
Pumping
14-285
9.5.9.2 Algae Control
9.6 Control Strategy and
Facilities Design

14-286
14-286

9.6.1 Key Parameters

14-287

9.6.2 Return and Waste

Activated Sludge
Strategies

14-287

9.6.3 Concentration and

Density Measurement

14-289

10.1 Aeration Basin Volume

14-297

10.2 Aeration Requirements

14-301

10.3 Secondary Clarification

14-307

10.4 Summary for the Base

Case

14-308

10.5 Addressing Nutrients

14-309

10.5.1 Influent
Characterization
and Fractionation

14-312

10.5.2 Modification of
Decay Rate for
Activated Sludge
Models

14-317

9.6.4 Sludge Blanket Depth

Measurement

14-290

10.5.3 Nitrification Only

14-317

9.6.5 Equipment and

Instrumentation

14-293

10.5.4 Denitrification
System Design

14-318

10.0 SUSPENDED-GROWTH
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
SYSTEM EXAMPLE

14-294

11.0 REFERENCES

14-320

12.0 SUGGESTED READINGS

14-345

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Suspended-growth systems are biological treatment processes based on the growth and
retention of a suspension of microorganisms. These microorganisms convert biodegradable, organic wastewater constituents and certain inorganic fractions into new cell mass
and byproducts, both of which then can be removed by settling, gaseous stripping, and
other physical means. Suspended-growth systems for wastewater treatment are predominantly aerobic processes, typically referred to as activated sludge, with a variety
of reactor configurations and flow patterns. Strictly anaerobic suspended-growth
processes for liquid-phase treatment are also in use.
This chapter presents fundamentals of aerobic activated sludge treatment and the
process configurations that can be used. It covers process design for carbon substrate
oxidation and nitrification of ammonia, process modifications and configurations for

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

nitrogen and phosphorus removal, anaerobic processes, membrane bioreactors, design
considerations for wet-weather conditions, oxygen transfer systems, and secondary
clarification design. The chapter concludes with a comprehensive process design example that illustrates several aerobic suspended-growth systems for different applications
and performance requirements.

1.1 Process Description

Figure 14.1 presents a general schematic of a flow-through suspended-growth activated
sludge process.
Wastewater is combined with biomass and other solids in the reactor and is then
mixed and aerated. Typically, the process operates in a continuous-flow mode, but can
also be operated as a batch process. Contents of the reactor, referred to as mixed liquor,
consist of wastewater; microorganisms (alive and dead); and inert, biodegradable and
nonbiodegradable suspended and colloidal matter. The particulate fraction of the
mixed liquor is termed mixed-liquor suspended solids (MLSS). Suspended-growth
anaerobic processes are similar in concept but without aeration or mixing of the solids
resulting in a stratified sludge blanket of microorganisms.
After sufficient time for biological reactions, mixed liquor is conveyed to a separate
settling basin (clarifier) or other solids-liquid separation step that separates MLSS from
treated wastewater and produces clarified effluent. Settled MLSS are then recycled as
return sludge to the aeration basin to maintain a concentrated microbial population for
efficient degradation of influent wastewater constituents in an economically sized

FIGURE 14.1

Schematic diagram of a typical activated sludge process.

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

reactor. Microorganisms and cell debris are generated continuously, which must be
removed from the system through wasting. Wasting can be continuous or periodic and
typically is from the clarifier or return sludge line, although removal from the aeration
basin is an alternative. Retention of MLSS and effluent clarification also can be accomplished with synthetic, microfiltration membranes. The MLSS recirculation and wasting
requirements remain with this alternative.

1.2 Historic Overview

The activated sludge process received its name from and was developed based on a
series of experiments conducted in Manchester, England. Widespread use of the process
did not begin until the 1940s. Aeration-basin hydraulic retention time (HRT) was one of
the first design parameters used; short HRTs were chosen for what was considered to be
weak wastewater and long HRTs for strong wastewater. Loading criteria eventually
were developed, typically relating to the mass of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
applied per day per mass of microbial solids present in the aeration basin.
Over the last 40 years, design equations have been developed based on the concepts of microbial growth kinetics and mass balances. Eckenfelder (1966), McKinney
(1962), Lawrence and McCarty (1970), and Ramanathan and Gaudy (1971) developed
design approaches that yield similar results (Gaudy and Kincannon, 1977). These
design approaches were based on behavior and performance of microorganisms of the
activated sludge process as characterized by measures such as BOD, total suspended
solids (TSS), and kinetic parameters and coefficients representing a diverse biological
population. The last 20 years have resulted in development and application of more
complex process simulation models that are based on detailed influent characterization
and a variety of microorganisms (Water Environment Federation, 2009).
Although pilot- and full-scale studies can be used to determine reaction rates and
parameters for a particular wastewater and process configuration, such studies typically are not conducted for municipal wastewater applications unless a new process or
other special circumstance is involved. Alternatives to such studies are (1) to assume
certain wastewater characteristics and embark on a semi-empirical design, (2) use an
entirely empirical approach relying on state or other guidelines, or 3) develop a process
model based on detailed wastewater characterization and calibrated or assumed constants and coefficients. This chapter explores the first alternative. This design approach
is based on mass of organisms and solids retention time (SRT). Wastewater with a significant industrial fraction (more than 10% of the organic load) warrants special attention to establish values of coefficients.
Capabilities of the activated sludge process, through its ability to enrich biological
populations to achieve specific objectives, have increased over the last 30 years. The

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

addition of unaerated zones to a nitrifying activated sludge process can result in effective removal of inorganic nitrogen through biological denitrification and enhanced biological phosphorus removal. Over the last decade, the use of membranes with pore
sizes of 0.1 _m allow for higher reactor MLSS concentrations resulting in smaller reactor volumes and effluent of exceptional clarity.
In the wide variety of activated sludge process configurations and applications in
use today, the fundamental biological processes at work are the same.

1.3 Activated Sludge Environment

An activated sludge process uses a suspension of diverse microorganisms to treat
wastewater. The dry weight of these microorganisms is 95% or more organic in composition. Suspension of microorganisms in an activated sludge process is typically 70 to
90% organic and 10 to 30% inorganic substances because of inert materials in the wastewater. Composition of the organic fraction of biomass is approximated by the empirical formula C5H7O2NP0.2. Successful plant performance depends on a microbial community that will oxidize the waste materials and form a flocculent biomass that is
readily removed by gravity separation.
Heterotrophic organisms that require biodegradable organic matter for energy and
new cell synthesis typically dominate the microbial population. Autotrophic bacteria
that oxidize ammonia to nitrite and nitrate use inorganic materials for energy and cell
synthesis. Such autotrophs typically are present in varying concentrations. A welldesigned activated sludge system provides an environment that promotes growth of
desired microorganisms and inhibits those that contribute to poor sludge settleability
and foaming; it also can control nuisance organisms that may appear.
Most bulking microorganisms are filamentous bacteria. An excess of filaments protruding from flocs are believed to prevent biomass compaction. Some researchers contend that an ideal floc contains just the right mixture of filamentous microorganisms
and floc formers, with the filaments forming the backbone of the floc (Jenkins et al.,
2003; Sezgin et al., 1978).
Detailed discussions of the microbiology of biological treatment systems is presented elsewhere (Jenkins et al., 2003; Grady et al., 1999; Metcalf and Eddy, 2003; U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency [U.S. EPA], 1987).
Biological nitrogen removal is achieved through ammonia oxidation followed by
denitrification, which is the use of nitrate by biomass as an electron acceptor to oxidate
carbon substrate. The end result of this process is the conversion of nitrate to nitrogen
gas that is released to the atmosphere.
Excess biomass that must be wasted will remove the portion of the influent phosphorus that is incorporated into the biomass. Biological phosphorus removal can be

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

enhanced by enriching the bacterial culture, which results in organisms that can retain
greater amounts of phosphorus than a typical aerobic biomass. Given the expected
phosphorus content of the biomass to be wasted, removal can be estimated from a mass
balance across the system.

1.4 System Components

A basic suspended-growth system consists of several interrelated components:
Single or multiple reactors designed as completely mixed flow, plug flow, or
intermediate patterns and sized to provide adequate SRT, organic loading, or
other criteria resulting in an HRT of two to three hours minimum up to 24 hours
or more.
An oxygen source and equipment to disperse atmospheric, pressurized, or
oxygen-enriched air to the aeration basin at a rate sufficient to keep the system
aerobic.
A means of mixing the aeration basin to keep solids in suspension.
A clarifier, membranes, or period of settling to separate the suspended solids
from treated wastewater.
A method of collecting and returning sludge from the clarifier or recycling
concentrated solids from membrane zones back to the aeration basin. (This is
not required with a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) system or some membrane
configurations.)
A means of wasting excess biomass and accumulated nonbiodegradable influent
solids from the system.

2.0 PROCESS CONFIGURATIONS AND TYPES

Suspended-growth reactors, used in activated sludge and biological nutrient removal
plants, have been designed in many different configurations. They have be categorized
by basin shape, loading rates, feeding and aeration patterns, type of aeration, and other
features. Combinations of features from several categories give design engineers an
array of choices. Basic activated sludge plants have often been called by such reactor
descriptions as:

Complete mix,
Plug flow,
Oxidation ditch, and
Combination (capable of being operated in more than one configuration).

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For smaller plants, low-load processes (such as oxidation ditches and SBRs) are common in part because of simplicity of operation and reliable performance. For larger
plants, conventional plug flow (some with configuration flexibility) is favored. Plug
flow often is favored because completely mixed activated sludge (CMAS) reactors can
promote growth of filamentous bacteria that hinder sludge compaction. This growth,
however, is a site-specific issue related to dissolved oxygen concentration and other factors such as the rate at which substrate is applied and total available biomass. Plug-flow
reactors generally offer more flexibility if they need to be converted for biological nutrient removal. Specifically, anaerobic and anoxic zones can be created. Compartmentalization by using baffles or walls within a tank can provide flexibility for intermediate
zones that can be used for more than one reactor.
The SBRs also are used widely, especially for smaller plants. More than 500 plants
are in operation. Designs incorporating operational flexibility can remove nutrients to
low levels (Young et al., 2008).

2.1 Basin Shape

Categorization of basins by shape leads to the definitions of complete mix, plug flow,
oxidation ditch, aerated lagoon reactor, and deep shaft. Each of these, in turn, has
subcategories.

2.1.1 Complete Mix

By definition, a CMAS reactor has uniform characteristics throughout the contents of
the entire reactor. In this configuration, shown in Figure 14.2, the CMAS influent waste
is distributed rapidly throughout the basin, and operating characteristics of MLSS,

FIGURE 14.2

Complete-mix reactor.

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-14

Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

respiration rate, and BOD are uniform throughout. Because the total body of basin liquid has the same quality as the basin effluent, only a low level of food is available at any
time for the large mass of microorganisms present. This characteristic is cited as the primary reason why CMAS can handle surges in organic loading and toxic shocks (to a
limited extent) without producing a change in effluent quality. As mentioned above,
CMAS systems can promote the growth of filamentous bacteria that settle poorly. Nevertheless, many CMAS plants produce excellent results if properly operated. Control of
dissolved oxygen is simpler with CMAS geometry because of the approximately uniform oxygen demand throughout the reactor.
The CMAS basins are typically square, round, or rectangular. Oxidation ditches, with
their inherently high internal recirculation rate, behave kinetically as complete-mixed
reactors. Tank dimensions may be controlled by the size and mixing pattern of the aeration equipment and local site considerations. Surface turbine units are popular for providing aeration for CMAS tanks although diffused air is becoming more common. Factors
that influence mechanical aeration mixing effectiveness include length-to-width ratio,
mixing power per unit of volume, and the locations of feed points and outlet structures.
Achieving complete mixing in a real-world basin is difficult but can be attempted. Any
square or circular basin with a reasonable detention time and level of mixing intensity can
be considered a completely mixed reactor, regardless of the type of aeration system used.
The length-to-width ratio of a basin typically should be maintained at less than 31 to
remain primarily complete mix using mechanical aeration and no baffles. Multiple
mechanical aeration units in long, narrow basinsfor example, length-to-width greater
than 51create a mixing pattern that starts to resemble plug flow. If diffused air is used,
then full tank width influent feed and effluent removal weir structures typically are provided as good practice. Multiple feed points and withdrawal weirs along opposite sides
of a rectangular aeration basin also could be used for this purpose. Oxidation ditches may
be viewed as a complete-mix reactor even though they have some plug-flow characteristics. Some consider it to be complete mix because the influent concentration of substrate
is immediately diluted by the large mixed-liquor flow to a value nearly equal to that of the
aeration-basin effluent. To accurately model such closed-loop flow, ten or more CMAS
cells in series need to be used with at-large rate of recirculation from the last to the first.

2.1.2 Plug Flow

Plug flow and basins in series are discussed together because a plug-flow reactor can be
viewed as several small, completely mixed basins in series. Plug-flow basins used for
municipal activated sludge plants are 5 to 9 m (15 to 30 ft) wide and up to 120 m (400 ft)
long (length-to-width ratio more than 101). Long basins may be constructed as singlepass tanks, side by side, or in a folded arrangement (see Figure 14.3).

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FIGURE 14.3

Plug-flow reactor.

The ideal plug-flow configuration has a relatively high organic loading at the influent end of the basin. The food-to-microorganism ratio is reduced over the length of the
basin as organic material in wastewater is assimilated. At the downstream end of the
basin, oxygen consumption shifts increasingly towards endogenous respiration. The
high organic loading at the head end of this process discourages most types of filamentous bacteria growth and results in better sludge settling compared to a complete-mix
reactor if sufficient dissolved oxygen concentrations are maintained. Keeping a low dissolved oxygen level too long, however, may encourage filamentous growth. As discussed elsewhere in this chapter, polysaccharide formation may result from high loading and low dissolved oxygen concentrations at the inlet end.
Whereas a complete-mix reactor is able to handle surges in loading, plug-flow configurations have a superior ability to avoid bleed-through or passage of untreated
substrate during peak flows. Plug-flow reactors also have an advantage where higheffluent dissolved oxygen concentrations are desirable. In a complete-mix configuration, the entire tank contents would have to be maintained at the elevated dissolved
oxygen level to achieve that objective. Control of dissolved oxygen concentrations in a
plug-flow system can be complicated if a wide range of oxygen demands and at multiple locations are expected.

2.1.3 Oxidation Ditch

In a classical oxidation ditch system, wastewater and mixed liquor are pumped around
an oval pathway (racetrack) by brushes, rotors, or other mechanical aeration devices
and/or pumping equipment located at one or more points along the flow circuit. Figure 14.4 shows oxidation ditches with alternative horizontal- or vertical-shaft aerators

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-16

Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

(A)

Influent
Return Sludge

Brush-Type
Aerators

Secondary
Clarifier

Effluent

(B)
FIGURE 14.4

Oxidation ditch reactors: (a) simple loop and (b) folded loop.

to maintain tank motion and aerate ditch contents. As mixed liquor passes the aerator,
the dissolved oxygen concentration increases sharply and then declines as the flow traverses the circuit. Oxidation ditches typically operate in an extended aeration mode
with long HRTs (24 hours) and SRTs (20 to 30 days). Depending on the relative location(s) of wastewater inlet, mixed-liquor outlet, sludge return, and aeration equipment
and control, oxidation ditches also can achieve nitrification and denitrification. For BOD
removal or nitrification, the influent typically enters the reactor near the aerator and
the effluent exits the tank upstream of the entrance.
Oxidation ditches have depths ranging from approximately 0.9 to 5.5 m (3 to 18 ft)
and channel velocities from 0.24 to 0.37 m/s (0.8 to 1.2 ft/sec). Ditch geometry must be
compatible with aeration and mixing equipment and should be coordinated with the
manufacturers. Mechanical brushes, surface turbines, and jet devices are used to aerate
and move the liquid flow. Combinations of diffused aeration and submersible mixers
also have been employed (Christopher and Titus, 1983). Several alternative designs of
intrachannel clarifiers have been developed to provide for separation and return of
MLSS to the ditch. The inability to readily modify the return activated sludge (RAS)

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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rate and the reduced flexibility of taking a reactor or clarifier out of service independently have led to the demise of the intrachannel clarifier concept.
Since 1973, approximately 10 000 oxidation ditch plants have been constructed in
the United States. They are widely used in small- to medium-sized communities (5 000
to 50 000 population) and with flows of 1 900 to 19 000 m3/d (0.5 to 5.0 mgd), although
some are much larger. Advantages include simple operation, reliable performance, and
cost effectiveness.
The vertical loop reactor (VLR) shown in Figure 14.5 is an aerobic activated sludge
biological treatment process similar to an oxidation ditch. Wastewater in a VLR circulates in a vertical loop around a horizontal divider baffle. Proponents assert that overall oxygen transfer efficiency for a VLR is higher than that of an equivalent conventional
oxidation ditch.
Another variation of the oxidation ditch concept is the concentric loop. There are
more than 500 of these systems in the United States. In this process, mixed liquor is aerated and propelled around a series of concentric loops or a single loop by partially submerged disks that have honeycomb lattice surfaces. They carry air into the mixed liquor,
which keeps moving because of drag. An opening in each of the interior walls allows
flow to pass from one channel to the next in series. Different dissolved oxygen concentrations can be maintained in each loop, allowing for biological nitrogen removal.
The folded oxidation ditch concept uses vertical turbine aerators at the end of baffle walls at which point flow reverses direction. This allows a smaller number of larger
aerators than possible with brush aerators for large plants, increases the power-to-volume ratio in the aeration zone, and operates with low dissolved oxygen concentrations
entering this zone, thereby increasing oxygen-transfer efficiency.
Some designers choose to combine diffused aeration for oxygen transfer efficiency
and independent mechanical mixing to control velocity in the ditch. Submerged mixers

FIGURE 14.5

Vertical-loop reactor.

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-18

Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

of different configurations have included jets, horizontal propellers, paddles on a vertical shaft at divider wall ends, and others. Aspirating propellers on hollow shafts with
and without blowers for air supply also have been used.
A combination of oxidation ditch and SBR technologies resulted in the phased isolation ditch. Figure 14.6 illustrates three configurations for phased isolation ditches;
Table 14.1 describes their key features. They have been used principally in Denmark,
although plants have been constructed in the United States in Ocoee, Florida, and
Lewisburg, North Carolina, and in Germany, Greece, China, and Australia (Tetreault
et al., 1987). Figure 14.7 shows a unit with three parallel runs, two for aeration and mixing and the third for settling. Movement of a vertically hinged wall eliminates the need
to turn aerators on and off or to reverse direction.

2.1.4 Aerated Lagoon

Aerated lagoons are partially mixed, aerated reactors with long HRT and without clarifiers or sludge return. Aerated, lagoon-style reactors consisting of lined earthen basins

FIGURE 14.6

Schematic for phased isolation-ditch process alternatives.

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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14-19

TABLE 14.1 Key features of phased isolation ditch technologies (Tetreault et al., 1987).
Ditch
typea

Process
modification

Treatment objectives

Number of ditches
2 Oxidation
Sedimentation
3 Oxidation
Sedimentation
3 Oxidation
Denitrification
Sedimentation
2 Oxidation,
Denitrification
2 Oxidation/phosphorus
uptake
Denitrification

VR-

BOD5, SS,c NH3-N

T-

BOD5, SS, NH3-N

T-

Bio-Denitro

BOD5, SS, TNd

DE-

Bio-Denitro

BOD5, SS, TN

DE-

Bio-Deniphob

BOD5, SS, TN, TPe

Refer to figure 14.6

This process modification requires an initial aerobic tank before the DE-ditch system.
c
SS
suspended solids.
d
TN
total nitrogen.
e
TP
total phosphorus.
b

with HRTs of one or more days and with clarifiers and sludge return can be used to
create activated sludge processes. Reactor shapes historically were square or rectangular, which is mixing limited, leading to development of oxidation ditches. Horizontal
flow in a ditch keeps particles in suspension at lower energy input than mechanical or
diffused aeration in lagoon reactors.
Another concept is to aerate and mix lagoon-style reactors with less energy by
installing rows of diffused aerators near the bottom and then sequencing them on and
off or suspending them from floating aeration piping. This extended aeration system

FIGURE 14.7 Phased ditch with three parallel runs and movable pivoting wall aerators.

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Separate
clarifier
No
No
No

Yes
Yes

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-20

Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

was first introduced to the United States in 1986. Typically, these systems have lower capital costs and potentially lower operations and maintenance costs compared to conventional extended aeration basins with lower HRT. The latter might be more cost-effective
to construct where soil conditions are not favorable for a lined earthen basin. Design flows
for plants using aerated lagoon reactors are typically 400 to 190 000 m3/d (0.1 to 50 mgd).
The sequencing of aeration also can create conditions allowing for denitrification.

2.1.5 Deep Shaft

Another space-conserving aeration basin is known as the deep shaft process. It is a
patented, licensed process originally developed in England. A deep, vertical shaft using
a U-tube aeration system is drilled. The shaft, which has depths as great as 100 m (300 ft)
or more, is lined with a steel shell and fitted with a concentric pipe to form an annular
reactor. Mixed-liquor suspended solids, wastewater, and air or oxygen are forced down
the center shaft and allowed to rise through the annulus and recirculate. Final clarifiers
with vacuum degassers have been used to separate the MLSS leaving the reactor
because supersaturated conditions prevail when mixed liquor returns to the surface. A
flotation tank has been used instead of a clarifier in some installations. Figure 14.8 presents a schematic diagram of this process.
Because of the high pressures involved, oxygen transfer efficiency is claimed to
be three times that of conventional air activated sludge systems. Advantages of the
process are:
Lower capital and operational costs,
Reduced land requirements,

FIGURE 14.8

Schematic diagram of deep-shaft process.

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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Ability to handle strong industrial waste, and
Immunity to climatic factors.
As of 2008, more than 80 deep-shaft plants were reported to be in operation. Approximately one-half of the plants were treating municipal wastewater.

2.2 Loading Rates

Activated sludge processes also can be classified by loading or organic-feed rate. Common terms are conventional, low-rate, and high-rate. Table 14.2 provides a summary of
general characteristics for various processes. Table 14.3 presents typical ranges for relevant design parameters.

2.2.1 Conventional
Conventional loading rates apply to plug-flow or CMAS systems with an FM loading
of approximately 0.2 to 0.5 kg BOD/day/kg mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
(MLVSS) (0.20 to 0.5 lb BOD/d/lb MLVSS). These systems can obtain BOD removal
efficiencies in the range of 85 to 95%. Conventional rate system MLSS design concentrations often range from 1 500 to 3 000 mg/L. Design MLSS concentrations have increased
considerably over the years because of improvements in the oxygen-transfer capability
of aeration devices, clarifier performance, and understanding of system concepts.
An important consideration in the design of conventional systems is that nitrification might occur, even when not desired. This often happens with low loading conditions during summer months or high SRTs because of wasting practices. When nitrification occurs, denitrification may occur in the final clarifiers resulting in rising sludge
problems when nitrogen gas buoys and floats the biomass floc. Approaches used to
limit nitrification and unwanted denitrification include reducing the SRT or HRT and
the dissolved oxygen concentration to reduce nitrification or increasing the dissolved
oxygen before clarification. In warm climates, SRT reduction to prevent nitrification
might adversely affect floc formation and secondary clarifier performance.

2.2.2 Low Rate

Low-rate (also called extended aeration) plants are characterized by the introduction of
pretreated (for example, screened and degritted) wastewater directly to an aeration
basin with a long HRT, high MLSS concentration, high RAS pumping rate, and low
sludge wastage. This system, initially used in the United States for flows of approximately 4 000 m3/d (1 mgd) or lower, often incorporated complete-mix reactors. During
the past few decades, low-rate systems have been applied to larger sizes in the shapes
of oxidation ditches and similar shapes.

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14-21

Continuous-flow
stirred-tank
reactor
Plug flow
Plug flow

Plug flow
Plug flow

Continuous-flow
stirred-tank
reactor
Plug flow
Continuous-flow
stirred-tank
reactors in
series
Plug flow

Complete-mix

Modified aeration

Contact stabilization

Extended aeration

High-rate aeration

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Separate stage
nitrification

Single-stage
nitrification

Deep shaft reactor

Sequencing batch
reactor

Oxidation ditch

Kraus process
High purity oxygen

Continuous-flow
stirred-tank
reactors or
plug flow
Continuous-flow
stirred-tank
reactors or
plug flow

Intermittent-flow
stirred-tank
reactor
Plug flow

Plug flow

Conventional

Mechanical aerators,
diffused-air

Mechanical aerators,
diffused-air

Diffused-air

Mechanical aerators
(horizontal axis type)
Diffused-air

Diffused-air
Mechanical aerators
(sparger turbines)

Mechanical aerators

Diffused-air, mechanical
aerators
Diffused-air, mechanical
aerators

Diffused-air

Diffused-air

Diffused-air, mechanical
aerators
Diffused-air, mechanical
aerators

Aeration system

8595

8595

8595

8595

7595

8595
8595

7590

7595

8090

6075

8595

8595

8595

BOD removal
efficiency, %

Use for upgrading existing systems,

where nitrogen standards are stringent, or
where inhibitory industrial waste is present
and can be removed in earlier stages.

Use for low-strength domestic wastes; process

is susceptible to shock loads
Use for general application, process is
resistant to shock loads but is susceptible to
filamentous growths
Use for general application for a wide range
of wastes
Use for intermediate degree of treatment
where cell tissue in the effluent is not
objectionable
Use for expansion of existing systems and
package plants
Use for small communities, package plants,
and where nitrified element is
required; process is flexible
Use for general applications with turbine
aerators to transfer oxygen and
control floc size
Use for low-nitrogen, high-strength waste
Use for general application with high-strength
waste and where limited space is available
at site; process is resistant to slug loads
area of land is available; process is flexible
Use for small communities or where large
area of land is available; process is flexible
Use for small communities where land area
is limited; process is flexible and can remove
nitrogen and phosphorus
Use for general application with high-strength
waste, process is resistant to slug loads.
Use for general application for nitrogen
control where inhibitory industrial waste is
not present

Remarks

14-22

Step feed

Flow model

Process
modification

TABLE 14.2 Operational characteristics of activated sludge processes (from Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Engineering:
Treatment and Reuse, 4th Ed., R. Tchobanoglous [Ed.], Copyright 2003, with permission from the McGraw-Hill Companies).

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

515
515
515
0.20.5
515
2030
510
515
310
1030
NA
NI
820
15100

Conventional
Complete-mix
Step feed
Modified aeration
Contact stabilization

Extended aeration
High-rate aeration
Kraus process
High-purity oxygen
Oxidation ditch
Sequencing batch reactor
Deep shaft reactor
Single-stage nitrification

Separate stage nitrification

0.050.15
0.41.5
0.30.8
0.251.0
0.050.30
0.050.30
0.55.0
0.100.25
(0.020.15)d
0.0500.20
(0.040.15)d

0.20.4
0.20.6
0.20.4
1.55.0
0.20.6

MLVSS
mixed liquor volatile suspended solids.

Contact unit.
c
Solids stabilization unit.
d
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen/MLVSS.
e
MLSS varies depending on the portion of the operating cycle.
Note: lb/103 cu ft  0.016 0
kg/m3d.
lb/d/lb
kg/kgd.
NA
not applicable.
NI
no information.

c, d

Process modification

FM, lb BOD5
applied/d/lb
MLVSSa

2 0003 500

1025
1001 000
40100
100200
530
515
NI
520
39

MLSS, mg/L
1 5003 000
2 5004 000
2 0003 500
2001 000
(1 0003 000)b
(4 00010 000)c
3 0006 000
4 00010 000
2 0003 000
2 0005 000
3 0006 000
1 5005 000d
NI
2 0003 500

2040
50120
4060
75150
6075

Volumetric
loading,
lb BOD5/d/103
cu ft

36

48
35
35
1.53
(0.51.0)b
(36)e
1836
24
48
13
836
1250
0.55
615

V/Qh

0.502.00

0.51.50
1.05.0
0.51.0
0.250.5
0.751.50
NA
NI
0.501.50

0.250.75
0.251.0
0.250.75
0.050.25
0.51.50

Qr /Q

TABLE 14.3 Design parameters for activated sludge processes (from Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment
and Reuse, 4th Ed., R. Tchobanoglous [Ed.], Copyright 2003, with permission from the McGraw-Hill Companies).

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-24

Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

A particular advantage of using long HRTs (typically 16 to 36 hours) is that they
allow the plant to operate effectively over widely varying flow and waste loadings and
lower overall solids production. Stable solids are often advantageous for subsequent
solids-handling processes. Secondary clarifiers must be designed to handle variations in
hydraulic loadings and high MLSS concentrations associated with this process.
One of the process goals is to maintain the biomass in a highly endogenous respiration phase. Because microorganisms are undergoing aerobic digestion in the aeration
basin, more oxygen is required than for other single-stage systems. Many low-cost, lowrate plants experience a dissolved oxygen deficiency when waste load is high because
the design may not include automation to increase aeration in proportion to load or the
operations staff fails to maintain such provisions. In some cases, the long SRT and
excess dissolved oxygen at night will allow some nitrification, causing a daily, but noncoincidental, nitrification/denitrification cycle.
Some common problems with long extended aeration systems include continuous
loss of pinpoint floc and the tendency to lose MLSS following short-term periods of low
influent loading intensity such as on weekends. Long HRTs combined with a long clarification time also can result in denitrification, leading to rising sludge in secondary
clarifiers. This condition, combined with the lack of primary sedimentation to remove
floatables, requires use of effective skimming devices in final clarifiers. Guo et al. (1981)
suggest that the average MLSS concentration should not fall below 2 000 mg/L. In cold
climates, low temperatures likely will impair performance of the extended aeration
process unless heat loss is controlled. Use of open surface aerators would be at a disadvantage to covered aerators or diffused air and mechanical velocity control mixers.
The patented Cannibal solids reduction process is similar to extended aeration
activated sludge with the addition of physical and biological solids processing of side
streams. Although systems have been in operation for several years, knowledge of the
process is still evolving (Johnson et al., 2008; Novak et al., 2006; Roxburgh et al., 2006).
Physical treatment of the MLSS in a side stream consists of fine-screening to remove
fibrous materials and periodic removal of heavy particulates by a hydro-cyclone. The
screenings are primarily volatile and fibrous, and represent 20 to 30% of the MLSS that
might be expected in a conventional process. The main reactor is operated at a moderate SRT of 8 to 10 days, and MLSS is wasted to a second reactor that is operated as an
SBR with intermittent aeration. The net result is low observed yield of biomass from
the system.

2.2.3 High Rate

High rate is the term applied to an activated sludge system characterized by a short
HRT and a high organic loading rate. Mixed-liquor suspended solids concentrations

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may vary from 800 to as high as 10 000 mg/L; FM ratios are higher than those used in
conventional systems. Process integrity depends on maintaining the biomass in a relatively high rate of growth. Although high-rate systems can produce an effluent quality
approaching that of a conventional system, they encourage a higher fraction of dispersed organisms than in higher SRT systems. This can result in turbid clarifier effluent.
Therefore, high-rate systems must be operated with special care. For example, inadequate RAS flow rates, insufficient wasting, and high sludge flux rates make the clarifiers
of these systems more sensitive to washout.

2.3 Feeding and Aeration Patterns

Changing the number and location of feed points of an activated sludge aeration basin
can appreciably alter acceptable loading rates and quality of clarifier effluent.

2.3.1 Conventional
Conventional activated sludge design typically would introduce influent to the head
end of a rectangular basin. The RAS could be mixed with the influent before the tank or
be added separately. Keeping the RAS separate facilitates subsequent conversion to
other feed patterns (for example, step feed or contact stabilization), if such flexibility is
important. If RAS is blended with the influent ahead of multiple aeration basins operating in parallel, then care must be taken to ensure that the influent is well mixed before
flow splitting occurs.

2.3.2 Contact Stabilization

Contact stabilization is a modification of the activated sludge process in which the feed
point is moved downstream in the aeration tank (or into a separate tank). This provides
a relatively short detention time for the MLSS to be in contact with the feed stream
before mixed liquor leaves the reactor for solids separation. The RAS is added to the
tank inlet separately and aerated for a before being blended with the mainstream influent. Because the upstream end of the aeration basin contains liquid at the RAS concentration instead of the MLSS concentration, a given volume of aeration tank would contain a larger mass of mixed-liquor solids and, therefore, longer SRT. The longer SRT
increases the time that the microorganisms are under aeration and allows for the metabolization of substrate that would otherwise not be removed because of the shortened
HRT of the process. The reduced HRT results in less opportunity to oxidize ammonia
and remove organic nitrogen. The process originally was developed to remove readily
absorbed, soluble BOD, although particulate BOD is removed as well. Soluble organics
absorbed and suspended organics adsorbed or enmeshed by the microorganisms in the

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

short HRT zone subsequently are stabilized when returned to the reaeration zone. An
existing aeration basins capacity might, therefore, be readily increased by conversion
to contact stabilization, if there is flexibility in feed-point location, separate RAS return,
and sufficient aeration capacity and distribution.

2.3.3 Step Feed

The step-feed or step-aeration process, a modification of a plug-flow reactor, allows
entry of influent wastewater at two or more points along the length of the aeration basin.
With this arrangement, the oxygen uptake rate becomes more uniform throughout the
basin. Other operating parameters are similar to those of the conventional process.
Return activated sludge typically would be added to the aeration basin in a separate
conduit at the inlet end of the basin. Step aeration configurations typically have diffused
aeration. An existing plug-flow reactor can be modified for step feed by simply dividing the basin into compartments and redirecting the flow so that each compartment
receives wastewater input. A step feed tank configuration is shown in Figure 14.9.
Buhr et al. (1984) analyzed the relationship between step-feed location and loadings
on secondary clarifiers. Because RAS enters separately at the head of the aeration basin,
mixed liquor concentration decreases downstream as a function of the number and location of influent feed points, each of which further dilute the mixed liquor. The authors
found that feeding near the head of the aeration basin increases the loading on the secondary clarifiers and, consequently, increases the RAS concentration. Shifting influent to
downstream feedpoints lowers the solids loading rate and RAS concentration, thereby
allowing higher hydraulic loading rates with less danger of clarifier solids overload.

2.3.4 Tapered Aeration

An aeration system design that modulates oxygen supply along the length of a plugflow reactor is often called tapered aeration (Figure 14.10). The distribution of aeration

FIGURE 14.9

Step-feed process.

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FIGURE 14.10

Tapered-aeration process.

within an activated sludge process to match the oxygen-demand pattern should, however, is considered for all reactor configurations. The tapered-aeration approach typically is associated with diffused air systems. Plug-flow reactor designs, in particular,
should incorporate tapered aeration for operational control because of the wide range
of oxygen demand along its length. Mixing requirements, in some cases, govern the
minimum air supply rate.
Design parameters for the tapered aeration process are consistent with those for
conventional activated sludge treatment. Adding more air at the influent end of the aeration tank than at the effluent end (for example, by increasing density of diffusers) produces several beneficial results:
Reduced low-dissolved oxygen, fine-bubble-diffuser biofouling at inlet end
where the oxygen demand is high,
Greater operational control, and
Possible inhibition of nitrification (when desired) by reducing dissolved oxygen
concentrations in downstream segments of the aeration basin.

2.4 Selectors
A variety of microorganisms affect settleability of MLSS and environmental conditions
can be altered to favor or select one type of bacteria over others (Jenkins et al., 2003).
Mixed liquors that are low in nutrients, dissolved oxygen, or FM tend to favor growth
of filamentous bacteria that have high surface area-to-volume ratios. Many of these filamentous bacteria, which hinder settling, can be placed at a growth-rate disadvantage
if mixed liquor is subjected to periods of high FM. Organisms with the greatest ability
to rapidly uptake soluble substrate and store it internally for use later during low concentration conditions tend to be those that are more flocculent and settle better.

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Selector basins at the head end of main aeration basin can take advantage of these
dynamics. A schematic drawing showing three selectors in series is shown in Figure
14.11. Selectors may or may not be compartmentalized like this. A single basin or even
the head end of a long, narrow plug-flow aeration basin may be adequate to obtain
improved results. To help reduce longitudinal mixing and overcome variations in waste
flow and strength, it is recommended that three or more compartments be used to take
full advantage. Albertson (2007) and the Water Environment Research Foundation
(WERF) (2006a) present case studies and general guidelines for selector implementation and design.
Selectors may be aerobic, anoxic, or anaerobic. Jenkins et al. (2003) suggest that
selectors have at least three zones. For aerobic selectors, the first compartment FM
should be 10 to 12 kg chemical oxygen demand (COD)/kg MLSS/d with an overall
selector FM of 3 to 6 kg COD/kg MLSS/d. For anoxic selectors, the first compartment
FM should be 6 kg COD/kg MLSS/d with an overall selector FM of 1.5 kg COD/kg
MLSS/d. For anaerobic selectors, the HRT is typically in the range of 0.75 to 2.0 hours.
In each case, the first two compartments should be equal in size and one-half the total
selector volume when combined.
The design of aerobic selectors should allow for dissolved oxygen concentrations
of 1 to 2 mg/L.
Anoxic selectors can be mechanical or air mixed, with dissolved oxygen limited to
low levels for the latter. If nitrate concentrations might interfere with anoxic selector
performance, then denitrification might be required.

FIGURE 14.11

Selector system configuration.

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14-29

Operating at high FM and low dissolved oxygen can lead to formation of polysaccharides, an intermediate product formed by microbes in an attempt to metabolize
BOD. Polysaccharides are not readily biodegradable in digestion and can detrimentally
affect solids dewatering by reducing throughput and dewatering cake solids concentrations. Pilot-scale or plant performance data may be used to further improve selector
design and define expected performance for a given situation.
Table 14.4 summarizes advantages and disadvantages of the three types biological
selectors.

2.5 Other Variations

2.5.1 Pure Oxygen
Budd and Lambeth (1957) evaluated the use of pure oxygen (also referred to as highpurity oxygen) rather than air for aeration in the activated sludge process. The process
achieved commercial status in 1970. Primary advantages claimed by manufacturers of
the process include reduced power for dissolving oxygen into mixed liquor, improved
biokinetics, ability to treat high-strength soluble wastewater, reduction in bulking

TABLE 14.4

Comparison of biological selectors (Sykes, 1993).*

Selector type

Advantages

Disadvantages

Aerobic

Simple process, no additional internal

recycle streams other than RAS
Relies on basin geometry,
not nitrification
Tends to buffer nitrification (recovers
approximately 3.5 lb alkalinity as
CaCO3/lb of NO
3 -N denitrified)
Lowers oxygen demand in a nitrification
process (recovers approximately
2.86 lb O2/lb of NO
3 reduced)
The initial high FM region
occurs in the anoxic zone, with the
high oxygen demand met by NO
3
instead of oxygen
Simple design, no internal recycle other
than RAS
The simplest of selector system of operate
Can be used for biological phosphorus
removal

Does not reduce oxygen requirements

Requires more complex aeration system design
to meet maximum oxygen uptake rate in
the initial high FM zone
Cannot be used with a process that does not
nitrify
Uses an additional recycle stream
Requires care in design and operation to
minimize the introduction of oxygen
in the anoxic zone; poor system design can
induce low-DO bulking

Anoxic

Anaerobic

Does not reduce oxygen requirements

May not be compatible with long SRTs
Requires care in design and operation to
minimize the introduction of NO
3 and
oxygen in the anaerobic zone
Poor system design can induce low-DO bulking

* Recycle stream may not be needed for selector but to extend denitrification (lb/lb
kg/kg).

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problems from dissolved oxygen-deficit stress, and, with covered reactors, offgas emissions and odors are contained.
Pure-oxygen systems in the past were characterized by high MLSS concentrations
(3 000 to 8 000 mg/L) and relatively short HRTs (one to three hours). Many of these
systems for municipal wastewater are operated at MLSS concentrations of 1 000 to
3 000 mg/L while maintaining relatively short HRTs. This may be due, in part, to
Nocardia foam accumulations in the reactors of some municipal plants operating at
high-MLSS concentrations. Operation of older facilities at lower MLSS might also be a
result of solids loading limitations of secondary clarifiers that were sized based on overflow rate or without consideration of the effect of sludge volume index (SVI) on solids
handling capacity.
For enclosed reactors, enriched oxygen gas is fed to the headspace concurrent with
the wastewater flow. Mechanical aerators entrain the enriched atmosphere into the
mixed liquor, and maintaining a constant gas pressure within the tanks maintains the
oxygen feed (Figure 14.12). A dissolved oxygen concentration of 4 to 10 mg/L typically
is maintained in the mixed liquor. Less than 10% of the inlet oxygen vents from the last
stage of the system.

FIGURE 14.12

Closed-tank, high-purity oxygen system schematic.

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For open-reactor systems, oxygen is injected or entrained into a liquid stream
entering the reactor (U.S. EPA, 1979). Many open-reactor systems are online worldwide,
but most are small and used for municipal applications, although there are many large,
open-tank systems for industrial wastewater treatment. An open-tank pure-oxygen system can be used in combination with surface aeration to eliminate pH depletion due to
carbonic acid formation. Typically, the open tank that receives the pure oxygen is the
first aerobic cell that is 25 to 40% of the total aeration volume. In systems where all cells
include surface or diffused aeration to accommodate average and lower plant loading,
pure oxygen can be injected to satisfy peak-loading aeration demands. Covered-tank
pure-oxygen systems reduce pH values because of high partial pressure of carbon dioxide, which is not stripped out by the nitrogen gas in air leaving the liquid surface as in
conventional aeration basins.
When the pH is depressed below 6.5 to 7.0, nitrification will attenuate, and the
system can require a longer SRT, greater aeration tank volume, and, perhaps, additional final clarifier capacity. These effects have led to consideration of separating the
carbonaceous BOD removal and nitrification stages when using oxygen. Some design
engineers suggest that the first stage of a two-stage system receive oxygen and the second stage receive air. Another option is to open up the last cell of the train to air rather
than pure oxygen.
Covered tanks using oxygen have provisions for warning of potential explosions
that could result from the presence of combustible, volatile hydrocarbons in influent
wastewater. A detector system is used to purge the tanks automatically with air if the
volatile hydrocarbon level becomes excessive. Covered tanks capture volatile organic
chemical (VOC) emissions; therefore, offgas volume from pure-oxygen systems is
approximately 1% of that leaving a typical air system.
An atmosphere of high-purity oxygen and carbon dioxide in the reactor basin
requires careful selection of construction materials. Compared with air, this atmosphere
is more corrosive and reactive with organic compounds such as oils and greases. Some
plants have experienced corrosion of materials used in downstream conveyance channels and secondary clarifiers. Suppliers of high-purity oxygen systems have evaluated
materials suitable for safe and reliable construction.
Mechanical surface turbines keep the reactor mixed. For deep tanks, submerged
turbines or surface turbines with extended shafts are used to provide additional mixing
blades closer to the bottom.

2.5.2 Sequencing Batch Reactors

The SBR process involves a fill-and-draw, complete-mix reactor in which both aeration
and clarification occur in a single reactor. Settling is initiated when aeration is turned

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off. When settling time is up, a decanter device is used to withdraw supernatant. The
sequential phases comprise a cycle with defined time intervals to achieve certain objectives. The bulk of MLSS remains in the reactor during the cycle with periodic wasting.
Specific treatment phases are illustrated as a percentage of reactor volume in Figure
14.13 as an example. The phases of each cycle include

Fill (raw or settled wastewater fed to the reactor);

React (aeration/mixing of the reactor contents);
Settle (quiescent settling and separation of MLSS from the treated wastewater);
Draw/decant (withdrawal of treated wastewater from the reactor); and
Idle (delay period before beginning the next cycle and might include removal of
waste sludge from the reactor bottom).

FIGURE 14.13

Typical sequencing batch reactor operation for one cycle.

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The idle phase may be omitted and sludge wasted at the end of the reactor draw phase.
Cycles and phases may vary with each reactor. Because of the batch nature of the
process, flow equalization or multiple reactors are required accommodate the continuous and varying inflow of wastewater to the facility.
Advantages of SBR include elimination of a secondary clarifier and RAS pumping
systems, high tolerance for short-duration peak flows and shock loadings, operational
flexibility, and clarification that occurs under nearly ideal quiescent conditions. Disadvantages include the potential for sludge bulking at low FM ratios, the inability to
effectively chlorinate RAS for filament control, and the need for multiple reactors for
reliability, adequate equalization, or to accommodate long-duration peak flows. Equalization of effluent decant also might be required for subsequent downstream treatment,
conveyance, or for discharge to small, hydraulically limited receiving waters. The intermittent cycle extended aeration system (ICEAS) was developed in Australia as a modification to the typical SBR (Goronsky, 1979). Influent feeds continuously to the reactor
during all cycles as in a continuous-flow system; but withdrawal is intermittent, similar to the SBR system. Figure 14.14 presents a schematic of the ICEAS system operation.

FIGURE 14.14

Intermittent cycle extended aeration system operation.

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

Another SBR concept is the patented process is the cyclic activated sludge system
(CASS). It features plug-flow initial reaction conditions and a complete-mix reactor
basin. Each reactor basin is divided by baffle walls into three sections (zone 1: selector;
zone 2: secondary aeration; zone 3: main aeration). For municipal applications, these
sections are in the approximate proportions of 5%, 10%, and 85%. The MLSS are continuously recycled from zone 3 to the zone 1 selector to remove the readily degradable soluble substrate and favor the growth of the floc-forming microorganisms. The sludge
return rate causes an approximate daily cycling of biomass in the main aeration zone
through the selector zone. Proponents contend that the selector is self-regulating for
any load condition and operates under anoxic conditions during aerobic periods and
anaerobic reaction conditions during nonaerated periods. The system can be operated
such that enhanced biological phosphorus removal also is achieved. The complete-mix
nature of the main reactor provides flow and load balancing and a tolerance to shock or
toxic loading.
More than 200 SBR-type plants are operating in the United States. Approximately 80%
of the plants have flows of 4 000 m3/d (1 mgd) or lower; 70% have flows of 1 900 m3/d
(0.5 mgd) or lower. Few, if any, are as large as 40 000 m3/d (10 mgd). Larger plants that
have been constructed include the Kung Ming, China (190 000 m3/d or 50 mgd); Cardiff,
Wales (300 000 m3/d or 80 mgd); and Quakers Hill, Australia (57 000 m3/d or 15 mgd);
and the Ringsend plant in Dublin, Ireland (490 000 m3/d or 130 mgd).
Sequencing batch reactors can be modified to provide carbonaceous oxidation,
nitrification, and biological nutrient removal. Nitrification takes place at the highest
rates during the react phase and portions of the fill period when aeration is practiced.
Because SBRs typically are designed and operated at long SRTs and low FM, partial or
complete nitrification is observed in nearly all plants treating municipal wastewater.
Denitrification can be achieved when aeration is reduced or stopped so that anoxic conditions form but reaction rates will be depressed if the reactor is not thoroughly mixed
during; mechanical mixing might be warranted. Conditions to enhance biological phosphorus removal can be created by incorporating a phase without aeration with readily
available carbon substrate and low nitrate concentrations, such as at the beginning of a
cycle. The flexibility of SBR allows for upgrades from regular carbon oxidation to biological nutrient removal without costly construction.

2.5.3 Activated Carbon Addition

In the early 1970s, engineers at DuPont (Wilmington, Delaware) developed and ultimately patented the PACT process, in which powdered activated carbon (PAC) is
added to the aeration basin of an activated sludge treatment plant. The addition of PAC
forms a matrix, which has demonstrated some beneficial properties, including:

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Improved solids-settling characteristics.

Increased dewaterability of waste sludge.
Ability of PAC to adsorb toxic compounds to lessen shock loading effects.
Reduction in odor, foaming, and bulking problems.
Improved COD and organic compound removals for less effluent color and
higher overall quality.

A key disadvantage of this process is the need to regenerate PAC for reuse or to purchase virgin PAC if the plant lacks regeneration facilities. As another disadvantage, the
PACT process with PAC regeneration typically requires tertiary filtration.
Most successful applications of PACT have occurred in industrial applications
where the PAC has been used on a single-pass basis without regeneration. Much of the
early work focused on its use for refinery waste treatment in response to stringent U.S.
EPA effluent guideline limits. The oil industry considered PAC augmentation in lieu of
the proposed best available technology of granular activated carbon adsorption following conventional secondary treatment. With the implementation of pretreatment regulations in the United States, many plants currently have less need for carbon addition
to reduce toxicity from industrial discharges and the PACT process is seldom used in
new municipal plants.

2.5.4 Integrated Systems

Integrated fixed film activated sludge (IFAS) systems incorporate inert support media
into the activated sludge reactors. This allows fixed film biomass to grow on the media
and augment the microbial population of the mixed liquor. Integrated systems are presented in Chapter 16.

2.6 Solids Separation

All suspended-growth systems count on successful separation of the MLSS from the
process effluent. Since the development of the activated sludge process nearly a century
ago, clarification has been used for this purpose. Membrane filtration for MLSS retention has been developed and widely applied in recent years. In special cases, flotation
and centrifugation have been used.

2.6.1 Clarifiers
There are many aspects of clarifier design that pertain to making the process effective
for separating suspended solids in the activated sludge process. The technology has
evolved to the point that nearly all such clarifiers are either circular or rectangular, and

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equipped with energy dissipation inlets, surface skimming, and scraper or hydraulic
suction sludge removal mechanisms.

2.6.2 Membranes
Adding membrane separation technology to the activated sludge process and the
resulting membrane bioreactor (MBR) configuration now can compete with mainstream processes. This is particularly true when filtration or further membrane
treatment would be required for a high-quality effluent, or where a compact footprint is needed.
Advantages of MBR process configuration include a nearly solids-free effluent,
modular configuration with small footprint, reduced downstream disinfection requirements, ability to retrofit existing reactors, and elimination of adverse sludge settling
properties. Disadvantages include capital costs, increased power requirements for aeration, ongoing membrane replacement requirements, and constrained ability to accommodate peak flows.

2.6.3 Flotation
Dissolved-air flotation (DAF) has not seen widespread use as a means of MLSS separation in the activated sludge process, but has been used with deep-shaft reactor designs.
Units are available in either circular or rectangular configurations. Most units used in
municipal applications involve pressurizing the main stream influent or a recycle
stream in a chamber and subsequently releasing the stream into a separation chamber
at atmospheric pressure. The pressure drop causes the release of supersaturated air as
bubbles that attach to particles and cause them to float to the surface where they are
removed by mechanical skimming equipment. Process variables include size and shape
of the separation basin, air-to-solids ratio, nature and concentration of solids in suspension, and skimming mechanisms. Chemical coagulants can be added to increase the
effectiveness of the process.

3.0 PROCESS DESIGN FOR CARBON OXIDATION

AND NITRIFICATION
Eckenfelder (1966), Lawrence and McCarty (1972), McKinney (1962), and McKinney
and Ooten (1969) led the way in developing a quantitative understanding of the activated sludge process. The work of Lawrence and McCarty was particularly significant
in providing a more unified approach emphasizing the importance of SRT. This
approach is the basis for carbon oxidation and nitrification process design and led to
more sophisticated software models (Water Environment Federation, 2009).

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FIGURE 14.15 Nomenclature for activated sludge flowsheet (volatile and nonvolatile
represent organic and inorganic solids, respectively).

3.1 Carbon Oxidation

Figure 14.15 illustrates a typical suspended-growth system flow diagram. A reactor
with volume (V), receives influent flow (Q), plus a recycle flow (Qr). Influent flow contains biodegradable substrate at concentration, So, and solids at concentration XoTSS.
Solids are comprised of microorganisms (Xo) and other particulates that include nonvolatile (also called inorganic) solids (Zio), nonbiodegradable volatile (also called
organic) solids (Zno), and biodegradable volatile solids (Zbo). Recycle flow contains soluble biodegradable substrate, microorganisms, and inert solids.
Presentation of the fundamental relationships and development of design equations
for carbon oxidation can be found in the references (Grady et al., 1999; Lawrence and
McCarty, 1970; and Metcalf and Eddy, 2003; Ritmann and McCarty, 2001). A set of design
equations for sizing systems based on completely mixed reactors is presented below.
HRT

V
Q

(14.1)

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1
 max Se


b
SRT K s  Se
X

SRT
Ynet (So  Se )
HRT

(14.3)

Y
1  b SRT

(14.4)

Ynet

Ynet (So  Se )

Ynet (So  Se )
MwTSS
Q
 fd b SRT
 Zio  Zno
fv
fv

X MLSS

Ynet (So  Se )
SRT Ynet (So  Se )
 fd b SRT

 Zio  Zno
HRT
fv
fv

SRT
VX TSS/ MwTSS
VX TSS/X wTSSQw

r

(14.2)

Qr
X
X TSS




Q X r  X X rTSS  X TSS

Rc
Q(So  Se )  B[Q Ynet (So  Se )(1  fd b SRT)]

Where,
V
aeration tank volume, length3;
Q
wastewater inflow, length3/time;
Qr
sludge recycle flow, length3/time;
X
reactor biological solids, mass/length3;
Xr
sludge recycle flow biological solids, mass/length3
Y
true cell yield, mass/mass;
So
influent biodegradable substrate, mass/length3;
Se
effluent soluble biodegradable substrate, mass/length3;
Qw
sludge waste flow, length3/time;
Ks
half-velocity coefficient, mass/length3;
max
maximum specific growth rate, 1/time;
b
endogenous decay coefficient, 1/time;
fd
cell debris coefficient, mass/mass;
fv
biomass volatile solids content, typically 0.85, mass/mass;
Ynet
net cell yield accounting for decay, mass/mass;
XTSS
mixed liquor total suspended solids, mass/length3;

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(14.5)

(14.6)
(14.7)
(14.8)
(14.9)

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

XrTSS
sludge recycle flow total suspended solids, mass/length3;
XwTSS
waste sludge flow total suspended solids, mass/length3;
Zio
influent nonvolatile suspended solids, mass/length3;
Zno
influent volatile nonbiodegradable solids, mass/length3;
r
return sludge recycle ratio, dimensionless
Rc
mass of oxygen required per unit time to satisfy carbonaceous oxidation,
mass/time;
MwTSS
mass of total solids generated or removed as effluent suspended solids
and waste activated sludge per day, mass/time; and
B
oxygen equivalent of cell mass, often calculated as 1.42 mass O2/mass
volatile suspended solids (VSS), mass/mass.
In the above definitions, the units for each variable are expressed in terms of the fundamental dimensions of mass, length, and time. Table 14.5 presents ranges and typical
values for the coefficients . The units for substrate can be either COD or BOD as long as
the coefficients selected are the appropriate units. Carbonaceous oxygen demand determined by equation 14.9 requires the use of biodegradable COD or ultimate BOD for the
influent substrate concentration So. The reader is cautioned that the units of mass for
reported coefficients can be in terms of total or volatile solids and be based upon active
biomass, total biomass that includes cell debris, or total mass.
In design, it is important to account for all components of incoming wastewater
that will influence solids production and oxygen demand. Influent microorganisms are
assumed to be negligible relative to those in the reactor but can influence oxygen
demand patterns in a systems aeration tank (Grady et al., 1999). Nonvolatile suspended
TABLE 14.5 Activated sludge kinetic coefficients for heterotrophic bacteria at 20C*
(from Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse, 4th Ed.,
R. Tchobanoglous [Ed.], Copyright 2003, with permission from the McGraw-Hill
Companies).
Coefficient
m
Ks

bn
fd

values
m
kd
Ks

Unit

Range

Typical values

g VSS/g VSSd
g bCOD/m3
g VSS/g bCOD
g VSS/g VSSd
Unitless

3.013.2
5.040.0
0.300.50
0.060.20
0.080.20

6.0
20.0
0.40
0.12
0.15

Unitless
Unitless
Unitless

1.0310.08
1.031.08
1.00

1.07
1.04
1.00

* Adapted from Henze et al., 1987a; Barker and Dold ,1997; and Grady et al., 1999.

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

solids can be estimated as the difference between influent TSS and VSS. Nonbiodegradable volatile (organic) suspended solids are approximately 40% of influent organic or
volatile suspended solids (Dague, 1983). Nonbiodegradable volatile solids cannot be
directly measured but must be estimated.
Biodegradable VSS are presumed to be rapidly adsorbed into the biomass and subsequently hydrolyzed (solubilized) and are reflected in the BOD or COD of the influent
and ignored as a specific component of suspended solids. Slowly hydrolysable
biodegradable volatile solids, however, can significantly affect system kinetics and
mass balances.
The above equations allow for estimation of process volume, waste sludge production, RAS ratio, and oxygen required for an activated sludge system for carbonaceous
BOD (cBOD) removal. Design of a system requires determination several items:

Volume of the aeration basins, V;

Quantity of sludge to be wasted, MwTSS;
Total oxygen demand, Rc;
Sludge recycle requirements; and
Size of clarifiers.

By convention, the stated HRT of suspended-growth reactors typically excludes the

return activated sludge flow and is based only on the flow influent to the process. Alternative definitions of HRT or other parameters can be used but their basis needs to be indicated. The actual flow through the reactor, including recycle flow, often is reported as a
design or operations parameter. In that case the basis for the flow should be indicated.
The SRT of Equation 14.2 represents the theoretical SRT required to achieve a
required effluent soluble substrate concentration. Typical designs are based on higher
SRT values to provide for biological solids that have desired settling properties. For carbonaceous substrate removal by heterotrophic organisms, the theoretical SRT is used
rarely. Rather, an SRT is selected based on experience. A safety factor can also be
applied to establish a value for design (Rittmann and McCarty, 2001).
Equation 5.7 defines SRT as the total mass of solids in a system divided by the rate
at which solids are wasted. It is based on reactor volume only. Including secondary clarifier solids in the total would be a more fundamentally correct approach but would
require an estimate of solids in the clarifier, which is an operational variable and
beyond the designers control. For systems with low SRT and short HRT, such as pureoxygen activated sludge systems, the difference between the two methods of SRT calculation can be significant. Clear representation of the basis of the calculation is recommended in any case.

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The true and net yield coefficients in the above equations characterize the production of biomass. An additional term, observed yield, Yobs, is the experience at operating
activated sludge plants and is equal to the waste solids, MWTSS, divided by the mass of
substrate removed over the same period of time.
Oxygen requirements determined from Equation 14.9 considers only carbonaceous
oxygen demand. In that equation, the second term is the oxygen equivalent of the biomass plus cell debris. An activated sludge system intended to remove cBOD that has a
design or operating SRT equal to or greater than the theoretical minimum SRT for nitrification will nitrify to some degree, and therefore will experience additional oxygen
demand, and Yobs will include nitrifier biomass. In that case, the oxygen equivalent of
the nitrifier biomass and cell debris produced should be subtracted from the additional
oxygen demand resulting from nitrification. Nitrification oxygen demand and biomass
production are discussed in the next section.
It is important that inplant recycle streams from solids processing be accounted for
in the concentration and variability of influent. Although return flows from aerobic and
anaerobic digestion or waste activated sludge dewatering typically would be expected
to be low in soluble BOD, particulate BOD and nonbiodegradable solids could be significant. Consideration also should be given to different potential modes of process failure, including an underloaded plant failing to perform when subjected to design conditions without adequate time for the system to acclimate.
The equations above are for a single, completely mixed reactor. Plug-flow reactors
are more efficient for first-order reactions that occur in the activated sludge process
but are mathematically too complex to solve directly with a simplified model. Process
modeling, as presented by WEF (2009), is required to assess plug-flow and other reactor configurations. The equations for cBOD removal in a complete-mix reactor might
be a reasonable approximation of a plug-flow system for typical wastewaters because
the slower rate of particulate substrate removal (Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 2003) and
return activated sludge flows result in a more uniform substrate concentration within
the reactor.

3.2 Nitrification
Nitrogen contained in municipal raw wastewater occurs predominantly in organic and
ammonia nitrogen forms. Typical concentrations of total nitrogen in domestic wastewaters range from 20 to 85 mg/L, with a medium strength of 40 mg/L (Metcalf and
Eddy, 2003). Approximately 40% of the total occurs as organic and 60% as ammonia.
Typically, less than 1% is present as nitrate or nitrite unless influenced by industrial waste
contributions. Influent nitrogen concentrations, as with other constituents, have trended
upward in areas with increasing water conservation efforts or reduced infiltration and

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inflow. Additional information on influent quality characteristics is presented in Chapter 3. Please note that nitrogen concentrations in this chapter will be expressed in mg as
N/L unless noted otherwise.
The growth of new cells will remove some of the influent nitrogen. This nitrogen
removal will be approximately 12% of the net biomass generated. An additional fraction of the influent total nitrogen is nonbiodegradable or removed as particulates. As a
result, only approximately 80% of the influent nitrogen may be available for oxidation.
For given conditions of SRT and carbonaceous BOD removal, nitrogen removal by
assimilation can be estimated as a percentage of the net biomass plus cell debris produced. Nitrogen assimilation depends on the ratio of BOD to nitrogen in the influent,
thus can be significant in systems treating wastewater with high concentrations of
organic carbon.
Ammonia nitrogen is oxidized to nitrate by the staged activities of autotrophic
species represented by nitrosomonas and nitrobacter. Each gram of ammonia oxidized
to nitrate (both expressed as N) will result in
4.57 g of oxygen consumed,
7.14 g of alkalinity (as calcium carbonate) destroyed, and
0.15 g of new cells (nitrifiers) produced.
The degree of biological nitrification will depend on the mass of nitrifying organisms
allowed to remain in the system. Their presence depends on relative growth rates of
the autotrophic populations involved, system SRT, and other conditions such as temperature, ammonia, organic substrate, and dissolved oxygen concentrations. For a
given maximum MLSS concentration, the fraction of autotrophic biomass will be limited based on the heterotrophic biomass that is present. Denitrification, whether
intended as part of the process or incidentalsuch as that which occurs in clarifiers or
low dissolved oxygen zones of aerobic reactorswill result in lower consumption of
oxygen and alkalinity.
Biological oxidation of ammonia to nitrate can be achieved in combined cBOD
removal and nitrification (single-stage) systems or in separate nitrification (two-stage)
systems. The degree of nitrification in a combined, single-stage process depends on system SRT, provided that a population of nitrifying autotrophs can be maintained. The
degree of nitrification, therefore, is governed to a large extent by design parameters
(HRT and SRT for a nitrification system). Two-stage systems allow some separation of
carbonaceous and nitrogenous oxidation processes. In the first stage (aeration basin
with clarification and sludge recycle), most of the cBOD removal occurs and nitrification is limited. The second stage (separate aeration basin and clarifier with sludge recycle)

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maintains more favorable conditions for nitrification. Two-stage systems have been
found to be more costly.
Presentation of the fundamental relationships and development of design equations for nitrification can be found in the references (Grady et al., 1999; Metcalf and
Eddy, 2003; and Ritmann and McCarty, 2001; U.S. EPA, 1993). A set of design equations
for nitrification in complete-mixed, suspended-growth systems is presented below.
SRTNmin

 N
 N ,max

1
 N  bN

Ne
KN  No

DO
K o  DO

SRTdesign
SRTN min (SF )

YNnet

YN
1  bN SRTdesign

(14.10)

(14.11)
(14.12)
(14.13)

YNnet ( N o  N e )
YNnet ( N o  N e )
MNTSS
Q
 fd bN SRTdesign

fv
fv

(14.14)

RN
4.57 ( N o  N e )  2.86 ( N o  N e  N 3 e )  B fv MNTSS

(14.15)

Where,
SRTNmin
minimum SRT for nitrification, time;
N
nitrifier specific growth rate, 1/time;
N,max
maximum nitrifier specific growth rate, 1/time;
No, Ne
influent and effluent oxidizable nitrogen concentrations, respectively,
mass/length3;
KN , Ko
half-velocity constants for ammonia and oxygen, respectively,
mass/length3;
YN
nitrification yield coefficient, mass/mass;
YNnet
net nitrification yield coefficient, mass/mass;
DO
reactor dissolved oxygen concentration, mass/length3;
SRTdesign
design SRT, time;
SF
safety or design factor, dimensionless;
bN
endogenous decay coefficient for autotrophs based on biomass in
aerated zone, 1/time;
fd
cell debris coefficient, mass/mass;
fv
biomass volatile solids content, typically 0.85, mass/mass;

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MNTSS
mass of total autotrophic solids generated or removed as effluent
suspended solids or wasted, per day, mass/time;
RN
mass of oxygen required per unit time to satisfy nitrification oxygen
demand, mass/time; and
NO3e
effluent nitrate nitrogen, mass/length3;
The basic approach to design of a suspended-growth nitrification process is the same as
for carbon oxidation and begins with determining an appropriate design SRT. Table 14.6
presents ranges and typical values for the kinetic coefficients. The relatively slow growth
rate of nitrosomonas bacteria causes nitrifying systems to be slow to recover following
process upsets because of low dissolved oxygen, depressed pH, and toxic inhibition or
to large changes in influent oxidizable nitrogen concentrations. A factor of safety is
applied to the minimum necessary SRT for increased performance reliability based on
consideration of variations in nitrogen loading, process performance requirements, and
environmental factors. Equating the peak safety factor to the ratio of peak-to-average
influent total nitrogen concentrations, or to a combination of loading variations and an
additional safety factor have been illustrated (U.S. EPA 1993; Metcalf and Eddy, 2003).
Equation 14.14 estimates the mass of total autotrophic solids generated or wasted.
For combined carbon oxidation and nitrification, this quantity is added to the result of
Equation 14.5 for total mass generated.
It is important that inplant recycle streams from solids processing be accounted for
in the concentration and variability of influent nitrogen. Consideration also should be
given to potential modes of process failure that can include an underloaded plant failing
to perform when subjected to design conditions without adequate time for the system
to acclimate to higher nitrogen loads (WERF, 2006b).
TABLE 14.6 Activated sludge nitrification kinetic coefficients 20C* (from Metcalf &
Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse, 4th Ed., R. Tchobanoglous
[Ed.], Copyright 2003, with permission from the McGraw-Hill Companies).
Coefficient
mn
KN

bn
KO

values
n
KN
Kdn

Unit

Range

Typical values

g VSS/g VSSd
g NH4/m3
g VSS/g NH4
g VSS/g VSSd
g/m3

0.200.90
0.51.0
0.100.15
0.050.15
0.400.60

0.75
0.74
0.12
0.08
0.50

Unitless
Unitless
Unitless

1.061.123
1.031.123
1.031.08

1.07
1.053
1.04

* Adapted from Henze et al., 1987a; Barker and Dold, 1997; and Grady et al., 1999.

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For Equation 14.11, the dissolved oxygen concentration is considered to be a system average. It is recognized that some nitrification can occur in portions of an aeration
basin where dissolved oxygen may be low (Albertson and Coughenour, 1995; Applegate et al., 1980; and Smith, 1996). Conversely, the mechanism of dissolved oxygen penetration into biological floc will limit the dissolved oxygen available to entrained
autotrophic organisms, which could result in the average reactor dissolved oxygen
overpredicting nitrification performance particularly when a relatively high amount of
organic carbon leads to large biological flocs (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003).

3.3 Design Considerations

Temperature, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, toxic and inhibitory wastes, pH, and the
inherent variability of wastewater affect performance of activated sludge systems.

3.3.1 Temperature
Temperature will affect reaction rate, stoichiometric constants, and oxygen-transfer
rates. Most temperature corrections used in biological treatment designs follow the
modified vant Hoff-Arrhenius equation:
KT2
KT1 (T2T1)

(14.16)

Where,
KT1
a specific kinetic, stoichiometric, or mass-transfer coefficient at
temperature T1;
KT2
a specific kinetic, stoichiometric, or mass-transfer coefficient at
temperature T2; and

temperature correction factor, dimensionless.
Tables 14.5 and 14.6 include  values for heterotrophic and autotrophic bacterial
kinetics. The range of  values for k in aerated lagoons range from 1.06 to 1.12. Note that
temperature correction factors are approximate and should be reviewed for appropriateness. Also, nitrification kinetic coefficients are presented routinely as either 15 or
20C; the basis should be confirmed.

3.3.2 Dissolved Oxygen

In systems designed for cBOD removal, a minimum average tank dissolved oxygen concentration of 0.5 mg/L is acceptable under peak loading conditions and 2.0 mg/L under
average conditions. Using low values increases oxygen transfer efficiency but can lead
to filament formation and poor settleability. In nitrifying systems, a minimum average
tank dissolved oxygen concentration of 2.0 mg/L under all conditions is reasonable.

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3.3.3 Nutrients
An adequate nutrient balance is necessary to ensure an active biomass that settles well.
Nutrients refer to nitrogen, phosphorus, and trace metals that are necessary for biological growth (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). Systems with higher SRT are expected to require
fewer nutrients in the influent because nutrients released during endogenous respiration become available for growth of active biomass. Because nutrient requirements
depend on SRT, they can be based on excess biomass and cell debris produced. The
minimum nitrogen requirement should be 12% and the phosphorus requirement
should be 2% of the excess biomass and cell debris generated. Normal domestic wastewater typically contains ample nutrients. Wastes with substantial industrial contributions might require nutrient addition.

3.3.4 Toxic and Inhibitory Wastes

The presence of certain inorganic and organic constituents can inhibit or destroy suspended-growth system microorganisms. A listing of many of these is presented elsewhere (Grady et al., 1999). Nitrification processes are particularly sensitive to toxic inhibition (U.S. EPA, 1993; Water Research Commission, 1984).

3.3.5 pH
The pH of mixed liquor should range from 6.5 to 7.5 for optimum cell growth in cBOD
removal systems. Nitrifying systems are more sensitive to system pH because the rate
of growth of these organisms is a function of pH over the range of 6.5 to 7.5 (U.S. EPA,
1993). Pure oxygen systems often depress pH more than air systems because the former lacks nitrogen gas flow to help strip dissolved carbon dioxide (formed in respiration) from the mixed liquor. Unless stripped out by downstream channel aeration or
similar process, at least some carbon dioxide is recirculated through clarifiers and back
to reactors.
To avoid pH reduction, a residual alkalinity of at least 60 mg/L (as calcium carbonate) for either pure oxygen or classical aeration systems should be provided. Operating
at 50 mg/L level is minimal, and a value of 80 to 100 mg/L would better maintain a
stable pH under varying conditions.

3.4 Design Approach

3.4.1 Influent Characteristics
Municipal loads and wastewater characteristics typically vary with season, day of the
week, and hour of the day. Influent characterization is discussed in Chapter 3. Unless
these variations are addressed in the design of a plant, process performance can be

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affected significantly. The aeration basin/final clarifier combination is vulnerable to high
levels of such change. Excessive hydraulic peaks shift aeration basin solids inventory to
the clarifiers, which may not be able to contain them. Temperature changes may
adversely affect the settling of solids in the clarifier, resulting in a loss of solids to the
effluent and affecting the rates of reactions. Increases in organic load may lead to deterioration of mixed-liquor settling and turbid effluent high in suspended solids. Periodic
toxic compounds in the influent may reduce significantly biological activity in the aeration basin and result in poor process performance. In some areas, long-term trends of
increasing wastewater strength resulting from efforts to reduce infiltration and inflow
into the collection system or from water conservation significantly can reduce nominal
hydraulic capacity of a facility. Such trends of increasing influent concentrations might
become apparent only through examination of data spanning many years.
Activated sludge plants can include features to account for influent variations. Such
features include flow equalization, larger clarifiers, alternative aeration basin feed patterns, and greater return activated sludge capacities.
Process models can be used to evaluate flow and load patterns to quantify the
effects of peak flows, such as solids inventory shifting, and effluent quality variations.
Furthermore, higher levels of in-plant sensing and automation facilitate flow diversion strategies that allow process units to be reduced in size from those with less
sophistication.

3.4.2 Volume of Aerobic Reactor Basins

Sizing of aeration basins is based on two important factors. The first is sufficient time to
remove soluble and particulate substrate (and oxidize ammonia nitrogen, if required)
and to allow biomass activity to return to a declining growth or endogenous level. The
second is maintenance of flocculent, well-settling MLSS that can be removed effectively
by gravity settling.
For municipal systems, it is recommended that process design be based on Se
0.
Experience has shown its exact value to be somewhat unpredictable. It is inadvisable to
reduce aeration tank volume by assuming a higher Se value because discharge permits
typically are based on total BOD or COD, which includes the contribution of effluent
organic solids consisting of biomass and microbial products.
Equation 14.2 is based on the Monod kinetic relationship and is not well supported
by data derived from full-scale activated sludge systems. For this reason, the relationship
between Se and SRT given by Equation 14.2 typically is not used for design. When it is
used, the value of SRT is predicted to be unrealistically low and is scaled upward by a
safety factor (Dague, 1983; Grady et al., 1999; Lawrence and McCarty, 1970; Metcalf and
Eddy, 2003; U.S. EPA, 1993; Water Research Commission, 1984). Alternatively, information

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from the literature, similar plants, or pilot-plant studies may be useful for estimating
SRT and other kinetic parameters.
From a practical point of view, selection of SRT for cBOD removal systems is not
based on kinetic considerations but rather on experience. Typically design is based on
providing a high enough value of SRT for the system to yield a flocculent sludge that
settles well and produces a clear effluent. Figure14.16, which represents a nonfilamentous sludge grown on a soluble waste (glucose plus yeast extract), shows that a mini-

FIGURE 14.16 Effects of mean cell residence time (MCRT) on the amount of dispersed
growth in activated sludge effluent and the settling velocity (ft/hr  0.304 8
m/h) of
activated sludge mixed liquor.

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mum SRT value of approximately three days is required (Bisogni and Lawrence, 1971).
In practice, an SRT value of one to five days typically is used during warm weather and
up to 15 days during cold weather. Nitrification may well occur in these ranges and
should be taken into account during design. Values of SRT outside this range are
selected in situations where environmental or performance conditions warrant lower or
higher values.
In warm climates where nitrification is not desirable, SRT values of one to two days
are used. Also, long SRT values often are used in extended aeration systems where secondary goals require minimization and stabilization of the excess sludge solids generated. A later chapter discusses the challenges of meeting federal regulations (Section
503) for stabilization by providing long SRTs. Figure 14.17 presents suggested ranges of
SRT for BOD removal and nitrification at various temperatures (Bisogni and Lawrence,
1971). Once a design value of SRT has been selected, Equation 14.7 can be used to estimate the required aeration tank volume.
Selection of MLSS may be determined by trial and error in the design process. Optimizing the aeration tank and clarifiers design should be based on the SRT required for
wastewater treatment, oxygen transfer limitations, solids settling characteristics, and
the allowable solids loading rate to the secondary clarifiers. Conventional air activated
sludge system MLSS concentrations ranging from 1 500 to 3 000 mg/L often are used.
It is possible, however, for these systems to accommodate higher concentrations.
Extended aeration systems are frequently designed for up to 4 000 mg/L MLSS. Pureoxygen systems can be operated at MLSS concentrations of more than 10 000 mg/L, but
foaming problems may be observed at values greater than 2 000 mg/L for systems with
mechanical surface aerators.
Solids settling and thickening properties often dictate final selection of MLSS concentration for systems with secondary clarification. For air activated sludge systems, design
for concentrations more than approximately 5000 mg/L is seldom economical (Eckenfelder, 1967). Figures 14.18 and 14.19 show suggested values as functions of SVI and temperature. Approaches for evaluations based on settling and thickening characteristics of
the MLSS are discussed later in this chapter. In pure-oxygen systems, the upper boundary of the figures may be higher because better-settling sludges can be generated; however, most plants in the United States do not exceed 5 000 mg/L MLSS. Operating MLSS
levels for some of these plants are 1 500 mg/L or less in warm climates. The MBRs are
designed for much higher MLSS concentrations as discussed in a subsequent section.

3.4.3 Aerated Lagoons

Design of aerated lagoon-style reactors with subsequent clarification and sludge recycle
can be based on the design equations presented previously of the system is completely

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

FIGURE 14.17 Design solids retention time for (a) carbonaceous biochemical oxygen
demand removal and (b) single-stage nitrification (toxicity not present, mixed-liquor
suspended solids washout controlled at pH 7.5 to 9.0).

mixed. Although aerated lagoons are similar to an extended aeration system, deposition of solids and partially mixed character result in a complex reactor configuration. As
a result, equations presented previously cannot be applied directly. A common
approach to designing aerated lagoons without secondary clarification and sludge recycle is to assume that the observed BOD removal (either total or soluble BOD) can be

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FIGURE 14.18 Design mixed-liquor suspended solids (MLSS) versus sludge volume
index (SVI) and return sludge ratio (high-rate sludge removal mechanism) at a reactor
basin temperature of 20C.
described by first-order kinetics. For a single, completely mixed lagoon, the first-order
equation is (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003):
1
Se


So 1  k1 HRT

(14.17)

Where,
k1
observed BOD removal rate constant (1/t).
Temperature affects reported values of k1, which have ranged from 0.25 to 1.0 d1 for
overall BOD removal (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). Additional details on aerated lagoon
design are presented elsewhere (Reed et al., 1995).

3.4.4 Waste Sludge Generation

The amount of sludge generated can be estimated using Equation 14.6 and includes
nonvolatile, volatile biodegradable, and volatile nonbiodegradable suspended solids.

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FIGURE 14.19 Suggested maximum mixed-liquor suspended solids (MLSS) design

versus temperature and sludge volume index (SVI) at aerator temperature, not ambient temperature [for example, at 20C and SVI
150 mL/g, MLSS should not exceed
3 300 mg/L]).

Any precipitates that form from the addition of iron or aluminum salts to the activated
sludge process for phosphorus removal or other purpose also should be included in
this calculation. Figure 14.20 illustrates net secondary treatment system sludge production (to be removed as waste activated sludge and secondary effluent suspended solids)
for the stated waste characteristics, both with and without primary sedimentation.

3.4.5 Oxygen Demand

The oxygen demand of an activated sludge process can be estimated using Equations
14.9 and 14.14. Additional oxygen demand also can result from the presence of readily
oxidizable compounds in the influent such as sulfide that has an approximate demand
of 2 mg/L oxygen per mg/L sulfide (as S). Oxygen demand typically varies both spatially and temporally in a suspended-growth system. Temporal variations can be esti-

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FIGURE 14.20 Net sludge production versus solids retention time and temperature
(a) with primary treatment and (b) without primary treatment (lb/lb
kg/kg).

mated from statistical analyses of data collected for influent loadings (cBOD and
nitrogenous oxygen demand). Spatial variations depend on kinetic relationships
between growth rates of the biomass and substrate removal rates and dissolved oxygen
concentrations. They also depend on the flow regime and HRT of the process. Estimates
of variation can be obtained from process computer models described by WEF (2009) or
literature data. Table 14.7 presents data collected in the United Kingdom for long,

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

TABLE 14.7 Variation in proportion of oxygen demand the length of a plug flow
aeration tank (L/W  20) (Boon and Chambers, 1985).
Carbonaceous demand
Proportion of
aeration tank
tank volume, %
20
20
20
20
20

Proportion of
demand, %
60
15
10
10
5

Diurnal
range, %
4085
520
515
515
110

Carbonaceous
nitrogenous demand
Proportion of
demand, %

Diurnal
range,%

46
17
14
13
10

3362
1020
1017
1016
713

narrow (plug flow) aeration tanks (L/W is greater than 20) (Boon and Chambers, 1985).
Estimates of nitrogenous demand assumed that nitrification progressed uniformly
along the entire tank length. More details on estimation of oxygen demand can be found
in the references (U.S. EPA, 1989; Water Pollution Control Federation, 1988).
Total oxygen demand for design should be based on peak loadings anticipated. As
a minimum, requirements for a conventional system should be based on the 24-hour
demand of the average day of the peak month. Some designers prefer to use the peak
day or the peak four-hour demand of the average day of the peak month. Basing the
requirement on the peak day demand, plus 50% of the peak four-hour rate for the peak
day has been suggested (Young et al., 1978).

3.4.6 Return Activated Sludge Requirements

Requirements for RAS pumping capacity can be estimated from Equation 14.8 for an
assumed clarifier underflow concentration in the absence of site-specific solids settling
characteristics. The ratio of return sludge flow to influent flow (r) affects the size of
final clarifiers without influencing the size of aeration tanks. As a guide, the design
value of r should range from 20 to 100% of the average facility design flow for conventional systems and up to 150% for some systems depending on peak flow factors and
expected clarifier performance.

3.4.7 Solids/Liquid Separation

Design of solids separation systems, whether membranes or secondary clarifiers, is an
important function that is integral with the design of other components of a suspendedgrowth system. Details of membrane system design and clarifier sizing appear later in
this chapter.

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4.0 PROCESS DESIGN FOR NUTRIENT CONTROL

4.1 Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal Processes
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for biological growth. All biological processes remove
phosphorus from wastewater to varying degrees. Each pound of VSS (dry weight) produced contains 1.5 to 2.5% phosphorus. Assuming a phosphorus content of 2% (0.02 mg
P/mg VSS), if 0.5 mg of VSS is produced per milligram of BOD removed, then about
1.0 mg/L of phosphorus is converted to cell mass per 100 mg/L of BOD removed, and a
conventional activated sludge process reduces the influent phosphorus by 1 to 2 mg/L.

4.1.1 Process Principless

Phosphorus removal in excess of metabolic requirements can be achieved by using
enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) or chemical addition. This section outlines the details of EBPR that relies on selection and proliferation of a specialized heterotrophic microbial population capable of storing soluble phosphorus in excess of their
minimum growth requirements. These organisms, collectively called phosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs), can sequester up to 0.38 mg P/mg VSS (Henze et al., 2008).
As a result, mixed liquor from an EBPR system can contain 0.06 to 0.15 mg P/mg VSS
(Henze et al., 2008). The higher the mixed-liquor PAO fraction, greater phosphorus content of the waste sludge and the larger amount of phosphorus removed; therefore, the
intent of EBPR system design and operation is to maximize PAO growth.
The EBPR process consists of anaerobic and aerobic zones. By definition, an anaerobic zone contains no usable dissolved oxygen or nitrate. In this zone, PAOs do not
grow, but consume and convert readily available organic material (i.e., volatile fatty
acids [VFAs]) to energy-rich carbon polymers called poly-hydroxyalkanoates (PHA).
The energy required for this reaction is generated through breakdown of the stored
polyphosphate (poly-P) molecules, which results in phosphorus release and an increase
in the bulk liquid soluble phosphorus concentration in the anaerobic stage. Magnesium
and potassium ions are concurrently released to the anaerobic medium with phosphate.
In addition, for PAOs to produce PHA, a substantial amount of reducing power is
required. The breakdown of glycogen, another form of internal carbon storage, generates the reducing power (Erdal et al., 2004; Filipe et al., 2001; Mino et al., 1987).
In the subsequent aerobic zone, the PAOs metabolize the internally stored PHA
and use the energy to take up all of the soluble orthophorus released in the anaerobic
zone and additional phosphorus present in the influent to renew the stored polyphosphate pool. Phosphorus uptake in excess of metabolic requirement is possible because
the energy released by PHA oxidation is significantly greater than the energy required
for PHA storage. The PAOs also use PHA as a carbon source for growth.

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Effluent from the EBPR reactors is low in phosphorus because the removed soluble phosphorus is stored in the biomass. Net phosphorus removal is realized when the
phosphorus-rich sludge is wasted from the system in accordance with the design SRT.
Return sludge containing stored polyphosphate is recirculated to the head of the anaerobic zone to seed the incoming flow. Some of the energy and carbon is used to restore
the glycogen pool for reactions to continue when mixed liquor is recirculated to the
head of the anaerobic zones. The events that take place in the anaerobic and aerobic
stages are summarized in Table 14.8 and illustrated by Figure 14.21.

4.1.2 Process Configurations

In this section, common EBPR process configurations are described. The advantages
and limitations of the processes are summarized in Table 14.9 and typical design criteria are provided in Table 14.10 (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). Combined nitrogen and phosphorus removal systems will be covered in a later section.
4.1.2.1 Anaerobic/Oxic
The anaerobic/aerobic process was first developed in the 1970s as the phoredox system and later patented in the early 1980s as the A/O process. It entails a simple process
configuration consisting of an anaerobic zone followed by an aerobic zone (Figure
14.21). Typically, the anaerobic zone HRT is between 30 and 45 minutes to select for
PAOs. Longer anaerobic HRTs often are required to promote fermentation in the zone
to improve performance. The A/O configuration can be used with any type aerobic
reactor and over the full range of aerobic SRTs.
The sequential anaerobic/oxic conditions can also be achieved in an SBR. Typically
used for nitrification, denitrification, and BOD removal, SBRs can be modified to
remove phosphorus (Figure 14.22). This is done by depleting the nitrate produced during the aerobic phase so that anaerobic conditions can be created. Two ways in which
TABLE 14.8

Key EBPR events.

Compound/organism

Anaerobic zone

Aerobic zone

Influent Readily biodegradable

substrate (VFAs)
PHA
Phopshate
Magnesium and potassium
Glycogen
Heterotrophs: PAOs
Heterotrophs: Non-PAOs

Taken up

Used

Stored
Released
Released
Used
Selected
Produce VFAs

Oxidized and used for growth

Taken up in excess
Taken up
Restored
Metabolize PHA
Metabolize remaining external
substrate

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FIGURE 14.21 Typical concentration patters observed in generic enhanced biological

phosphorus removal (EBPR) system (WEF et al., 2005).
this can be accomplished are: (1) adding an anoxic period following the aerobic period
and (2) cycling air on and off during the react phase to create several short aerobicanoxic sequences. Either method will eliminate the nitrates at the beginning of the fill
cycle. This will allow anaerobic conditions to develop during initial react phases when
TABLE 14.9 Advantages and limitations of the EBPR processes (from Metcalf & Eddy,
Inc., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse, 4th Ed., R. Tchobanoglous [Ed.],
Copyright 2003, with permission from the McGraw-Hill Companies).
Process

Advantages

Limitations

A/O (Phoredox)

Impacted by nitrate in RAS

Limited process control
flexibility

SBR

Automated operation solids

washout unlikely during
hydraulic surges
Quiescent conditions could
produce lower effluent TSS
Flexible operation

PhoStrip

Can be incorporated easily

into existing systems

Relatively simple operation

Low BODP ratio possible
Relatively short HRT
Produces good settling sludge
Good phosphorus removal

Larger tank volume to

incorporate anaerobic
condition
Design is more complex
More suitable for smaller flows

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TABLE 14.10
processes.*

Typical design parameters for commonly used biological phosphorus-removal

, h

Design
parameter/
process

SRT, d

MLSS,
mg/L

Anaerobic
zone

25
525
1025

3 0004 000
3 0004 000
3 0004 000

0.51.5
0.51.5
12

510

2 0004 000

12

Bardenpho
(5-stage)

1020

3 0004 000

0.51.5

PhoStrip
SBR

520
2040

1 0003 000
3 0004 000

812
1.53

A/O
A2/O
UCT

VIP

Anoxic
zone

Aerobic
zone

RAS, % of
influent

13
48
412

25100
25100
80100

12

46

80100

13
(1st stage)
24
(2nd stage)

412
(1st stage)
0.51
(2nd stage)
410
24

50100

100400
200400
(anoxic)
100300
(aerobic)
100200
(anoxic)
100300
(aerobic)
200400

50100

1020

0.51
24

13

Internal recycle
% of influent

* Adapted from WEF (1998).

readily biodegradable substrate (VFAs) is available (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). These
modifications typically reduce SBR cycles to three or four per day. If the SBR process is
optimized for nutrient removal, then it can achieve less than 0.7 mg/L total phosphorus on a consistent basis depending on influent characteristics.
While it may be possible to maintain informal but localized anaerobic/oxic zones
within an oxidation ditch or similar looped reactor by carefully controlling dissolved
oxygen levels, the most typically implemented EBPR configuration is shown in Figure
14.23 (WEF et al., 2005). It shows an external anaerobic basin for PAO selection followed

FIGURE 14.22 Sequencing batch reactor for removal of carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand and phosphorus.

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Anoxic

Aerobic

Anaerobic
Basin

Final
Clarifier

RAS

FIGURE 14.23 Oxidation ditch design for enhanced biological phosphorus removal
(RAS
return activated sludge).
by the oxidation ditch where phosphorus uptake occurs. This represents the A/O
process described above.
The time-cyclic, phased isolation ditch process configuration developed in Denmark uses a pair of oxidation ditches operated in alternating mode to achieve EBPR.
4.1.2.2 PhoStrip Process
The PhoStrip process, illustrated in Figure14.24, combines biological and chemical phosphorus removal. It diverts part of the phosphorus-rich return activated sludge (approximately 10 to 30% of influent flow) to an anaerobic stripper where phosphorus is released
to solution. The phosphorus-rich stripper supernatant is then precipitated with lime,
while the biomass, stripped of phosphorus, returns to the aeration tank. The PhoStrip
process combines biological and chemical phosphorus removal and is the first patented
commercial system. It is not, however, typically used in modern EBPR facilities.

FIGURE 14.24

Integrated biological processes for nutrient control.

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The PhoStrip process consistently has achieved levels of effluent total phosphorus
below 0.5 mg/L without filtration; however, filtration is a good practice when designing for such low concentrations.

4.1.3 Factors Affecting Performance

4.1.3.1 Influent Characteristics
The EBPR process is mediated by heterotrophs that require organic matter for metabolism. The VFAs are the specific organic carbon taken up by PAOs. According to Ekama
et al. (1984), more than 25 mg/L as VFA is required in the anaerobic zone to accomplish
significant EBPR. In practice, the VFA requirement ranges from 5 to 10 mg/L VFA per
mg/L phosphorus removed.
The influent VFAtotal phosphorus ratio is an indication of the potential for EBPR.
It is now thought that readily biodegradable COD (rbCOD) is a better measure because
this fraction represents the influent VFAs and the organic compound that could
potentially be fermented to VFAs in the anaerobic zone of the reactor.
Because BOD is a measured parameter, the BODtotal phosphorus ratio is often
used as a first approximation of the adequacy of carbon substrate for EBPR. Data from
several full- and pilot-scale studies, presented in Figure 14.25, show that a BODtotal

FIGURE 14.25 Effect of influent TBODTP ratio on effluent TP (TBOD
total biochemical oxygen demand and TP
total phosphorus) (WEF, 1998).

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phosphorus ratio of 201 or greater is needed to reliably achieve an effluent total phosphorus concentration of 1.0 mg/L or less without effluent filtration.
The COD is a more consistent measurement and a close approximation of ultimate
BOD for most municipal wastewater. Using the same data set as in Figure 14.25, Figure
14.26 indicates a total COD (TCOD)total phosphorus ratio of 45 or greater is required
to reliably produce 1.0 mg/L total phosphorus or less. The TCODtotal phosphorus
and total BOD (TBOD)total phosphorus results shown here are conservative relative
to what could be accomplished with good design and operation.
The ratios typically used to quantify minimum substrate to phosphorus ratios are
summarized in Table 14.11. It should be noted that these ratios refer to reactor influent
and should account for recycle loads and removals in primary clarifiers.
4.1.3.2 Integrity of the Anaerobic Zone
The most important function of the anaerobic zone of an EBPR process is PAO selection,
which is a rapid reaction if adequate, rapidly biodegradable substrate is available. In
some instances, the anaerobic zone is also required to generate VFAs through fermentation. This is a slower reaction.
Although the definition of anaerobic condition is zero dissolved oxygen, in practice
such conditions are established at levels of less than 0.2 mg/L. The oxidation reduction

FIGURE 14.26 Effect phosphorus as a function of the influent TCODTP (TCOD
total
chemical oxygen demand and TP
total phosphorus) (WEF, 1998).

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TABLE 14.11

Minimum substrate to phosphorus requirements for EBPR.

Substrate measure

SubstrateP ratioa

cBOD5

201

sBOD5b
COD

151
451

VFA
rbCODc

71 to 101
151

Remarks
Provides a rough/initial estimate.
Based on typically available plant data.
Better indicator than cBOD5
More accurate than cBOD.
Not measured by all plants.
More accurate than COD.
Involves specialized lab analysis.
Most accurate. Measures VFA formation
potential. Accounts for VFA formation
in the anaerobic zone. Specialized lab
analysis.

Minimum requirements.
Soluble BOD.
c
Readily biodegradable COD.
b

potential (ORP) also can be used to confirm an anaerobic environment. Typical ORP
values for anaerobic conditions are approximately 300 mV or less.
Sources of dissolved oxygen and nitrates that threaten the integrity of the anaerobic zone are listed in Table 14.12. The presence of these two oxygen sources causes a
reduction of the actual anaerobic volume. Consequently, this will decrease anaerobic
contact time between the PAOs and the substrate (VFAs), which could potentially compromise phosphorus removal. In addition, the presence of nitrate and dissolved oxygen
will provide competing organisms access to the substrate. For example, 1.0 mg of
nitrate-N will steal readily biodegradable organics needed for the removal of 0.7 mg of
phosphorus by supporting denitrification. Likewise, the presence of 1.0 mg of dissolved
oxygen will deprive the substrate needed for the removal of 0.3 mg phosphorus by facilitating normal heterotrophic activity (BOD oxidation). In addition, dissolved oxygen in
the anaerobic zone can trigger filamentous growth. Design engineers must take steps to
avoid the introduction of dissolved oxygen and nitrate to the anaerobic zone.
4.1.3.3 Aerobic Zone Impacts
Phosphorus removal occurs in the aerobic zone. Full-scale observations have shed light
on the critical role played by the aerobic zone in achieving reliable EBPR (Narayanan
et al., 2006). Following anaerobic PAO selection, as the MLVSS enters the aerobic zone,
the PAOs are enriched with stored PHA, and the surrounding mixed liquor has high
levels of soluble phosphorus. At this point, if dissolved oxygen is provided in adequate
amounts, then rapid phosphorus uptake kinetics would be assured. Similar findings
reported by Jeyanayagam (2007), shown in Figure 14.27, indicate approximately 75% of

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TABLE 14.12

Common sources of DO and nitrates.

Source

Introduces

Pre-aeration
Influent screw pumps
Free-fall over weirsa
Excessive turbulencea
Aggressive mixing in the anaerobic zone
RAS flow
Backflow from aerobic to anaerobic zone
Internal mixed liquor recycleb

Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen
Nitrates, dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen
Nitrates and dissolved oxygen

a
b

Upstream of the anaerobic zone.

In nitrogen removal systems.

soluble phosphorus removal occurs in the first 20% of aeration volume and EBPR is
almost in the first half of the aeration basin.
When poor initial phosphorus uptake occurs because of dissolved-oxygen limitation, it may not possible for phosphorus removal to catch up in the subsequent aerobic zones even if adequate dissolved oxygen is maintained. This occurs because two
driving forces, PHA level and bulk liquid soluble-phosphorus concentration, would be
significantly lower resulting in higher effluent soluble-phosphorus levels (Narayanan
et al., 2006). It also was concluded that staging the aerobic zone enhances EBPR due to
improved plug-flow conditions. This may be attributed to higher reaction rates caused
by the concentration gradient.

FIGURE 14.27

Phosphorus uptake profile in aerobic zone (Jeyanayagam, 2007).

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4.1.3.4 pH
The optimum pH range for EBPR appears to be 7.5 to 8.0 (Stensel, 1991). Studies by
Tracy and Flammino (1985) show no appreciable effect on EBPR between 6.5 and 7.0
(Figure 14.28). The PAO activity declined below pH of 6.5 with no or minimal activity
below a pH of 5.2. This result has been confirmed by Chapin (1993).
4.1.3.5 Solids and Hydraulic Retention Times
Solids retention time is the time organisms are in contact with substrate; HRT is the
time substrate is in contact with the organisms. Because solids are separated and
recycle, organisms are exposed to fresh substrate multiple times, effectively achieving
a relatively long contact time (days). The influent substrate flows through the reactors
just once; hence, contact with the organism is significantly less.
According to Henze et al. (2008), the effect of SRT on EBPR performance is complex. An increase in SRT is accompanied by (1) an increase in non-PAO (heterotrophic)
activity leading to increased VFA production and enhanced phosphorus removal; (2) a
reduction in the wasting rate of phosphorus-rich PAOs leading to reduced phosphorus
removal; and (3) an increase in the MLVSS phosphorus content due to an increase in

FIGURE 14.28
mino, 1985).

Effect of pH on the phosphate uptake rate constant (Tracy and Flam-

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PAO fraction. Wentzel et al. (1988) attributed this to the low endogenous decay rate of
PAOs (0.05 day-1 on a COD basis compared to 0.24 day-1 for aerobic heterotrophs). At
low SRTs (less than three days), an increase in SRT results in an increase in non-PAO
activity. As the SRT is increased, reduction in wasting of phosphorus-rich PAOs and an
increase in MVLSS phosphorus content exert greater influence. The combined effect of
these reactions is illustrated in Figure 14.29, which shows a modest dependence of
phosphorus removal over a range of SRTs (Henze et al., 2008). For a given SRT, the figure also shows increased phosphorus removal an increase in anaerobic volume ( fan)
due to enhanced VFA production.
The interaction of SRT, substrate-to-phosphorus ratio, and biomass phosphorus
content is illustrated in Figure 14.30 (Stensel, 1991). For a given BODTP ratio, as the
SRT is increased, the MLVSS is enriched with PAOs for reasons noted above. In addition, the figure reveals that the lower the MLVSS phosphorus content, the greater the
substrate (BOD) requirement per unit of phosphorus removed. This is because when
the MLVSS phosphorus content is low, a larger PAO population is needed to remove a
given amount of phosphorus, which will require more substrate. These observations
reveal that to achieve the same degree of phosphorus removal, a system with longer
SRTs will require more substrate than a system operated at a shorter SRT (Stensel, 1991;
Fukase et al., 1982).

fAM
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05

P removal (mgP/l)

0.04

1 Anaerobic
COD1 250 mgCOD/l
fss = 0.25
fsi,COD1 = 0.07
fxi,COD1 = 0.15

0.03

6
0.02
4
0.01

P removal/influent (mgP/mgCOD)

10

0.0

0
0

10

15
Sludge age (d)

20

25

30

FIGURE 14.29 Predicted phosphorus removal versus sludge age for various anaerobic
functions ( fAN) (Henze et al., 2008; reprinted with permission from IWA Publishing).

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mg BOD5 REQUIRED/mg PHOSPHORUS REMOVED

14-66

4.5% P
IN WASTE SOLIDS

6% P
IN WASTE SOLIDS

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

SOLIDS RETENTION TIME (DAYS)

FIGURE 14.30
phosphorus.

Calculated biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) to remove 1 mg of

At SRT values greater than four days and at temperatures greater than 15C, nitrification will tend to occur, and process configurations that include anoxic zones for denitrification of nitrate in the recycle flows must be used.
Anaerobic phosphorus release and aerobic uptake must be considered in selecting
the overall system and individual-zone HRT values. The full- and pilot-scale data plotted in the two graphs of Figure 14.31 show that EBPR performance is sensitive to
changes in anaerobic nominal HRT and the substrate: phosphorus ratio in the anaerobic zone. The change in EBPR performance with a change in anaerobic HRT was relatively small when the TCODTP ratio varied from 42 to 68 (phosphorus-limited). However, changes in anaerobic HRT between 0.5 and 2.7 hours had large effects on EBPR
performance when the TCODTP ratio was between 20 and 43 (substrate-limited).
As noted previously, VFA uptake is a relatively rapid reaction, requiring an anaerobic zone SRT of 0.3 to 0.5 days. Most of the time, this corresponds to a nominal anaer-

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FIGURE 14.31 Effect of anaerobic HRT on biological phosphorus removal (A,

TCODTP
4268; B, TCODTP
2043 [York River A/O, A2/O, and VIP)
(from Randall, C. W., et al. [1992] Design and Retrofit of Wastewater Treatment Plants
for Biological Nutrient Removal. Technomic Publishing Co., Inc., Lancaster, Pennsylvania, with permission).

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obic zone HRT of 0.75 hour or less. The fermentation of readily biodegradable organic
matter is a slower process, generally requiring an anaerobic zone SRT of 1.5 to 2 days.
This corresponds to an anaerobic zone HRT of one to two hours or more. Hence, if the
influent wastewater contains significant concentrations of VFAs, then a relatively short
anaerobic zone SRT and HRT can be used. If, on the other hand, fermentation is
required in the anaerobic zone to generate VFAs, then a longer anaerobic zone SRT and
HRT should be considered. In applying theses guidelines, it should be noted that,
depending on the mixed-liquor biomass concentration, the required HRT would vary
for different systems. For example, in the University of Cape Town (UCT) process in
which the anaerobic recycle (anoxic to anaerobic zone) is typically around 100% of the
influent flow, the actual anaerobic HRT is approximately twice as much as the HRT of
an anaerobic/oxic (A/O) system. This is because in the UCT process, biomass is transferred from the anoxic to the anaerobic zone via a mixed-liquor recycle rather than RAS,
which has a higher MLSS concentration. For the same degree of VFA uptake in the two
systems, the same solids inventory (mass of MLSS solids) should be present in the
anaerobic zone of both systems. Therefore, both systems should have approximately
the same anaerobic SRT. The UCT process, however, will require larger anaerobic volumes because of the dilution effect of the anaerobic recycle. Finally, in nitrifying systems, the RAS can be a significant source of nitrate. The anaerobic zone volume should
be increased to denitrify the RAS. The RAS denitrification will consume some of the
VFAs and decrease the amount available for EBPR.
4.1.3.6 Temperature
Investigators do not agree on effects of temperature on EBPR performance. Henze at al.
(2008) attributed inconsistency of the findings to the use of different substrates, process
configurations, and measurement methods.
McClintock et al. (1991) showed that, at a temperature of 10C and an SRT of five
days, the EBPR function would washout before other heterotrophic functions.
Mamais and Jenkins (1992) also showed that EBPR ceases when the SRT temperature
combination is below a critical value. Erdal et al. (2002, 2003) investigated this phenomenon and showed that in EBPR systems, the main effect of SRT is on PHA and glycogen
polymerization reactions. While PAOs washed out of the system, ordinary heterotrophs
(non-PAOs), which do not exhibit glycogen metabolism, continued to grow in the aerobic zone down to shorter SRTs.
Early researchers reported that from 5 to 24C, EBPR efficiency is unchanged at
lower temperatures compared to higher temperatures (Barnard et al., 1985; Daigger
et al., 1987; Ekama et al., 1984; Kang et al., 1985; Sell, 1981). Mamais and Jenkins (1992)
found the optimum temperature for aerobic phosphorus uptake was between 28 and

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33C. Jones and Stephenson (1996) suggested that the optimum temperature was 30C
for anaerobic release and aerobic uptake of phosphate. Brdjanovic et al. (1997), using
laboratory-scale sequencing batch reactors, found the optimum temperature for anaerobic phosphorus release and acetate uptake was 20C. For aerobic phosphorus uptake,
however, a continuous increase was obtained for temperature values up to 30C. The
stoichiometry of EBPR was found to be insensitive to temperature changes.
Panswad et al. (2003) reported lower EBPR performance at higher temperatures,
which may be attributed to decrease in phosphorus content and PHA storage caused by
longer anaerobic contact times. Similar findings were reported by Wang and Park,
(1998). Based on full-scale plant data and laboratory-scale investigation, Rabinowitz
et al. (2004) reported decreased rate of EBPR at temperatures above approximately
30C. This was attributed to reduced rates of phosphorus release and uptake. The
researchers also concluded that loss of EBPR can lead to sludge bulking because the
anaerobic zone does not function as a selector (no soluble COD uptake). At the microbial level, the reason for lower EBPR performance at warmer temperatures is likely
related to increased glycogen accumulating organisms (GAO) competition for substrates in the anaerobic zone. The colder temperatures provide selective advantage to
PAOs although higher temperatures cause a population shift from PAOs to GAOs.
Improved cold-weather EBPR performance has been reported by several investigators. Helmer and Kuntz (1997) and Erdal et al. (2003) reported that, despite slowing
reaction rates, EBPR performance can be significantly greater at 5C compared to 20C.
Citing work reported by other investigators, Stensel (1991) attributed better coldweather EBPR performance to a population shift to slower growing psychrophilic
organisms with higher yields. The findings of Erdal et al. (2002) presented in Figure
14.32 show the importance of cold weather acclimation and the resulting improved
EBPR performance.
4.1.3.7 Solids Capture
Effluent total phosphorus consists of two components: soluble phosphorus and particulate phosphorus. Efficient EBPR can reduce the effluent soluble phosphorus to approximately 0.1 mg/L. Particulate phosphorus represents solids-associated phosphorus.
Hence effluent total solids and the phosphorus content of the solids dictate its value. The
effect of effluent solids on effluent total phosphorus is illustrated Figure 14.33 (Water
Environment Federation, 2005b). For example, if the effluent TSS is 10 mg/L with a VSS
content of 75% and the phosphorus content of the mixed liquor is 0.06 mg/mg VSS (6%),
then the effluent particulate phosphorus concentration would be 0.45 mg/L. Hence, controlling the effluent solids through design and operation of final clarifiers and effluent filters is important in achieving low effluent total phosphorus.

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FIGURE 14.32 Effect of acclimation on cold-temperature performance of enriched

enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) populations (Erdal et al., 2002).

FIGURE 14.33 Contribution of the effluent total suspended solids (TSS) to the total
phosphorus in the effluent for different phosphorus contents in the mixed-liquor suspended solids (MLSS) (assuming that the VSS/TSS is 75%) (VSS
volatile suspended
solids) (WEF et al., 2005).

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4.1.3.8 Secondary Release and Recycle Load Management
Biological sludge generated by the EBPR process contains two types of phosphorus:
metabolically bound phosphorus and stored polyphosphate granules called volutin.
The former results from normal microbial synthesis, although the polyphosphate is an
unstable storage product that is depleted (phosphorus release) in the anaerobic zone
and restored (phosphorus uptake) in the aerobic zone as part of the EBPR mechanism.
This primary anaerobic release is associated with concomitant carbon (VFA) uptake
and storage (PHA) and is desired and necessary for PAO selection. In contrast, secondary phosphorus release occurs without carbon storage. Hence, this phosphorus
release is not linked to PAO selection and will not be taken up in the aerobic zone.
Therefore, if significant secondary release occurs, then elevated effluent phosphorus
will result. While the stored polyphosphate, being unstable, typically is associated with
secondary phosphorus release, conditions that cause cell lysis will result in the release
of metabolic phosphorus as well. Table 14.13 lists the location and potential causes of
secondary release in EBPR processes.
While the above table lists all potential locations of secondary release, the return
streams from sludge operations, such as dewatering, are of particular concern. Figure
14.34 illustrates recycle streams that are generated at typical wastewater treatment plant

TABLE 14.13

Location and potential causes of secondary phosphorus release.

Location

Cause of phosphorus release

Primary clarifier

Co-settling of primary and EBPR sludges

Poor solids capture during thickening and dewatering
operations may return phosphorus rich solids to
the primary clarifier where secondary release
could occur
VFA depletion due to oversized anaerobic zone
Nitrate depletion due to oversized anoxic zone
Long SRT leading to cell lysis
Septic conditions caused by deep sludge blanket
Septic conditions caused by deep sludge blanket
Septic conditions due to poorly or unaerated sludge storage
Due to cell lysis in long aerated storage
An anaerobic conditions and cell lysis
Mostly due to cell lysis
No significant release. However, phosphorus released in
upstream processing will be in filtrate/centrate
Poor solids capture may return phosphorus rich solids
to the primary clarifier where secondary release
could occur

Anaerobic zone
Anoxic zone
Aerobic zone
Final clarifier
Primary sludge gravity thickener
Sludge storage
Anaerobic digestion
Aerobic digestion
Dewatering

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FIGURE 14.34 Recycle streams generated at typical wastewater treatment plant solids
handling facilities (WEF et al., 2005).

(WWTP) solids handling facilities. The quantity and quality of these streams vary based
on the technology used in the solids processing operations. For example, anaerobic
digestion is likely to release more phosphorus than aerobic digestion; however, a significant amount of the released phosphorus could potentially be precipitated as struvite,
vivianite, and brushite resulting in less phosphorus in the anaerobic digester liquor.
Sludge thickening using belt-filter dewatering generally generates two times more
recycle flow (filtrate) compared to centrifuge dewatering because of the amount of
washwater used in the dewatering operation. This will affect the recycle hydraulic load
although returned phosphorus mass load will remain unchanged. Total recycle streams
can amount to 20 to 30% of the plant influent phosphorus loading.
Return streams often occur intermittently in many facilities causing significant
variation in nutrient loadings and short-term peak loads that could overwhelm the
EBPR process. For example, if dewatering operations occur over one shift, five days per
week, then recycle loading could potentially be four times the loading generated by a
24/7 operation. The complex microbial consortium in a single sludge system has limited ability to respond quickly to influent variations by self-adjusting. The period of
acclimation is directly influenced by SRT, MLSS, and the magnitude and duration of peak
loads. Within limits, higher SRT and MLSS enhance microbial diversity and system

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robustness although extremely high and persistent loadings can overwhelm EBPR
capability potentially resulting in regulatory noncompliance.
Use of anaerobic digesters is of particular concern at EBPR facilities. The recycle
stream from anaerobically digested sludge dewatering can contain up to 900 to 1 100 mg/L
of ammonia and 100 to 800 mg/L of phosphorus. Actual recycle loads will depend on
how much of the released nitrogen and phosphorus are chemically precipitated as struvite (MgNH4PO4), brushite (CaHPO42H2O), and vivianite [Fe2(PO4)38H2O]. This can
lead to an apparent reduction in the extent of phosphorus solubilization in the anaerobic digester. At Hampton Road Sanitation Districts York River Treatment Plant, approximately 30% of the phosphorus entering anaerobic digesters was recycled in the filtrate.
Phosphorus in the remaining biomass and that is chemically precipitated are disposed
of with the dewatered sludge. No detrimental effects of the struvite formation were
reported over the four-year demonstration period (Randall et al., 1992).
Recycled phosphorus will reduce process influent BODTP ratio, which could
potentially convert a typically phosphorus-limited (excess substrate) EBPR system to a
substrate-limited condition with a likelihood of elevated effluent phosphorus.
4.1.3.9 Carbon Sources
As noted, readily biodegradable carbon source such as VFAs are crucial for the EBPR
process. Wastewater-derived VFA sources
Collection system. If collection systems have long detention times and relatively
warm conditions, then fermentation occurs resulting in the conversion of readily
biodegradable organics to VFAs. This is one of the most common sources of VFAs.
Anaerobic zone of the EBPR tank. Often, the anaerobic zone is sized to facilitate
fermentation and enhance the VFA pool.
Off-line sludge fermentation. It is possible to generate VFAs by fermenting primary and/or waste activated sludge solids in an off-line tank.
Primary clarifiers. Dedicated primary clarifiers operating at long solids retention
times (active primaries) can generate VFAs. Primary sludge fermentation occurs
within the accumulated sludge blanket releasing VFAs into the supernatant.
Plant recycle. Supernatant from primary sludge gravity thickening is also a
potential source of VFAs.
If the wastewater-derived VFA content is insufficient, a supplemental carbon source
will need to be added to the anaerobic zone to sustain EBPR. Abu-garrah and Randall
(1991) researched the effect of several organic substrates on biological phosphorus
removal. Ratios of phosphorus uptake per COD used and COD used per milligram per

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liter of phosphorus removed are summarized in Table 14.14. This work suggests that
acetic acid is the most effective chemical substrate for biological phosphorus removal
enhancement.
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) typically is available as 100 (glacial), 56, or 20% solutions.
A summary of the chemical properties is presented in Table 14.15 (Water Environment
Federation, 2005b). Unless dilute solutions significantly less than 84% (nearing the
properties of water) are used, the design of acetic acid storage facility must include
freeze-protection measures. Glacial acetic acid store storage would most likely require
provisions for heating and, in warm climates, it may be necessary to consider an inert
gas blanket or floating cover because of the low flash point. Storage tanks, piping, and
appurtenances must be corrosion resistant and the facilities must meet all applicable
code requirements.
While research on pure substrate has shown that acetic acid is associated with the
highest phosphorus release, continued use of this carbon source can lead to the proliferation of GAOs that compete with PAOs and reduce EBPR efficiency. For this reason
a mix of acetic and propionic acid often is recommended. Additional discussion of the
affects, sources, and generation of carbon are presented later.
Because of the expense of adding pure chemicals such as acetic acid, some plants
have considered industrial wastes as supplemental carbon source. These include sugar
wastes, molasses, and waste acetic acid solution from pharmaceutical manufacture.
When using such sources, it is important to ensure they are free of contaminants and the
supply is reliable.
TABLE 14.14
removal.a,b

Effect of organic substrate on enhanced biological phosphorus

Substrate
Formic acid
Acetic acid
Propionic acid
Butyric acid
Isobutyric acid
Valeric acid
Isovaleric acid
Municipal wastewater

mg/L phosphorus uptakec/

mg/L COD used
0
0.37
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.15
0.24
0.05

mg COD usedd/mg P removed

Infinity
16.8
24.4
27.5
29.1
66.1
18.8
102e

An SRT of 13 days was used for all experiments.

Source: Abu-garrah and Randall (1991).
c
Total phosphorus uptake in aerobic zone.
d
COD used and phosphorus removed in total system.
e
Value obtained with highly aerobic wastewater.
b

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TABLE 14.15

Properties of acetic acid.

Chemical formula
COD equivalent, mg/L
Molecular weight
Description

CH3COOH
1.07  1.07  acetic acid, mg/L
60.05 g/mol
Colorless liquid, strong vinegar odor

Solution strength
Specific gravity
Density, kg/L (lb/gal)
Flash point, C (F)
Freezing point, C (F)

100% (Glacial)
1.051
1.05 (8.76)
42.8 (109)
16.6 (61.9)

56%
1.061
1.06 (8.85)
63.3 (146)
23 (9.4)

20%
1.026
1.03 (8.56)
80.6 (177)
6.5 (20.3)

4.1.3.10 Key Design Considerations

The complex nature of the EBPR process demands careful consideration of the effect of
design decisions. Designers should incorporate adequate flexibility to allow plant operators to respond to adverse operating conditions. The plant staff, in turn, is responsible
for operating the facility as intended to achieve effluent goals. Below is a summary of
key design considerations for reliable EBPR performance.
The EBPR process is sensitive to influent characteristics. A minimum of two years
of plant data should be used for the purpose of characterizing the influent. Recycle loads
from sludge operations can modify the process influent characteristics significantly.
Most EBPR systems also are required to achieve nitrification. Nitrification must be
optimized first because it is the controlling process. Next, the EBPR capability can be
maximized by removing process and operational bottlenecks and considering chemical
addition, if required. This approach will reduce chemical use although enhancing phosphorus removal reliability.
The anaerobic zone should be adequately sized to accommodate PAO selection,
VFA production, and RAS denitrification (in nitrifying EBPR systems). Excessive anaerobic volume can lead to (1) secondary phosphorus release due to depletion of VFAs and
(2) GAO proliferation caused by the VFAs remaining in the anaerobic zone after phosphorus uptake is complete (phosphorus-limited condition).
Structures should be designed to achieve even flow split. Uneven flow distribution
can cause operational challenges and lead to inefficiencies. For example, the improved
performance of underloaded clarifiers typically cannot compensate for reduced performance of overloaded units.
Operators need to ensure proper mixing of the process influent and return sludge,
which have different densities. Poor mixing will reduce contact duration between
organisms and substrate. This could potentially lead to reduced VFA production in the
anaerobic zone and lower EBPR efficiency.

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Strategically placed baffles can enhance EBPR performance.
While primary clarifiers remove solids and increase the active biomass fraction of the
MLSS, excessive BOD removal in these units can deprive EBPR of biodegradable substrate.
Anaerobic/aerobic swing cells can be considered if significant influent load fluctuations are anticipated.
Design conditions that entrain air upstream of the reactor (e.g., unflooded screw
pumps, free-fall weirs, turbulence, etc.) should be avoided.
Access to waste sludge from the end of the aeration zone needs to be provided.
The phosphorus content of the biomass would be highest at this point. In addition, this
will keep the sludge fresh and prevent/minimize secondary phosphorus release. This
wasting strategy will also allow tighter SRT control. However, it will result in greater
volume of waste sludge.
Strategies to enhance settleability and minimize foaming also can be incorporated.
The causes and control of filamentous growth is provided elsewhere in this chapter.
There are several conditions that favor phosphorus release and should be avoided:

Long anaerobic, or aerobic retention times in the process;

Mixing and storing primary and secondary sludges;
Co-settling EBPR sludge in the primary clarifier;
Septic conditions in final clarifiers due to deep sludge blanket;
Anaerobic or aerobic digestion of primary and EBPR waste sludge; and
Unaerated storage or long aerated storage of EBPR sludge.

Recycle streams from sludge processing operations could impose significant additional
nutrient loadings, overwhelming the EBPR process. The magnitude of the problem is
dependent on the type of sludge processing and handling operations. The effect of recycle streams could be minimized by:

Equalizing recycle flows,

Scheduling sludge processing/conditioning operations,
Treating the sidestreams with chemicals to precipitate phosphorus, and
Recovering phosphorus through struvite precipitation.

4.2 Nitrogen Removal Processes

4.2.1 Process Principles
Biological nitrogen removal is a two-step process that requires nitrification in an aerobic environment followed by denitrification in an anoxic environment. An anoxic envi-

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ronment is defined as one with low oxygen levels but adequate electron acceptor present, such as nitrate. The oxidation reduction potential in anoxic zones typically ranges
from 150 to 250 mV. As with all biological activity, these reactions are affected by
the specific environmental conditions in the reactor including pH, wastewater temperature, dissolved oxygen concentration, substrate type and concentration, and the presence or absence of toxic substances. The design engineer primarily is interested in stoichiometric equations and kinetic or rate expressions for microbial growth. The
stoichiometry informs the designer of reactions that will occur and to what extent; the
kinetic expression describes how fast the reaction will occur (Characklis and Gujer,
1979). Using this information, the designer can determine the size and type of reactor
needed, environmental conditions to be maintained in the reactor, and quantities of
external reactants such as oxygen or methanol that must be supplied.
Nitrification is the sequential oxidation of ammonium nitrogen to nitrite nitrogen
and then to nitrate nitrogen. Biological denitrification reduces nitrate nitrogen to nitrogen gas, because it is used as the terminal electron acceptor for microbial respiration.
Denitrifying organisms are primarily facultative heterotrophs that reduce nitrate in
the absence of molecular oxygen or other nitrogen sources. A relatively broad range of
heterotrophic bacteria and some autotrophic bacteria can denitrify. Because heterotrophic mechanisms predominate wastewater treatment, this discussion is
restricted to pathways using organic compounds as an energy source. Both assimilatory and dissimilatory enzyme systems are involved in nitrate reduction. Assimilatory
nitrate reduction converts nitrate nitrogen to ammonium nitrogen, which can subsequently be used for biosynthesis. This reaction occurs only when a more reduced nitrogen form is unavailable. Dissimilatory nitrate reduction transforms nitrate nitrogen to
the sparingly soluble nitrogen gas (N2), which may then be liberated from solution.
Dissimilatory nitrate reduction can result in a decrease of total system nitrogen rather
than just a transformation in state, as in nitrification. The dissimilatory pathway is of
primary importance in wastewater denitrification; therefore, further discussion will
focus on this reaction. The assimilatory pathway for nitrate reduction does not affect
significantly nitrogen removal; it does, however, have a significant effect in high-level
ammonia-removal systems. If ammonia levels are low in a reactor, and nitrate is still
present, then the system will not be nutrient limited for nitrogen because of the assimilatory pathway.
Biological mechanisms and stoichiometry for biological denitrification are relatively well established. Basic reactions for the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas are as
follows:
(1) Reduction sequence.

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

(2) Overall reduction.
5
5
7
1
NO3  CH 3 OH N 2  CO 2  H 2 O  OH
6
6
6
2
NO3 NO
2 NO N2O N2
(3) Overall reaction, including cell synthesis (C5H7O2N): CH3OH carbon source, and
nitrate nitrogen source.
NO
3  1.08 CH3 OH  0.24 H2CO3 0.056 C5H7O2N 
0.47 N2  1.68 H2O  HCO
3
(4) Overall reaction, including synthesis: CH3OH, carbon source, and ammonia
nitrogen source.
NO
3  2.5 CH3 OH  0.5 NH4  0.5 H2CO3 0.5 C5H7O2N 
0.5 N2  4.5 H2O  0.5 HCO3
(5) Overall reaction, including synthesis: municipal wastewater carbon source and
ammonia nitrogen source.



NO
3  0.345 C10H19O3N  H  0.267 HCO3  0.267 NH4
0.655 CO2  0.5 N2  0.612 C5H7O2N  2.30 H2O

There are many texts and references for more information (Barnes and Bliss, 1983;
Ekama et al., 1984; Grady et al., 1999; McCarty et al., 1969; Parker et al., 1975; Pitter and
Chudoba, 1990; Sharma and Ahlert, 1977; Stensel et al., 1973; Tchobanoglous and Burton, 2003; and U.S. EPA, 1993).
Overall denitrification results that interest the design engineer can be summarized
as follows:
Nitrate is converted to nitrogen gas in a step-wise manner; NO and N2O are also
gaseous and can be released from solution; N2O is of significant concern as a significant source of greenhouse gases from WWTPs.
Oxygen recovery is 2.856 mg O2/mg NO3-N reduced to N2. For the other steps,
the oxygen equivalency is:
(1) NO3-N reduced to NO2-N
1.142 mg O2/mg NO3-N reduced to NO2;
(2) NO2-N reduced to N2
1.713 mg O2/mg NO2-N reduced to N2;
(3) NO2-N reduced to NO-N
0.571 mg O2/mg NO2-N reduced to NO-N;

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(4) NO-N reduced to N2O-N
0.571 mg O2/mg NO-N reduced to N2O-N; and
(5) N2O-N reduced to N2
0.571 mg O2/mg N2O-N reduced to N2.
Alkalinity recovery is 3.57 mg CaCO3/mg NO3-N.
Heterotrophic biomass production is approximately 0.4 mg volatile suspended
solids (VSS)/mg COD removed.
Because nitrification only oxidizes ammonium to nitrate and nitrite, denitrification
must used to achieve total nitrogen reduction. This denitrification step is somewhat
more difficult to achieve than nitrification because the former requires the presence of
both a degradable carbon source and nitrate. This can be achieved in three ways:
(1) Supplying an exogenous carbon source such as methanol or acetate to the denitrification zone or reactor.
(2) Using cBOD in the wastewater as a degradable carbon source by either
Recycling a large amount of nitrified effluent back to an anoxic reactor at the
head of the flow scheme; or
Diverting a portion of the raw influent or primary effluent flow to a zone containing nitrate.
(3) Using endogenous carbon present in cell mass as the degradable carbon source.
The amount of nitrification removed by secondary treatment systems is limited by the
amount of refractory dissolved organic nitrogen (RDON) present in the facility influent
and created in the biological treatment processes (Water Environment Research Foundation [WERF], 2008). The RDON is the organic nitrogen in soluble compounds that is
not easily removed by biological treatment. Typical levels of RDON in WWTP effluent
range between 0.5 mg N/L to 1.2 mg N/L with most values in the 1 mg N/L to 2 mg
N/L (Pagilla, 2007). Figure 14.35 summarizes plant effluent DON from several facilities.
Even if the system is designed to remove all the ammonia and nitrate, significant soluble residual total nitrogen will remain under the best of circumstances.
Biological denitrification rates have been evaluated and studied by researchers,
both in laboratory and full-scale operations. A wide range of rates have been reported,
as shown in Figure 14.36 (Christensen and Harremoes, 1972; Parker et al., 1975). Several
variables have been shown to affect significantly biological denitrification kinetics,
including:

Carbon substrate type and concentration,

Dissolved oxygen concentration,
Alkalinity and pH, and
Temperature.

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

FIGURE 14.35 Summary of effluent dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) concentration

(0.45 m filtration) from 188 Maryland and Virginia wastewater treatment plants
(Pagilla, 2007).

The most critical variables are the type and concentration of carbonaceous substrate
available in the mixed liquor. Two primary substrate conditions have been identified
for suspended-growth denitrification (Grau, 1982):
(1) Denitrification under noncarbon-limiting conditions, and
(2) Denitrification under carbon limiting conditions.
In biological nutrient removal systems, the first set of conditions typically corresponds
with those found in preaeration anoxic tanks (first anoxic or preanoxic tanks); the second set corresponds with conditions in postaeration anoxic tanks (second anoxic tanks)
or RAS endogenous denitrification tanks.
Of the several mathematical models for predicting denitrification rates, the most
common are:
Monod-type relationships, and
Zero-order equations (with respect to nitrate).

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FIGURE 14.36

Specific denitrification rates on suspended-growth systems.

The following equations (based on 20C temperature) list kinetic expressions in common use (Grau, 1982). Table 14.16 summarizes typical values for the Monod kinetic
coefficients.
(1) Monod denitrification rate expression:
1  YH
rv , NO

 max, H g
2.86 YH

Ss
SNO
K  S K  S b , h
NO
NO
s
s

(14.18)

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

TABLE 14.16

Monod kinetic coefficients (Baillod, 1988, and Henze et al., 1986).

Coefficient

Symbol

Typical range

Suggested

Maximum specific growth

rate of heterotrophs
Heterotrophic biomass yield
Half-saturation coefficient
organic substrate
Half-saturation coefficient
nitrate-nitrite
Correction factor for H
under anoxic conditions
Half-saturation coefficient
for dissolved oxygen for
heterotrophic biomass
Mass nitrogen per mass of
COD in biomass
Decay coefficient for
heterotrophic biomass

maxH

313

4.06.0

YH
KCOD

0.460.69
10180

0.67
1020

KNO

0.060.5

0.20.5

g

0.51.0

0.8

KO,H

0.100.28

0.10.2

CX,B

0.060.12

0.060.086

bH

0.05

Where,
rV,NO
reaction rate per unit volume nitrate and nitrite nitrogen, mg
nitrate/nitrite NL/day;
YH
biomass yield coefficient;
max,H
maximum specific growth rate of heterotrophs;
g
correction factor for
H under anoxic conditions;
SS
soluble biodegradable COD substrate;
KS
half-saturation coefficient organic substrate;
SNO
soluble material concentration nitrate and nitrite nitrogen;
KNO
half-saturation coefficient nitrate-nitrite; and
Xb,h
particulate heterotrophic biomass.
(2) Zero-order denitrification rate expression:
rV,NO
k
Where,
k
reaction rate coefficient.
Selected zero-order rate constants, as reported in the literature, are tabulated in Table 14.17.
The correction factor (g) applied to the specific growth rate of heterotrophs was
proposed to account for observed reductions in the growth of heterotrophs under

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mg NO3-N/mg TSSd

Glucose

Ekama et al. (1984)

Modified
LudzackEttinger
plug flow (k1)
Modified
Ludzack-Ettinger
plug flow (k2)
Wuhrmann plug
flow (k3)
Bardenpho
Acclimated plug flow
Bardenpho
Laboratory batch
Various
Laboratory complete
mix
Various
Pilot plant

Kang et al., (1990)

Sutton et al. (1975)

Acclimated plug flow

Laboratory complete
mix

Paskins et al. (1978)

Mulbarger et al. (1970)

Pilot plant

Parker (1974)
Mulbarger et al. (1970)

Barnard (1975)
Kang et al. (1990)
Barnard (1975)
Dawson and Murphy (1972)
Parker (1974)
Becarri et al. (1983)

Ekama et al. (1984)

Ekama et al. (1984)

Reference

Type system

* MLVSS
mixed liquor volatile suspended solids; TSS
total suspended solids; and VSS
volatile suspended solids.

Methanol
Methanol

0.0620.070

0.062
0.15

22
20

mg NO3-N/mg VSSd
mg NO3-N/mg
MLVSSd
mg NO3-N/mg
MLVSSd
mg NO3-N/mg VSSd
mg NO3-N/mg VSSd

0.120.60
0.192

Wastewater (first anoxic)

Primary effluent
endogenous (second anoxic)
Sodium citrate
Wastewater
Methanol

Activated sludge

mg NO3-N/mg TSSd
mg NO3-N/mg VSSd
mg NO3-N/mg TSSd
mg NO3-N/mg VSSd
mg NO3-N/mg VSSd
mg NO3-N/mg VSSd

0.086
0.062
0.031
0.68
0.030.11
0.210.32

Endogenous

Raw and settled wastewater

22.5

1725
22
17-25
20
1527
25

mg NO3-N/mg VSSd

0.072

0.593

mg NO3-N/mg VSSd

0.100 8

Raw and settled wastewater

Methanol
Activated sludge

1224

mg NO3-N/mg VSSd

0.720

Substrate

20
9

1224

Units*

Temperature
range, C

Zero-order denitrification coefficients.

TABLE 14.17

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

anoxic conditions (Batchelor, 1982; Henze et al., 1987). This reduction is a composite
number accounts for (1) the part of the heterotrophic biomass that cannot use nitrate as
an electron acceptor, and (2) the slower growth of microorganisms in the presence of
nitrate compared to oxygen.
Optimal pH for denitrification ranges from 6.5 to 8.5. The following equation has
been used to model pH effects on specific growth rate. The effect of pH on denitrification rates is illustrated in the Figure 14.37.

FIGURE 14.37 Effect of pH on kinetic coefficient for maximum specific rate of

denitrification.

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rX,NO
rX,NO,max [1/(1
105.5pH  10pH9)]

(14.20)

Denitrification rates are influenced significantly by temperature; therefore, temperature

correction factors must be selected carefully. The effect of temperature on denitrification
rates has been modeled using different equations (Characklis and Gujer, 1979; Grady
et al., 1999). The most common expressions are as follows
rX,T
A0 exp [Ea/RT]

(14.21)

Where,
rX
denitrification reaction rate;
Ea
activation energy, kJ/mole;
R
universal gas constant
8.31 J/mole/K;
T
temperature, K or C; and
A0
Arrhenius frequency factor.

ln

rX , 1
rX , 2

(T1 T2 ) where
Ea/RT1 RT2

(14.22)

Where,

empirical temperature coefficient, and
r
Q10 X ,1

exp[Ea (10)/RT1 (T1  10)]
rX ,2 T
10 C

(14.23)

Q10 exp [Ea (0.014)]

rX,T
rX,20 (T20)

(14.24)

rX,T
exp [(T1  T2)

Where,

empirical temperature coefficient.
Q10
fractional change in reaction rate for a 10C temperature rise.
Values for temperature correction factors () compiled by Sutton et al. (1975) are
shown in Table 14.18. Figure 14.38 illustrates the variation in denitrification rates with
temperature as reported by Parker et al. (1975).

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14-85

19 500
19 000

15 300
15 880

3.0
1.74
3.3
3.3
2.0

1.12
1.10
1.06

1.13
1.15

1.08

1.03

1.06

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10 000

11 090

1.20

1.07

15 900

Activation
energy,
kJ/mol

1.094

Q10
value

2.5
2.5

2.1
2.0

1.09

values

Barnard (1975)

Dawson and Murphy (1972)

Stensel (1970)

Suspended growth

Suspended growth

Laboratory batch
Batch activated sludge,
SRT
2 days
Continuous activated sludge
Suspended growth,
SRT
7.6 days
Activated sludge
Separate sludge
Single sludge
Suspended-growth (first anoxic)
(SRT
1025 days)
Suspended-growth (first anoxic)
(SRT
1025 days)

1725

527
1020
1525
1020
1020

Sutton et al. (1975)

Upflow packed column

Raw and settled wastewater 1224

Dawson and Murphy (1972)

Ekama et al. (1984)

Johnson and Vania (1971)

Murphy and Sutton (1975)
Murphy and Sutton (1975)
Ekama et al. (1984)

Stensel (1970)
Mulbarger et al. (1970)

Barnard (1975)

Sutton et al. (1975)

References

Suspended growth 6-day SRT

Type of system

625
616
1020
525
515
1020
1725

Temperature
range, C

1020
Wastewater
625
Wastewater
625
Raw and settled wastewater 1224

Methanol

Wastewater
(exogenous
carbon)
Endogenous
(no external
carbon)
Methanol

Methanol

Methanol

Substrate

Denitrification temperature coefficients (Sutton et al., 1975).

14-86

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

FIGURE 14.38 Effect of temperature on denitrification rate (SG
suspended growth

and AG
attached growth) (Parker et al., 1975).

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In terms of Equation 14.17, the temperature dependence is entirely captured within
the maximum specific growth rate max,H (Grady et al., 1999).
max,h,T
max,h,20 (T20)

(14.25)

Where,

temperature coefficient, and
T
water temperature (C).
Unit process configurations for biological nitrogen removal can be simulated through
use of process modeling techniques using International Water Association (IWA) type
activated sludge models (ASM). Process modeling is described in detail elsewhere
(Water Environment Federation, 2009). However, there several considerations specific
to nitrogen removal modeling that are noted here.
Key design criteria for nitrogen removal common to biological treatment configurations include SRT, temperature, recycle rates, and dissolved oxygen concentrations
throughout the process. These criteria should be established before use of a process simulator, but can be refined throughout the modeling task as design details are optimized.
For a biological nutrient treatment system, an initial screening for typical process
configurations (for example, Modified LudzackEttinger or Bardenpho) should be completed before using a process simulator. The screening process may refine the number
of configurations to be modeled. The benefit of using a process simulator is that any
number of different configurations can be simulated in a reasonably short period of
time, but an initial screening may result in a more efficient modeling effort. The process
simulator can then be used to optimize the design and help the designer select the
appropriate configuration for the treatment system.
Initial sizing should be based on industry standard criteria (SRT for each reactor,
MLR, etc). This provides a base model for the selected configuration, again improving
the overall efficiency of the modeling task. From the base model, various iterations and
configuration modifications can be evaluated to come up with the optimized design.
Several key wastewater parameters that should be monitored during the design
and evaluation process (presented in terms common to the ASM models):
SO, dissolved oxygenessential in establishing the anoxic or aerobic environments required for total nitrogen removal. The SO profile through the reactor can
be developed and limitations to the configuration can be addressed. Issues such
as high SO levels within the mixed liquor recycle, which can be detrimental to an
anoxic environment, can be quantified and accounted for in design.

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SS, soluble biodegradable productsrepresents the associated readily biodegradable COD and VFA concentration available. Most simulators further fractionate
SS into SF and SA to better simulate biological phosphorus removal. With any biological nutrient system, the availability of SS is essential to the performance of the
system. By tracking the concentration of SS, the size of individual zones (or reactors) included in the model can be optimized along with the internal recycle
streams. If SS is not available in the quantities required to meet the treatment
goals, then supplemental carbon sources maybe be warranted. Carbon-limited
conditions can be seen when SS is less than the half saturation value for the substrate in a particular anoxic zone. If this occurs, then process simulation can be
used to identify system deficiencies and optimize supplemental carbon addition.
SNH, soluble ammoniaconcentrations in each zone can be monitored and
adjusted to optimize removal. A SNH profile through the basin will provide valuable information on how it responds to the selected process configuration.
SNO, soluble nitrate/nitrite Nremoval of SNO is essential in a biological nitrogen
removal system, and a process simulator allows design to quantify the level of
removal throughout the process. The anoxic and aerobic reactor will then be
sized accordingly, along with internal recycle rates, to meet treatment goals. Similar to the approach described for SS, availability of SNO in an anoxic zone provides valuable information on how to design the nutrient removal system. For
example, if the SNO levels in an anoxic zone are low (i.e., less than KNO values),
and there is still adequate SS in the system, then further SNO removal can be
achieved by increasing the mixed-liquor recycle rates (to supply more SNO to the
anoxic zones). Conversely, if the anoxic zones are showing higher levels of SNO,
then it may be possible to reduce mixed liquor recycle rates and save power.
SALK, alkalinityavailable alkalinity (or higher pH) is a key requirement for
ammonia removal. A process simulator allows a designer to identify any alkalinity deficiencies within the process and adjust the configuration accordingly. Biological nitrogen removal replenishes system alkalinity as described previously.
XTSS, total suspended solids (MLSS) solids inventory within the process can be
tracked, providing the designer with information on the appropriate size and
associated capacity of the treatment system. Impacts on basin sizing to the XTSS
are easily quantified, and adjustments made to meet treatment goals.

A significant advantage of using a process simulator for the design of a treatment system is the efficiency with which optimization of the treatment configuration can be
achieved. Multiple treatment scenarios and configuration alternatives can be evaluated.
Completing a sensitivity analysis on a basin configuration is a common practice to help

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determine the final basin layout. Ideally, one parameter is adjusted at a time allowing
the designer to see the resulting impacts. The sensitivity analysis, however, can be completed for any number of variables. An example for would be to quantify performance
based on a range of mixed-liquor recycle flowrates. Most commercial process simulators can provide a dynamic simulation, which can aide in a sensitivity analysis.

4.2.2 Process Configurations

Suspended-growth processes for nitrogen removal can be grouped into three categories: single, dual, and triple sludge.
4.2.2.1 Single-Sludge Processes
4.2.2.1.1 Wuhrmann and Ludzack-Ettinger
Wuhrmann (1954) proposed the single-sludge configuration for nitrogen removal
shown in Figure 14.39. The Wuhrmann approach typically is referred to as postdenitrification.
Without addition of an exogenous electron donor, the design relies on residual
organic matter passing through the first stage or on the endogenous respiration of biomass to provide the energy sources for denitrification. If complete nitrification (thus,
complete carbon oxidation) is achieved, then endogenous respiration would provide
the principal energy source. Nitrogen removals of 29 to 89% have been achieved in
bench- and pilot-scale studies (Christensen and Harremes, 1972; Christensen et al.,
1977; Gundelah and Castillo, 1976; Horstkotte et al., 1974; Johnson and Schroepfer, 1964;
Timmermans and Van Haute, 1982; Wuhrmann, 1954 and 1964).

FIGURE 14.39 Wuhrmann process for nitrogen removal (RAS
return activated sludge
and WAS
waste activated sludge).

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Variations of the Wuhrmann design have been developed to supply an exogenous
electron donor to the anoxic stage. These consist of either bypassing the first stage with
a portion (for example, 15%) of the influent flow or supplying a suitable carbon supplement, such as methanol, directly to the anoxic zone.
The Ludzck-Ettinger configuration shown in Figure 14.40 reverses the sequence of
anoxic and aerobic stages in the Wuhrmann design (Ludzack and Ettinger, 1962). The
advantage of this design is the provision of influent BOD to the anoxic stage as an
exogenous electron donor.
Total nitrogen removal efficiency in this process is a function of RAS flow rate. An
88% reduction in total nitrogen from an influent of 130 mg/L has been reported when
using an RAS ratio of 81 (Sutton and Bridle, 1980). The effluent oxidized nitrogen concentration of 15 mg/L approximated the theoretical efficiency for this RAS ratio.
Barnard (1973a) proposed the modified Ludzack-Ettinger (MLE) configuration that
incorporates an internal recycle (QIR) of mixed liquor from the aeration stage to the
anoxic stage (Figure 14.41). This modification increases both the denitrification rate and
overall nitrogen removal efficiency and provides control over the fraction of nitrate
removed through variation of the internal recycle ratio. In addition, higher denitrification rates are attained because the anoxic reactor receives a source of readily biodegradable COD. This allows smaller anoxic volumes for a given nitrate removal requirement
compared to the Wuhrmann and Ludzack-Ettinger processes.
This process can be used when nitrification is occurring, and denitrification is
required to recover alkalinity, lower overall oxygen demand, and provide a better

FIGURE 14.40 LudzackEttinger process for nitrogen removal (WAS
waste activated
sludge).

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FIGURE 14.41 Modified LudzackEttinger process for nitrogen removal (WAS
waste
activated sludge).
sludge settling. The process effluent typically will contain between 6 and 10 mg/L of
nitrate nitrogen and is the most common method of achieving nitrogen removal.
4.2.2.1.2 Four-Stage Bardenpho
The four-stage Bardenpho process consists of a series of four anoxic and aerobic
zones with recycling of mixed liquor from the first aerobic zone to the first anoxic zone
at a rate as high as four to six times the influent flow rate (Barnard, 1973a, 1973b, 1974,
1976, 1983a; Ekama et al., 1984; Irvine et al., 1982; Kang et al., 1990). This process (Figure 14.42) is intended to achieve more complete nitrogen removal than is possible with
a two- or three-stage process. Complete denitrification cannot be attained with preaeration anoxic zones because part of the aerobic stage effluent is not recycled through the
anoxic zone. The second anoxic zone provides for additional denitrification using
nitrate produced in the aerobic stage as the electron acceptor and endogenous organic
carbon as the electron donor.
The second (postaeration) anoxic zone is capable of almost completely removing
the nitrate in the aeration tank effluent, provided the size is adequate and supplemental carbon is added. The final aeration stage strips residual gaseous nitrogen (N2) from
solution and minimizes phosphorus release in the final clarifier by increasing the oxygen concentration.
The ability to successfully use the Bardenpho process to achieve an effluent concentration of total nitrogen as low as 2 to 4 mg/L depends on the ratio of oxidizable

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FIGURE 14.42 Four-stage Bardenpho process for nitrogen removal (WAS
waste
activated sludge).

nitrogen to carbon in the influent to the activated sludge process and on the use of supplement carbon addition. Ekama et al. (1984) report that the total Kjeldahl nitrogen
(TKN):COD ratio must be less than 0.08 to obtain complete denitrification.
4.2.2.1.3 Step-Feed
This process is essentially the same as conventional step-feed where a portion of the
influent to the process is fed to one or more points downstream of the head of the
reactor. The difference in step-feed nitrogen removal is that each of the feed points
has an anoxic zone for nitrogen removal. Step-feed nitrogen removal has been
implemented at several full-scale facilities in a variety of configurations and number of feed points. Figure 14.43 shows a schematic of a three-pass step-feed system
with an additional post anoxic zone (similar to the Bardenpho process) (Johnson
et al., 2003).
The primary benefits of the step-feed configuration include, as in conventional
treatment, capacity improvement for a given volume or reduced reactor volumes for a
specific capacity. In addition, for nitrogen removal, the step-feed process reduces or
eliminates the need to recycle nitrate back to the anoxic zones. Nitrate is supplied to
the anoxic zones from the upstream aerobic reactor directly, except for the first pass.
In the first pass, the only nitrate supply is from the RAS stream. For this reason, nitrified recycle from the end of the first pass to the head of the first pass is sometimes provided to make best use of the available carbon.

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

FIGURE 14.43
zone.

Three-pass step-feed nitrogen removal system with secondary anoxic

4.2.2.1.4 Simultaneous Nitrification and Denitrification

In this process, the dissolved-oxygen level in an aeration tank is reduced to allow heterotrophs to denitrify and autotrophs to convert ammonia to nitrate/nitrite. Typically,
dissolved oxygen levels in these basins are less than 1 mg/L and maybe be below reliable detection limits with dissolved-oxygen probes. This process has the advantage of
eliminating the need for recirculation streams in the aeration basin and reduces aeration
requirements (because higher dissolved oxygen levels are not needed). It does not,
however, use influent carbon as efficiently as does MLE or the Bardenpho processes.
Also, there is some risk of reduced sludge settleability as a result of the low oxygen levels present simultaneously with elevated levels of soluble COD. Research has shown
that these conditions can result in filamentous bulking (Jenkins et al., 2003).
4.2.2.1.5 Oxidation Ditch
Extended aeration oxidation ditch systems are readily adaptable for carbon oxidation,
nitrification, and denitrification as described above (Barnes and Bliss, 1983; Barnes et al.,
1983; Stensel, 1978; Van der Geest and Witvoet, 1977). Oxidation ditches are reactors
that induce significant velocity and recirculation flows in basins with a race-track type
configuration. Horizontal rotors, slow-speed mechanical aerators or rotating disks, or
draft tube aerators provide aeration and force to move the mixed liquor at one or more
locations in the ditch. Also, submerged mixers and conventional diffused aeration can
be combined to provide aeration and mixing power independently of each other. Dissolved-oxygen concentration will be highest at points of aeration and will subsequently
decrease because of oxygen uptake by the biomass as the mixed liquor moves around
the looped reactor. After sufficient travel time, zones of simultaneous nitrification and
denitrification will form and may go to truly anoxic conditions upstream from aeration
devices, as illustrated in Figure 14.44. Feed points typically are located in the anoxic
zones to provide carbon for denitrification. The location and size of these anoxic zones

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FIGURE 14.44

Oxidation ditch process for denitrification.

will vary with time because oxygen uptake and transfer rates will vary with wastewater
quality and flow. Therefore, reliance on this mechanism for denitrification requires a
comprehensive control system to monitor and control dissolved oxygen throughout the
basin. An alternate control mechanism is based on monitoring the reduced form of
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) levels in the system. The NADH levels correspond directly to the degree of nitrification and denitrification and are a more reliable
measurement than dissolved oxygen when operating at low dissolved-oxygen levels.
The energy input for mixing and aeration must be controlled to maintain the mixed
liquor in suspension. This system must afford sufficient operational flexibility with
adjustable weirs, variable speed, or two-speed aerators for varying the oxygen input to
match diurnal and seasonal changes in oxygen demand. Otherwise, during periods of
low loading, necessary anoxic zones will not develop.
The variable levels of oxygen that are present in oxidation ditches can be used to
promote simultaneous nitrification and denitrification or true anoxic zones within a
single ditch. Additionally, oxidation ditches can be configured in series of concentric
reactors with different oxygen levels in each, or simply as an aerobic reactor as
described previously in nitrogen removal processes.

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

In typical oxidation ditch reactors used for nitrogen removal, rates of both nitrification and denitrification will be low because of the relatively long SRTs required for
nitrification, low concentration of readily biodegradable COD, and marginal dissolvedoxygen concentrations for either nitrification or denitrification. Oxidation ditch systems
have the same limitations in removing nitrogen as other suspended-growth processes
and can be designed to remove all but the lowest levels of nitrate/nitrite, subject to carbon availability. Large masses of mixed liquor in the system can compensate for low
reaction rates. As with other nitrogen removal processes, highly variable influent flows
poses a challenge to achieving a consistently low effluent nitrogen concentration. Nitrogen removals greater than 90% have been reported with oxidation ditch processes but
most operate at 5 to 10 mg/L effluent nitrate levels (Rittmann and Langeland, 1985).
4.2.2.2 Time Cyclic Processes
4.2.2.2.1 Sequencing Batch Reactor
Biological nitrogen removal can be accomplished in SBRs by creating, in one reactor, the
proper cycle of aerobic and anoxic conditions in time sequence (Abufayed and
Schroeder, 1986; Alleman and Irvine, 1980; Arora et al., 1985; Irvine et al., 1983; Palis
and Irvine, 1985; Silverstein and Schroeder, 1983). Control strategies for biological nutrient removal take into account reaction time, tank water level, and mixed-liquor dissolved oxygen concentrations. Sequencing batch reactors appear well suited for relatively small systems with highly variable wastewater flow and strength. Similar to
conventional processes, successful operation depends on efficient clarification, which is
accomplished in the same reactor. For nitrogen removal, fill and react phases are subdivided into static fill, mixed fill, and mixed react. In this configuration, carbon oxidation and nitrification will occur in the aerobic react phase and denitrification will take
place in anoxic fill and react. A carbon source to support denitrification, needed in the
anoxic react phase, is present in the beginning of each cycle from the feed cycle. Nitrate
is supplied from the previous aerobic cycle. Nitrification is attained in SBRs, as in any
suspended-growth biological treatment system, by designing for the appropriate aerobic SRT as discussed in earlier in this chapter. Denitrification results from selecting static fill, mixed fill, and mixed react periods that are long enough to allow use of all dissolved oxygen, thus creating anoxic conditions.
A survey was done of 10 SBR systems in the Northeast using nitrogen removal
(Young et al., 2008). It was found that plant effluent total nitrogen levels varied between
2.5 and 9.5 mg/L. None of these plants were adding supplemental carbon, but all were
operating at well below their design loads. This shows that time cyclic processes can
achieve low levels of nitrogen. Typically, for a given COD/TN ratio, conventional flow
through activated sludge systems will achieve lower TN levels because of their

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increased ability to change the amount of nitrogen brought back to the anoxic zones
through recycle systems. Time cyclic processes are limited in nitrogen removal capacity by the amount of nitrogen present at the beginning of their anoxic periods.
4.2.2.2.2 Continuous-Feed Intermittent Decant Systems
In these systems, feed continuously enters to the reactor, to help improve overall nitrogen removal (Peters et al., 2004). These systems typically are segregated into a first-stage
that continuously feed downstream SBR tanks. Some variations do continuous feed
within a single tank. Sludge from the SBR tanks is recycled back to the upstream tank
continuously (from the SBR that is currently under aerate mode). In this way, these systems approach the carbon usage efficiency of conventional flow-through activated
sludge systems.
4.2.2.2.3 Alternating Aeration
Nitrogen removal in a single reactor activated sludge process using intermittent aeration is feasible (Barth and Stensel, 1981; Schwinn and Hotaling, 1988). Required equipment and operational requirements include
Timers on blower or aerators to provide aerobic/anoxic cycling (15 minutes); and
Proper tankage and solids inventory for nitrification and denitrification.
Phased isolation ditch processes (Figure 14.6) alternate aeration within multiple oxidation ditch reactors to create aerobic/anoxic cycling. The feed is also cycled between
reactors so that the anoxic period coincides with the introduction of carbon for denitrification.
4.2.2.2.4 Dual Sludge and Integrated Systems
Separate sludge systems, by definition, house various process stages in physically separate tanks, each with their own clarifier and return-sludge systems. Because EBPR
depends on exposure of a single biomass population to various environmental conditions in different process stages, multiple-sludge systems typically are best suited for
nitrogen removal only.
Figure 14.45 shows dual-sludge configurations. In Figure 14.45a, the aerobic system first performs carbon oxidation and nitrification. Then, an external carbon source
supplements the nitrate-laden stream before contacting the denitrifying biomass in the
anoxic system. The system in 14.45b uses the same configuration, except that a portion
of influent wastewater fed to the second-stage supplies the organic carbon to the anoxic
system. Although this system eliminates the need for a carbon supplement, some TKN
will pass through because ammonia in the feed will not be oxidized in the anoxic zone.

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

FIGURE 14.45 Dual-sludge processes for nitrogen removal (WAS
waste activated
sludge) (Grady and Lim, 1980).

A third configuration, shown in Figure 14.45c, also eliminates the need for supplemental carbon. In this configuration, the anoxic system precedes the aerobic system, thus
providing sufficient BOD for denitrification. An additional recycle stream supplies
nitrate. This flow scheme offers the possibility of reducing aeration needs because a substantial portion of the BOD can be oxidized in the anoxic system. Although some oxidized nitrogen will be discharged, its magnitude will be related to the recycle flow used.

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Biofilm processes, discussed in detail in Chapters 13 and 15, also can be used for
nitrogen removal. This group of processes includes integrated fixed-film activated
sludge (IFAS), moving bed biofilm reactors (MBBR), denitrification filters, fluidized bed
denitrification, and submerged rotating biological contactors. The IFAS and MBBR
processes use the same principals for nitrogen removal as suspended-growth systems.
The IFAS media addition to anoxic zones will increase biomass available in a denitrification zone. The additional biomass will improve net denitrification rates within
the zone. A suspended-growth SRT is maintained in the IFAS system through the recycle of RAS from the secondary clarifier system
In contrast to IFAS, MBBR systems do not have recycled activated sludge and do
not necessarily include clarification. MBBR systems sometimes are used as the primary
secondary treatment process with nitrate recycle from a downstream aerobic zone.

4.2.3 Nitritation and Denitritation

Nitritation, or the conversion of ammonia to nitrite (NO
2 ), reduces the amount of oxygen required to remove ammonia. For nitrogen removal, nitrite is reduced in anoxic
zones to nitrogen gas but requires less carbon than the conversion of nitrate because of
the lower oxidation state of nitrite.
NH3 NO
2 N2
This process is used primarily to treat high-strength liquors from the dewatering of
anaerobically digested sludge. It has been applied in mainstream liquid processes only
in the RAS reaeration process. In this system, RAS is returned to an aerated tank before
being introduced back to the main reactor. Anaerobic digestion dewatering liquors are
added. The reaction to nitrite is controlled by operating at lower dissolved-oxygen
levels, and denitritation is done using the endogenous decay of the biomass. Because
dissolved-oxygen levels are low, this process is a version of the simultaneous nitrification/denitrification process discussed earlier.

4.3 Phosphorus and Nitrogen Removal Processes

4.3.1 Process Principles
The biological removal of both nitrogen and phosphorus in suspended-growth
processes requires a process that has anaerobic (no electron acceptors) zones, anoxic
(low oxygen levels) zones, and aerobic zones. The anaerobic zones are needed to give a
competitive advantage to the PAOs, anoxic zones for nitrogen removal, and aerobic
zones for nitrification.

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There are three principals designers must aim for when designing combined nitrogen and phosphorus removal systems:
(1) Minimize oxygen to anoxic zones. High dissolved oxygen or entrained air in the
nitrified recycle stream or reactor feed, will reduce the carbon available for denitrification. Care must be taken in design to minimize the amount of oxygen
delivered to an anoxic zone.
(2) Minimize oxygen and nitrate/nitrite to anaerobic zones. The anaerobic environment is most beneficial to developing biological phosphorus removal populations
when there are no or low levels of electron acceptors present in the anaerobic
zone. Most variations of nitrogen and phosphorus removal systems are arrange to
minimize the return of oxygen and nitrate/nitrite to the anaerobic zone.
(3) Maximize biomass in all zones. Some nitrogen and phosphorus removal systems
have multiple recycle streams to minimize the introduction of electron acceptors
to the anaerobic zones, as discuss above, and introduce the RAS downstream of
the feed point. These systems, although excellent at minimizing the amount of
electron acceptor, have the disadvantage of reducing the mixed liquor concentration in the anaerobic zones, thus exposing less of the biomass to anaerobic conditions. This approach may or may not be the most advantageous arrangement,
and should be evaluated by the design engineer.
Internal plant recycle streams can be a significant source of nutrients in a secondary
treatment system influent. The amounts of recycles can be as much as 50% of the influent load. The amount of recycle depends on both the nutrient and the solids handling
system at the facility. Typically, those plants without solids digestion systems have low
levels of nutrient return. Plants with aerobic digestion typically have low levels of
ammonia return but may have higher nitrate returns that need to be considered. Higher
levels of phosphorus in the dewatering liquor are also common, but typically not at
high levels. Anaerobic digestion facilities typically have the highest levels of ammonia
and phosphorus in the return stream although nitrate is not present. Anaerobic digestion plants, not doing biological phosphorus removal, typically have levels similar to
aerobic digestion plants. Anaerobic digestion plants with biological phosphorus
removal, however, can have high levels of soluble phosphorus in their dewatering
liquors. All nutrient removal facilities with digestion must consider the effects of the
recycle system on the design of the mainstream nutrient removal process.
Combined nitrogen and phosphorus removal systems can achieve low levels of
nutrients in the plant effluent (total nitrogen less than 5 mg/L; total phosphorus less
than 0.1) through a combination of biological, chemical, and physical methods. In sus-

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pended-growth secondary treatment systems, low levels of nitrogen in the effluent can
be achieved as described earlier and are limited only to the amount of refractory dissolved organic nitrogen (RDON) in the process effluent (typically between 1 and 2 mg
N/L). It is not unusual for plants targeting low nitrogen levels to add supplemental
carbon to the secondary treatment process.
In combined systems, there are two options for phosphorus removal, biological
and chemical. Chemical-based systems, discussed earlier, do not rely on the biological
system; thus, the system can be optimized for that process alone, with only minor considerations for chemical addition (mixing and injection points). In contrast, biological
phosphorus and nitrogen removal are linked to each other. Biological phosphorus
removal depends upon a lack of nitrate/nitrite in the anaerobic zone, so higher levels
of denitrification in the nitrogen removal process benefit the biological phosphorus
removal (BPR) system. Conversely, a poorly performing nitrogen removal process can
greatly decrease the performance of BPR.
The inherent complexity of combined nitrogen and phosphorus removal systems
makes it difficult to quantitatively design one. Almost all such systems are being
designed with the use of whole plant simulators based upon the IWA ASM type models (Henze et al., 2000).
Combined biological nutrient removal systems are evaluated as described previously. The variables noted must be tracked and quantified in designing a combined
nutrient removal system. The advantages of using a process simulator are pronounced.
As described earlier, a significant issue in these systems is the effect NOX-N has on the
phosphorus removal. These effects can be quantified within a process simulator.

4.3.2 Process Configurations

4.3.2.1 Five-Stage Bardenpho
The five-stage Bardenph process (Figure 14.46) provides anaerobic, anoxic, and aerobic stages for removal of phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon (Barnard, 1973b, 1974,
1975, 1976, 1983a; Burdick, 1982; Ekama et al., 1984; Irvine et al., 1982; Tetreault et al.,
1986). The difference between the four-stage and five-stage Bardenpho processes is
that the latter includes an anaerobic stage at the beginning for biological phosphorus
removal.
Table 14.19 summarizes the basic design information for several five-stage plants
that have been in operation for several years. The five-stage Bardenph process is one
of the more common processes in North America. The Palmetto, Florida, treatment
plant, which began operation in October 1979, was the first in the United States to use
this process (Burdick and Moss, 1980; Stensel et al., 1980). Most of these facilities have

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14-101

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-102

Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

FIGURE 14.46 Modified Bardenpho process for phosphorus and nitrogen removal
(WAS
waste activated sludge).

required supplemental chemical addition (metal salts and/or carbon) to meet effluent
phosphorus limits of less than 1.0 mg/L. Plants using this process use a variety of aeration methods, tank configurations, pumping equipment, and methods of solids handling. Figures 14.47 to 14.49 present typical effluent nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations from several existing five-stage facilities.
4.3.2.2 A2/O
Figure 14.50 shows the flow schematic of a typical three stage anaerobic anoxic/oxic
(A2/O) process (Deakyne et al., 1984; Irvine et al., 1982; Krichten and Hong, 1981;
Paepcke, 1985). Each stage can be design as completely mixed, plug flow, or a combination. Mixed liquor is recycled from the end of the nitrification (aerobic) stage to the
anoxic stage for denitrification at an internal recycle rate typically ranging from 100 to
400% of the influent flow. Clarifier underflow returns to the first stage of the anaerobic
reactor with the reactor feed.
Typical effluent nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations for two existing facilities
using the A2/O process are shown in Figures 14.51 and 14.52. The Largo phosphorus
and nitrogen data represent monthly average values from January 1984 to November
1987 (CH2M Hill, 1988). The Fayetteville nitrogen data are monthly averages for a 5.5
m3/d (1 gpm) pilot plant operated from January through December 1985; phosphorus
data are daily values from October 1988. Fayetteville typically used an alum dose of

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Yes

Yes

228
2 626
230

Second aeration
volume, m3

Total volume, m3

Clarification surface
area, m2

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Vertical
axial flow

461

41

Yes
Alum

Yes

Vertical
axial flow

Yes
Alum
90 gpda

1 960

1 760

7 920

461

Horizontal
axial flow

Yes
Alum
2040 mg/L

Yes

2 100

21 501

379

2 196

12 643

4 013

2 271

Belt press
dewatering
landfill

No

Carrousel
mechanical
surface
aerators

28 400

Orange
County,
Florida
(phase III)

41

Vertical
turbine

Yes
Alum
50 mg/L

No

3 220

31 200

1 000

4 100

18 900

3 500

3 680

Belt press
dewatering
landfill

No

Carrousel
mechanical
surface
aerators

0.5

41 600

Fort
Myers,
Florida
Central

461

Horizontal
axial flow

Yes
Alum

Yes

2 100

10 500

260

1 300

6 000

1 500

1 440

Belt press
dewatering
landfill

No

Fine-bubble

0.7

7.3

17 000

City of
Cocoa,
Florida

41

Vertical
turbine

Yes

930

12 300

200

2 600

5 800

2 300

1 500

Belt press
dewatering
landfill

No

Carrousel
mechanical
surface
aerators

3.1

6.3

15 100

Tarpon
Springs,
Florida

4.51 to 181

Archimedes
screw

12 350

87 240

8 100

14 400

44 100

14 400

6 240

Anaerobic
digestion of
primary sludge.

Yes

Mechanical
surface
aerators

150 000

Johannesburg,
South Africa
(Goudkoppies)

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

gdp
0 003 ???.

b
DAF
dissolved air flotation.
c
WAS
waste activated sludge.

Ratio

Intrenal recycle
Type

Chemical addition
Type
Dose

Yes

17 600

496

Second anoxic
volume, m3

Filtration

2 640

1 060

Aeration volume, m3

3 520

614

1 760

228

DAFb thicken
WAScland
application
gravity
thicken
primary

First anoxic volume, m3

Anaerobic
digestion for
primary
sludge

Submerged
turbines

1
Submerged
turbine

Anaerobic volume, m3

Sludge handling

Primary settling

Aeration mode

22 500

5 300

Palmetto,
Florida

Kelowna,
British
Columbia,
Canada

Basic design information for existing modified Bardenpho systems.

Design flow, m3/d

Final effluent standards
Total nitrogen, mg
N/L
Total phosphorus,
mg P/L

Parameter

TABLE 14.19

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-103

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-104

FIGURE 14.47 Frequency curves for total effluent phosphorus from modified Bardenpho process.

FIGURE 14.48 Frequency curves for total effluent nitrogen from modified Bardenpho process
(three plants).

FIGURE 14.49 Frequency curves for total effluent nitrogen from modified Bardenpho process (four
plants).
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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

FIGURE 14.50
sludge).

A2/O process for phosphorus removal (WAS
waste activated

approximately 15 mg/L for effluent polishing during this period. The A2/O process
is quite popular. It can attain secondary effluent total phosphorus concentrations as low
as 1 to 2 mg/L and total nitrogen concentrations as low as 8.0 mg/L. Typical design
parameters for existing A2/O systems are contained in Table 14.20.

FIGURE 14.51

Frequency curves for total effluent nitrogen A2/O process.

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-106

Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

FIGURE 14.52

Frequency curves for total effluent phosphorus A2/O process.

4.3.2.3 University of Cape Town

Researchers at the University of Cape Town developed the process shown in Figure
14.53. Figure 14.54 illustrates the modified UCT (MUCT) process. In the UCT process,
both the return activated sludge and aeration tank contents are recycled to the anoxic
zone, and the contents of the anoxic zone are then recycled to the anaerobic zone. This
recycle sequence decreases the chance of introducing residual nitrate to the anaerobic
zone. The internal recycle can be controlled to maintain near-zero nitrates in effluent
from the anoxic reactor, thereby ensuring that little nitrate will be returned to the
anaerobic reactor. Although the process effectively eliminates nitrate recycle to the
anaerobic zone, biomass concentration is lower than in the rest of the reactors, thus
reducing the mass of biomass under anaerobic conditions. These two counteracting
items (low nitrate return and low mixed-liquor concentrations) balance out differently
for different wastewaters. For weak wastewater, the UCT process can achieve both
phosphorus removal and partial nitrogen removal to 6 to 8 mg/L. It is reported that
near-zero nitrate recycle can be maintained for TKNCOD ratios up to 0.14 (Ekama
et al., 1983).

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Not in use

Occasional
Alum
Varies

Yes

2 920

21 950
26 690

2 370

2 370

Aerobic
digestion belt
press land
application

Yes

Mechanical

2S, 5W
1

65 900

A /O

* S
limits during summer months, W
limits during winter months.

11

No

Chemical addition
Type
Typical dose

Internal recycle
First anoxic
Anaerobic

934
Yes

6 689
9 940

Aeration volume, m3
Total

Filtration

1 298

Clarification surface
area, m2

1 953

Sludge handling

Anoxic volume, m3

Yes
Belt press
dewatering
pelletization

Primary settling

Anaerobic volume, m3

Slow-speed
mechanical
aerators

18
9

Aeration mode

Final effluent standards*

Total nitrogen, mg/L
Total phosphorus, mg/L

51 100

A /O

Largo, Florida

Fayetteville,
Arkansas

11

No

No

883

7 086
7 359

136

136

Incineration

Yes

Fine bubble

3S, 9W
No limit

32 200

A /O

Montgomery
County,
Pennsylvania

Basic design information for three-stage systems.

Design flow, m /d

Process type

Parameter

TABLE 14.20

11

No

No

2 191

11 148
13 458

1 540

770

Belt press land

application

11

Yes
Caustic
for pH

No

19 006

9 814
12 906

1 437

1 954

Anaerobic
digestion
centrifuge
landfill

Yes

Fine bubble

Fine bubble

Yes

10 (NO3)
1S, 3W
2.0

30 900

A2/O

No limits

30 300

A2/O

Newark, Ohio

Warminster,
Pennsylvania

11
11

No

No

5 700

26 500
41 100

7 300

7300

Centrifuge
incineration

Yes

Fine buble

151 400

VIP

Lamberts
Point,
Virginia

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-108

Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

FIGURE 14.53 University of Cape Town process for phosphorus and nitrogen removal
(WAS
waste activated sludge).
In the modified UCT process, the anoxic zone is divided into two reactors. Return
sludge enters the first reactor, and internal recycle from the aeration tank enters the second anoxic reactor. Internal recycle to the anaerobic zone comes from the first anoxic reactor. The modified UCT process was intended to eliminate nitrate recycle to the anaerobic
tank while limiting the actual hydraulic retention time in the anoxic zone to one hour.
4.3.2.4 Virginia Initiative Plant
The Virginia initiative plant (VIP) process, shown in Figure 14.55, is a further refinement of the UCT process (Daigger et al., 1988; Grady et al., 1999). As in the MUCT
process, the anoxic zone is split into two reactors. The RAS and mixed-liquor recycle is
returned to the first anoxic zone, but instead of returning denitrified mixed liquor from
the first anoxic zone to the anaerobic zone (as in the UCT and MUCT processes), the
anaerobic return is taken from the second anoxic zone.

FIGURE 14.54 Modified University of Cape Town process for phosphorus and nitrogen
removal (WAS
waste activated sludge).

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

FIGURE 14.55

Virginia initiative plant process for nitrogen and phosphorus removal.

4.3.2.5 Johannesburg
The Johannesburg (JHB) process, shown in Figure 14.56, also was developed in South
Africa (Nicholls et al., 1987). The distinguishing feature of this process is the RAS denitrification zone before the anaerobic zone. The concept behind this process is that
endogenous respiration within the RAS provides the carbon needed to denitrify the
RAS before it enters the anaerobic zone. Although endogenous respiration is a relatively slow process, increased RAS thickness in the denitrification zone increases the
rates enough to get good NOX removal. This process has three primary benefits when
compared to other combined removal systems: (1) anaerobic zone mixed liquor is at
full concentration; (2) using endogenous respiration for nitrogen removal does not
require carbon from the feed, thus resulting in efficient carbon usage; and (3) denitrified
mixed liquor recycle stream is eliminated.

FIGURE 14.56

Johannesburg process for nitrogen and phosphorus removal.

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

A modification of the JHB process resulted in the Westbank Process (Stevens et al.,
1999; Oldham et al., 2001). This process aims to improve denitrification rate by adding
either a small fraction of the process influent or supplemental carbon to the RAS denitrification zone.
4.3.2.6 PhoStrip II
This PhoStrip II process includes an anoxic zone to achieve combined removal to less
than 1.0 mg/L of total phosphorus and 10.0 mg/L of total nitrogen (see Figure 14.57).
Nitrogen removal requires additional reaction volume to provide for nitrification and
denitrification.
Denitrification in a PhoStrip II process is accomplished by adding a restripper
tank ahead of the phosphorus stripper, increasing the detention time in the stripper,
and providing series reactors for phosphorus release. High concentrations of nitrates in
return sludge require increased anaerobic retention time and, thus, a larger stripper.
The prestripper tank accepts underflow from the secondary clarifier containing the
nitrate produced in nitrification. Stripper underflow typically has high concentrations

FIGURE 14.57 PhoStrip II process for phosphorus and nitrogen removal (WAS

waste activated sludge).

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

of soluble BOD and provides the carbon source for denitrification. The prestripper tank
hydraulic detention time is approximately two hours. Up to 70% denitrification has
been observed (Kang et al., 1988; Matsch and Drnevich, 1987).
4.3.2.7 Time Cyclic Processes
Sequencing batch reactors can be operated to achieve combined carbon and nitrogen
oxidation, nitrogen removal, and phosphorus removal by controlling the sequence and
duration of cycles as shown in Figure 14.58 (Ketchum and Liao, 1979).
Phased isolation ditches and alternating aeration processes can be configured
for combined nitrogen and phosphorus removal by adding an initial anaerobic zone
for EBPR.

4.4 Adding External Carbon to Suspended-Growth

Nutrient Removal
Adding external carbon to a biological nitrogen or phosphorus removal process can
improve nutrient removal. For purposes of this discussion, external carbon is defined as
biologically oxidizable carbon added to a process, either as a supplement to the main
feed stream or as a separate stream directed to a specific zone. In addition, the external
carbon source either can be a separate stream imported into the treatment facility, such
as methanol, or a stream created within the plant, such as fermentate of primary sludge.
Table 14.21 shows typical characteristics of a range of selected carbon sources. Table
14.22 presents selected denitrification kinetic and stoichiometric coefficients for carbon
alternatives. A WEF manual provides an excellent discussion on the use of supplemental carbon for EBPR (WEF, 2007). Some external carbon types, such as methanol and
ethanol, are highly flammable. Facilities for handling these chemicals must be designed
according to appropriate fire and safety codes.
Adding external carbon benefits nutrient removal when there is inadequate carbon in the native process feed to either serve as an electron donor for nitrogen removal

FIGURE 14.58 Sequencing batch reactor for carbon oxidation and phosphorus and
nitrogen removal.

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

TABLE 14.21

Selected information for supplemental carbon source (deBarbadillo et al., 2008).

Carbon source

Chemical formula

Methanol
Ethanol
Acetic acid
(100% solution)
Acetic acid
(20% solution)
Sugar (sucrose)
(50% solution)
MicroC, MicroCm,
MicroCg
UnicarbDN
MicroCglycerine
Primary sludge
fermentate

Specific gravity

Estimated COD content,

mg/L

CH3OH
CH3CH2OH
CH3COOH

0.79
0.79
1.05

1 188 000
1 649 000
1 121 000

CH3COOH

1.026

219 000

C12H22O11

1.22

685 000

Proprietary products,
include 5% methanol
Glycerine based

1.161.22

VFAs
(primarily acetic and
propionicacids)

1.09
1.18
1.0

630 000670 000

600 0001 000 000
1 000 000
400 to 800 (soluble COD,
depending on quantity
of elutriant)

TABLE 14.22 Selected denitrification kinetics and stoichiometric coefficients for alternate carbon
source (deBarbadillo et al., 2008).
Maximum specific denitrifier growth rate
Carbon source
(a)

Methanol

Methanol(b)
Methanol(d)
Methanol(e)

mmax, 1/d

Temp, C

0.5
1.0
1.3

13
19
20
(developed Arrhenius
coefficient of 1.13)
10
20
20
(developed Arrhenius
coefficient of 1.13)

0.52
1.86
1.25

Methanol(f)
Acetate(a)
Acetate(b)
Acetate(c)
Acetate(f)

1.3
3.7
4.0

13
19
20

Yield, Y
(g biomass COD/g
substrate COD)

COD/NO3-N Ratio

0.38

4.6

0.4

4.79

0.45

5.2
(calculated)
3.5

1.18

0.192
0.18

3.6
3.5
(calculated)

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or as a source volatile fatty acids (VFAs) to drive biological release, and subsequent
uptake, of soluble phosphorus.
In nitrogen removal, when there is limited carbon, external carbon addition improves denitrification by serving directly as the electron donor for the reaction. In many
cases, carbon can be dosed based on stoichiometric relationships. In contrast, the effects
of external carbon on phosphorus removal, as discussed earlier, are not as direct. There
are two pathways by which external carbon addition enhances biological phosphorus
removal:
(1) If the external carbon feed contains VFAs and it is added to a zone with anaerobic conditions, then external carbon will act as a carbon source for PAOs, thus
improving overall biological phosphorus removal.
(2) If the external carbon source does not contain VFAs or is added to an anoxic zone,
then primary use is likely for denitrification, reducing nitrate/nitrite levels
within the reactor and the amount that will be returned to the anaerobic zone by
internal recycle streams.
In addition, if the carbon source contains fewer nutrients than are required by biological growth, as is the case for methanol, additional nutrient removal will be achieved
through microbiological growth incorporating the nutrient into the biomass (assimilatory pathway).
There are two other, potentially negative effects. The first effect is increased
energy usage because of increased aeration demands. In nitrogen removal, most carbon will be used up in the anoxic zones. However, it is not uncommon to have some
bleed through of carbon into the aerobic zones, thus increasing aeration demands.
Endogenous respiration of additional biomass grown on the external carbon also
increases aeration demands. In phosphorus removal, addition of VFAs directly increases
demands. This is a result of storage of VFAs as polyhydroxylalkonates (PHA) in the
anaerobic zones and its subsequent metabolism in the aerobic zones. Thus, while VFAs
are added in the anaerobic zones, their oxygen demand is expressed in the downstream aerobic zones.
The second effect is that adding carbon will increase the amount of biomass, which
decreases secondary treatment capacity and puts additional load on the solids handling
system.

4.4.1 Dosage Locations

For the purposes of nutrient removal, there are three significant locations in a suspended-growth process at external carbon can be beneficially added (see Figure 14.59).

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

FIGURE 14.59

Potential supplemental carbon addition locations.

4.4.1.1 Process Feed

External carbon can be added directly to the wastewater stream feeding the process.
This can occur either directly before the reactor or in one of the upstream processes.
Addition of carbon to the reactor feed typically is simple to accomplish. Depending on
the reactor configuration and treatment goals, however, addition to the reactor feed
may reduce the benefits of external carbon addition on nutrient removal. For example,
if the goal of the external carbon addition is to reduce the amount of nitrate from a biological nitrogen and phosphorus removal process, then it would be most beneficial to
add the external carbon directly to the anoxic zone and ensure there is adequate mixing.
Because most of these systems add raw feed to the anaerobic zone, it would not be possible to increase the carbon feed to a downstream anoxic zone by supplementing the
reactor feed.
Additionally, if fermentation is being used to create the external carbon source,
then return of the fermentate, which is typically odorous, to upstream of headworks or
primary clarification process can increase odors.
4.4.1.2 Anoxic Zone Feed
Feeding external carbon directly to anoxic zones can be beneficial to both nitrogen and
phosphorus removal, when the zones have inadequate carbon. In both cases, external
carbon addition improves nitrogen removal. For nitrogen, it directly reduces nitrogen
levels. For phosphorus removal, the reduced nitrogen (nitrate plus nitrite) levels reduce
the amount of nitrogen recycle to the anaerobic zones, thus improving the efficiency of
anaerobic zones.
The external carbon addition system needs to be designed to maximize distribution
of the external carbon source within the anoxic zone and minimize any short circuiting

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to the inlet of the downstream aerobic zone. These goals can be achieved by a combination of locating the external carbon discharge point near the inlet to the anoxic zone
mixer or by distributing the carbon across the anoxic zone inlet, and by designing multiple anoxic zones in series, with the carbon added to the first anoxic zone.
4.4.1.3 Anaerobic Zone Feed
If process influent does not contain adequate VFAs to support the needed biological
phosphorus removal levels, then the addition of VFAs to the anaerobic zones typically
will improve biological phosphorus removal. The VFA addition will improve, up to a
point, the competitive advantage of PAOs in the mixed liquor and, thus, the uptake of
phosphorus in downstream aerobic zones. Similar to external carbon addition to anoxic
zones, it is important to promote and minimize the short circuiting of VFAs to the downstream anoxic or aerobic zones.
Most VFA streams added to anaerobic zones include either pure acetic acid or a
mixture of acetic and propionic acid. An external carbon feed of pure acetic acid can
promote the growth of GAOs. The GAOs compete directly with PAOs, thus increasing
the chances of biological phosphorus removal upset (Neethling et al., 2005). In contrast,
a mixture of acetic and propionic acid that is normal for fermentate, has been found to
be more beneficial to PAOs (Randall et al., 1997).
It is possible for too much VFA to be added to anaerobic zones (Neethling et al., 2005;
Johnson et al., 2006). The GAOs will use any excess VFA in excess of what is needed to
achieve required effluent phosphorus levels, thus improving their competitive position
in the mixed liquor. Dosing of VFA to anaerobic zones should, therefore, be carefully
controlled to the minimum needed to reliably achieve the effluent phosphorus goals.

4.4.2 Fermentation
Fermentation of primary or waste activated sludge results in conversion of particulate
material into soluble VFAs. Fermentate is typically a mixture of acetic and propionic
acids and is a carbon source for phosphorus and nitrogen removal. The benefit of using
fermentate for these two applications is that, once the capital investment is made, fermentation has a low operating cost compared to purchasing an external carbon source.
In addition, because it is derived from the facilitys influent load, it has no net carbon
addition on the system. This reduces overall sludge production compared to adding an
external carbon source. Note that the overall sludge production will be slightly higher
as a result of the additional WAS load, which typically exhibits less degradability in
digestion, created by diverting the fermentate to the suspended-growth process.
A disadvantage of RAS fermentate is that it typically contains some level of both
ammonia and soluble phosphorus. This prevents its use in secondary anoxic zones

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

because the ammonia and phosphorus would pass through to the effluent. Figure 14.60
provides data from the Durham Advanced Wastewater Treatment Facility (Clean
Water Services, Tigard, Oregon) on the nutrient content of fermentate. The data show
ammonia at 30 to 40 mg/L and ortho-phosphate at 5 to 15 mg/L. Another design issue
is water-temperature sensitivity of the fermentation process. Colder water typically will
reduce the amount of VFAs created in the fermentation process for a given SRT; lower
VFA production can be expected in winter, which likely will result in reduced nitrogen
and/or phosphorus removal.
Primary sludge fermentation configurations are described below. Because RAS fermentation has been used much less frequently and is not readily found in the literature,
it will not be addressed further.
Primary sludge fermentation design is based on the need to achieve an SRT of three
to five days at normal wastewater temperatures so that VFAs that are formed are not
consumed and converted to methane. The VFA production can be 0.1 to 0.2 g VFA/g
VSS applied resulting in an additional 10 to 20 mg/L of VFAs available for use in the
nutrient removal process (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003).

FIGURE 14.60 Fermentate nutrient content, Durham Advanced Wastewater Treatment

Facility, Tigard, Oregon (TKN
total Kjeldahl nitrogen and TP
total phosphorus).

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Barnard (1994) and Rabinowitz (1994) described four primary sludge fermentation
configurations and another has been developed and patented (Baur, 2002a). These configurations are each described below.
4.4.2.1 Activated Primary Sedimentation
Activated primary sedimentation uses primary clarifiers (Figure 14.61). Primary sludge
from the primary clarifier is recycled back to the inlet of the clarifier (with or without
elutriation) so that fermentation can occur in the sludge blanket (Barnard, 1984; Randall
et al., 1992). Although no additional unit processes are required for this approach, it can
result in high solids loading rates to the primary clarifiers. It also can be difficult to control the SRT and HRT of the fermenting sludge with an increased potential for methane
and sulfide formation. As with all fermenters and sludge thickeners, fibrous materials
can accumulate and the sludge collection mechanism and tank depth must accommodate a deep and thicker sludge blanket.
4.4.2.2 Complete-Mix Fermenter
In complete-mix fermentation, sludge is fed to a completely mixed tank that overflows to the inlet of the primary clarifiers (Figure 14.62) (Rabinowitz et al., 1987). Primary sludge is wasted directly from the fermenter. The fermenter HRT is based on the
primary-sludge feed rate and the SRT is based on the mass of sludge in the fermenter
and rate at which it is withdrawn for subsequent treatment. With this configuration,
the SRT and HRT can be controlled, which lessens the potential for methane and sulfide
production. Disadvantages include accumulation of fibrous materials and scum in the
fermenters and primary clarifier overloading. Mixing is required.

FIGURE 14.61

Activated primary sedimentation tanks (WEF et al., 2005).

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

FIGURE 14.62

Complex-mix fermenter (WEF et al., 2005).

4.4.2.3 Static Fermenter

A static fermenter is a gravity thickener designed for the biological nutrient removal
(BNR) facility in Kelowna, Canada (Oldham and Stevens, 1984). With this arrangement (Figure 14.63), primary sludge pumped to the fermenter displaces supernatant
that is returned to the main process. Elutriation water also can be added. Thickend
sludge is transfered for subsequent processing, and the SRT is controlled by blanket
depth in relation to the primary sludge withdrawal rate. The depth and mechanism
need to accommodate the thicker and deeper sludge blanket required for the necessary SRT.

FIGURE 14.63

Single-state static fermenter (WEF et al., 2005).

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4.4.2.4 Two-Stage Fermenter
This fermenter configuration consists of a complete-mix fermenter followed by a gravity thicker (Figure 14.64). The first large full-scale application of arrangement was at
the Bonnybrook WWTP in Calgary, Canada, as described by Fries and coworkers
(1994). Primary sludge pumped to the completely mixed fermenter overflows to the
thickener. Underflow from the thickener is recycled to fermenter and wasted as
required to maintain the desired SRT.
4.4.2.5 Unified Fermentation and Thickening
The unified fermentation and thickening (UFAT) process consists of two thickeners in
series (Figure 14.65). The first is the unmixed fermenter, the contents of which are transferred to the second thickener. Supernatant with VFAs from the second thickener is
directed to the BNR process and the thickened solids are wasted.
The fermenter SRT can be controlled by varying the solids pumping rate. The thickener is operated as needed to meet downstream solids processing requirements. The
VFA concentrations are 250 to 350 mg/L after the first fermentation stage, and 400 to
550 mg/L after the thickening stage (Baur, 2002b).
For all configurations, solids handling systems need to accommodate a range of
flows and thick solids streams. Consideration should also be given to potential for
unwanted sulfide and methane generation if the onset of methanogenesis occurs.

FIGURE 14.64

Two-stage fermenter/thickener (WEF et al., 2005).

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FIGURE 14.65

Unified fermentation and thickening fermenter (WEF et al., 2005).

4.5 Other Design Considerations

4.5.1 Baffles
The purpose of baffles is to alter hydraulic characteristics within the reactor. There are
several types of baffles used in reactors:
Interzone baffle to separate unaerated and aerated zones within a reactor to prevent back-mixing between the aerated and unaerated zone.
Intrazone baffles to create plug flow characteristics in a reactor.
Intrazone baffles in an aerated zone to prevent short circuiting in a pass with two
different diffuser densities.
Intrazone baffle to create a racetrack zone.
Mixing chimney to mix two flows before they enter a zone.
Nitrified mix liquor recycle pump baffle to reduce the amount of oxygen recycled to the anoxic zone.
Scum/foam trapping baffles to direct scum/foam to waste.
Baffles can be constructed from a variety of materials suitable for the intended service
in mixed liquor including wood, concrete (cast-in-place or precast), and fiber-reinforced
plastic with appropriate frames, fasteners, and anchorage. The variable flow patterns
and currents within a mixed or aerated reactor can cause fatigue-related failure of flexible materials such as woven metal or synthetic fabrics.
Baffles tend not to be water retaining walls but do need to be designed to resist differential pressure resulting from headloss. The design should provide an opening at

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the bottom of the baffle to prevent excessive forces when draining. The opening should
allow the operator to wash the contents from one zone into another for cleaning. Manways between zones can facilitate maintenance access. Low openings in overflow baffles should be sized to promote sufficient headloss to achieve the desired overflow and
water surface profile at most flows.
4.5.1.1 Interzone Baffles
The interzone baffle between an anaerobic and anoxic zone should be an overflow baffle. There should be positive headloss between the anaerobic zone and anoxic zone to
prevent nitrified mixed liquor that is recycled to the front of the anoxic zone from bleeding into the anaerobic zone.
An interzone baffle to separate an unaerated from a subsequent aerated zone prevents aerated mixed liquor from being recycled into the unaerated zone. Failure to do
this can inhibit phosphorus release or denitrification or encourage low dissolved-oxygen
bulking. The bulk of the flow should pass over the top of the baffle. When the air is
turned on in the aerobic zone, the water level will rise (approximately 1%). The headloss
across this baffle must account for this rise to prevent back flow from the aerated zone.
The interzone baffle between a swing zone and a subsequent aerated zone is similar to a baffle between an unaerated and aerated zone.
The interzone baffle to separate an aerated zone from an unaerated zone prevents
aerated mixed liquor from the aerated zone overwhelming the unaerated zone. In deep
aeration tanks, this baffle may consist of two baffles forming a chimney to allow for
some de-oxygenation of the mixed liquor to take place.
4.5.1.2 Intrazone Baffles to Create Plug-Flow Characteristics
The intrazone baffle often is used to create plug-flow characteristics within a zone.
Headloss across these baffles is minimal. Design depends on the type of mixer or type
of aeration being used.
When a submerged horizontal propeller mixer is used, the flow pattern tends to be
predominantly under the first baffle and then predominantly over the second baffle.
The flow division at average flow should not be less than 50 to 75% of the desired path.
For example, at least 75% of the flow entering the zone would pass under the upstream
baffle and 75% of the flow leaving the zone would pass under the downstream baffle.
This type of arrangement often is used in zones where the biological kinetics are
second order (e.g., phosphorus release) or a selector effect is desired. These are also
common in deep aeration tanks (more than 8 m deep) to create plug-flow characteristics in an aerated zone.
Intrazone baffles to prevent aeration-induced short circuiting are different from a
baffle to create plug-flow characteristics. These baffles tend to start 0.6 m above the floor

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and terminate 0.6 m below the water surface. These baffles tend to between a zone with
a high diffuser density and one with a lower density. This baffle reduces longitudinal
short circuiting down an aeration pass with two different diffuser densities.
4.5.1.3 Intrazone Baffles to Create a Racetrack Zone
It is easier to mix a long, narrow anoxic zone by creating a racetrack anoxic zone. Staff
at Thames Water in the United Kingdom developed this approach. The zone is mixed
by big blade mixers which maintain the average linear velocity above 0.3 m/s. This baffle should be at least 50 mm below the water surface because scum will tend to be
trapped upstream of the submerged horizontal propeller mixers.
4.5.1.4 Mixing Chimney
The purpose of a mixing chimney is either (1) to direct the flow below the water surface
or (2) to blend two streams (e.g., return activated sludge and primary effluent). A chimney can act as a preanoxic zone in a biological phosphorus configuration. The chimney
also can be used to mix a volatile acids stream or a methanol feed into the mixed liquor
before it is dispersed.
If the flow is being split between different reactors, then hydraulics should be
checked to ensure that momentum results in solids that split equally.
4.5.1.5 Nitrified Mixed-Liquor Pump Baffle
When the intake of the nitrified mixed liquor pumps are within a fine-bubble aerated
zone, the intake is boxed in by a baffle. The height of the baffle is a couple of meters off
the floor. The net flow into the baffle should be less than rise rate of an air bubble (e.g.,
25 to 30 cm/s). In one case where this was not done, the dissolved oxygen in the anoxic
zone was 0.5 mg/L, stimulating sludge bulking.

4.5.2 Mixing
The purpose of mixing is to blend streams, keep solids in suspension, or degas the
mixed liquor before settling.
The mixer and the shape/baffling of the tank cannot be considered separately.
Mixer selection and position should be done in cooperation with a qualified vendor.
The mixers should be positioned so that they do not induce localized back flow into the
preceding zones. The mixers should not entrain oxygen into the mixed liquor.
4.5.2.1 Blending Streams
Combining of two streams requires mixing. In some situations, it is important that the
two streams are mixed before entering a zone. The two most common situations are
when VFAs are added before an anaerobic zone and when the sewage feed and the RAS

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are mixed in a small denitrification zone. This is often accomplished in a mixing chimney without mechanical devices. The headloss that occurs when the flow enters the
chimney provides the mixing energy.
4.5.2.2 Mechanical MixingMaintaining Solids in Suspension
Net power required for transfer to the mixed liquor by a vertical turbine mixer is 12 to
16 W/m3; horizontal mixers require 5 to 7 W/m3. For racetrack zones, the velocity in the
channel should be 0.3 m/s.
4.5.2.3 AerationMaintaining Solids in Suspension
The volumetric power input of the aeration system should not be so high that it shears
the floc yet cannot be so low that solids start to settle. This is discussed in more detail
by Grady and coworkers (1999).
For mechanical aerators, the minimum power input for mixing is 14 W/m3. The
manufacturer of the device should be consulted for details.
For full-coverage aeration systems, a typical value is 2.2 m3/h per m2 of floor area.
This value can range between 1.2 and 3.0 m3/h per m2 depending on the application.
The diffuser manufacturer should be consulted because (1) there is minimal air flow
required to maintain air distribution into a grid and (2) to prevent clogging of the diffuser. The value will change based on the diffuser density, MLSS concentration, and
aeration tank depth. There also will be a recommended maximum flow determined by
the pressure loss across the diffuser.
The root mean square velocity gradient, G, is a fundamental parameter when looking at mixing in aeration tanks. If the MLSS concentration is greater than 5 000 mg/L,
then the viscosity of the suspension should be used instead of the viscosity of water in
the equations given below.
For a diffused air system:
G
[(Q    h)/(60  V  w)]0.5

(14.26)

Where,
G
root mean square velocity gradient (sec1);
Q
airflow rate (m3/min);

liquid specific weight (N/m3);
h
water depth above diffusers (m);
60
conversion from minutes to seconds;
V
volume of tank (m3); and
w
absolute viscosity (N/secm2).

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For a mechanical aeration system:
G
[(1 000  P)/(V  w)]0.5
Where,
1 000
P
V
w

(14.27)

watts per kW;

aerator power input (kW);

volume of tank (m3); and

absolute viscosity (N/secm2).

Effluent suspended solids concentration tends to rise once G exceeds 125 sec1 and disintegrates above 260 sec1. In normal aeration systems, the activated sludge will remain
in suspension with G values between 20 and 75 sec1.
In racetrack systems, some manufacturers use a mechanical mixer to maintain mixing and the aeration grid to provide aeration. In order to prevent the air bubbles interfering with the mixing pattern, a minimum distance between the mixer and the downstream aeration grid must be maintained. The mixer or diffuser vendor may provide
this to the designer. Typical values are either the width of the channel or the water
depth depending on the size of the racetrack.
4.5.2.4 Degasification
When an aeration tank depth exceeds 8 m, a degasification zone often is provided. This
zone is mixed either by air or mechanical means to strip dissolved gases from the MLSS
before it enters the clarifier. For a fine-bubble diffused air denitrifying plant, this is typically done using a shallower zone that is either aerated or mixed. A typical retention
time at average flow is 20 minutes.
4.5.2.5 Scum/Foam Control
Baffles within a reactor should promote, or not restrict to the extent possible, movement
of scum or foam through the reactor to a point where it can be wasted from the system
by either a scum/foam wasting weir or selective wasting. A scum/foam wasting weir
requires an underflow baffle that traps the scum while allowing flow to pass under the
baffle. The depth of this baffle should be at least 1 m below the water surface to prevent
scum from being drawn down with the flow. The purpose of scum and foam control is
to waste floating biomass from the process to the limit accumulation of filamentous
organisms that would otherwise adversely affect system performance and lessen floating materials requiring manual removal.
There are two types of systems: (1) a dedicated system removes only enough MLSS
to remove the scum and (2) a selective wasting system removes enough MLSS to main-

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tain the SRT. A selective wasting system is either continuous or operates for a large part
of the day. A dedicated system may only operate for a few hours per day. The difference between the two systems is the volume of water removed per day; a selective system will often be more effective because it removes more water.
The control of scum and foam is discussed in detail by Jenkins and coworkers
(2003). The most effective means to control scum and foam on a reactor is to trap it and
remove it; the design will be specific to the reactor configuration. The scum/foam must
be able to move through the reactor; water sprays should be placed where the
scum/foam might accumulate.
Water depth over the weir should be at least 25 mm at average flow to prevent the
scum/foam hanging up on the weir. The scum channel works best if the flow is towards
the weir and adds a water spray where necessary to prevent the scum/foam from
bridging across the channel. The channel should be covered to lessen hardening the
scum/foam layer.
Common problems with scum/foam removal include the volume of water
required for removal, bridging or hardening in the channel before removal, and production that exceeds what can be removed.
Dedicated systems are typically found in plants where WAS is removed from
the return activated sludge line. They are also in plants where scum/foam removal
was added after the fact. Water volume is an issue because the waste activated thickening process is not designed for wasting large amounts of water. Once the
scum/foam is removed using a dedicated system, it must be entrained in the WAS
before thickening.
In plants with a high risk of scum/foam formation, it is important that the scum
chamber and channel are readily accessible for manual cleaning and vacuum truck
service.

5.0 ANAEROBIC TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER

5.1 Introduction
Humanity has been adapting anaerobic microbiological decomposition for wastewater
treatment for more than 100 years; however, only within the last 20 years has its use for
industrial and municipal wastewater treatment become common (McCarty, 2001).
Developments in anaerobic technologies include the septic tank (1895), the Imhoff Tank
(1916), the Clarigester (1966), the anaerobic filter (1972), the upflow anaerobic sludge
blanket (UASB) reactor (1978), and the expanded granular sludge bed reactor (EGSB)
reactor (1985) (McCarty, 2001). Initial applications of anaerobic treatment to municipal

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wastewaters occurred between 1983 and 1991, and by 1997 there were about 160 municipal, anaerobic facilities primarily in the tropical and subtropical regions of Latin America and Asia (Hulshoff Pol et al., 1997). A survey published in 2008 identified about
3 000 WWTPs (all industrial) using anaerobic treatment process (Totzke, 2008). From
1981 to 2007, 50% of the installations used the UASB process. From 2002 to 2007, however, 55% of the new installations used expanded bed reactors, compared to 34% UASB,
making it the dominant anaerobic technology for industrial wastewater treatment (van
Lier, 2008). Due to the slow growth rate of anaerobic bacteria, anaerobic treatment of
municipal wastewaters is now primarily used in warm climates where the wastewater
temperature remains above 15C.
In search of ways to provide affordable wastewater treatment, communities in
India and Latin America have been advancing the use of anaerobic treatment for
domestic wastewater treatment. At this time, numerous full-scale plants with capacities
of up to 70 000 m3/d are in operation in these regions using the UASB process or variations of that process (Draaijer et al., 1992; Florencio et al., 2001; Giraldo et al., 2007;
Monroy et al., 2000; Schellingkhout and Collazos, 1992; Seghezzo, 2004; Sato et al., 2006;
Vieira et al., 1994).
Limited use of anaerobic treatment for wastewater in municipal facilities has been
documented in the United States and Canada, but there is potential for its use in U.S.
South where winter wastewater temperatures are greater than 15 to 20C. Advances in
the anaerobic treatment of municipal wastewater, including use of two-stage reactors,
coupled anaerobic reactor/digester combinations, UASB/hybrid reactors, and the
EGSB reactor likely will expand use of this technology into more temperate climates
(Switzenbaum, 2007).
Anaerobic treatment processes can be categorized as suspended growth, fixed
growth, and hybrid processes. Most existing full-scale municipal WWTPs with anaerobic treatment of the liquid stream use the UASB process, which is considered a hybrid
process (Sutton, 1990; Malina and Pohland, 1992). With high-strength wastewaters,
dense granules that consist of a microbial consortium characterize the UASB process.
When used for municipal wastewater, however, granular sludge typically does not
form, and the UASB process can be considered a suspended-growth process.
Anaerobic treatment offers many advantages over conventional aerated activated
sludge systems including lower energy consumption, the potential for energy recovery,
low sludge production, operational simplicity, low land area requirements, improved
sludge dewatering, ability to store sludge for long periods, simple designs, and less
noise from mechanical equipment. While anaerobic treatment offers many benefits, significant limitations exist including lower removal efficiencies for organics, suspended
solids, and pathogens and essentially no nutrient removal with basic process configu-

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rations. As a result, anaerobic treatment requires aerobic posttreatment to meet standard effluent criteria for secondary and advanced treatment.
In anaerobic treatment, aeration is not required, thus eliminating the large energy
demand needed to supply process air in aerobic processes. Because organic matter is
converted to methane, the process may produce energy for the facility. Anaerobic treatment processes typically are more energy efficient for higher strength wastewater
(greater than about 300 mg BOD/L), because under these conditions, the fraction of
methane dissolved in the effluent becomes insignificant relative to the total methane
production (Cakir and Stenstrom, 2005).
The anaerobic decomposition of organic compounds yields less energy for the
microorganisms, resulting in lower biomass yields. Typically, anaerobic treatment
reduces the overall biomass yield by a factor of 6 to 8 when compared to aerobic treatment (Tchobanoglous et al., 2003). The reduced biomass results in lower sludge production, which decreases handling and hauling costs, yielding a savings of approximately 10% compared to an aerobic process (Speece, 1996). Because of low sludge
production, nutrient requirements are less than for aerobic biological treatment. Anaerobic treatment can reduce the influent BOD and TSS by about 65 to 80%, yielding effluent concentrations of around 40 to 130 mg/L (Oliveira et al., 2006; von Sperling and
Oliveira, 2008; Khalil et al., 2008; Noyola et al., 2006).

5.2 Microbiology
As with anaerobic sludge stabilization processes, anaerobic processes for wastewater
treatment rely on a consortium of facultative and anaerobic bacteria to degrade organic
materials. In anaerobic treatment processes, a series of reactions convert organic materials in the wastewater to carbon dioxide, methane, and additional biomass. As illustrated in Figure 14.66, four major groups of biological reactions comprise anaerobic
decomposition: (1) hydrolysis, (2) acidogenesis, (3) acetogenesis, and (4) methanogenesis. In hydrolysis, strictly anaerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria convert the
biodegradable COD (large organic polymers including proteins, carbohydrates, and
lipids) to simpler, soluble monomeric compounds like amino acids, sugars, and longchain fatty acids. In acidogenesis, there is a further breakdown into VFAs. Following
hydrolysis and acidogenesis, fermentative bacteria convert hydrolysis products to
acetate, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen. In the final step, methanogens convert the
acetate to methane, carbon dioxide, and water. More information on the details of
anaerobic decomposition can be found in several references (Grady et al., 1999; Henze
et al., 2008; Jordening and Winter, 2005; Pavlostathis and Giraldo-Gomez, 1991; Speece,
1996; Vaccari et al., 2006).

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Carbohydrates

Sugars

Fats

Fatty acids

Proteins

Amino acids

Carbonic acids
and alcohols
Hydrogen
Carbon dioxide
Ammonia

Hydrogen
Acetic acide
Carbon dioxide

Methane
Carbon dioxide

FIGURE 14.66 Four major groups of biological reactions in anaerobic decomposition

(courtesy of Alex Marshall, Clarke Energy [www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/
Image:Stages-of-anaerobic-digestion.JPG]. Reprinted under the GNU Free Documentation License [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/]).

5.3 Process Configurations

Anaerobic treatment eliminates three of the biggest constraints on process loading that
occur in aerobic processes: (1) oxygen-transfer rates; (2) solids flux limitations, and (3)
high energy inputs for aeration that hinder floc formation (Speece, 1996). Although the
lack of these limiting factors in anaerobic processes enables much higher mass loading
rates, different constraints are imposed by low growth rates and high half-saturation coefficients of bacteria in the microbial consortia present. The slow growth rate of anaerobic
bacteria and their sensitivity to temperature places a premium on biomass retention; the
high half-saturation coefficients encourage use of staged reactors to increase performance.
A wide range of reactor types exists for anaerobic treatment, and some of these are
illustrated in Figure 14.67. For municipal applications, however, most installations are
based on the UASB reactor. Therefore, the remainder of this discussion will focus on the
UASB process. Information on other anaerobic reactor types is available elsewhere
(Chernicharo, 2007; Malina and Pohland, 1992; Nicolella et al., 2000; Speece, 1996; van
Haandel et al., 2006).

5.4 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket

5.4.1 Description
The UASB process is an anaerobic wastewater treatment technology that incorporates
two vertically stacked zones in one structure. On the bottom is an anaerobic reactor that
contains the sludge blanket, and above this is a gas-liquid-solid (GLS) separator. In the
GLS zone, deflection plates and collection hoods are used to capture the biogas while
allowing suspended solids to settle and return to the reaction zone. One of the keys to
successful application of UASBs is an efficient GLS design. Gas collected at the top of

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FIGURE 14.67 Schematic illustrations of several types of anaerobic reactor configurations: (a) upflow sludge blanket; (b) biofilm fluidized bed; (c) expanded granular sludge
bed; (d) anaerobic baffled reactor; (e) internal circulation; and (f) anaerobic hybrid reactor (Nicolella, 2000).

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the reactor can be vented, flared, or burned for heat or power generation. Venting gas
directly to the atmosphere is not recommended because methane is a potent greenhouse
gas. Burning biogas requires special burners and, potentially, treatment to remove
hydrogen sulfide and other contaminants contained like siloxane (Noyola et al., 2006).
Gas hoods typically have triangular cross-sections so that the sloped outside surfaces
create a settling zone that increases with distance from the top of the digestion zone.
Feed is introduced as uniformly as possible across the bottom of the sludge zone and
flows vertically (Figure 14.68).
The UASB processes share the same advantages and disadvantages discussed
above that are common to all anaerobic process. The UASB reactors provide economical removal of large fractions of the influent organics; but, removals are not high
enough to meet secondary treatment standards; pathogens and colloidal solids are not
adequately removed; and UASBs do not provide any significant nutrient removal. As a
result, aerobic posttreatment must be provided for most applications. Due to high carbon

FIGURE 14.68 Schematic illustration of upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor (van Lier, 2003).

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removal and low nutrient removal, posttreatment for nitrogen and phosphorus
removal may require chemical coagulation or addition of a supplementary carbon
source depending on the nutrient to be removed and the process configuration (Ahn
et al., 2006; Aiyuk et al., 2004; Foresti et al., 2006; Kalyuzhnyi et al., 2006; Li et al., 2007;
Tilche et al., 1994). Extended startup periods (approximately 12 to 20 weeks) are
required as a result of the slow growth of the anaerobic biomass unless the process can
be seeded with an anaerobic sludge. Similarly recovery from toxic shocks occurs slowly.
Because of the increasing number of anaerobic treatment facilities around the world,
seed sludge can be readily obtained.
Sludge in UASB processes treating mostly soluble wastes tends to form dense granules; however, granulated sludge does not form with dilute wastewaters containing
low concentrations of COD and high concentrations of TSS (Hulshoff Pol et al., 2004).
With flocculent (nongranulated) sludge, upflow velocities are limited to a maximum of
about 1.0 m/h so that the majority of the sludge remains in the reaction zone. Gases
generated in the sludge blanket and slow settling particles of sludge flow up from the
sludge zone and enter the GLS zone where the gas is captured and the suspended solids
either exit the process or are returned to the reactor. Odors are a potential problem if the
biogas is allowed to escape from the gas collection system. Biomass grown in the sludge
blanket remains there until wasted directly from the sludge zone or is gradually
allowed to fill the sludge zone, become r-entrained in the liquid stream and allowed to
exit the reactor in the effluent.
Power is only needed for pumping so that when sufficient head is available to
allow gravity flow, power requirements are low. Because of the relatively high concentration of biomass maintained in the reactor (30 to 40 g/L), the depth of the sludge zone
(2 to 4 m), and the construction of the GLS on top of the reactor zone, land requirements
are significantly lower than for most other wastewater treatment technologies.
Although the relative amount of biogas generated by UASB processes treating domestic water is low due to the low concentration of COD in the influent wastewater, sufficient quantities may be available in warmer climates to generate enough energy to
make the process self-sufficient (van Haandel and Lettinga, 1994).

5.4.2 Installations
Gatze Lettinga and coworkers at the University of Wageningen (Wageningen, The
Netherlands) first developed the UASB process in the 1970s as a unique anaerobic treatment technology. Between 1983 and 1992, UASBs were studied at laboratory scale and
later at demonstration scale. Initially the UASB process was developed for full-scale use
in industrial applications because the process is well suited for treating warm, soluble,
high COD wastewaters. The UASB reactors proved to be successful for high-strength

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wastes from industries such as breweries, distilleries, and food processing. Although
there are thousands of successful full-scale, high-rate anaerobic processes in industrial
applications, design and operation experience with full-scale municipal facilities
remains somewhat limited. In 1989, Kanpur, India, became the first full-scale demonstration of UASB technology treating municipal wastewater, and by 2004 more than 50
installations had been reported (Draaijer et al., 1992) (see Table 14.23). Most of these
plants are still in India and Latin America. Despite the number of UASBs being installed
to treat municipal wastewater, limited design and performance data are available from
operating, full-scale plants on which to judge the effectiveness and performance of
UASBs for treatment of municipal wastewater.
Selected results from several of these studies are reproduced in Table 14.24. At best,
UASBs provide approximately 80% removal of BOD5 and TSS, thus confirming the
need for posttreatment of UASB effluent to meet secondary and advanced treatment
standards. An extensive statistical evaluation of performance data from treatment
plants in Brazil found mean removals of BOD5 and TSS of 72 and 67% respectively (von
Sperling and Oliviera, 2008). The UASB processes with aerobic post treatment, however, had mean removals of 88% for BOD5 and 82% for TSS. This was comparable to the
mean values reported for plants using the activated sludge process (85% for BOD5 and
76% for TSS). Occasionally, poor removal rates for suspended solids for UASB
processes without posttreatment have been attributed to washout of sludge. Sato and
coworkers (2006) suggested that removal efficiencies of full-scale units could be
improved by proper operation and maintenance.

5.4.3 Design Considerations

Successful application of anaerobic treatment requires good mixing, contact between
influent wastewater and biomass, and retention of the biomass in the reactor (van
Haandel et al., 2006). The first full-scale UASB reactors for domestic wastewater were
sized based on experimental results from pilot-plant studies (van Haandel and Lettinga,
1994). Even with the increasing number of full-scale installations, a thorough characterization of the wastewater is considered essential and pilot testing desirable, before
designing a new UASB (Henze et al., 2008). Current full-scale installations in developing countries strive for low cost and simplicity and typically have only screening and
grit removal for pretreatment, and aerobic or facultative lagoons for posttreatment. Pretreatment to remove fats, oils, and suspended solids should provide enhanced performance and, in many situations, is essential. More sophisticated process configurations
have been proposed that maintain the basic advantages of anaerobic treatment while
adding enhanced removal of dissolved organic matter, suspended solids, and nutrients.
Key design considerations include reactor dimensioning, upflow velocity, GLS design,

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27
78
38
2.6
108
0.4

India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
Mexico
Mexico
Mexico

Sonipat
Gurgaon
Panipat

Yamunanagar

Karnal
Ghaziabad

Noida
Agra
Saharanpur
Tapeyanco
Atlamaxac. Tlaxcala
Fideicomiso Alto Rio
Blanco. Istaczoquitlan
Ezperanza

40
56 and70

25 and10

30
30
35 and 10

20, 45 and 50

India

36

0.20.6
0.6
0.228
0.7
28
14
5

Faridabad

Colombia
Brazil
Brazil
Brazil
Brazil
India
India

Cali
Campina Grande
Sumare
Sao Paulo
Recife
Mirzapur
Kanpur

3147

India

Colombia

Bucaramanga

Kanpur

Country

Design
Flow
(MLD)

1995

1994

5  16 740
135

1999
1998
2000 and
1999
2000 and
2002
2000
2002 and
2002
2000
2004
2000
1990

1998, 1998
and 1999

1994
7 000,
16 000 and
18 000
11 000
11 000
13 000 and
10 000
9 000 and
3 500
14 000
20 000 and
26 000
14 000
10 000
28 000
2 200

1 200

19831989
1989
1992
19861991
1997
1994
1989

1990

3  3 300
64
160
67.5
120
810

Start-up
Date
(year)

Reactor
Volume
(m3)

Selected existing, full-scale UASB reactors domestic wastewater.

Plant

TABLE 14.23

(Monroy et al., 2000)

(Monroy et al., 2000)

Polishing pond post treatment (Sato et al., 2006)

Polishing pond post treatment (Sato et al., 2006)
Polishing pond post treatment (Sato et al., 2006)
Post treatment by lagoons (Monroy et al., 2000)

Polishing pond post treatment (Sato et al., 2006)

Polishing pond post treatment (Sato et al., 2006)

Polishing pond post treatment (Sato et al., 2006)

Polishing pond post treatment (Sato et al., 2006)

Polishing pond post treatment (Sato et al., 2006)

UASB and facultative pond (Giraldo et al., 2007,

Seghezzo 2004, Schellingkhout et al., 1992)
Demo plant (Giraldo et al., 2007)
Pedregal Township (Giraldo et al., 2007)
(Vieira et al., 1994)
Demo plant (Giraldo et al., 2007)
(Florencio et al., 2001)
Post treatment with FAL (Seghezzo 2004)
Demo plant (Draaijer et al., 1992), (Giraldo
et al., 2007)
Mixed tannery and domestic waste (Seghezzo
2004)
Polishing pond post treatment (Sato, et al., 2006)

Comments

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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TABLE 14.24 Average UASB performance reported in Latin America and India
(Khalil et al., 2008, Giraldo et al., 2007).
Parameter
COD removal
BOD removal
TSS removal
Coliforms
Helminth eggs

Reported removals (%)

5679
4581
4581
7090
up to 100

estimation of sludge and biogas production, design of the flow distribution, odor control, provisions for scum removal, and materials selection.
5.4.3.1 Reactor Sizing
As with any biological suspended-growth treatment process, expected bacterial growth
rates control reactor biomass inventory, while minimum biomass settling velocities dictate the surface area for the solids separator and, for UASB reactors, the cross-sectional
area of the reactor. For anaerobic process, the controlling growth rates are those of the
slowest growing methanogens with maximum specific growth rates on the order of 0.12
day1. Because of low growth rates and difficulty in predicting the minimum growth
rate for the diverse consortium of microorganisms in the sludge blanket, recommended
safety factors on SRT for anaerobic processes are high, at approximately 3 to 10 (Henze,
2008; Speece, 1996). Figure 14.69 provides an estimate of the required SRT as a function
of temperature for treating domestic wastewater in a UASB reactor. Operating experience gained from demonstration and full-scale UASBs, rather than explicit measurements of sludge settling velocities, provides the basis for current guidelines for sizing
of reactors and GLS separators.
For domestic wastewater, sizing the reactor based on HRT provides a practical
approach because for low-strength wastewater (COD  1 000 mg/L) the hydraulic load
limits the design (Chernicharo, 2007; Henze, 2008). An average HRT for a single-stage
UASB treating domestic wastewater is approximately six hours. Values reported in the
literature range from 4 to 10 hours. Current design criteria for HRT for UASB reactors
are provided in Table 14.25. Regardless of the method used to size the reactor, the
expected SRT must still be estimated to ensure adequate design.
Use of the organic loading rate (OLR) is appropriate for high strength domestic
wastewaters because the organic load rather than the hydraulic load limits design. Care
must be taken, however, in defining and applying the OLR as the term can apply to the
applied load, removed load, or the converted load (van Haandel and Lettinga, 1994).

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FIGURE 14.69 Required solids retention time (SRT) for domestic wastewater treatment
as a function of temperature (Henze et al., 2008; reprinted with permission from IWA
Publishing).
For domestic wastewater, constraints imposed by biomass settling velocities will limit
the OLR to 1.5 to 3.0 kg CODapplied/m3d. The OLRs for high-strength wastewaters with
a significant amount of particulate COD are listed in Table 14.26 and are presented as
an example of the OLR limits of the process.
Until mathematical models for anaerobic treatment become more advanced, prediction of effluent water quality must be done using empirical relationships between
HRT and performance (Table 14.27 and Figure 14.70) (Chernicharo, 2007; van Haandel
et al., 2006). Careful judgment must be exercised in the use of these empirical relationTABLE 14.25 Recommended hydraulic detention times for UASB reactors treating
domestic sewage (Lettinga and Hulshoff Pol, 1991; reprinted from Water Science and
Technology, with permission from the copyright holders, IWA).
Hydraulic detention time (hour)
Sewage temperature (C)

Daily average

16 to 19
20 to 26
26

10 to 14
6 to 9
6

Minimum (during 4 to 6 hours)

7 to 9
4 to 6
4

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

TABLE 14.26 Permissible OLRs in single-step UASB reactors in relation to the
temperature for wastewater with 30 to 40% COD in suspended solids (adapted from
Henze et al., 2008).
Temperature (C)
15
20
25
30
35
40

OLR (kg CODapplied/m3/d)

1.52
23
36
69
914
1418

ships, as considerable scatter exists in the limited performance data from full-scale
facilities (see Figure 14.71), and data are only available for operation under tropical
conditions.
For domestic wastewater, current criteria call for superficial upflow velocities to be
maintained below approximately 1.0 m/h with average velocities in the range of 0.4 to
0.8 m/h. A design value of 0.75 m/h has been widely used for UASB reactors in India.
UASB reactor dimensions and upflow velocities are interrelated. Typical reactor heights
range from 3 to 5.0 m with a common value of 4.5 m. Greater heights may be required,
however, for wastewaters with high suspended solids concentrations (Wiegant, 2001).
Settler compartments comprise 1.5 to 2.0 m of this total height.
Successful UASB operation depends on proper hydraulic distribution of the feed
flow to prevent channeling of the wastewater through the sludge blanket and to avoid
the formation of dead corners in the reactor. Flow must be divided proportionately to
each reactor and then uniformly distributed to the numerous feed points located
across the bottom of the sludge blanket. The recommended density of feed inlet points
is currently approximately one for every 2.0 m2. Higher densities are recommended
TABLE 14.27 Empirical equations for estimating UASB reactor performance and effluent
water quality (Chernicharo, 2007; reprinted with permission from IWA Publishing).
Parameter

Empirical equation*

Efficiency of COD removal

Efficiency of BOD removal

ECOD
100  (1  0.68  t0.35)

EBOD
100  (1  0.70  t0.50)

Final effluent BOD and COD

Ceff
So 

Final effluent TSS

Css
102  20.24

E  So
100

* Empirical equations (wastewater temperature from 20 to 27 C)

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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90

80

70

UA
S

COD removal effieciency (%)

Temperature > 20C

er
ilt
f
ic
ob
r
ae
An

50
30
0
1

10

20

50

100

Retention time (h)

FIGURE 14.70 Experimental data on chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiency in upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors as a function of hydraulic
retention time (van Haandel et al., 2006).

for low influent concentrations of organics where low gas production increases the
risk of channeling and short circuiting. Table 14.28 presents guidelines on influent
flow distribution. Table 14.29 presents summary guidelines for the main hydraulic criteria and Table 14.30 provides other design criteria for UASB reactors treating domestic
wastewater.
5.4.3.2 Gas/Liquid/Solids Separation
As with any suspended-growth biological treatment process, retention of solids in the
UASB process is critical. In UASB reactors, the need to separate gas and solids from the
liquid stream complicates settler designs. Suggested guidelines for the GLS are to provide a minimum slope for the settler bottom of 45 to 60, to provide an overlap of 10 to
20 cm for the deflectors under the entrance to the settling zones, to provide a surface
area for the openings between the gas collectors of 15 to 20% of the reactor surface area,
and to provide a gas collector height of 1.5 to 2.0 m (van Lier, 2003).

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

FIGURE 14.71 Experimental data on chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiency in upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors as a function of hydraulic
retention time (van Haandel et al., 2006).
TABLE 14.28 Preliminary guidelines for flow distributors in UASB reactors (Lettinga
and Hulshoff Pol, 1991; reprinted from Water Science and Technology, with permission
from the copyright holders, IWA).

Sludge Type
Relatively dense and flocculent
(concentration 2040 kg TSS/m3)
Dense and flocculent
(concentration  40 kg TSS/m3)
Granular

OLR
(kg CODapplied/m3/d)
1.0 to 2.0
 3.0
1.0
1.0 to 2.0
3.0
2.0
2.0 to 4.0
4.0

Influent area of
each distributor
(m2)
1.0 to 2.0
2.0 to 5.0
0.5 to 1.0
1.0 to 2.0
2.0 to 3.0
0.5 to 1.0
0.5 to 2.0
2.0

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TABLE 14.29 Summary of the main hydraulic criteria for the design of the UASB
reactors treating domestic sewage (Chernicharo, 2007; reprinted with permission from
IWA Publishing).
Range of values, as a function of flow
Criterion/parameter
Hydraulic volumetric load (m3/m3/d)
Hydraulic detention time (h)b
Upflow velocity (m/h)
Velocity in apertures to the settler (m/h)
Surface loading rate in the settler (m/h)
Hydraulic detention time in the settler (h)
a
b

For Qave

For Qmax

For Qpeaka

4.0
6 to 9
0.5 to 0.7
2.0 to 2.3
0.3 to 0.8
1.5 to 2.0

6.0
4 to 6
0.9 to 1.1
4.0 to 4.2
1.2
1.0

7.0
3.5 to 4
1.5
5.5 to 6.0
1.6
0.6

Flow peaks with duration between 2 and 4 hours.

Sewage temperature in the range of 20 to 26C

TABLE 14.30 Other design criteria for UASB reactors treating domestic sewage
(Chernicharo, 2007; reprinted with permission from IWA Publishing).
Criterion/parameter
Influent Distribution
Diameter of the influent distribution tube (mm)
Diameter of the tube exit mouth (mm)
Distance between the top of the distribution tube and the water
level in the settler (m)
Distance between the exit mouth and the bottom of the reactor (m)
Influence area of each distribution tube (m2)
Biogas Collector
Minimum biogas release rate (m3/m2/h)
Maximum biogas release rate (m3/m2/h)
Methane concentration in the biogas (%)

Range of values
75 to 100
40 to 50
0.20 to 0.30
0.10 to 0.15
2.0 to 3.0
1.0
3.0 to 5.0
70 to 80

Settler Compartment
Overlap of the gas deflectors in relation to the opening of the settler
Minimum slope for settler walls ()
Optimum slope of the settler walls ()
Depth of the settler compartment (m)

0.10 to 0.15
45
50 to 60
1.5 to 2.0

Effluent Collector
Submergence of the scum baffle or the perforated collection tube (m)
Number of triangular weirs (units/m2 of the reactor)

0.20 to 0.30
1 to 2

Production and sampling of the sludge

Solids production yield (kg TSS/kg CODapplied)
Solids production yield, in terms of COD (kg CODsludge/kg CODapplied)
Expected solids concetration in the excess sludge (%)
Sludge density (kg/m3)
Diameter of the sludge discharge pipes (mm)
Diameter of the sludge sampling pipes (mm)

0.10 to 0.20
0.11 to 0.23
2 to 5
1 020 to 1 040
100 to 150
25 to 50

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

5.4.3.3 Gas Production
Because COD is conserved, the expected mass of methane produced can be estimated
from a COD balance around a reactor as follows:
CODT,O
CODT,e CODT,s  CODM CODR
CODM
Q(CODinf  CODeff)  YobsQCODinf  VR ( XR)

(14.28, 14.29)

Where,
CODM
COD converted into methane (kg COD/d);
CODT,O
influent total COD concentration (kg COD/m3);
CODT,e
effluent total COD concentration (kg COD/m3);
CODR
change in COD inventory in the reactor (kg COD/m3);
Q
average flow (m3/d);
Yobs
coefficient of solids production in terms of COD

0.11 to 0.23 kg CODsludge/kg CODapplied;
VR
volume of sludge blanket in reactor (m3); and
XR
change in reactor solids concentration (kg/m3).
The waste sludge term (YobsQSo) only applies if solids are wasted separately. If solids
are wasted in the effluent, then this term is not necessary. When evaluating operating
facilities, attention must also be given to the net change in the solids inventory in the
reactor. For design purposes, steady-state operation ( XR
0) is assumed.
The volume of a mole of methane at reactor operating conditions of temperature
and pressure can be calculated from the ideal gas law:
Vm

nRT
P

(14.30)

Where,
Vm
volume of one mole of gas (m3);
n
number of moles of gas
1;
P
pressure (atm);
R
universal gas constant;

8.20574587  105 atm-m3/mol-K; and
T
operating temperature (K).
The volume of methane produced is then calculated from the COD equivalence of
methane:
QM COD M

Vm
K COD

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(14.31)

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Where,
KCOD
COD corresponding to one mole of methane (64 g COD/mol); and
QM
volume of methane gas produced (m3/d).
Theoretical methane production from anaerobic treatment is 0.35 Nm3 CH4/kg COD
removed (Nm3
volume at 273 K and 1 atm), although total biogas production will be
about 0.5 m3/kg COD removed assuming the biogas is 70% methane. The actual
methane yield will depend on the substrate composition, sulfate concentration, water
temperature (because it changes the solubility of methane), and conversion of some
substrate to substances not oxidized in a COD test. Reported production rates vary
from 0.06 to 0.25 m3 CH4/kg COD removed (Arceivala, 1995; Giraldo et al., 2007; Noyola et al., 1988).
Methane has a solubility in water of about 1 mmole/L at atmospheric pressure,
which is equivalent to 64 mg/L of influent COD converted (van Haandel and Lettinga,
1994). Loss of methane in the effluent and from the reactor surface, can be a significant
fraction of the total methane generated from low strength domestic wastewaters.
5.4.3.4 Sludge Production
Sludge yields in anaerobic systems are directly related to the COD converted to
methane, the class of organic compounds degraded, and the concentration of inert
solids in the feed. Biomass yields in anaerobic processes range from 0.35 g/g COD for
carbohydrates and 0.20 g/g COD for proteins down to 0.038 g/g COD for fats (Speece,
1996). Sludge yields from the anaerobic treatment of municipal wastewater will be
higher due to the presence of inert solids. Reported values of the sludge yield from
UASB processes treating domestic wastewater range from 0.10 to 0.20 g TSS/g COD
applied, although higher values have been reported (van Haandel and Lettinga, 1994;
Yu et al., 1997). Because loss of suspended solids in the effluent can be significant, the
actual sludge production can be significantly less.
5.4.3.5 Alkalinity
Because of the relatively high partial pressure of CO2 in enclosed anaerobic reactors,
sufficient alkalinity must be present in the wastewater to prevent depression of the pH
below 6.0 to 6.5. For low-strength domestic wastewaters, however, supplemental alkalinity typically is not required (van Haandel and Lettinga, 1994). Alkalinity may vary
from the bottom to the top of the sludge blanket of UASB reactors. To maintain neutral
pH concentrations in the base of the reactor with wastewaters that have low alkalinity,
low nitrogen, and high organic concentrations, supplemental alkalinity may be
required. The alkalinity requirement can be reduced by recycling a portion of the flow
from the top of the reactor to the base of the reactor (Speece, 1996; Wentzel et al., 1994).

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More information on the chemical equilibria in anaerobic reactors can be found in
Speece (1996) and van Haandel and Lettinga (1994).

6.0 MEMBRANE BIOREACTORS

6.1 Introduction
A membrane bioreactor (MBR) is a combination of suspended-growth activated sludge
biological treatment and membrane filtration equipment performing the critical
solids/liquid separation function that is traditionally accomplished using secondary
clarifiers. Low-pressure membranes [either microfiltration (0.1 to 10 m) or ultrafiltration (0.01 to 0.1 m)] are typically used in MBRs.
There are two general types of membrane systems that can be used in MBRs:
(1) pressure-driven (inpipe cartridge systems that are located external to the bioreactor); and (2) vacuum-driven (immersed systems that are designed for installation within
the bioreactor). Immersed membrane technologies using hollow-fiber or flat-sheet
membranes are the most popular because they operate at lower pressures (or vacuums),
can more readily accommodate variations in solids, and typically provide a lower lifecycle cost, particularly for municipal facilities. Pressure-driven systems are more prevalent in industrial systems where waste characteristics, such as high temperatures,
require the use of ceramic membranes. In its simplest form, an immersed MBR can combine the functions of an activated sludge aeration system, secondary clarifiers, and tertiary filtration in a single tank. In most cases, however, membranes are immersed in a
tank separate from the bioreactor.

6.2 Components and Configurations

Membrane bioreactors are primarily a biological treatment process that uses the activated sludge process to remove soluble and particulate matter from the wastewater
being treated. As in any activated sludge process, the key to proper operation is successful separation of biological solids from mixed liquor to produce the desired effluent
while creating an RAS, which is essential for continuous operation of the process.
Unlike clarifier-based activated sludge processes, MBRs use membranes to separate biological solids from the mixed liquor. The membrane pore sizes are minute
often smaller than the pore sizes of filter papers used for laboratory analysisso the
separation of solids from liquids is essentially complete, and all biological solids are
retained in the process for use as return sludge or for wasting.
Although pore sizes are minute in the microfiltration or ultrafiltration range, they
are not able to capture soluble organic compounds, metals, or trace contaminants such

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as pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs), priority pollutants, or
endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). Although the biological process of an MBR
may adsorb or reduce such contaminants, the filtration mechanism is not adequate to
directly filter these materials from the wastewater. (WERF, 2007; Ternes and Joss, 2006)
It is important to understand the distinction between membrane equipment systems and MBRs. Membrane bioreactors are biological processes that use membranes
for the separation of the mixed liquor solids from the water that will be discharged.
Under current practice, membrane equipment systems include membranes, frames,
programmable logic controllers (PLCs), and other critical elements such as permeate
pumps and turbidity instrumentation. There are several manufacturers who produce
membranes and membrane equipment systems for use in MBRs. There are also several
firms that represent specific manufacturers and/or offer package MBR systems that
include biological process design as well as membrane equipment. Most offer a choice
of purchasing the equipment only or of purchasing a package that includes equipment
and process design responsibility.

6.2.1 Responsibility for Process Performance

The process performance of a membrane bioreactor system is often regulated by effluent
concentrations of BOD, COD, ammonia, total nitrogen, phosphorus, TSS, and turbidity.
Membrane equipment can only control the concentration of two of the TSS and turbidity. The remaining criteria are governed by biological process design and area affected
by SRT, dissolved-oxygen concentrations, recirculation rates within the process, volatile
acid concentrations, and other design parameters. Figure 14.72 shows a simplistic
Metal Salts
Aerobic

Aerobic
RAS/Recycle

WAS

FIGURE 14.72

General flow diagram for membrane bioreactor systems.

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representation of a membrane bioreactor, including the complexity of the process
design relative to the fundamental liquid/solid separation function of the membrane
equipment.

6.2.2 Historic Overview and Applications

Membrane bioreactors are used to treat both municipal and industrial wastewaters.
There are numerous potential benefits of MBR systems:
Biomass is completely retained resulting in consistently high-quality final effluent with suspended solids concentrations of less than 1 mg/L and of suitable
quality to be used as feed for reverse osmosis systems.
Compared to conventional activated sludge (CAS) plants with clarifiers, the
effluent quality is less dependent on the mixed-liquor concentration and sludge
properties.
Secondary clarifiers and effluent filters can be eliminated, thereby reducing plant
footprint.
Because systems can operate at high mixed-liquor concentration, for a given biomass inventory, the aeration basin volume can be reduced, further reducing
plant footprint.
For a given SRT, the volume of the bioreactor is less, because of the higher mixedliquor concentration. Alternatively, for a given process volume, an MBR process
can operate at longer SRT than a CAS plant, reducing sludge production.
Capital costs have fallen significantly, although reinforced concrete costs have
increased. The capital cost of a new MBR is often comparable or less than that for
an equivalent conventional plant having tertiary filtration using granular media
or membranes.
Modular nature allows for ease of expansion and flexibility in configuration,
making them a popular option for plants looking to retrofit older technology.
System can operate within a wide range of SRTs, resulting in increased flexibility and more options for optimization.
System is robust enough to handle elevated MLSS concentrations for short periods of time allowing for flexible solids wasting schedules.
Processes are easily automated; operator requirements are reduced because
operators are not required to closely manage sludge settleability issues.
A physical mechanism to remove pathogens is provided.
Low-turbidity effluent reduces downstream disinfection requirements; high
transmissivity means less energy required for UV disinfection. Effluent has minimal chlorine demand so less is required to achieve target residual concentration.

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Membrane bioreactors often become viable for facilities requiring high-quality effluent
for reuse or for discharge to sensitive receiving waters and for facilities with significant
land area restrictions (both new plants and retrofits).
Membrane bioreactors can offer attractive treatment options for ski, golf, and
other resort communities that are not connected to a municipal sewer system and have
a particularly high demand for irrigation water. The MBRs provide resorts with the
ability to treat wastewater on site in a compact facility and reclaim water for nonpotable reuse.
Sewer mining or scalping plants represent another potential application of
MBR technology for water reclamation. In rapidly expanding suburban areas, potential
users of reclaimed water are often not located near the main WWTP, and installing distribution systems to convey the reclaimed water can be difficult or expensive. By locating remote MBR facilities near reclaimed water users, these problems can be avoided.
The satellite or scalping plants can extract or mine wastewater from interceptor sewers and then deliver the treated effluent directly to users.
Although the advantages of MBR systems are numerous, MBRs are not suitable
for every wastewater treatment application. Some potential disadvantages of MBRs
include:
Flows above design capacity in a CAS plant typically results in incomplete treatment and may result in overflows from the secondary clarifiers. In a membrane
plant, however, there is a hydraulic limitation to how much treated water the
membranes can produce. If the actual flows are greater than design or membranes are fouled during a high flow period, then flows beyond system capacity
will need to be diverted to another location for treatment or contained in a holding tank. As an alternative, MBR system tanks can be designed with additional
freeboard to hold volume in emergency situations.
In light of the hydraulic limitations inherent in any membrane system, particular attention must be paid to redundancy and availability of spare parts for all
system components.
Limited peaking ability to handle typical influent peak flow conditions. As a
result, MBRs often are designed with a maximum daily or hourly flow peaking
factor of 2.0 to 2.5. Any flows beyond this threshold can be equalized in an
upstream holding tank, equalized within the freeboard volume of the bioreactor
tanks, or additional membranes can be installed to provide the required peak
capacity.
In some cases, peak flow capacity can be affected by polymers introduced into
plant return streams or by contaminants in the raw wastewater.

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As MBRs are a relatively new technology, there is a limited amount of data available to verify long term performance.
Since there are limited data available, it is difficult to predict life expectancy and
long-term performance.
Operating conditions often favor the formation of foam. Newer MBR facilities
are taking this into account during the design stage and include foam management options such as surface wasting to prevent accumulation.
Proper care must be taken to optimize chemical usage for membrane cleaning to
limit the effect of purchasing chemicals on operating costs.
Plants consume more energy than CAS plants operating at an equivalent SRT.
Major consumers of energy include air scour blowers and RAS recycle pumps.
Membrane replacement cost affects life cycle cost analyses.
Although highly automated, and often remotely controlled, MBRs must be closely
monitored to detect changes in flux rates and permeability before they escalate.
Maintaining a proactive cleaning schedule can help avoid such situations.
Membrane equipment systems are unique, having different configurations and
shapes depending upon the manufacturer. There is, therefore, a need to prepurchase or preselect the membrane manufacturer before completion of the
design phase.
To achieve reliable membrane performance, a minimum SRT is required in the
MBR to adsorb and synthesize wastewater constituents before their exposure to
the membrane. The minimum SRT required for effective membrane performance
coincides with the minimum SRT associated with nitrification. Systems are,
therefore, more economically applicable to nitrifying systems.

6.2.3 Influent Quality

Just as with any other activated sludge process, the influent wastewater quality to an
MBR can vary significantly with geographic location and composition (proportion of
domestic/industrial wastewater). Although pretreatment to remove grit and screenable materials is critical for operation and maintenance of membrane systems, in many
respects, influent quality is not as important as MLSS concentration and SRT. These
parameters define the quality of the material to which the membranes will be exposed
and within which the membranes will be expected to operate.

6.2.4 Effluent Quality

The effluent from an MBR process is essentially free of suspended solids and macrocolloidal material. An MBR facility also can be designed to remove nutrients from the

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wastewater, similar to conventional biological nutrient removal processes, with minor
modifications.
Typically, effluent from MBR facilities contains less than 1 mg/L TSS, less than
5 mg/L cBOD, less than 0.2 nephelometric turbidity units (NTUs), and low levels of
bacteria. When membranes with pore sizes in the micro- and ultra-filtration range are
used, MBRs alone will not remove dissolved solids, and the membranes themselves will
have no effect on pH or alkalinity.
Effluent from MBR facilities can be discharged to sensitive areas, reused on public
access sites, or further treated by nanofiltration or reverse osmosis. Table 14.31 summarizes the typical effluent quality produced from a municipal MBR facility that is
designed to achieve nutrient removal.

6.3 Process and Equipment Design Approach

6.3.1 Biological Process Design
Biological design of MBR systems has been reported for a variety of different combinations of effluent criteria relating to ammonia, total nitrogen, and phosphorus. Design
criteria are, therefore, becoming available for distinct types of treatment applications
including: nitrification; nitrification with chemical addition for phosphorus removal;
nitrogen removal through nitrification and denitrification; nitrogen removal with
chemical phosphorus removal; and combined biological nitrogen and phosphorus
removal. Figures 14.73 to 14.76 provide simplified flow schematics of MBR systems,
illustrating a few basic process configurations.

TABLE 14.31

Typical municipal MBR effluent quality.

Parameter

Units

Values

mg/L
mg/L
mg/L as N
mg/L
mg/L

5
1
1
10
3

cBOD5
TSS
Ammonia
Total nitrogen (with pre-anoxic zone)
Total nitrogen (with pre- and postanoxic zones)
Total phosphorus (with chemical addition)

mg/L

Total phosphorus (with Bio-P removal)

Turbidity
Bacteria
Viruses

mg/L
NTU
Log removal
Log removal

0.2
(typical) 0.05
(achievable)
0.5
0.2
Up to 6 log (99.9999%)
Up to 3 log (99.9%)

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2
Aerobic/ Effluent
Membrane

Influent

Aerobic
2-4Q

MLR (RAS)
FIGURE 14.73

Nitrifying membrane bioreactor.

In addition to the configurations illustrated above, various advanced biological

processes can be combined or incorporated into an MBR design. Some of these
include:
Nitrogen removal incorporating recycle of mixed liquor to the upstream aerobic zone, combined with recycle of mixed liquor from just before the membrane
zone to the anoxic zone (Figure 14.74). In this way, oxygen concentration in the
stream being recycled to the anoxic zone may be lower. An additional benefit of
a dual-recycle configuration is the ability to completely decouple solids recycle
requirements from denitrification requirements. The downside is the higher
capital and operational costs associated with two sets of recycle pumps instead
of one. An alternative approach for reducing the dissolved-oxygen concentration in the recycle stream is to design a small deaeration zone upstream of the
anoxic zone.

Influent

Anoxic

Aerobic

3
Aerobic/ Effluent
Membrane

2-4Q
MLR (RAS)
FIGURE 14.74

Membrane bioreactor with two-stage pumping for nitrogen.

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Primary
Effluent

Ferric

1-2Q

1-2Q
1

Anaerobic

Anoxic

Aerobic

Aerobic

6
Aerobic/
Aerobic Membrane
5

Effluent

4Q
MLR (RAS)

FIGURE 14.75 Traverse City membrane bioreactor design for nitrogen and phosphorus
removal.
Supplemental addition of an external carbon source such as methanol to a
postanoxic zone to further enhance denitrification can be effective, particularly
in plants required to reduce total nitrogen to less than 5 mg/L.
The addition of chemicals for phosphorus removal can be practiced with MBRs
in a similar manner as for CAS processes. Because virtually all the particulate
phosphorus is removed in an MBR, the metal salt dosage required to achieve a
certain treatment objective may be lower with MBRs. Occasionally, metal salts
for phosphorus removal has had a beneficial effect on membrane permeability,
as increasing the size of the flocs makes for more easily filtered mixed liquor,
and reduces membrane fouling. Maximum chemical doses may be limited by the
membrane equipment.
Biological phosphorus removal can be achieved using many of the processes
proven to support the growth of PAOs. In this case, the preservation of soluble
organic material is even more important than for nitrogen removal, and the

Alum
1-2Q

1-2Q
Primary
Effluent

Anaerobic

Anoxic

Aerobic

Aerobic

Alum

6
Aerobic/
Aerobic Membrane
5

Effluent

4Q
MLR (RAS)

FIGURE 14.76

Loudon County, Virginia, membrane bioreactor.

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unintended recycle of dissolved oxygen to the anoxic zone must be avoided. The
operator also would need to monitor and avoid the transfer of nitrate from the
anoxic zone to the anaerobic zone and should be able to adjust recycle flows.
Many alternate configurations exist for achieving biological phosphorus
removal. Two operating configurations are shown in Figures 14.75 and 14.76.
6.3.1.1 Solids Retention Time
Most of the initial MBR systems were designed with extremely long SRTs, ranging from
30 to 70 days. More recently, MBRs have been designed and operated at less than about
20 days SRT. One initial concern was that reduced permeability could result from short
SRT operation, presumably due to the fouling effect of extra-cellular excretions from
younger sludges (WEF, 2006; WERF, 2001). Lower SRTs have since been found to be
achievable, provided that it remains within the range typically associated with nitrification. Current design practice suggests that the design SRT of an MBR is comparable
to the SRT of a conventional activated sludge system treating the same wastewater to
achieve the same filtered effluent quality.
Recent experience with immersed membranes has indicated that biopolymer fouling is not strongly related to SRT, provided that the SRT is at least long enough to perform nitrification. In these cases, fouling can be controlled by automated in-situ membrane cleaning. The selection of SRT based on the treatment requirements is therefore
now possible, and recent pilot studies indicate that SRTs as low as 8 to 10 days are feasible. As in any activated sludge process, nitrification rates are highly temperature
dependent. Although an SRT of 12 days may be suitable at 18C (64F), to achieve the
same level of nitrification, an SRT of 20 days may be required at 10C (50F).
To maintain membrane performance, a minimum retention of the raw wastewater
before exposure to the membranes is required. This retention is required to allow influent colloidal matter to be adsorbed into flocs before reaching the membranes.
6.3.1.2 Mixed-Liquor Suspended Solids Concentration
Immersed MBR systems typically have operated with MLSS concentrations in the
membrane tanks between 8 000 and 12 000 mg/L, with occasional operation between
15 000 and 18 000 mg/L. Operating in this range has reduced the bioreactor volume
required and minimized waste sludge handling and stabilization. High MLSS, however, has been shown to reduce membrane permeability and to reduce the aeration
alpha factor, leading to higher aeration energy requirements. Current design practice
is to assume the MLSS to be closer to 8 000 to 10 000 mg/L to ensure reasonable oxygen transfer efficiency. Operators should carefully monitor the MLSS concentration to
ensure that it does not become excessively high and does not exceed the manufacturers
recommendation.

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6.3.1.3 Oxygen Transfer
At MLSS concentrations higher than intended by the design, the demand for oxygen
can increase significantly, because of the higher concentration of biological activity
and higher associated SRT. In some cases, demand can exceed the volumetric capacity of typical oxygenation systems. The operator may observe a decrease in the dissolved oxygen concentration that can be maintained in the aerobic zones. The oxygen
transfer capacity of the aeration system must also be carefully understood. Further,
the high MLSS concentration itself may affect transfer efficiency by reducing the
alpha factor as indicated in Figure 14.77 (WERF, 2002). Immersed membranes typically are provided with shallow coarse-bubble air to agitate the membranes as a
means to control fouling. This membrane aeration provides some oxygenation, but
at low efficiency.
Typical dissolved oxygen concentrations in the various zones of an MBR process are:

Anaerobic: 0.0 to 0.1 mg/L;

Anoxic: 0.0 to 0.5 mg/L;
Aerobic: 1.5 to 3.0 mg/L; and
Membranes: 2.0 to 6.0 mg/L.

FIGURE 14.77 Impact of MLSS concentration on aeration alpha factor (WERF, 2002;
reprinted with permission of the Water Environment Research Foundation).

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6.3.2 Equipment System Design

The primary difference of MBRs compared to traditional biological suspended growth
is that microorganisms are more completely separated from the water using membranes, resulting in a higher quality effluent than can be achieved with secondary clarifiers and granular media filters.
For successful operation, membrane equipment systems for MBRs include various
combinations of air scour, backwash, relaxation and chemical cleaning systems to maintain performance and permeability. Membranes can be operated across a range of
flows, or flux, as long as an adequate differential pressure is provided across the membranes. Immersed MBR systems have limited differential pressure (less than 10 psi),
and, hence, flux rates are more restricted than with external, pressure-driven MBRs.
Experience with MBR membrane equipment suggests that average flux between 14 to
25 L/m2h (8 to 15 gpd/sq ft) are sustainable when the MLSS is 15 000 mg/L or less.
Typical membrane equipment system components may include but is not limited to
membranes and support frames; permeate and backpulse pumps; PLCs, instrumentation, and controls; air scour delivery systems; and membrane cleaning delivery systems.
The two main subgroups of MBR configurations are immersed membrane systems
and inline membrane systems. Although inline systems operate at higher flux and can
require a smaller footprint than immersed MBR systems, the latter are more common in
municipal applications because of significantly lower operating costs and less frequent
cleaning requirements.
Some types of immersed membranes for use in membrane bioreactors include

Unsupported hollow-fiber membranes;

Reinforced hollow-fiber membranes;
Stationary flat-plate membranes; and
Rotating flat plate membranes.

Depending on the manufacturer, however, membranes also may differ in pore size,
composition, cassette configuration, operating procedures, and maintenance requirements. Details on specific products must be obtained directly from the manufacturer.
(Note: In this manual, the term cassette refers to the largest membrane assembly removable by a crane. Depending on the manufacturer, this also may be referred to as a rack
or module.)

6.3.3 Equipment System Procurement

An ideal time to procure the membrane equipment system may be after the preliminary process design and facility layout is completed, and before the detailed design of

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facility structures or equipment systems. The completed preliminary process design
should determine the SRT, process flow diagram, and bioreactor zone volumes, complete with the associated MLSS concentrations and predicted treated effluent quality.
This information defines the specific conditions within which the membrane equipment
system will be required to perform its solids/liquid separation function, and which are
required to be included within the membrane equipment bid documents, such as SRT,
temperature, MLSS concentration, and the addition of metal salts, if any. At this point,
various design flows and durations are known, as are the redundancy requirements.
This early procurement also allows for a competitive process and defines the responsibility of each party.
Many design aspects of an MBR plant are dependent upon the specific requirements and configurations of the selected membrane equipment. This equipment-specific information is required before the initiation of final design. This is especially true
for submerged membrane systems where tank volumes and shapes and equipment piping design are unique for each manufacturer. The membrane tank dimensions, nature
and design of the backpulse and chemical cleaning systems, the building layouts for
the equipment, and the size and operation of the blowers that provide air to scour the
membranes are all affected by the particular type of membrane equipment that is
selected.

6.4 Pretreatment
6.4.1 Fine Screens
It is normal practice that fine screening equipment with a maximum of 1- to 2-mm
openings is provided to protect membranes from debris and fibrous materials. Typically, these screens are installed downstream of 6-mm screens, either at the headworks
or following primary clarification. Additional measures include placing covers over the
membrane tanks, or fine screening a portion of the mixed liquor as it is returned from
the membrane tanks to the bioreactor.

6.4.2 Primary Clarifiers

Primary clarification is not specifically required for an MBR, although, just as for other
activated sludge systems, they can reduce the total energy required for aeration and
overall volume of the bioreactor. Primary clarification provides the additional benefit
of settling out some of the undesirable trash and skimming off scum and floatables
that would otherwise be removed by fine screening. Some membrane manufacturers
will allow less stringent fine screening if primary clarification is included in the
process.

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6.5 Membrane Bioreactor Design

6.5.1 Mixed-Liquor Recycle Pumping
Just as in any conventional activated sludge process, sludge must be recycled from the
solids/liquid separation device back to the front of the biological process to redistribute biomass. In the case of MBRs, the recycle can be 200 to 400% of the plant flow, and
a minimum recycle is required to flush the membrane area and to control the concentration of MLSS in the area of the membranes. If the recycle rate is too low, then the
MLSS in the membrane tank will escalate rapidly, making operation unsustainable. The
main objective of the high recycle rate is to redistribute the sludge inventory and to
minimize membrane fouling associated with elevated MLSS concentrations.
It is important to note that the recycle of mixed liquor from the membrane area can
contain high concentrations of dissolved oxygen, approximately 2 to 6 mg/L, instead of
the virtual absence of dissolved oxygen in the return sludge from a clarifier. This oxygen cannot be controlled because the airflow provided by the air scour delivery system
must be sufficient to provide a minimum shearing action across the surface of the membranes. If mixed liquor is recycled from the membrane tank to an anoxic zone, then the
denitrification process will be less efficient. To account for the elevated dissolved oxygen in the recycle stream, anoxic zones in MBRs with single recycle streams and without dedicated deaeration zones must be larger to compensate for the reduction in denitrification efficiency. Whereas a CAS plant may have an anoxic zone that is 15 to 20%
of the total bioreactor volume, an MLE-based MBR plant with a single recycle stream
may one that is 20 to 40%. Alternatively, mixed liquor can be recycled from the membrane tank to an aerobic zone, and then the aerated mixed liquor at lower dissolved
oxygen concentration can be pumped to the anoxic zone. This reduces the anoxic zone
volume requirement and conserves soluble substrate for denitrification.
Mixed liquor recirculation in an MBR system can be designed in one of two ways:
(1) Pumping mixed liquor from the bioreactor to the membrane tanks and returning
the mixed liquor from the membrane tanks to the bioreactor by gravity, or
(2) Allowing gravity flow of mixed liquor from the bioreactor to the membrane tanks
and pumping of the mixed liquor from the membrane tank to the bioreactor.
The first approach requires pumping (R1)Q, whereas the second requires pumping
RQ (where R is the mixed liquor recirculation ratio and Q is the influent flow). Different pump types can be used for mixed liquor recirculation, although submersible or
high-capacity end suction centrifugal pumps are most common (Figure 14.78). Axial
flow pumps are well suited for this application because of the high flow and low head
requirements.

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FIGURE 14.78

Recirculation pumps (courtesy of CH2M Hill).

Recirculation pumps should be sized to ensure:

Sufficient flow to avoid buildup of MLSS in tanks and ensure proper solids distribution between the biological process tanks and membrane tanks; and
Sufficient nitrate return flow to the unaerated zones at the head of the bioreactor
to achieve required levels of predenitrification and the target effluent nitrate
concentration.
One membrane manufacturer designs their facilities using a proprietary jet aeration
system to scour the membranes. In these systems, the recirculation pumps are used to
achieve the proper mixed-liquor flowrate and head through the jets at the base of the
membrane modules. These systems require that the mixed liquor be pumped from the
bioreactors to the membrane tanks.
In systems where the mixed-liquor recirculation is used solely to dilute solids in
the membrane tank, the recirculation pump is sized for two to four times the annual

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average or maximum month rates of flow. If the pumps are also used as part of a denitrification system, then they may be sized as large as three to eight times the average
daily flow. Some systems use recirculation pumps as part of the two-phase jet system
which combines fluid transfer with air scour energy. Total dynamic head is based on
headlosses through the pump and piping systems, including the jets where applicable.

6.5.2 Mixing
The unaerated zones in the bioreactor typically are equipped with a dedicated mixer in
each zone to keep the solids in suspension. Unaerated zones may include deaeration
(or de-oxygenation) zones, preanoxic and postanoxic zones, and anaerobic zones.
Although submersible mixers are common, vertical shaft fixed-mounted mixers also
can be used. The mixers ensure adequate mixing within each zone for proper contact
between biomass, substrate, and oxygen source (nitrate or oxygen) and complete volume use without short circuiting across any zone.

6.5.3 Aeration (Bioreactors, Membrane Tanks)

Biological process aeration is provided by typical aeration systems used in conventional
activated sludge processes, including fine-bubble aeration, coarse-bubble aeration, and
jet aeration. Fine-bubble diffusers with full floor coverage are the most common type of
aeration system used in the aerobic zones of bioreactors because of their higher oxygen
transfer efficiency (Figure 14.79). Tubular or disc-type membrane fine-bubble diffusers
are most typically used.
Air scour is used by immersed membrane systems to create shear forces and turbulence across the surface of the membranes to keep the solids away from the membranes and to maintain optimum conditions for flow through the membranes. Typical
rates of air scour are 0.2 to 0.6 Nm3/h per square meter of membrane area (0.01 to 0.03
scfm/ft2). Most air-scour systems operate continuously, although some systems include
intermittent or varying flow. If the air scour system fails, then the transmembrane pressure (TMP) will rise quickly, possibly causing alarm conditions and the need for cleaning to restore normal operation.

6.5.4 Permeate Pumping and Gravity Permeation

The driving force for membrane filtration can be accomplished by either a pumping
system or by gravity. External membrane systems can only use a pumping system
because the mixed liquor must be pumped across the face of the membranes. With
immersed membranes, permeation is achieved by applying slight suction to draw the
clean water through the membrane. Gravity siphon systems can be used if site conditions are suitable; whereas pumped permeation systems can be used in all cases.

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FIGURE 14.79

Fine-bubble aeration system (courtesy of CH2M Hill).

There are many possible configurations for permeate pumping systems and many
different types of permeate pumps. The simplest configuration is a dedicated permeate
pump per membrane train (Figure 14.80). Permeate pumps can be end-suction centrifugal or positive displacement rotary lobe type. Each membrane train is equipped with a
permeate header that connects all the membrane cassettes within the train. When endsuction centrifugal pumps are used, some means of removing entrained air from the permeate needs to be included to prevent the pumps from losing prime. An air separator
connected to a vacuum pump or a venturi system can be used to remove entrained air.
Because rotary lobe pumps can handle a higher percentage of entrained air, the
permeate header typically is connected directly to the suction side of a self-priming
rotary lobe pump without any air separator.
A feature of rotary lobe pumps is that they can reverse the direction of flow by
reversing the direction of lobe rotation. When rotary lobe pumps are used in MBR systems, they most often serve double duty as both the permeate and backwash pumps.

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FIGURE 14.80

Permeate pumps (courtesy of CH2M Hill).

The permeate pump typically is equipped with a variable frequency drive (VFD).
A dedicated magnetic flow (mag) meter and turbidimeter typically are located downstream of each permeate pump.
All permeate pumps discharge into a common permeate collection header for
downstream disinfection (optional) and discharge.

6.5.5 Instrumentation and Process Control Systems

Each membrane equipment manufacturer assembles its system to include a variety of
monitored and controlled instrumentation and equipment. The programmable logic
controllers (PLCs) provide several critical functions: monitoring equipment alarms and
setpoints; trending of operating information such as transmembrane pressure and flow;

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controlling or shutting down equipment; automating control of certain operating procedures; and executing operator-initiated or event-triggered activities.
Membrane PLCs typically will be connected to the plant PLC or supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system for the exchange of operating information
and for the transfer of commands such as the control and sequencing of events that
involve both membrane and general plant equipment. Examples of the latter include
the coordination of valves, pumps, and gates for the isolation of a membrane tank for a
chemical cleaning procedure.
It is recommended that designers be familiar with the operation and actions of the
membrane equipment PLC system during unusual events such as power failures, maintenance of electrical control panels, and high-flow events.

6.6 Membrane Bioreactor System Equipment

As described earlier in this chapter, a typical plant that includes an MBR system consists
of the following major units processes:

Preliminary treatment system (headworks),

Biological process tankage (bioreactor),
Biological process blowers,
Membrane filtration system,
Air scour blowers,
Backpulse system (manufacturer-dependent),
Mixed-liquor recirculation system,
Cleaning system,
Posttreatment, and
Waste sludge treatment and disposal.

A schematic of the major unit processes (components) of a complete membrane bioreactor facility is shown in Figure 14.81. The equipment described in this section will be
limited to the MBR process equipment, specifically the equipment used in the bioreactor and in the membrane filtration system.

6.6.1 Process Air and Air Scour Equipment Systems

6.6.1.1 Biological Process Blowers
Depending on the size of the plant, the process aeration blowers can be either positive
displacement or centrifugal. The process blower system is designed as a common group
of blowers (duty plus online standby) that provides air to all biological process trains.
All of the blowers discharge into a common air supply manifold that delivers air to the

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FIGURE 14.81 Process flow diagram of a typical membrane bioreactor facility (courtesy
of CH2M Hill).

individual diffuser grids in each aerobic zone. The process aeration blowers typically
are separate from air scour blowers, although the two systems may share a common
standby.
6.6.1.2 Air Scour Blowers
The membrane air scour blower system typically is designed as a common group of
blowers with installed standby units. Positive displacement or centrifugal blowers are
used (Figure 14.82). All blowers discharge into a common membrane air manifold that
delivers air to the air header above each membrane tank (train). Each membrane cassette is connected to the air header above each membrane tank using flexible hose or
rigid piping.
Membrane manufacturers dictate the design airflow rate of the air scour blowers.
Once the airflow rate per membrane cassette is specified, the air scour blower is sized
based on the maximum cassette spaces in the tank and the maximum possible liquid
level in the membrane tank. To supply the proper airflow rate for the number of membrane cassettes initially installed, the blower airflow rates could be reduced by adjusting the VFD, inlet control valves, or inlet control vanes or by resheaving the blowers.
This approach oversizes the blowers, but it provides the flexibility to add membranes

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FIGURE 14.82

Air scour blower system (courtesy of CH2M Hill).

(if required) without having to add blower capacity. It also allows sufficient air to the
membranes and keeps them in production under the unlikely event that the liquid levels in the membrane tanks exceed normal operating level.
Air may be supplied to the membranes continuously or intermittently (sometimes
referred to as cyclic aeration). When intermittent aeration is used, the blowers are operated continuously at a fixed speed and airflow to independent aeration headers, or to
portions of the membrane assemblies, using either actuated valves or air-accumulation
and release devices. This enables air flows to vary between trains, groups of cassettes
within a train, or portions of a cassette.
The air scour blowers may form a part of the jet aeration system, where a twophase jet system is located at the bottom of each membrane module introducing both air

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and mixed liquor. Air bubbles blend with the mixed liquor and rise up through the
membrane bundle, providing scouring energy to the membrane surface and fluidizing
the membrane surface to prevent solids accumulation.

6.6.2 Cleaning Systems

Membranes must be maintained and cleaned regularly to ensure that the desired system filtration capacity is provided. Several of the recommended cleaning procedures
involve use of chemicals to remove residues from the surfaces. Acid solutions are used
to clean the membranes of inert deposits and dilute chlorine solutions eliminate organic
growth and fouling.
Cleaning chemicals can be injected inline as the membranes are backwashed or
membranes can be cleaned-in-place (CIP). Cleaning solution from the backpulse tank is
blended with the chemical flow before being backwashed into the membranes or transferred into the tank.
Other chemical feed systems that may be found in an MBR plant include
Coagulants for phosphorus removal (e.g. ferric chloride, aluminum sulfate
(alum), sodium aluminate); and
Sodium hydroxide or lime for pH and alkalinity control.

6.6.3 Chemical Feed Systems

Chemical cleaning can range from a fully manual procedure to a semi- or fully automated
system. The fundamental task is the same: any membrane train can undergo a chemical
clean without affecting the operation of other trains (other than increased flow to maintain capacity). This is achieved by adding (manually or automatically) a chemical solution
to the inside and outside of the membrane with the membrane cassettes remaining in
place within the membrane tanks, know as CIP. For smaller systems, individual cassettes
can be temporarily located in a dedicated cassette cleaning tank. Cleaning chemicals
used, frequency, and duration of cleanings are different for various membrane systems.
Chemical membrane cleanings can be classified into one of two types: maintenance
or recovery cleaning. Maintenance cleaning events occur from once per day to once per
week and each is less than two hours in duration. The purpose of maintenance cleaning is to increase time between recovery cleans. Maintenance cleans use lower concentrations of chemical than recovery cleans. Recovery cleaning frequency varies between
membrane manufacturers and installations but typically ranges from once every two
months to once every six months. Duration of recovery cleans is from 6 to 24 hours.
A fully automated cleaning system consists of a backpulse water storage tank,
backpulse pumps (Figure 14.83), a flow meter, and chemical metering systems. Stored

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FIGURE 14.83

Backpulse pumps (courtesy of CH2M Hill).

permeate from the backpulse tank is backpulsed through the membrane at a specified
flow rate, and the appropriate chemical is injected directly into the permeate header
using the chemical metering pumps to achieve the desired chemical concentration. In
some cases, the backpulse storage tank is equipped with a heating system to allow hotwater cleaning.
Separate chemical metering systems are used for each cleaning chemical used,
which include sodium hypochlorite and citric acid. Each metering station is equipped
with an appropriate chemical holding tank, a pair of chemical dosing pumps (one duty,
one online standby), and a calibration column. The chemical metering stations are
designed to deliver chemical for the following functions:
Sodium hypochlorite for maintenance cleaning, recovery cleaning, and to flush
the CIP/backpulse tank to prevent contamination and biogrowth in the tank; and
Citric acid for maintenance and recovery cleaning.

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6.6.4 Backpulse Pumping and Backwashing

Backpulse systems are only included in MBRs using hollow-fiber membranes. These
systems are either equipped with a separate backpulse pump or use the permeate pump
for backpulsing. During backpulsing, the direction of flow is reversed, and the membranes are flushed from the inside-out using permeate stored in a backpulse tank. In
some systems, the backpulse pump is also used for CIP. Reversible self-priming pumps
can be used for dual duty: permeation and backpulsing. Centrifugal permeate pumps
also can be used for backpulsing without the need for a separate backpulse pump by
changing the direction of flow through use of automatic valves and piping.
For systems that require backpulsing, a portion of the effluent water is diverted
into a holding tank that is used as the reservoir for both regular and chemically
enhanced backpulsing. Larger MBRs with multiple trains may not require a backpulse
tank if the permeate header is a large enough reservoir. Because only one train at a time
is typically in backpulse mode, the supply of permeate water will always exceed the
demand if enough trains are in operation.

6.6.5 Service Air Systems

These systems typically are designed with a common group of air compressors (one or
more duty, one online standby), each working with a dedicated receiver tank. The system typically includes a common air dryer downstream of the compressors. The compressor and air-dryer system are designed to deliver 550 kPa (80 psig) of instrument air
(after pressure regulating valve) to all pneumatic valve actuators and chemical metering air diaphragm pumps.

6.6.6 Tank Isolation and Drain Pumps

Some membrane systems require the membrane tank to be drained before a cleaning
cycle. The drain pump is designed to drain any membrane tank in 30 minutes or less.
The time it takes to drain a tank is critical, because membranes can dry out if exposed
to air for too long.
Typically, a pair of end-suction centrifugal pumps is used for this purpose. Most
systems are designed such that any membrane tank can be isolated and drained without interrupting the operation of other membrane trains. The drain line from each tank
is connected to a common header via an automatic valve. The common drain header is
connected to the suction side of the drain pumps. The system should be able to transfer
the contents of the membrane tank to either the bioreactor or to sludge wasting.
If the mixed liquor recirculation pumps are dry-pit pumps and the system is
designed with a dedicated pump per train, then these pumps may also function as the
drain pumps, eliminating the need for a separate set of pumps.

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6.6.7 Waste Activated Sludge Management Systems

Most MBR applications have been in smaller plants that have aerobic sludge stabilization followed by biosolids disposal, either by liquid land application or by dewatered
biosolids reuse. At larger plants, thickening the waste sludge for anaerobic or aerobic
digestion and then dewatering the biosolids is more typical. To date, little research has
been conducted on thickening and/or high-rate stabilization of waste MBR sludge. The
research that has been conducted has not found any significant differences in sludge
thickening or stabilization characteristics. It has been found, however, that gravity
thickening is not as successful because of the already high solids concentration of the
mixed liquor before thickening (WEF 2006; WERF, 2002)
A few plants also use membranes for thickening WAS before further treatment or
disposal. These membrane thickening applications typically use the same type of membranes as are used in the MBR, but operate at much lower flux (3 to 8 L/m2h [2 to
5 gpd/sq ft]). These systems are capable of thickening waste activated sludge up to 4
to 5 % total solids concentration.

7.0 WET-WEATHER CONSIDERATIONS

7.1 Introduction
Since the passage of the Clean Water Act in 1972, nearly all municipal facilities in the
United States have implemented a minimum of secondary treatment. Regulatory attention has shifted to the capture and treatment of wet-weather overflows and bypass
flows that can significantly affect receiving water quality.
Suspended-growth systems typically are not designed to treat peak wet-weather
flows and loads. Consequently, such facilities are unable to provide adequate treatment
when significant wet-weather conditions occur. Suspended-growth systems are particularly sensitive to peak flows because of the potential washout of biomass when secondary clarification is overloaded. The loss of biomass can result in excess effluent suspended solids, decreased treatment, and slow, post-storm recovery. Nitrification and
EBPR processes are slow to replenish losses of the key microorganisms involved.
Common practice has been to provide preliminary and primary treatment for all
flows, bypass excess peak wet-weather flows around the secondary treatment processes,
and mix secondary effluent with the bypassed flow before disinfection and discharge.
The continuation of this practice for existing or new treatment facilities is subject to regulatory approval.
This section outlines wet-weather management strategies that can be used to
enhance treatment and minimize overflows. Some of these methods have been

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successfully implemented in full-scale applications although others have limited
track record.

7.2 Flow Reduction

Wet-weather flows to suspended-growth processes can be reduced by equalization, or
diversion through parallel preliminary and primary treatment processes before mixing
or discharge. Combinations of treatment and storage should be investigated as part of
preliminary planning for most wet-weather treatment projects to establish the potential to optimize cost and pollutant removal efficiency.

7.3 Aeration Tanks

The following approaches decrease the MLSS concentration in the secondary clarifier
feed, which reduces solids loading and increases the peak flows that can be accommodated.

7.3.1 Aeration Tank Settling

Aeration tank settling (ATS) as illustrated in Figure 14.84 describes the practice of turning off the air to all or just the later parts of aeration tanks during peak flows (Nielsen
et al., 2000). Without aeration, the MLSS begin to settle, and the solids concentration
sent to the secondary settling tanks is reduced. By reducing the suspended solids concentration during peak-flow events, clarifier capacity is increased when it is most
needed. Most of the recent literature on this subject has been published by a manufacturer who has patented a version of aeration tank settling called STAR ATS (Water
Environment Federation, 2005a). This system combines aeration tank settling with an
internal mixed-liquor recycle stream and a high-level process control system. The recycle stream transfers mixed liquor from the last zone of the aeration tank (without air or
mixing) to a preaeration anoxic zone and extends the period of time for which aeration
tank settling can be effective.
In another ATS concept, process air is turned off and the RAS flow is reduced to
about 20% of the influent flow. The combination of reduced mixed-liquor concentration and RAS flow increases the clarifier hydraulic capacity by 50% during storms
(Reardon, 2004).
An evaluation of the effect of aeration tank settling, based on common practice in
the United States using the Vesilind equation with the Daigger SVI correlation for the
settling coefficients, is presented in Figure 14.85 (WEF, 2005). The figure shows the estimated increase in clarifier capacity that results from a decrease in the mixed-liquor concentration. Assuming the secondary settling tanks are clarification limited, the effect of

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FIGURE 14.84 Aeration tank settling (Nielsen et. al, 2000; reprinted from Water Science
and Technology, with permission from the copyright holders, IWA).

aeration tank settling is most pronounced at higher mixed-liquor concentrations. For an

SVI of 150 and a mixed liquor concentration of 3 000 mg/L, a 50% drop in the mixed
liquor concentration increases the clarifier capacity by more than 80%.

7.3.2 Step-Feed or Contact-Aeration Mode

Switching to a step-feed or contact aeration mode during peak flows allows a greater
mass of MLSS to be stored in the initial portions of the aeration tank and minimizes the
MLSS concentration fed to the secondary clarifiers. Step-feed operation can provide a
relatively high degree of treatment while accommodating higher flows. By varying
the number and location of aeration tank feed points during wet-weather flow events,
the suspended solids concentration in the aeration tank effluent can be reduced and the
capacity of the secondary settling tanks increased significantly.
In conventional and complete mixed activated sludge processes, both the aeration
tank influent and RAS are added to the beginning of the aeration tank resulting in a
relatively uniform concentration of suspended solids throughout. By converting to stepfeed, an MLSS gradient can be created with high solids concentration at the beginning

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

FIGURE 14.85 Aeration tank settling potential to treat peak flows (n
Vesilind coefficient
calculated using the Daigger sludge volume index [SVI] correlation with an SVI of 150).

and a lower concentration at the end. This minimizes the solids loading applied to the
secondary clarifiers and provides a greater solids inventory and larger SRT for a given
tank volume. The step-feed configuration becomes a contact stabilization process when
all the influent flow is added to a zone at the end of the aeration tank. With a contact stabilization mode of operation, a balance must be maintained between clarifier capacity
increase and reduced process performance as the contact zone volume is decreased.
Although process performance might suffer, the solids retained in the aeration tanks
facilitate rapid process recovery after the high flows subside.
Research and full-scale implementation of step-feed for control of wet-weather
flows has demonstrated that secondary treatment standards can be met while switching between conventional and step-feed modes of operation (WEF et al., 2005). Switching to a step-feed mode can be difficult for BNR process configurations that need to
retain nitrification and EBPR capabilities. The ease and cost of modifying an existing
CAS process to be able to switch to a step-feed configuration during peak flows
depends on the design of each facility. Care must be taken to provide adequate aeration
capacity in zones not originally designed to receive influent flow. Likewise, the effect of
transient solids load on the final clarifiers when switching to and from step-feed must
be accommodated.

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7.4 Secondary Clarifiers

Secondary clarifiers often limit a plants ability to treat wet-weather peak flows. Options
to increase the secondary clarification capacity so that higher peak flows can be treated
include:
Polymer addition. One of the simplest wet-weather management strategies is to
add polymer to the mixed liquor to increase solids settling velocity and reduce
the SVI, thereby increasing the rated capacity of existing final clarifiers. Testing
is required to determine polymer type and dose.
Wet-weather clarifiers. Additional final clarifiers can be constructed to manage
wet-weather flows. These units are placed online as needed to accommodate
wet-weather peak flows. The East Bank Plant in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, uses
this strategy.
Inclined plates and tubes. Early papers published by Hazen et al. (1904) and
Camp (1946) developed the theory for sedimentation tank design. They were the
first to establish that suspended solids removal in gravity clarifiers depends only
on the surface area and not the tank depth. Plates or tubes installed at an angle
in a clarifier will significantly increase the settling area available within a given
footprint.
Inclined plates or tubes significantly increase the allowable upflow velocity in a clarifier
(based on horizontal tank area) by increasing the settling area by a factor of approximately 8 to 10, thereby allowing a higher peak flow to be treated in a given tank surface
area. They have been used in secondary clarifiers. Researchers in Germany have investigated their use at the end of the aeration tanks and at the entrance to the secondary settling tanks (Plass and Sekoulov, 1995; Buer, 2002). Plates or tubes in these locations
reduce MLSS concentration entering the secondary settling tanks thereby increasing
peak-flow capacity of the secondary settling tanks. Because of the potential for plugging
when used for high solids concentration suspensions and because of algal growth,
inclined plates or tubes might best be applied to separate wet weather clarifiers that are
used infrequently.

8.0 OXYGEN-TRANSFER SYSTEMS

8.1 Introduction
Table 14.32 summarizes the general characteristics of primary types of oxygen-transfer
equipment in use for five or more years. More detailed information is contained in the
literature (Water Pollution Control Federation [WPCF], 1988; U.S. EPA, 1989).

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U-tube

Others
jets

Nonporous diffusers

Diffused air
Porous diffusers

Equipment type

30- to 300 ft shaft

was blown into
inlet of down leg

Ceramic, plastic,
flexible
membranes,
dome, disk, panel
tube, plate
configurations,
total floor grids,
single or dual
roll, fine bubble
Fixed orifice;
perforated pipe,
sparger, slotted
tube, valved
orifice, static
tube; coarse
bubble; typically
single or dual
roll; some total
floor grids
Compressed air and
pumped liquid
mixed in nozzle
and discharged
fine bubble

Equipment
characteristics

Activated sludge with

limited geometry

Same as for porous

diffusers

Same as for porous

diffusers

High-rate;
conventional,
extended, step,
contact stabilization,
activated sludge
systems

Processes where used

Limited
geometry
clogging of
nozzles;
requires
blowers and
pumps;
primary
treatment
required; low
SAE
Limited
geometry;
typically
effective for
strong waste

Good mixing
properties
high SOTE

High efficiency
because
driving force
is increased

Low oxygen
transfer
efficiency;
high initial
cost

Potential for airor water-side

clogging;
typically
require air
filtration; high
initial cost;
low alpha

Disadvantages

Do not typically
clog easy
maintenance;
high alpha

High-efficiency:
good
operational
flexibility;
turndown
approximately
5.1

Advantages

2.23.5

NA

NA

1.31.9

1.96.6

SAE, kg/kWhb

1524

913

1545

SOTE, %

Reported clean water

performancea

14-170

TABLE 14.32 Characteristics of aeration equipment (Arora et al., 1985; Boyle, 1996; Goronsky, 1979; Groves et al., 1992;
and Wilford and Conlon, 1957).

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

High output speed;

small diameter
propeller, direct,
motor-driven
units mounted on
floating structure

Low output speed;

used with gear
reducer; steel or
plastic bars,
plastic discs

Units contain a
low-speed
turbine and
provide
compressed air to
diffuser rings,
open pipe, or air
draft; fixedbridge
application; may
employ draft tube
Same as axial flow;
high speed

Axial flow, high

speed (9001 800
r/min)

Horizontal rotor

Submerged turbine

Aerated lagoons;
temporary
installations

Same as for porous

diffusers, oxidation
ditches

Oxidation ditch,
applied either as an
aerated lagoon or as
an activated sludge

Aerated lagoons and

reaeration

Same as for porous

diffuser

Same as axial
flow, high
speed

Low cost
flexible
operation

Good mixing;
high capacity
input per unit
volume; deep
tank
application;
operational
flexibility; no
icing or
splash

Moderate initial
cost; good
maintenance
accessibility

Low initial cost;

may adjust to
varying water
level; flexible
operation

Aerosols some
icing in cold
climates;
initial cost
higher than
axial flow
aerators; gear
reducer may
cause
maintenance
problems
Some icing in
cold climates;
poor
maintenance
accessibility;
mixing
capacity may
be inadequate
Subject to
operational
variable,
which may
affect
efficiency;
tank geometry
is limited
Require both
gear reducer
and blower;
high total
power
requirements;
high cost

Tank design
flexibility,
high pumping
capacity

0.50.8

1.12.1
(Typical)
2.03.0 (Drain
tube turbine)

1.52.1

1114

1521

Manufacturers data in clean water at standard conditions; diffused air units expressed as SOTE and SAE mechanical devices as SAE. Range of values accounts for different equipment, geometry,
gas flow, power input, and other factors (SAEwire-to-water).
b
Wire-to-water SAE for diffused air calculated from ??? compression relationship where ambient temperature = 30C, submergence = 4.3, barometric pressure
100 ha (1 atm), and blower/motor
efficiency
70%.

Asparating

Low output speed:

large diameter
turbine; floating,
fixed-bridge, or
platform
mounted; used
with gear reducer

Mechanical surface
Radial flow, low
speed (20100
r/min)

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Transfer rates for diffused air systems are reported as oxygen-transfer efficiency
(OTE), expressed as a percentage; oxygen-transfer rate (OTR), expressed in units of
mass/time; or aeration efficiency, expressed in units of mass/time/unit of power.
Mechanical devices are typically rated on the basis of OTR or aeration efficiency.
As a secondary function, aeration devices furnish sufficient energy for mixing. Ideally, mixing energy should be sufficient to thoroughly disperse dissolved substrate and
oxygen throughout a given segment of an aeration tank and keep MLSS suspended. This
does not necessarily mean that both soluble and suspended material should be uniformly
mixed throughout the entire aeration tank. For example, plug-flow tanks and reactors
with point-source oxygen addition do not rely on uniformity for proper operation.
The power required to satisfy oxygen demand depends on substrate and biomass
concentrations, flow rate, and reactor volume; the power for mixing depends on aeration tank volume and, to a lesser degree, MLSS concentration. For certain combinations
of biomass and substrate concentrations and other variables listed above, power
requirements for mixing may exceed those for oxygen transfer. In systems with high
biomass concentrations, oxygen demand will control power requirements; in plug-flow
systems, mixing may control near the effluent end of aeration basin; for aerated lagoons,
mixing often dictates power requirements.

8.2 Diffused Aeration

Diffused aeration, defined as the injection of a gas (air or oxygen) below a liquid surface, covers all equipment described in this section. Hybrid equipment that combines
gas injection with mechanical pumping or mixing equipment is arbitrarily classified
herein as diffused aeration equipment. These hybrid devices include jet aerators and Utube aerators. Another hybrid device, the combination turbine-sparger aerator, is arbitrarily classified as a mechanical device. These are discussed later.
Early diffused aeration applications introduced air through open tubes or perforated pipes located at the bottom of aeration tanks. The desire for greater efficiency
led to development of porous plate diffusers that produced small bubbles. These diffusers, used as early as 1916, became the most popular method of aeration by the 1930s.
Unfortunately, serious fouling problems occurred, which gradually discouraged their
use. Systems requiring lower maintenance gained dominance during the period of relatively inexpensive energy (before 1972). Typically, these low-maintenance devices
used fixed orifices [6 mm (0.25 in.) or more in diameter] to produce relatively large
bubbles. Rapid escalation of power costs beginning in the 1970s rekindled interest in
porous media devices and triggered vigorous efforts to increase the OTE of all types
of aeration systems.

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The wastewater treatment industry has witnessed the introduction of a wide variety of air diffusion equipment. In the past, the various devices typically were classified
as either fine bubble or coarse bubble, designations that supposedly reflected OTE.
Unfortunately, the demarcation between coarse and fine bubbles is difficult to define
(U.S. EPA, 1985). Also, applying this classification to specific equipment generated confusion and controversy. For these reasons, the industry now prefers to categorize air
diffusion systems by the physical characteristics of the equipment. In the following discussion, devices have been divided into three categories: porous diffusers, nonporous
diffusers, and others. Performance cannot be based solely on these classifications, which
relate more to organization.

8.2.1 Porous Diffuser Systems

Use of porous diffusers has gained renewed popularity because of their relatively high
OTE. An excellent reference on this subject was published by U.S. EPA in cooperation
with the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Committee on Oxygen Transfer
(U.S. EPA, 1989). Much of the information presented in this section was derived from
that source. The reader is encouraged to review this report and others for further information on specific topics (Groves et al., 1992; U.S. EPA, 1985; WPCF, 1988).
Numerous materials have been used to manufacture porous diffusers. They typically can be divided into two categories: rigid materials of ceramic or plastic and perforated membranes of thermoplastics or elastomers.
The oldest and most common rigid porous diffuser is produced from ceramic
media, including alumina, aluminum silicates, and silica. Media consist of rounded or
irregular-shaped mineral particles bonded together to produce a network of interconnected passageways through which compressed air flows. As air emerges from the diffuser surface, pore size, surface tension, and airflow rate interact to produce a characteristic bubble size. Currently, the most common rigid porous diffusers are manufactured
from aluminum oxide. Porous plastics are made from thermosetting polymers. The two
most common are high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and styrene-acrylonitrile. Porous
plastic materials are lighter in weight; inert in composition; and, depending on the actual
material, may have greater resistance to breakage. Disadvantages include the brittleness
of some plastics and lack of quality control of others.
Membrane diffusers differ from rigid diffusers because the former does not contain
a network of interconnected passageways. Instead, mechanical methods create preselected patterns of small, individual orifices (perforations) in the membrane to allow gas
passage. Over the past few years, perforated membranes have continued to change in
composition, shape, and perforation pattern. Two types of membrane materials are
being used: thermosplastics and elastomers. Membrane diffusers now on the market

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are dominated by elastomers, mostly ethylenepropylene dimers (EPDM), which contain
carbon black, silica, clay, talc, oils, and various curing and processing agents. Oils make
up a significant proportion of the mix and give the membrane its flexibility. Each manufacturer has its own formulation with distinctively different in characteristics, including tensile strength, hardness, elongation at failure, modulus of elasticity, tear resistance, creep, compression set, and resistance to chemical attack. Thus, selection of the
membrane for a particular application requires a thorough analysis of the material to
ensure that it will perform effectively over the expected design life of the material.
Perforation size, number, and pattern vary widely. Perforations are produced by
slicing, punching, or drilling holes or slits in the membrane. Each hole acts as a variable
aperture opening. The slit or hole size will affect bubble size (and, therefore, OTE) and
backpressure. Typical slit or hole size is 1 mm, although perforated membrane panels
of thin polyurethane are punched with significantly smaller slits (Boyle, 1996).
Porous diffusers are available in plates, panels, domes, disks, and tubes; some are
shown in Figures 14.86 and 14.87. Although plates were once the most popular, their
use has declined as dome, disk, and panel configurations have increased in popularity.

FIGURE 14.86

Selected porous diffusers: (a) disks, (b) dome, and (c) perforated membrane.

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FIGURE 14.87
membrane.

Selected porous tubes: (a) rigid plastic and (b) flexible perforated

The dome, developed in 1954, is typically a 180-mm (7-in.) diameter disk with downturned edges. The dome, consisting of a ceramic material, is mounted on a polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) saddle attached by a center bolt. The disk, which has essentially
replaced the dome, varies in diameter from approximately 180 to 240 mm (7.0 to 9.5 in.)
for ceramic and porous plastic materials and from 180 to 500 mm (7 to 20 in.) for

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perforated membranes. Like the dome, the disk typically is mounted on a PVC saddle
but may be fastened with either a center bolt or a peripheral clamping ring.
Most tubular diffusers have the same general shape of 500 to 610 mm (20 to 24 in.)
long with an outside diameter of 63 to 80 mm (2.5 to 3 in.). Materials used include
ceramics, porous plastics, and perforated membranes.
Polyurethane membrane panels typically come in 1.2-m (4-ft) widths of variable
lengths (1.2 to 1.8 m [4 to 6 ft] in 0.6-m [2-ft] increments). The base plate may be constructed of reinforced cement compound, fiber-reinforced plastic or type 304 stainless
steel. The panels are placed on the flat bottom surface of an aeration tank and fastened
with anchor bolts (Figure 14.88).
With the exception of old plate designs, each porous diffuser is equipped with a
flow control orifice to ensure uniform air distribution to each diffuser. Typical airflow rates for domes range from 0.014 to 0.071 m3/min (0.5 to 2.5 cfm). For disks, the
range is 0.014 to 0.08 m3/min (0.5 to 3.0 cfm) for ceramics and 0.03 to 0.6 m3/min (1 to
20 cfm) for perforated membranes, depending on their size. For tubes, the range is
0.03 to 0.14 m3/min (1 to 5 cfm).
Plates, panels, domes, and disks are typically installed in a total floor coverage configuration, but plates also have been placed along the sides of aeration tanks to generate single- or dual-roll spiral mixing patterns. Disks and domes are arranged in a grid

FIGURE 14.88

Membrane panel (ft  0.304 8
m and in.  25.4
mm).

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pattern with variable but uniform spacing to maximize oxygen transfer efficiency Consideration should be given to a diffuser grid layout that allows for the addition of laterals and diffusers if conditions were to change. Tube diffusers are installed from removable drop pipes along one or both sides of an aeration tank. They also can be placed in
a more efficient full-floor coverage configuration. Diffuser grids and configurations can
be designed to allow removal of the diffusers for cleaning without process interruption.

8.2.2 Nonporous Diffusers

Nonporous diffusers, available in a wide variety of shapes and materials, have larger
orifices than porous devices (Figure 14.89). Fixed orifices vary from simple holes drilled
in piping to specially designed openings in metal or plastic fabrications. Perforated piping, spargers, and slotted tubes are typical nonporous diffuser designs.
Valved orifice diffusers include a check valve to prevent backflow when the air is
shut off. There are other types of diffusers that also allow adjustment of airflow by
changing either the number or size of the orifices through which air passes.
Typical system layouts for fixed and valved nonporous diffusers closely parallel
those for porous diffuser systems. The most prevalent configurations are the single- and
dual-roll spiral patterns using either narrow- or wide-band diffuser placement.
Mechanical lift-out headers with either swing joints or removable diffusers, which
allow removal for cleaning without process interruption, are common. Cross-roll and
full-floor coverage patterns may be used. Fixed and valved orifice diffusers are used
where fouling may be a problem. These applications include aerated grit chambers,
channel aeration, sludge and septage storage tank aeration, flocculation basin mixing,
aerobic digestion, and industrial waste applications.
The static tube, another type of nonporous diffuser, resembles an airlift pump,
except that the tube has interference baffles placed within the riser. These baffles are
intended to mix the liquid and air, shear coarse bubbles, and increase contact time. With
this type of system, the tubes, typically approximately 1.0 m (3 ft) in length, are
anchored to the basin floor in a full-floor coverage pattern.

8.2.3 Other Diffused Aeration Systems

8.2.3.1 Jet Aeration
Jet systems combine liquid pumping with air diffusion. The pumping system circulates mixed liquor in the aeration basin, ejecting it through a nozzle assembly. Air, typically supplied from a blower, is introduced to the mixed liquor before it is discharge
through the nozzles. Typically, jets are configured in either cluster or directional
arrangements as shown in Figure 14.90. Distribution piping and nozzles are typically
made of fiber glass.

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FIGURE 14.89 Selected nonporous diffusers: (a) static tube, (b) orifice, and (c) tube (in. 
25.4
mm).

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FIGURE 14.90 Jet diffusers: (a) bender-type, (b) plan of radial-type, and (c) elevation of
radial-type (in.  25.4
mm and ft  0.304 8
m).

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Typically, the recirculation pump is a constant-capacity device. Turndown for
the aerator is accomplished by varying the air supply rate from the associated blower.
A typical nozzle has a 30-mm (1-in.) throat through which air and mixed liquor pass.
To overcome potential clogging problems, some systems are equipped with selfcleaning features.
8.2.3.2 U-Tube Aeration
A U-tube system consists of a 9- to 150-m (30- to 500-ft) deep shaft that is divided into
an inner and outer zone. Air is added to the influent mixed liquor in the downcomer
zone. The mixture travels to the bottom of the tube and then back to the surface through
the return zone where the effluent is removed. The great depths of mixed liquor result
in higher partial pressures of oxygen that may enhance OTE.
The cost effectiveness of U-tube aeration can be related to waste strength, land costs,
and drilling costs. For normal-strength wastewater (100 to 200 mg/L BOD), the air needed
to circulate the mixed liquor through the shaft governs the amount of air added, not the
oxygen demand. For high-strength wastes (greater than 500 to 600 mg/L BOD), the oxygen demand of the waste governs the amount of air added. Under these conditions, most
of the oxygen forced into solution is likely to be consumed. With this efficient power use,
the U-tube process may be competitively cost effective for treating stronger wastewater.
8.2.3.3 Countercurrent Aeration
Countercurrent aeration is a unique aeration basin configuration. It involves using a
circular aeration basin with a center-pivoted, traveling bridge supporting air diffusers.
Rotating aerators continually resuspend mixed liquor solids while leaving a veil of fine
bubbles providing the aeration. Another set of fixed bubble aerators also can be provided, and the rising bubbles would be swept along with the rotating liquid current
induced by traveling diffusers. The rotating velocity of the liquid causes bubbles from
both sources to lead or trail away from their point of release, thereby eliminating the
vertical lifting action of air lift common to conventional, stationary diffusers. It also
reduces bubble coalescence. The result is smaller bubbles, slower rise velocities, and
better transfer efficiencies; however, the energy input required to rotate the diffuser
mechanism serves to offset this advantage.

8.3 Mechanical Surface Aerators

Surface aerators can be grouped into four general categories: radial-flow low speed,
axial flow high speed, aspirating devices, and horizontal rotors. Each is used widely
and has distinct advantages and disadvantages, depending on the application.

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Surface aerators are typically float, bridge, or platform mounted. Platform and
bridge designs should address torque and vibration. Bridges should be designed for at
least four times the maximum moment (torque and impeller side load) anticipated. The
aerator manufacturer can provide the magnitude of this moment. The efficiency and
power draw of platform- and bridge-mounted aerators are sensitive to changes in the
depth of impeller submergence. An increase in submergence results in increased fluid
pumpage at an increase in power draw and can decrease gearbox life expectancy. Highspeed (radial and axial) surface aerators are most often float mounted, providing portability and low cost.
Some surface aerators are equipped with submerged draft tubes that tend to mix
by bringing liquid from the bottom of the basin up through the tube and into the
impeller. All of the mixed liquor pumped through a draft tube is dispersed into the air.
Without draft tubes, a portion of the pumped fluid flows beneath the liquid surface and
is not aerated. Mixed liquor creates liquid momentum that tends to circulate around
the aerator. Designers should recognize that mechanical aerators provide point-source
oxygen input. Pumped mixed liquor flows radially outward from the aerator with
decreasing velocity. Dissolved oxygen reaches its maximum near the impeller blade
where surface turbulence is greatest and decreases as fluid flows back below the surface
of the aeration tank toward the aerator.
As an alternative to the draft tube, an auxiliary submerged mixing impeller can be
provided. This submerged impeller will increase the amount of liquid pumped from the
bottom of the basin. The impeller typically has an axial-flow design to maximize pumping efficiency. Submerged impellers and draft tubes, however, increase system power
requirements. The optimum location of the impeller depends on its configuration.
Radial-flow impellers typically are located 0.5 to 0.7 times the impeller diameter above
the tank bottom; axial-flow impellers are located at 60 to 65% of the tank depth, measured from the water surface. Water depths using unsupported shafts (no bottom bearings) range up to 9 m (30 ft). With this unsupported length, shafts can transmit high side
loads that the gearbox must be designed to withstand.
The action of surface aeration devices, particularly splashing from high-speed
units, can generate mists with attendant health concerns and nuisance odors. Odors can
result from insufficient oxygen supplied by the aerator or influent wastewater containing sulfides or other volatiles. Mists can freeze in cold climates, coating equipment and
walkways with ice. Such freezing can cause hazards to facility staff and equipment.
Splashing effects can be minimized with proper geometric design of the aeration tank
and use of deflector plates. Another cold-weather problem is basin heat loss induced by
surface aerators.

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8.3.1 Radial Flow Low Speed

Low-speed mechanical aerators have gained in popularity because they can provide a
higher standard aeration efficiency (SAE) than high-speed machines and are good mixing devices.
These aerators typically operate in the range of 20 to 100 r/min and include a gearbox to reduce the impeller speed below that of the motor. The gearbox, a critical item,
needs a service factor rating of 2.0 or higher to ensure mechanical reliability. Without a
service factor, adjacent aerators operating at different speeds or units placed close to
tank walls may cause drive overloads.
Manufacturers produce this type of aerator in several configurations. The simplest
is an impeller that operates at the water surface. In another configuration, submergence of the impeller can be adjusted to control power draw and oxygen transfer. Movable weirs (manual or automatic), typically part of such systems, are required for this
control. These aerators are available in power increments up to 150 kW (200 hp), with
either floating or fixed mounting structures. They are also available as two-speed
units, with power turndown ratios of approximately 50% at the lower speed. Impellers
range up to 3.7 m (12 ft) in diameter and operate at top peripheral velocities of 4.6 to
6 m/s (15 to 20 ft/sec).
Clean water SAEs of these units based on wire-to-water transfer range from 0.42 to
0.59 kg O2/MJ (2.5 to 3.5 lb O2/hph). Efficiency depends on many variables, including
the design of the impeller itself, tank geometry, effects of adjacent walls, input
power/tank volume, impeller size and speed, number of units, location, and other factors that are less well understood. Scale-up from shop to field applications is difficult to
achieve, requiring full-scale testing for proper evaluation.

8.3.2 Axial Flow High Speed

High-speed aerators typically are used for stabilization lagoons where dispersed organism growth or benthic deposits exert oxygen demands. This limited application stems
from concerns regarding shearing of sludge floc, which could impair settling. Icing and
aerosol generation are also concerns.
High-speed aerators have limited depth of mixing and oxygen-transfer capabilities. Typically, high-speed units exhibit lower wire-to-water SAEs than low-speed
devices (0.2 to 0.38 kg/MJ [1.0 to 2.25 lb/hph]). As with low-speed devices, performance of high-speed units is affected by basin geometry and other factors. High-speed
units, available in standard motor increments up to 93 kW (125 hp), are most often
mounted on floating structures.

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8.3.3 Aspirating Devices

Another aeration device is the motor-driven propeller aspirator. One such device,
shown in Figure 14.91, consists of a 1.2-m (4-ft) long hollow shaft with an electric motor
at one end and a propeller at the other. Propeller rotation draws air from the atmosphere through the shaft. Air velocity and propeller action create turbulence, forming
small bubbles from which oxygen is dissolved. These devices can be positioned at various angles to reach different levels for aeration, mixing, or circulation. Portable units
can be mounted on booms or floats in aeration tanks and oxidation ditches. An aspirator with a disk rather than a propeller disperses bubbles at a 90 angle to the shaft.
Operation during cold weather has been reported to cause icing of the aspirator pipe at
the air inlet end, shutting off the air supply. Manufacturers do have solutions to problems of freezing, including heat tracing. Typical wire-to-water SAEs for these devices
range from 0.13 to 0.21 kg O2/MJ (0.75 to 1.25 lb O2/hph).

8.3.4 Horizontal Rotors

This type of unit, available in several configurations, has a horizontal impeller (rotor)
(Figure 14.92). The impeller agitates the surface of the basin, transferring oxygen and
concurrently moving the liquid in a horizontal direction.

FIGURE 14.91

Aspirating device.

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FIGURE 14.92

Surface aerators for channel aeration.

Clean water wire-to-water SAEs of these rotors approximates that of low-speed

surface aerators; 0.42 to 0.59 kg O2/MJ (2.5 to 3.5 lb O2/hph). Small changes in rotor
submergence do not affect transfer efficiency but will affect power draw. Lesser submergence will decrease total oxygen transfer; nonetheless, the mass of oxygen transferred per unit of power input remains approximately the same. Units are made in various sizes up to a maximum length of approximately 7.6 m (25 ft). Two rotors with one
centrally located drive can aerate a 15-m (50-ft) wide, 3.7-m (12-ft) deep ditch. As is the
case with other surface aeration devices, icing, aerosols, and heat loss are potential
problems.

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8.4 Submerged Turbine Aerators

A submerged turbine consists of a motor and gearbox drive mounted on the tank, one
or more submerged impellers, and piped air from a blower to a point below the
impeller. Impeller designs vary, but typically are either the axial- or radial-flow type
(Figure 14.93). With an axial-flow impeller, pumped mixed liquor has sufficient velocity to drive released air downward and disperse it across the bottom of the tank. In the
radial flow design, air flows into the impeller, mixes with the liquid, and disperses outward, driven by the impeller blades. With either type, the operator must carefully control the airflow rate. Too much air will cause the turbine to flood, reducing the amount
of oxygen transferred and the pumping capacity of the impeller and may cause
mechanical damage.
Air enters the turbine through either an open pipe or a diffuser ring. Although an
axial-flow unit can transfer a higher percentage of oxygen than a radial-flow unit, the
latter can handle a higher volume of air per kilowatt. Both units can be designed to
transfer oxygen at rates of up to several hundred milligrams per liter per hour in clean
water. This maximum rate exceeds that typically required because even industrial

FIGURE 14.93

Submerged turbine aerators: (a) axial flow and (b) radial flow.

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applications with high-BOD wastewater seldom use more than 200 to 300 mg/Lh, and
municipal plants are typically designed for demands of 30 to 100 mg/Lh.
The area of influence (tank area that is aerated) of submerged turbines is somewhat
smaller than that of surface aerators. Low-speed axial flow units achieve maximum
influence. The area of influence will vary from 4 to 12 m2/kW (30 to 100 sq ft/hp),
depending on reactor geometry and size. Turbine speeds used are a function of impeller
design and power input. Most operate in the range of 37 to 180 r/min. The gearbox service factor should be 2.0 or higher to accommodate hydraulic loads imposed by adjacent walls and other aerators.
Submerged turbines transfer varying amounts of oxygen, depending on the air-tomixer kilowatt ratio, mixer design, and basin geometry. Clean water wire-to-water
SAEs of turbines are typically reported to range from 0.30 to 0.59 kg O2/MJ (1.75 to 3.5
lb O2/hph), including air and mixer power requirements. These SAEs are slightly
lower than those of slow-speed surface aerators, but a submerged turbine offers
adjustable gross oxygen input by modulating airflow rate. When used an aerator or a
mixer (as in a combined nitrificationdenitrification reactor), the submerged unit may
offer some advantage.
In those areas where basin cooling is a concern, the submerged turbine agitates the
surface only slightly, with minimal loss of basin temperature. Use of a submerged turbine in circular or square tanks requires baffling to prevent rotation of the entire tank
contents. Rectangular tank baffling requirements might be less than those for circular
tanks. Regardless, the turbine manufacturer should be consulted.
Available submerged turbine aerators match common motor sizes up to 112 kW
(150 hp). Special designs include motors up to and greater than 260 kW (350 hp). Airflow rates vary from 0.23 to more than 8.0 m3/min (8 to more than 300 scfm) per aerator, and OTEs range from 15 to 35% in clean water, depending on impeller configuration and depth.
Another submerged turbine aerator consists of a downward-pumping, airfoil-type
impeller in a draft tube, with an air sparge ring mounted directly below the impeller
(Figure 14.94). Coarse bubbles are sheared into smaller ones by flow energy from the
high pumping rate impeller. Bubbles are forced downward through the draft tube and
baffles before rising to the surface. A primary element of this design is the axial flow
impeller. Introduction of air disrupts the axial flow pattern, resulting in some reduction
in pumping efficiency. Such aerators, typically deck mounted above the tank, can be
installed in a conventional CMAS tank or in a total barrier oxidation ditch with a J-tube.
Tank depths ranging from 7.6 to 9.0 m (25 to 30 ft) are used in CMAS applications.
These units are furnished with high-speed impellers (up to 180 r/min) handling
sparged gas flows up to 18 m3/min (650 scfm). Clean water wire-to-water SAEs are

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FIGURE 14.94

Draft tube submerged turbine aerator.

reported in CMAS to range from 0.56 to 0.8 kg O2/MJ (3.3 to 5.0 lb O2/hph) (Updegraff
and Boyle, 1988). In total barrier oxidation ditch configurations, however, draft tube
turbines produced low clean water wire-to-water SAEs ranging from 0.24 to 0.3 kg/MJ
(1.4 to 2.0 lb/hph) (Boyle et al., 1989).

8.5 Air Supply System

Although selection and design of air diffusion systems typically receive the most attention, design of a supply system demands attention to ensure that overall process goals
are met. An air supply system consists of three basic components: air filters and other

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conditioning equipment (including diffuser cleaning systems), blowers, and air piping.
Air filters remove particulates such as dust and dirt from the inlet air to protect blowers and diffusers from mechanical damage and clogging. Blowers are designed to
develop sufficient pressure to overcome static head, diffuser, and line losses while
delivering gas at the required flow rate to the diffusion system. Piping conveys air to
the diffusers.

8.5.1 Air Filtration

The degree of air cleaning required depends on supply air quality, blowers installed,
and diffusers used. Air intake systems traditionally have been designed with integrated
air filtration equipment to protect blower and diffusers.
Cleaning efficiency is the primary filter design parameter. For protecting blowers,
a typical minimum requirement for inlet air filtration is 95% removal of particles with
diameters of 10 m and larger. Standard practice in design for fine-pore aeration
devices is to remove 90% of all particles greater than 1 m in diameter (U.S. EPA, 1989;
WPCF, 1988). Manufacturers of perforated membrane diffusers indicate that filters
designed to protect blowers will suffice for their equipment (U.S. EPA, 1989). Designers should be cautious, however, in providing less-efficient air filtration than is currently considered acceptable.
8.5.1.1 Types of Air-Cleaning Systems
Three basic types of air-cleaning systems are in use: viscous impingement, dry barrier,
and electrostatic precipitation. These systems, manufactured in a variety of forms and
sizes, can be operated either manually or automatically.
Viscous filters remove dust by impingement and retention of particles on a
labyrinth of oil-coated surfaces through which air passes. These units will handle dust
and effectively remove large particles. A high percentage of small, low specific gravity
particles, however, will pass through such units. Consequently, viscous filters work
best as a preliminary device. A coarse viscous filter ahead of an electrostatic precipitator can perform well in dusty areas and would be a good investment.
Dry barrier systems use a fine filter material, such as paper, cloth, or felt, to entrap
particles. These systems typically comprise a coarse prefilter followed by a fine filter.
The prefilter typically consists of a sheet of fiberglass cloth mounted on a frame. Fine filters are housed in racks behind the prefilter. Such replaceable systems occupy little
space and offer easy maintenance.
Bag-house collectors are an option for large plants. Bag houses collectors are dry
barrier units constructed as steel enclosures that house sets of cloth stocking tubes. The
tubes are precoated with filter aid before being placed in service and after each clean-

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ing. Efficiency increases during a filter run because retained particles increase effectiveness of the filtering medium. A bag house collector that is properly installed and maintained will protect up to recommended standards if the atmosphere is not too laden
with finer particulates and smoke. Size, expense, and precoat requirements of bag
house filter systems have, however, reduced their selection for new installations.
Electrostatic precipitators impart an electric charge to particles so that they can be
removed by attraction to elements of opposite polarity. These units require 30 to 50% of
the area of bag houses and have relatively simple maintenance needs. This type of
device will remove fine dust particles and protect up to recommended standards when
operated at velocities lower than 120 m/min (400 ft/min). These devices are especially
useful in areas with particulate-laden atmospheres. A combination of a prefilter, electrostatic precipitator, and final filters housed in a filter plenum is sometimes used. The
precipitator helps reduce the replacement frequency of final filters.
8.5.1.2 Filter Selection
Of the air-cleaning systems available, replaceable filter units are the simplest to construct and operate. Their capital costs are approximately 12% of those of electrostatic
precipitators. Bag house dust collectors are bulky and expensive, though relatively
maintenance free. Replaceable air filters are a good selection except where poor air
quality would require replacement of fine elements more frequently than once per year.
In such cases, electrostatic precipitators might be cost effective. Combinations of prefilters and final filters or prefilters with electrostatic precipitators and final filters may
be an advantage in poor air quality situations.
8.5.1.3 Design Considerations
In addition to the design recommendations of filter manufacturers, other needs require
special attention. Because a treatment plant must operate continuously, facilities for
equipment maintenance and weather protection of the air intake structure are needed.
Good louvers and an ample chamber between the louvers and filters are essential. In
freezing climates, preheating the air might be necessary to prevent snow or water vapor
from freezing onto the filters. A simple method of preheating relies on ducts and
dampers to direct part of the airflow inside the blower building. Additional preventative measures for freezing include maintenance of low surface velocities and low intake
velocities at intake loads or louvers. Designers need to exercise care in locating the filter inlet to prevent drawing in excessively moist air. Weather louvers can prevent
entrainment of moisture during rains, which could soak the filter medium and reduce
its performance and throughput capacity, causing the suction line to collapse. Housing
for air filters consists of corrosion-resistant materials.

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8.5.2 Blowers
The term blower typically applies to air-conveying equipment that generates pressures
up to approximately 210 kPa (30 psi). As shown in Figure 14.95, many different types
of blowers are available. Two types of blowers used for single-stage and multistage
aeration are rotary positive displacement and centrifugal units. High-speed, lowcapacity turbine blowers have become available only recently and do not have a longterm record.
Positive displacement blowers are constant-volume devices capable of operating
over a wide range of discharge pressures. They have a low initial cost and require relatively simple control schemes. They are, however, the least efficient. In addition, they
are more difficult to operate at variable airflow rates (although variable capacity may be
provided through multiple machines with multispeed motors), require more maintenance, and can be noisy. Centrifugal blowers, considered as constant-pressure machines,

FIGURE 14.95

Blower selection.

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are not as noisy and are compact. Unfortunately, they have limited operating pressure
range and deliver reduced volumes of air with any increase in backpressure caused by
diffuser clogging.
Blower capacity can be specified as standard or actual gas flow rate. Standard conditions are defined by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers as air at 20C,
100 kPa (1 atm) pressure, and a relative humidity of 36%. The most practical method of
describing blower capacity is to use the actual volume of air per unit of time. Positive
displacement blowers have capacities from 0.14 to 1 400 m3/min (5 to 50 000 acfm) at
discharge pressures ranging from 7 to 100 kPa (1 to 15 psig). Centrifugal blower capacity typically ranges from 14 to 4 200 m3/min (500 to 150 000 acfm). Impellers of a centrifugal unit can be arranged in stages for higher discharge pressures (multistage systems). A single-stage, high-efficiency integral gearbox compressor (turbo compressor)
is now available for high-volume (11 to 2 000 m3/min [400 to 70 000 acfm]), mediumpressure (27 to 210 kPa [4 to 30 psig]) applications. These high-efficiency machines have
the unique capability of turndown from 100 to 45% (or lower) of capacity using inlet
guide vanes and variable diffusers (discharge vanes) in concert.
8.5.2.1 Turndown
The selected blower system must be capable of supplying the volumes of air necessary
to meet varying oxygen demands over the design life of the facility. Therefore, blower
selection should take into account the following
Initial minimum and maximum air requirements based on actual BOD loadings;
Future minimum and maximum air requirements based on design;
Initial and future air requirements for mixing, depending on the number of diffusers and aeration tanks in use; and
Energy efficiency of combinations of blowers to achieve greatest efficiency over
the widest range and at the most common conditions expected.
8.5.2.2 Selection
As previously discussed, each type of blower has distinct operating characteristics. A
blower must be compatible with the normal operating mode of the treatment system.
Other factors, such as noise, maintenance, and operator preference also are considered. If
the aeration system is designed for operation with a fairly constant water depth, typical
of most aeration basins, and with clean and maintained diffusers, then a centrifugal
blower will be a good choice. Conversely, if the system will be operated over a wide range
of depths, as in an SBR, then a positive displacement blower might be a better selection.
Both discharge pressure and the weight of air vary with inlet temperature. Therefore, centrifugal blowers are selected to provide the required airflow rate at the maximum

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discharge air temperature anticipated. Blower motors are sized to deliver the required
airflow rate at the minimum inlet temperature expected where no automatic inlet control is provided. At larger installations, automatic inlet control is used and motors are
sized for maximum inlet temperature.
8.5.2.3 Control
Because a positive displacement blower will deliver a relatively constant flow of air
over a range of discharge pressures, multiple units or multiple-speed motors should
provide rate control. Use of variable-frequency, alternating-current drives allows positive displacement blower operation as variable-capacity, variable-pressure machines.
Control of airflow rate with centrifugal blowers typically is accomplished by using
variable-speed drives, inlet- or dual-vane adjustments, or inlet throttling valves. Dualvane technology was introduced in the 1980s. Inlet guide vanes optimize machine efficiency based on ambient temperature changes, differential pressure, and machine
capacity. Variable diffusers provide capacity control (Vinton and Mace, 1996). In the
1990s, advances were made in system instrumentation to optimize the aeration process,
which includes open valve control. Operation of the compressor is based on constant air
header pressure and multiple compressor operation using cascade control (Vinton and
Mace, 1996). Inlet throttling is the least complex method. Rate control can be accomplished by using a manually or motor-operated valve that is controlled by some other
measured parameter in the system, such as dissolved-oxygen concentration. Airflow
rate and discharge pressure can also be throttled with a valve downstream of the
blower. However, this method requires more power than an inlet valve. Details of
blower selection, system design, maintenance, and control can be found in other publications (U.S. EPA, 1989; WPCF, 1988).

8.5.3 Air-Piping Materials

Primary considerations in piping material selection are strength and potential deterioration because of corrosion, thermal effects, and other environmental factors. Piping
materials typically used include carbon and stainless steel, ductile iron, fiberglass-reinforced plastic, HDPE, and PVC. Because blower discharge pressures are typically less
than 100 kPa (15 psi), thin-walled pipe is often used, which require adequate protection
from physical damage. Temperatures in excess of 93C (200F) are not uncommon in the
blower discharge; temperatures increase with increasing discharge pressure. Therefore,
the pipe and accessories (supports, valves, gaskets, and so on) must be designed accordingly. Because thermal stresses can be significant, provisions for pipe expansion and
contraction are needed. Blower discharge piping often is insulated to protect workers
from possible burns, help attenuate noise, and keep blower room temperatures under

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control. Air intake piping is also often insulated to prevent condensation (in cold climates) and to help attenuate noise.
Because of the potential for corrosion at the interface between the atmosphere and
liquid in aeration tanks, stainless steel piping material often is used for droplegs. Inside
the basin and below the water surface, the piping branches into a system of manifolds
and headers. This piping also is typically stainless steel or PVC, depending on the aeration system. The choice of material depends on the structural requirements of the type
of diffusers, diffuser connection, and whether a diffuser-cleaning system will be provided. For fine-pore systems, the designer must check the compatibility of the piping
material with the cleaning gas or liquid. Polyvinyl chloride is typically selected because
of its inert characteristics. However, PVC temperature limits need to be considered in
warm climates and deep tank applications. Typically, PVC would only be used below
the water line.
Stainless steel typically is selected for tube diffuser systems because of the cantilever load applied by the diffusers and its corrosion resistance. However, PVC also has
been used successfully. Polyvinyl chloride is more typically used with disk or dome
diffusers because they are typically mounted on top of a header; thus, weight and buoyant forces transmitted through the connection to the header are minimal.
Basins are drained periodically and left empty. If PVC piping is selected as the
manifold and header material, then it must resist sunlight deterioration. Titanium dioxide and carbon black are typically used in PVC piping for UV protection. Other design
considerations include the effects of freezing and thawing when tanks are empty.

8.5.4 Air-Piping Design

Piping should be sized so that headloss in the supply lines and headers is small compared to that across the diffusers. Typically, if headlosses in the air piping between the
last positive flow split (valve or control device) and the farthest diffuser are less than
10% of the headloss across the diffusers, then good air distribution can be maintained
in the basin. Control orifices for diffusers are an important design consideration in
piping design.
Basic fluid mechanics principles are used to size air-piping systems. Designers typically use standard calculation procedures such as those developed by Darcy-Weisbach.
Several handbooks describe these procedures (Hoffman, 1986; Streeter and Wylie, 1979;
and U.S. EPA, 1989). Calculations must include corrections for temperature rise during
compression, altitude (barometric pressure), and the specific weight of air at design
temperature and pressure. Headloss calculations should account for both maximum
summer air temperature and the temperature rise from air compression at the maximum expected air flow rate.

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Losses through fittings and valves can be calculated using headloss coefficients
and velocity heads. Typical coefficients can be found in texts and handbooks (Hoffman,
1986; Streeter and Wylie, 1979; and U.S. EPA, 1989). Actual values selected should be
verified by the manufacturer. The designer must also consider losses because of fouling
or plugging of porous diffusers.

8.5.5 Pure-Oxygen Generation

Onsite production of pure oxygen (also called high-purity oxygen) can be accomplished
by cryogenic means, pressure swing adsorption (PSA), or vacuum swing absorption
(VSA). The cryogenic air separation process produces liquid oxygen by the liquefaction
of air, followed by fractional distillation to separate air components, mainly nitrogen
and oxygen (Figure 14.96). Pressure swing adsorption systems have been used in the
past, remain in some plants, but have become obsolete by the more cost-effective VSA
process (Figure 14.97).
The VSA process is a minor variation of the proven PSA process. Both systems
operate similarly with relatively low operating pressures (typically less than 340 kPa

FIGURE 14.96

Schematic of a simplified cryogenic oxygen system.

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FIGURE 14.97

Typical two-bed vacuum swing adsorption process schematic.

[50 psig]) and at or near ambient room temperatures (10 to 27C [50 to 80F]). The
VSA/PSA process relies on swings in pressure to cycle zeolite molecular beds from an
absorption stage (high pressure) to a desorption and regeneration stage (low pressure)
and then back to an absorption stage (high pressure).
The process starts by providing ambient air through an intake filter to a blower or
compressor. Pressurized air is then sent through an aftercooler and onto zeolite beds
where the molecular sieve material absorbs nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and
any residual hydrocarbons that may be present. The remaining oxygen gas passes
through the zeolite beds and is stored in a collection pressure vessel before being transported to the point of use.
The primary difference between VSA and PSA systems is that VSA systems operate at a lower pressure, in some cases, because of the proprietary nature of the molecular sieve. Vacuum swing absorption systems use a vacuum blower to remove nitrogen
and other gases from the zeolite media. This vacuum condition provides for slightly
faster and more efficient purge (or desorption) of the nitrogen rich bed.
The VSA system typically uses backup liquid oxygen (LOX) storage tanks for emergency situations or for peak periods when additional oxygen is required. Onsite LOX

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storage tanks can be purchased or leased in sizes up to approximately 57 000 to 80 000
L (15 000 to 20 000 gal) capacity (approximately 64 to 86 Mg [70 to 95 ton] of oxygen) in
either vertical or horizontal configurations. Tanker trucks typically load onsite LOX
tanks, which need to be refilled periodically to account for evaporative losses. In some
large industrial-urban areas, some manufacturers have an underground pipe network
oxygen delivery systems for their primary industrial and municipal clients.
Cryogenic oxygen generation and VSA separation are efficient. The amount of
power generated (0.001 19 MJ/kg O2 [0.15 kWh/lb O2]) is representative of these technologies (compared to approximately 0.001 5 MJ/kg O2 [0.20 kWh/lb O2] generated for
a PSA unit). Minimum continuous output of cryogenic units is 27 000 to 36 000 kg/d (30
to 40 ton/d); whereas, for VSA units, it is 450 to 900 kg/d (0.5 to 1 ton/d). Design of
either system for turndown is important. With a VSA system, turndown to 20% of fullgeneration capacity is possible. With a cryogenic system, turndown to only 50% of the
full load generation rate is expected. With both systems, LOX storage is provided for
peak oxygen demand periods and oxygen generation equipment downtime.
Advantages of the VSA system over the cryogenic system include decreased
energy use (in terms of dollars per unit volume of pure oxygen produced), simple
equipment and operations, and lower maintenance requirements. Vacuum swing
absorption systems also may also better protect workers because both operating pressures and temperatures are closer to normal ambient conditions.

8.6 Mixing Requirements

The air necessary to maintain solids in suspension is a function of the characteristics of
the solids and the installation geometry of the aeration system. Wastewater downstream of well-functioning grit removal systems can operate at lower mixing rates.
High specific weight solids (grit) cannot, however, be adequately suspended by any
aeration system. Facility design without grit removal can increase the probability of significant accumulation of sediment in activated sludge reactors and associated operation and maintenance problems.
Mixed liquor velocity in an aeration tank of at least 0.15 m/s (0.5 ft/sec) often is
prescribed. Different diffuser configurations exhibit different mixing characteristics.
Spiral roll systems often are designed with minimum airflows of 0.28 to 0.65 m3/minm
of header length (3 to 7 scfm/ft) or 0.25 to 0.42 L/m3s (15 to 25 scfm/1 000 cu ft) (WPCF,
1988). As tank width increases, air requirements for adequate mixing will increase. For
full-floor grid configurations, a value of 0.61 L/m2s (0.12 scfm/sq ft) is often used (U.S.
EPA, 1989). Mixing evaluations performed on a ceramic dome diffuser grid configuration at the Los Angeles-Glendale facility in California revealed no sludge accumula-

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tions below the diffusers after two weeks of operation (MLSS
1 500 mg/L) at an airflow rate of 0.25 L/m2s (0.05 scfm/sq ft) (Yunt, 1980).
For mechanical aeration systems, two criteria are often used to define mixing:
(1) minimum bottom velocity of flow and (2) minimum power input per unit volume.
For mechanical aeration systems with a vertical mixing regime, minimum power input
is often used. For simple oxygen dispersion where biomass entrainment is not critical
(some lagoon applications), values of 12 to 20 W/m3 (0.45 to 0.75 hp/1 000 cu ft) may
be used although most engineers would use higher values (WPCF, 1988). For mixing of
biomass, power input depends on device configuration and basin geometry, but values
of 16 to 30 W/m3 (0.6 to 1.15 hp/1 000 cu ft) are often used although lower figures have
been cited (WPCF, 1988). Consultation with the mechanical aeration manufacturer is
advisable to ensure adequate and efficient design. For oxidation ditches, minimum
velocities are used to define acceptable mixing. The minimum velocity of flow in oxidation ditches is assumed to be 0.24 to 0.37 m/s (0.8 to 1.2 ft/sec).
Because oxygen demand requirements typically control conventional air systems,
enough energy is automatically provided for mixing. For pure-oxygen systems, supplemental mixing is needed. Likewise, in extended aeration facilities, oxygen uptake
rates (OURs) are typically low, and mixing requirements often control the rate of energy
input depending on efficiency of the aerator.

8.7 Aerator Design and Testing

Historically, many methods have been used to test and specify aeration equipment,
which has led to confusion and misrepresentation of equipment performance. Furthermore, equipment suppliers, consultants, and users often use different nomenclature
when they report capabilities.
The preparation of explicit equipment specifications is vital to installation of efficient, cost-effective devices. To enable a supplier to properly specify and quote aeration
equipment, the prospective user or design engineer must provide accurate and detailed
information about system requirements and constraints. The supplier can then provide
equipment performance information based on reliable clean water test data and sound
judgment based on experience from previous field applications.
Evaluation of reliable clean water oxygen-transfer test data is only one step in
understanding aeration system capabilities. Measuring oxygen transfer in the field with
aeration equipment operating under actual process conditions is imperative. Engineers
must choose carefully among the various field test methods that are available and use
them with care. The next sections discuss specification and testing protocols that will
enhance the understanding of measuring aeration equipment performance, which can

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simplify transactions among vendors, consultants, and users and should be understood
before a contract is signed.

8.7.1 Equipment Considerations

As the first step in proper equipment selection, the design engineer should determine aeration system field requirements. Important elements in defining these requirements are:
Site location, elevation above sea level, and ambient high summer and low winter air temperatures;
Aeration tank volume, process water depth, and basin configuration;
Oxygen demandminimum, average, and maximum plus spatial and temporal
distributions;
Mixing requirementscapability to maintain specified MLSS concentrations in
suspension;
Process water temperatureminimum, average, and maximum;
Process water transfer characteristicsrange of alpha and beta factors anticipated;
Operating dissolved oxygen concentration (mg/L);
The MLVSS concentrations (mg/L)minimum, average, and maximum;
Desired type of system, specified efficiency (standard oxygen transfer efficiency
[SOTE], SAE), construction materials, required performance testing, and necessary quality control for installation; and
Penalties for not meeting performance guarantees.
Equipment suppliers should give users detailed mechanical and structural requirements and performance characteristics of the equipment, including reliable clean water
performance data. Clean water test data provide the primary basis for specification of
aeration equipment in most cases. These data must be reported at standard conditions
and supplemented with a description of the conditions under which they were derived.
This information will allow the prospective user to judge usefulness of the data for the
specific application. Engineers and users should insist that basic data collection and
analysis conform with protocols outlined in the ASCE Standard for Measurement of
Oxygen Transfer in Clean Water (1992), which is summarized in a following section.
The prospective user or design engineer must translate clean water performance
results to applicable field conditions. The engineer must specify tests that are directly
scalable to the field or have evidence to support scaleup from shop-to-field geometry.
For example, full-floor grids typically are scalable if submergence, diffuser density, and
gas flow rates are true to full-scale design. Other diffused air and mechanical aeration
systems are more complex. Often, engineers will require full-scale clean water testing
when scaleup is in doubt.

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The importance of using the most appropriate alpha values cannot be overstated;
therefore, the engineer must exercise informed judgment based on the fundamentals of
aeration, equipment being considered, and past experiences. Based on experience with
equipment applications, the supplier should confirm appropriateness of alpha values
being considered.
The design process for aeration equipment is detailed for diffused air systems in
the literature (U.S. EPA, 1989). The same process may be used for mechanical or other
aeration systems up to the point of calculating standard oxygen-transfer rates (SOTRs)
for appropriate basin configurations and design loads. At that point, the designer may
use SAEs to estimate numbers of units and standard power requirements. Aerator spacing may be determined from the characteristics of the selected transfer device. Finally,
mixing may be evaluated based on equipment placement.
As part of the design process, the engineer must be aware of the many factors that
affect performance of oxygen transfer. Table 14.33 summarizes some of these factors.
Once the aeration system has been designed, the engineer may develop specifications and request a quote for aeration equipment. The following information should be
included in such a quote:
Number of units required to meet critical design conditions, including adequacy
of turndown capabilities;
Power required to operate the aeration units, if appropriate;
Total air required to operate the aeration units, if appropriate;
Air distribution system design, including headloss calculations, maximum
blower pressure, and pipe and orifice sizes, if appropriate;
Power required for the air blower, if appropriate;
Inlet air filtration requirements, if appropriate;

TABLE 14.33 Correction factors and the source for transforming clean water
information to process conditions.
Factor

Accounts for effects

Source of information



C
F

Process waste on KLa

Process waste on C*st
Mixed liquor temperature on KLa
Mixed liquor temperature on C*
Ambient pressure on C*st
Process DO
Diffuser fouling/deterioration

Field tests; experience

Calculate based on total dissolved solids
1.024 or experimental
Calculate
Calculate
Select
Field tests; experience

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Clean water test data with test conditions used for establishing SOTRs at minimum, average, and maximum oxygen demands;
Calculations to transform the SOTR to the field condition oxygen-transfer rate
(OTRf) (see below for discussion);
Equipment construction materials, including detailed drawings and specifications that outline device mechanical and structural integrity;
Quality assurance/quality control programs used in equipment manufacture,
shipping, storage, and installation;
Shop or full-scale testing to demonstrate equipment performance guarantees
(oxygen transfer at minimum, average, and maximum oxygen demand conditions, if practical); and
Field mixing requirements, if appropriate.

8.7.2 Clean Water Testing

The ASCE clean water standard (1992) describes the measurement of OTR as the mass
of oxygen dissolved per unit time in a unit volume of clean water by an oxygen-transfer system operating at a given gas flow rate and power input condition. This method
applies to laboratory-scale devices with water volumes of a few liters and full-scale systems and is valid for many different mixing conditions and process configurations.
The method is based on dissolved-oxygen removal from the test water volume by
the addition of sodium sulfite with a cobalt catalyst, followed by transfer studies of
reoxygenation to near saturation level. Test water volume dissolved oxygen inventory
is monitored during reoxygenation by measuring concentrations at several points that
best represent tank contents. These dissolved-oxygen concentrations can be measured
in situ or on samples pumped from the tank. The method specifies a minimum number,
distribution, and range of dissolved-oxygen measurements at each determination point.
Data obtained at each sampling point are then analyzed by a simplified mass-transfer model to estimate the apparent volumetric mass-transfer coefficient (KLa) and the
equilibrium spatial average dissolved oxygen saturation concentration (C*) (ASCE,
1992; Brown and Baillod et al., 1982). Nonlinear regression analysis is used to fit the dissolved-oxygen profile measured at each sampling point during reoxygenation to the
models mathematical equation. In this way, estimates of KLa and C* are obtained at
each sampling point. After these estimates are adjusted to standard conditions, the system SOTR is calculated from the aeration tank volume (V) and estimates of KLa and C*
at each of the n sampling points as follows:
n

SOTR
V

KL a20 i C * 20 i
i
1

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Where,
KLa
C*
V
n

volumetric mass-transfer coefficient;

equilibrium spatial average dissolved oxygen saturation concentration

aeration tank volume, and

sampling point.

Frequently, the SAE is calculated as the SOTR divided by power input. The standard
oxygen transfer efficiency (SOTE) in percent also can be estimated for diffused air systems by:

SOTE

SOTR
 100
WO2

(14.33)

Where,
WO2
mass flow of oxygen in the gas feed stream.
It is important to use consistent definitions during aeration testing, subsequent data
analysis, and final result reporting. A consistent nomenclature has been established
with more logical and understandable terminology, which will eliminate much of the
difficulty in interpreting aeration literature (ASCE, 1992). Standard conditions for oxygen-transfer tests are defined as water temperature of 20C, barometric pressure of
100 kPa (1 atm), and dissolved oxygen concentration of 0.

8.7.3 Transformation of Clean Water Test Data to Process Water Conditions

The oxygen-transfer rate of a particular aeration device is typically expressed as either
an SOTR or OTRf. Calculations of a field transfer rate from a standard value can be performed as follows (U.S. EPA, 1989):
OTR f
 SOTR T20

*
(
C20
 C)
*
C20

(14.34)

Where,
OTRf
oxygen-transfer rate estimated for the system operating under process
conditions, mass/time;
SOTR
standard oxygen-transfer rate of new diffuser, mass/time;

average process water KLa/average clean water KLa (both with new
diffusers);

process water C*st/clean water C*st;

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C*st
tabular value of dissolved oxygen surface saturation concentration at
actual process water temperature, a barometric pressure of 100 kPa
(1.0 atm), and 100% relative humidity, mass/length3;
C
average process water volume dissolved oxygen concentration,
mass/length3;

empirical temperature correction factor assumed to equal 1.024, unless
aeration system tests show a different factor;
F
fouling factor, process water SOTR of a diffuser after a given time in
service/SOTR of a new diffuser in the same process water;
C*20
steady-state value of dissolved oxygen saturation at infinite time at 20C
and a barometric pressure of 100 kPa (1.0 atm), mass/length3;

temperature correction factor for dissolved oxygen saturation, C*st/C*s20;
C*s20
tabular value of dissolved oxygen surface saturation concentration at
20C, barometric pressure of 100 kPa, and 100% relative humidity,
mass/length3;

Pb/Ps (for tanks below 6 m [20 ft] in depth); or
(Pb  wt de  Pvt)/
(Ps  wt de  Pvt)(for tank depths deeper than 6 m [20 ft]);
wt
weight density of water at process conditions, mass/length3;
Pvt
saturated vapor pressure of water at process temperature, force/length2;
Pb
barometric pressure under field conditions, force/length2;
Ps
standard barometric pressure, force/length2; and
de
effective saturation depth, length,
1/wt [C*/C*st (Ps  Pvt) Pb  Pvt].
Table 14.33 serves as a guide for applying Equation 14.34 and indicates the source of
information for the parameters needed to estimate OTRf. Values of C*20 and SOTR are
obtained from the clean water test described above. The value of C should represent
the desired process water dissolved oxygen concentration averaged over the aeration
basin volume. Temperature and atmospheric pressure correction factors are estimated
from process design.
Review of the components of this equation reveals a parameter (F) introduced in
fine-pore aeration technology analysis (U.S. EPA, 1989). This parameter attempts to
account for impairment in diffuser performance caused by fouling or material deterioration. This fouling factor, a dynamic term, depends on diffuser type and wastewater
characteristics. Its value is not well documented. In studies of fine-pore diffusers
(ceramic, porous plastic, and perforated membrane), values of F ranged from 0.5 to 1.0
(U.S. EPA, 1989). The rate at which this value changes, also important to evaluate, is
described by a fouling rate term (fF). For further details on this parameter, refer to U.S.
EPA (1989). In the past, the effects of diffuser fouling and deterioration and of process

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water on oxygen transfer, were included in the alpha term. The term apparent alpha
often was used to describe this dual effect (U.S. EPA, 1985). With the current nomenclature, apparent alpha is replaced by the equivalent term, F.
Alpha is one of the most controversial and investigated parameters for oxygen
transfer. Most recent information indicates that it depends on wastewater characteristics, diffuser type, airflow rate, diffuser placement, basin geometry, system operating
parameters, and flow regime. In addition, its value varies spatially and temporally.
With the same wastewater, alpha will typically be lowest for aeration devices generating fine bubbles and highest for coarse bubbles and surface aeration systems. Measurements of OTRf in municipal facilities indicated that F values for fine-pore devices averaged approximately 0.4, with a range of 0.1 to 0.7 (U.S. EPA, 1989). These were mean
weighted values for the entire aeration basin. Individual measured values were significantly lower at the influent end of the plug-flow reactor. Diurnal variations of the mean
weighted F values were represented by a maximum-to-average ratio of approximately
1.2 and a minimum-to-average ratio of approximately 0.86 (U.S. EPA, 1989). Information on alpha for mechanical aeration equipment is scarce and, when available, some is
less reliable than for fine-pore devices. Values from 0.3 to 1.1 have been reported in the
literature (Boyle et al., 1989). Additional references discuss alpha for other systems and
wastewaters (Doyle and Boyle, 1985; Mueller and Boyle, 1988; Stenstrom and Gilbert,
1981; U.S. EPA, 1983,1989; WPCF, 1988).

8.8 Process Water Testing

Once aeration equipment is operating under process conditions, its performance should
be compared with calculated design estimates. Process water testing provides the best
and most reliable source of data on F and on the effects of system design. All methods
for testing equipment during process operation are referred to as respiring system tests.
The American Society of Civil Engineers published Standard Guidelines for In-Process
Oxygen Transfer Testing (1997).
Typically, testing methods can be categorized according to the rate of dissolvedoxygen concentration change with respect to time in a given reactor (or reactor segment). Systems with a dissolved-oxygen rate of change of zero are described as being
in a steady-state condition; all others are as nonsteady. If influent wastewater is
diverted from a reactor for testing, these tests are referred to as batch tests. The term
continuous test applies where influent wastewater flow is not diverted.
Several respiring system test methods that do not require a direct measure of OUR
are broadly categorized as mass balance, offgas, inert-tracer, and nonsteady-state methods. The mass balance method requires measurement of influent and effluent liquid
flows. The offgas method is based on the mass balance of oxygen across a system and

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requires measurements in inlet and exit gas streams. The inert-tracer method indirectly
measures OTR by determining the transfer rate of a radioactive or stable inert gas tracer.
For nonsteady-state methods, the reactor dissolved-oxygen level is adjusted at the
beginning of the test to be either higher or lower than the steady-state dissolved-oxygen
concentration. Oxygen uptake rate data, though not required, are often collected to
ensure relatively constant operating conditions during an evaluation. Several references
include a comprehensive review of available test methods for field oxygen-transfer
measurements (ASCE, 1997; Doyle and Boyle, 1985; U.S. EPA, 1983, 1989). Tables 14.34
and 14.35 provide assumptions necessary to use steady- or nonsteady-state tests. Selection of the best method often depends on economics, degree of precision and accuracy
required, process conditions, and other considerations.

8.9 Aeration System Maintenance

The principal objective in the design of the aeration system is to develop an effective
system with the lowest possible cost, maintaining a balance between initial investment
and long-term operations and maintenance expenditures. Many long-term maintenance
characteristics are determined by the capabilities and constraints designed into the sys-

TABLE 14.34 Assumptions necessary to develop equations for continuous steadyand non-steady-state tests (ASCE, 1997; Doyle and Boyle, 1985; and U.S. EPA, 1983b
and 1989).
Assumptions

Test conditions

Aeration volume DO is constant

and the reactor contents are
completely (uniformly) mixed
Reactor influent flow is constant

Test time is shot, they are not required for

non-steady state test

Influent DO is constant

Aeration volume oxygen uptake

is constant

Effective oxygen transfer rate is

constant

Test time is short, variation in influent

wastewater flow is negligible during test
period; recycle sludge flow is held constant
Test time is short, variations in influent
wastewater flow and DO are negligible
during test period; recycle sludge flow is
held constant
Test time is short; variations in influent
wastewater flow and DO are negligible
during test period (note that uptake rate may
be difficult, if not impossible, to moderately
determine for systems with high organic
loadings)
Test time is short; alpha value remains
constant during the test period

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14-205

TABLE 14.35 Assumptions necessary to develop equations for steady- and non-steady-state batch
(ASCE, 1997; Doyle and Boyle, 1985; and U.S. EPA, 1983 and 1989).
Assumptions

Test conditions

Aeration volume DO is constant

and the reactor contents are completely
(uniformly) mixed
Recycle sludge flow is constant zero
Recycle DO is constant

Steady state conditions have been achieved and

maintained, they are required for non-steady state test.

Aeration volume oxygen uptake rate

is constant

Effective oxygen transfer rate is constant

Recycle flow rate maintained constant or discontinued

Steady operation of recycle system if in use during the
test period (for example, sludge blanket level constant)
Aeration volume biological solids and recycle sludge flow
remain constant; carbonaceous and nitrogenous
substrates are near zero during the test (if nitrification
occurs in the test system)
Carbonaceous substrate is near zero during the test; alpha
value remains constant during the test period

tem. Factors under the control of staff, however, can affect long-term operations and
maintenance costs. An excellent summary of operations and maintenance for fine-pore
diffusers is found in other references (U.S. EPA, 1989; WPCF, 1988).

9.0 SECONDARY CLARIFICATION

9.1 Introduction
Gravity clarification traditionally has been used to separate MLSS from effluent in suspended-growth systems. Table 14.36 lists many of the factors that affect clarifier performance. Design considerations to address these factors that are common to all shapes
and sizes of clarifiers are discussed in the following paragraphs. These are followed by
separate sections on rectangular and circular clarifiers. Further details and more indepth analysis of the design of secondary clarifiers can be found in Water Environment
Federation Manual of Practice No. FD-8 (WEF, 2005).

9.2 Suspension Characteristics and Settleability

9.2.1 Characteristics
Figure 14.98 illustrates the settling characteristics used to categorize suspensions. All
four types of settling occur in activated sludge clarifiers. Types I and II represent the settling of individual discrete and flocculated particles that occurs in the upper reaches of
the clarifier resulting in an effluent with low suspended solids. Type III, or zone set-

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TABLE 14.36 Factors that affects clarifier performance (Ekama et al., 1997; reprinted
with permission from IWA Publishing).
Category

Factors

Hydraulic and load factors

Wastewater (ADWF, PDWF, PWWF)*

Surface overflow rate
Solids loading rate
Hydraulic retention time
Underflow recycle ratio

External physical features

Tank configuration
Surface area
Depth
Flow distribution
Turbulence in conveyance structure

Internal physical features

Presence of flocculation zone

Sludge-collection mechanism
Inlet arrangement
Weir type, length and position
Baffling
Hydraulic flow patterns and turbulence
Density and connection currents

Site conditions

Wind and wave action

Water temperature variation

Sludge characteristics

MLSS concentration
Sludge age
Flocculation, settling and thickening characteristics
Type of biological process

* ADWF
average dry weather flow, PDWF
peak dry weather flow, and PWWF
peak wet weather flow.

tling, occurs with concentrated suspensions that settle at lower velocities because water
is displaced as suspension settles. The result is clear liquid above the settling zone and
settling velocities that decrease with increasing concentration. Type III settling of the
sludge blanket is the most important for clarifier design and represents the behavior of
the sludge blanket wherein concentration increases with depth although solids are continuously removed as RAS at underflow concentration. In Type IV, or compression settling, particles are in contact and further settling can only occur by compression. Type
IV can exist in the sludge zone at the tank bottom.
Work by Coe and Clevenger (1916), Dick and Ewing (1967), Dick and Young
(1972), and Yoshioka et al. (1957) advanced the solids flux approach to clarification.
For a clarifier operating at a steady state, a constant flux of solids is moving downward (Figure 14.99). The total mass flux of solids is the sum of the mass flux resulting
from hindered settling due to gravity and the mass flux resulting from bulk movement

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FIGURE 14.98 Relationship between solids characteristics and sedimentation processes.

FIGURE 14.99 Settling basin at steady state (ub
bulking downward velocity, m/h or
ft/hr, and A
required area, m2 or sq ft) (from Metcalf & Eddy, Wastewater Engineering:
Treatment and Reuse, 4th ed. Copyright 2003, The McGraw-Hill Companies, New York,
N.Y., with permission).

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of the suspension. The solids flux across any arbitrary boundary resulting from hindered settling is:
SFg
XiVi

(14.35)

Where,
SFg
solids flux resulting from gravity, kg/m2h (lb/h/sq ft),
Xi
solids concentration at point in question, g/m3 (lb/cu ft), and
Vi
settling velocity of solids at concentration X, m/h (ft/hr).
The solids flux resulting from underflow is:
SFu
XiUb

(14.36)

Ub
Qu/A

(14.37)

SFu
XiQu/A

(14.38)

And,

Yielding,

Where,
SFu
Ub
Qu
A

solids flux resulting from underflow, kg/m2h (lb/h/sq ft),

bulk downward velocity, m/h (ft/h),

underflow flowrate, m3/h (cu ft/h), and

required area, m2 (sq ft).

The total solids flux, SFt, in kg/m2h (lb/h/sq ft), is the sum of these two components:
SFt
XiVi  XiUb

(14.39)

The total solids flux represents the maximum rate that solids can be continually applied
to a clarifier for a given underflow rate, MLSS concentration, and characteristic settling
velocity at concentration Xi. The characteristic settling velocity is, in turn, a function of
the settleability of solids.

9.2.2 Factors That Affect Settleability

It is not possible to predict the settling characteristics of a particular suspension of
microorganisms from day to day. Microbial makeup is the primary factor affecting activated sludge settleability. A well-designed and operated activated sludge system provides an environment promoting the proliferation of desired microorganisms that read-

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ily flocculate and controls growth of organisms that can contribute to poor sludge settleability and foaming.
Healthy mixed liquor includes a mixture of bacteria, protozoa, and metazoa. Filamentous bacteria are present in varying amounts and can hinder the ability of the
sludge to settle and thicken. When viewed under a microscope, they are typically long
and stringy in appearance. Ideal floc contains just the right mixture of filamentous
microorganisms and floc formers, with the filaments forming the backbone of the floc
(Figure 14.100a). If the floc lacks enough filaments, then it is likely to break up (Figure

FIGURE 14.100 Effect of filamentous organisms on activated sludge structure: (a) ideal,
nonbulking floc, (b) pinpoint floc, and (c) filamentous, bulking (Ekama et al., 1997;
reprinted with permission from the copyright holders, IWA).

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

14.100b) and effluent quality will deteriorate. If too many filaments exist, then bulking
may develop that impedes zone and compression settling (Figure 14.100c) (Jenkins
et al., 2003; Sezgin et al., 1978).
Settling activated sludge contains some nonsettleable solids that, either because
their size is too small or their density is too close to that of the surrounding fluid, settle
at a negligible rate. Many of these solids are not removed in a typical final clarifier. They
have low tendency to flocculate or have sheared from floc particles because of excessive
turbulence in the aeration basin or in the conveyance system.
Suspended solids in activated sludge mixed liquor settle better in warmer temperatures. Reed and Murphy (1969) have investigated this and noted that settling times at
0C increased by a factor of 1.75 compared to those at 20C for an MLSS concentration
of 2000 mg/L (Figure 14.101). The effect became less pronounced as solids concentration increased. Wilson (1996) also quantified the effect of temperature.
As mixed liquor is aerated, transported to the clarifier, and settled, the degree or
status of floc formation may change. Diagnostic testing, such as proposed by Wahlberg
(2001), can provide useful information about system performance and deficiencies.

FIGURE 14.101

Effect of temperature on settling detention time.

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9.2.3 Measures of Settleability

Two basic approaches are used in measuring sludge settleability: (1) volume of settled
sludge after a given period of time and (2) settling velocity of the sludge/liquid interface during zone settling.
The SVI has long been a common measure of sludge settleability. It is the volume
in milliliters occupied by 1 g of the MLSS following 30 minutes of quiescent settling. The
traditional method is carried out in a 1- or 2-L settling column or graduated cylinder but
other methods produce more representative results. Standard Methods specifies gently
stirring the sample during settling to eliminate or minimize wall effects (American Public Health Association et al., 1999).
The dilute sludge volume index (DSVI) was developed to overcome concentration
effects by diluting the suspension to result in a 30-minute settled sludge volume
between 150 and 250 mL/L. Because of the relative insensitivity of DSV30 to solids concentration, it provides a common basis for comparing sludge settleabilities at different
times and facilities.
Another measure is the stirred sludge volume index at 3.5 g MLSS/L (SSVI3.5). It is
defined as the volume occupied by 1 g of solids following 30 minutes of settling in a
gently stirred (at 1 rpm) settling column at a standard initial concentration of 3.5 g
MLSS/L. Determination of SSVI3.5 entails (1) performing a range of settling tests at various MLSS values ranging from 2 000 to 6 000 mg/L, (2) calculating the SSVI for each
concentration, (3) developing an SSVI-concentration graph, and (4) obtaining the SSVI
value at 3 500 mg/L by interpolation.

9.2.4 Techniques to Improve Settleability

The settleability of an activated sludge mixed liquor solids suspension can be influenced by the loading of the biological reactor, transport, and clarifier/RAS system
design.
9.2.4.1 Food-to-Microorganisms Ratio Control
The food to microorganisms (FM) ratio is an important design consideration relative
to settleability. High values can lead to dispersed growth that gives preference to freeswimming bacteria and other organisms that neither settle well nor effectively incorporate into flocs. Decreasing this loading parameter results in filamentous microorganisms and endogenous respiration and decay, resulting fragments of decomposition that
do not readily settle out. At intermediate values of FM, the MLSS may or may not settle well, depending on other variables such as nutrients, dissolved-oxygen levels, turbulence, and possible toxicity.

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9.2.4.2 Dissolved-Oxygen Concentration
In a plug-flow reactor, more oxygen is required at the head end of the tank to prevent
a drop in dissolved oxygen and bulking conditions. Jenkins et al. (2003) described the
interaction of aeration basin dissolved oxygen and FM relative to bulking conditions
for completely mixed reactors (Figure 14.102). The figure shows that higher loading
rates can be achieved with reasonable settling characteristics if the dissolved oxygen is
kept relatively high. This explains, to some degree, why pure-oxygen reactors can be
heavily loaded and still produce a settleable sludge.
9.2.4.3 Selectors
Discussed earlier in this chapter, selectors help control the settleability of the mixed
liquor suspension.
9.2.4.4 Process Configuration
With ample design flexibility, an operator can take positive steps to ensure good settleability. In low FM systems, a good approach is to operate at least the first portion of
the aeration tank in plug-flow configuration. This configuration creates an environment
somewhat like a selector to limit the growth of low FM bulking organisms.

FIGURE 14.102 Bulking and nonbulking conditions in completely mixed aeration

basins (COD
carbonaceous oxygen demand; DO
dissolved oxygen; and MLVSS

mixed-liquor volatile suspended solids) (Jenkins et al., 2003; reprinted with permission
from IWA Publishing).

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Operating in a step-feed mode so that some or all of the influent flow can be added
at several points along the length of the aeration tank is sometimes advantageous. Typically, influent is split equally among two to four points and return sludge is added
only to the first pass of the aeration tank, as described earlier in this chapter. This type
of design, for a given tank volume and FM (or SRT), allows lower solids loading rates
(SLRs) on the final clarifiers. Step feed also allows the oxygen demand to be more
evenly distributed along the length of an aeration tank.
9.2.4.5 Selective Wasting and Foam Control
Nocardia-type organisms are notorious for accumulating at the mixed liquor reactor,
open channel, and final clarifier surfaces. Many plants with sludge that is older than
five days have this problem. Aeration basins typically are designed with overflow weir
outlets that move floatables downstream to splitter box structures or aerated channels
feeding the clarifiers. If not removed upstream, these nuisance filamentous organisms
enter final clarifiers and rise to the surface where they must be skimmed off to prevent
odor or loss of solids to the effluent. Parker et al. (2003) introduced the concept of
adding mechanical skimming devices, such as a spiral or chain-and-flight blades to
move floatables up a beach and into a hopper located at the end of the aerated channel.
Another method of foam and floatable control includes spray nozzles, which are not
effective for Nocardia-type foam.
If the foam is passed into the clarifier, it tends to accumulate behind the baffles of
the flocculation zone. It is recommended to have a means to remove the foam using
automated mechanical provisions, by lowering of the baffle and causing it to overflow
a bit at peak hour flow, or by periodically lowering a gate in the baffle. Spray nozzles
aimed at moving the scum through small ports in the baffles may help some but often
are not sufficient when used alone.
9.2.4.6 Chemical Addition
Chemical addition can enhance clarifier performance by eliminating excess filaments,
changing floc size and shape, or inducing flocculation. Some bulking sludges can be
controlled by RAS or sidestream chlorination. A typical design for a low (5- to 10-hour)
HRT system uses 0.002 to 0.008 kg chlorine (Cl2)/kg MLSSd (2 to 8 lb Cl2/d/1 000 lb
MLSS), with chlorine added to the RAS system. Longer HRT systems might need chlorine added to a sidestream or multiple points in the aeration tanks (Figure 14.103).
Hydrogen peroxide can be substituted for chlorine in many cases. Further design and
sizing details can be found elsewhere (Jenkins et al., 2003). The RAS chlorination, however, can interfere with nitrification. One full-scale study revealed that, to maintain
BNR capability, the chlorine dose needs to be less than 0.001 kg Cl2/kg MLSSd (1 lb/
d/1 000 lb mixed liquor volatile suspended solids) (Ward et al., 1999). The study also

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

FIGURE 14.103 Chlorine dosing points for bulking control (Jenkins et al., 2003;
reprinted with permission from IWA Publishing).

reported that, following chlorine inhibition, nitrification recovered faster than EBPR
after chlorine addition was stopped.
To improve flocculation, addition of cationic polymers at concentrations of less
than 1 mg/L has been shown to improve mixed-liquor settleability. In rare instances,
alum also has been used. The selection of inorganic salts, polymers, or other flocculent
aids should be based on laboratory studies, including jar tests.
9.2.4.7 Energy Gradient Optimization
Energy gradient optimization is important to grow MLSS floc or protect it in transit
from the aeration tank to the settling zone of the clarifier. As mixed liquor leaves the
aeration basin, the floc may be well formed if gentle mixing, such as that achieved with
fine-bubble aeration, is used in the reactor. Use of jets, high- or low-speed mechanical
aeration, or submerged turbines can tear up floc. Reformation should be achieved
before mixed liquor enters the quiescent zone of the clarifiers for settling. This may be
achieved by adequate detention time in aerated mixed liquor conveyance channels.
If flow splitting over weirs is used, then fall height requires attention. Falls of as
much as one meter have not destroyed some mixed liquors, but the nature of the floc
may affect the result.
Within the clarifier, inlets must dissipate influent mixed-liquor energy, distribute
flow evenly, reduce density short circuiting and current effects, minimize blanket disturbances, and promote flocculation. Das et al. (1993) demonstrated that velocities in
excess of 0.6 m/s (2 ft/sec) would cause deflocculation. The incoming energy can be
used to promote flocculation, as discussed later.

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9.3 Clarifier Sizing Approaches

Providing adequate surface area and depth is critical in clarifier design. Two criteria
that define the area requirements are surface overflow rates (SOR) and solids loading
rate (SLR). The SOR is the clarified effluent flow divided by effective surface area,
which is defined as the dimensions to the inner tank wall and not the weir or orifice
locations. The SLR is the mass loading of solids (total flow to the clarifier, including
RAS, multiplied by the MLSS concentration) divided by the area.
Some regulations specify numeric limits for surface area sizing; others accept justification calculations for loading. These in turn may include solids flux analyses and
other such site-specific information.

9.3.1 Overflow Rate

The SOR used by design engineers, based on average dry weather flow (ADWF) and
surface area, ranges from 0.5 to 2 m/h (300 to 1 000 gpd/sq ft) for activated sludge clarifiers. Some plants are known to operate without difficulty at the upper end of this
range and produce a high-quality effluent. In many documented cases, diurnal or maximum pumping peak rates of 2.7 to 3.1 m/h (1 600 to 1 800 gpd/sq ft) do not exceed
capacity. In other cases, poor clarification efficiency is encountered at lower average
and peak SORs.
A survey of consulting firms resulted in preferred SORs, shown in Table 14.37.
Randall et al. (1992) recommend average and maximum SORs based on the clear water
zone, which is the free settling zone above the maximum height of the sludge blanket.
Their recommendations, presented in Table 14.38, show peak criteria is three times the
average, which may not apply in many cases.
Ten States Standards or similar guidelines may need to be applied (Great LakesUpper Mississippi River Board [GLUMRB], 2004). In some cases, these capacity ratings
were developed from clarifier designs in operation decades ago and do not reflect
TABLE 14.37

Preferred overflow rates (m3/m2h [gpd/sq ft]) (WEF, 1988).

Circular clarifiers

Flow
average
Peak
a
b

Rectangular clarifiers

Range

Average

Range

Average

168119
(400700)
1.702.72
(1 00016 000)

0.95
???
2.09
(12.30)b

???1.19
(400 7000)
170272
(1 00016 000)

0.???
???
210
(12.30)

10 of 15 firms use 2.04 m3/m2h (1 200 gpd/sq ft).

8 of 13 firms use 2.04 m3/m2h (1 200 gpd/sq ft).

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TABLE 14.38

Clarifier overflow rate limitations (Randall et al., 1992).

Hydraulic condition

Moderate CWZ* 1.833.05 m

Average SOR (m /m h)

Maximum SOR (m3/m2h)
3

0.091 CWZ
0.182 CWZ2

Deep CWZ 3.054.57 m

0.278 CWZ
0.556 CWZ

* CWZ
clear water zone.

potential improvements in the design of inlet and outlet structures, depth, sludge collectors, and sludge removal that have been shown to increase allowable rates. It is projected that fully optimized clarifier designs will have 15 to 20% higher hydraulic capacity than pre-1970 clarifier designs having the same side water depth (WEF, 1998).
A correlation between effluent suspended solids and SOR developed for several
plants, indicates that an effluent TSS of less than 20 mg/L can be achieved at SORs ranging from 1.0 to 2.0 m/h (Figure 14.104). Such correlations can be misleading because
they do not account for the effects of temperature, peaking factors, SVIs, geometrical
details, RAS flowrate, and RAS concentration. Because the literature is limited, designs
for specific sites should be conservative or based on experimental testing (Tekippe and
Bender, 1987). Unbalanced load testing (loading multiple clarifiers at different rates to
evaluate performance) at existing plants undergoing expansion is encouraged. If such
testing is not feasible, column settling investigations can be undertaken to help establish design criteria.

FIGURE 14.104 Typical solids concentrationdepth profile assumed in flux analysis

(Ekama et al., 1997; reprinted with permission from IWA Publishing).

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9.3.2 Solids Loading Rate

In establishing the maximum allowable SLR, most design engineers prefer to keep the
average SLR (including full RAS capacity) in the range of 100 to 150 kg/m2d (20 to
30 lb/dsq ft) and peak SLR at 200 to 240 kg/m2d (40 to 50 lb/dsq ft). Rates greater
than 240 kg/m2d (50 lb/dsq ft) or more have been observed in some well-operating
plants with low SVI, well-designed clarifiers, and effective solids removal. Approaches
to determining the limiting SLR are presented below and include solids flux analyses
and operating strategies.
Solids flux analyses are valuable in determining if refinements to simple solids
loading criteria are worthwhile and helping operators run the clarification process. The
assumption of flux theory is that solids are continuously removed from the clarifier as
they reach the design underflow concentration and that settling characteristics of the
suspension are known. A detailed mathematical analysis of the flux theory is presented
in Water Environment Federation MOP FD-8 (2005a).
Solids concentration-depth profiles consist of four zones: (1) clear water zone (h1);
(2) separation zone (h2); (3) sludge storage zone (h3); and (4) thickening and sludgeremoval zone (h4) (Ekama et al., 1997). The fundamental premise of the flux theory is
that under overloaded conditions (applied solids flux greater than the limiting flux), a
critical zone settling layer (sludge storage zone, h3) develops in the sludge blanket,
which limits the conveyance of solids to the bottom of the tank. Consequently, all of the
solids that enter the storage zone from the separation zone are not transferred to the
thickening zone below, and the excess solids accumulate in the storage zone, causing it
to expand. As it expands, the solids concentration remains constant in the storage layer.
The depth of the separation and thickening zones (h2 and h4), however, do not increase
substantially. The continued expansion of the storage layer will result in the sludge
blanket reaching near the effluent structure level, causing a loss of solids with the effluent. At this point, the storage layer cannot expand further, and storage capacity of the
clarifier is exhausted. The solids flux that could not be transferred through the storage
layer is then lost with the effluent.
When the applied solids flux is less than the critical flux (underloaded condition),
all of the applied solids can be transferred to the tank bottom, eliminating the need for
solids storage. As a result, the sludge blanket is composed of the separation (h2) and the
thickening (h4) zones only.
9.3.2.1 State Point Analysis
State Point Analysis (SPA) is a graphical approach derived from solids flux theory
(Keinath 1985; Keinath et al., 1977). The SPA incorporates MLSS concentration and suspension settling characteristics, surface area available for thickening, and influent and

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2.5

Boundary between solids

capacity Criteria I and II domains
XF 2.5 g/l

2.0

Failure conditions region

Criterion II boundary

1.5

Fail
Safe

XF 3.5 g/l

D
1.0

XF 4.5 g/l

Fail
Safe

Overflow rate (m/h)

14-218

B
Criterion I boundary

0.5

C
Safe conditions region
0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

Underflow recycle ratio, R

FIGURE 14.105 Design and operating chart for secondary settling tanks (SSTs) based on
the flux procedure and the semilog expression linking the stirred zone settling velocity
(SZSV) and solids concentration for sludge with Vo
5.93 m/h and n
0.43 m3/kg.
The solids capacity Criteria I and II boundaries are shown for selected feed concentrations (XF
2.5, 3.5, and 4.5 g/L). For a feed concentration of 3.5 g/L, if the overflow rate
(horizontal) and recycle ratio (vertical) lines intersect inside, on, or outside the Criterion
I and II bounded area, then operating conditions are safe, critical, or overloaded, respectively. The underflow rate of qR is the product of the recycle ratio (R) and overflow rate
(qA) operative at any particular point in the chart; constant qB is represented by hyperbolae in the chart, which is the dotted line (Ekama et al., 1997; reprinted with permission from IWA Publishing).
RAS flow rates into the model. It can be used to assess different design and operating
conditions.
Figure 14.106 illustrates the components of the state point analysis. By definition,
the state point is the point of intersection of the clarifier overflow rate (OFR) and underflow rate (UFR). As summarized in Table 14.39, the position of the state point and the

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Elements of state point analysis (WERF, 2001).

FIGURE 14.106

TABLE 14.39

Interpretation of the state point analysis.

Location of
state point

Location of
underflow line

Condition
of clarifier

Potential
corrective action

Within the flow

curve (Figure 14.14)
Within the flux
curve (Figure 14.15)

Underloaded

None

Critically loaded

Increase RAS rate to

become underloaded

Within the flux

curve (Figure 14.16)
On the flux curve
(Figure 14.17)

Below the descending

limb of the flux curve
Tangential to the
descending limb of
the flux curve
Above the descending
limb of the flux curve
Below the descending
limb of the flux curve

Overloaded

On the flux curve

(Figure 14.18)

Above the descending

limb of the flux curve

Increase RAS rate to

become underloaded
Reduce clarifier load
solids to become
underloaded
Convert to ??? or
??? MLSS (SRT)
Increase RAS rate to
become critically
loaded
Reduce clarifier load
solids to become
underloaded
Convert to ??? or
Lower MLSS (SRT)

Outside the flux curve

(Figure 14.19)

Critically loaded

Overloaded

Overloaded

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location of the UFR line relative to the descending limb of the flux curve determine
whether the clarifier is underloaded, critically loaded, or overloaded (Figures 14.106
through 14.111).
The Water Environment Research Foundations Clarifier Research Technical Committee (CRTC) Protocol provides guidance with respect to the development and application of the state point analysis (WERF, 2001). Metcalf and Eddy (2003) present an
example on the use of state point analysis in operation and design.
9.3.2.2 Daigger Approach
Daigger (1995) and Daigger and Roper (1985) developed a clarifier operating diagram
(Figure 14.112) by plotting allowable SLR as a function of RAS solids concentration
based on SPA and suspension settling velocities predicted as a function of unstirred
SVI. The lines represent the limiting flux for the SVI shown. Lines representing various
underflow (RAS) rates are superimposed. Similar operating diagrams can be generated
using SSVI3.5 and DSVI values (Daigger, 1995).
The clarifier operating point can be located on the diagram by using two of the following operating parameters: actual SLR, underflow rate, or RAS solids concentration.
The third parameter, if available, can be used as a check. If the operating point is below
and left of the line corresponding to the current SVI, then the clarifier is operating below
the limiting flux associated with the operating SVI. If the operating point falls on the
line representing the current SVI, then the clarifier solids loading equals the limiting
flux and the clarifier is operating at its failure point. If the operating point falls above
and right of the line representing the operating SVI, then the clarifier is overloaded and
thickening failure is likely. Jenkins et al. (2003) present a detailed illustration of the
application of this approach.

FIGURE 14.107

Critically loaded clarifier.

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FIGURE 14.108

Overloaded clarifier.

FIGURE 14.109

Critically loaded clarifier.

FIGURE 14.110

Overloaded clarifier.

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FIGURE 14.111

Overloaded clarifier.

9.3.2.3 Keinath Approach

Wahlberg and Keinath (1988) and Keinath (1990) incorporated a broader database of
suspension settling behavior as a function of stirred SVI to develop the design and operating chart presented in Figure 14.113. The database included information from 21 fullscale plants that varied in size, geographic location, mode of operation, method of aeration, and type and amount of industrial wastewater input. None of the suspensions
tested were chemically amended.
Results obtained using the Keinath operating charts differ substantially from the
Daigger approach because of the differences between settling velocities correlated to
stirred and unstirred SVIs, especially at high values. Daigger (1995) developed such a
correlation between stirred and unstirred test data but good correlation is neither transferable from plant to plant, nor valid over a wide range of MLSS concentrations.
Keinath (1990) outlined the use of the design and operating chart (Figure 14.113)
for secondary clarifiers according to the thickening criterion and evaluating various
economic tradeoffs to determine a cost-effective design. He also presented examples
to demonstrate the effect of corrective strategies such as RAS control or conversion
to step-feed on ameliorating thickening overload conditions in an operating secondary clarifier. An example of this is given in Water Environment Federation MOP
FD-8 (2005a).
9.3.2.4 Wilson Approach
Wilson (1996) presented a simplified method of evaluating secondary clarifier performance using the settled sludge volume (SSV or V30) from a 30-minute settling test. He
proposed that SSV is correlated to the initial settling velocity (ISV), which also repre-

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FIGURE 14.112

Daigger operating chart (Daigger, 1995).

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FIGURE 14.113

Keinath operating chart (Keinath, 1990).

sents the required SOR, provided that it is adjusted, where appropriate, for temperature,
volatile solids content, and chemical addition. The relationships of this approach are:
Rmin
SSV/(103  SSV)

(14.40)

ISV
V0  exp(4  SSV/103)

(14.41)

Where,
Rmin
minimum RAS rate (%),
ISV
initial settling velocity (m/h),
SSV
30-minute settled volume (mL/L), and
V0
sludge settling characteristic velocity (m/h).

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Figure 14.114 presents a family of curves relating ISV (or clarifier SOR) to SSV for various values of V0, assuming V0 (in m/h) is 0.3 to 0.5 times temperature in degrees Celsius. Wilson concluded that the model compares well with the empirically validated
German Abwassertechnische Vereinigung (ATV) approach as well as the model developed by Daigger (1995).
The Wilson approach entails determining ISV, which is also the maximum surface
overflow rate (SORmax), using Figure 14.114 or Equation 14.41; Rmin can be derived from
Equation 14.40. These values are then compared with SOR and RAS rates determined
from plant operating data. Finally, the CSF and return safety factor (RSF) are calculated
as follows:
RSF
Plant RAS rate/Rmin

(14.42)

CSF
SORmax/plant SOR

(14.43)

A CSF value of less than 1.0 indicates clarifier overload. If CSF and RSF are both greater
than 1.0, then the clarifier is underloaded. If CSF is more than 1.0 and RSF is less than
1.0, then the clarifier is most likely overloaded and the operating condition should be
confirmed using other methods, such as the Daigger approach.

FIGURE 14.114

Wilson model (Wilson, 1996).

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9.3.2.5 Ekama-Marais Approach
Ekama et al. (1997) characterized final clarifier behavior based on solids loading limited
by (1) the solids flux (Criterion I) and (2) the surface overflow rate (Criterion II). These
two limiting criteria are defined as functions of settleability testing data, expressed in
terms of Vesilind coefficients Vo and n, overflow rate, underflow rate, and the stirred
zone settling velocity (SZSV). The mathematical relationships for a given sludge have
been expressed graphically in the form of a design and operating chart (Figure 14.115).
This defines the limiting overflow rate at various MLSS concentrations and RAS rates.
The figure illustrates that as the overflow rate increases, the recycle ratio must also
increase along the Criterion I boundary up to a limiting maximum of the former. Further description of this approach with illustrations of its relationship to SPA and other
methods are available (Ekama et al., 1997).

2.5

Boundary between solids

capacity Criteria I and II domains
XF 2.5 g/l

2.0

Failure conditions region

Criterion II boundary

1.5

Fail
Safe

XF 3.5 g/l

D
1.0

XF 4.5 g/l

Fail
Safe

Overflow rate (m/h)

14-226

B
Criterion I boundary

0.5

C
Safe conditions region
0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

Underflow recycle ratio, R

FIGURE 14.115 Design and operating chart. Graphs based on suspension with Vo

5.93 m/h and n
0.43 m3/kg (Ekama et al., 1984).

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9.3.3 Side Water Depth

Providing adequate tank depth is critical to good, consistent performance of any activated sludge clarifier. Selection of side water depth is based on the size of the unit or the
type of biological process preceding it. The trend in design practice is to make circular
clarifiers deeper than in the past. Recommended values range from 3 to 4.6 m (10 to 15 ft)
as a function of diameter. The distance of the sludge blanket from the effluent weir has
a direct relationship to effluent quality (Miller and Miller, 1978). For circular tanks,
based on historical operating data, Parker (1983) demonstrated the positive effect of
depth on effluent quality. At similar SORs, the average concentration of suspended
solids in the effluent from a settler decreased as depth increased. Variability in effluent
quality also decreased with increasing depth.
In the ATV standards, tank depth is calculated from four functional depths: (1) clear
water zone, (2) separation zone, (3) sludge storage zone, and (4) thickening and sludgeremoval zone. The side water depth (SWD) determined by this method is typically
more than 4 m (13 ft). A 2008 telephone survey of several large consulting engineering
firms and equipment suppliers specializing in U.S. WWTP design found that most large
activated sludge secondary clarifiers with diameters from 4 to 5 m (14 to 16 ft) had
depths up to 50 m (150 ft). Optimum depth is a function of tank shape as presented later
in this chapter.

9.3.4 Weir Loading

Many regulatory statutes include weir loading in design criterion. Most design engineers believe that significantly higher weir loading rates would not impair performance
and that placement and configuration have greater effects on a clarifier performance,
particularly in the absence of excessive sludge blanket depths and high-flow energies
near the weirs. Misaligned weirs and those with excessive algae growth can cause flow
imbalance within clarifiers.
Many regulations limit maximum (peak hour) allowable weir loadings to 250 m3/
md (20 000 gpd/ft) for small treatment plants (less than 4 000 m3/d [1 mgd]) and
375 m3/md (30 000 gpd/ft) for larger plants.

9.3.5 Redundancy
All activated sludge clarifiers should be able to be taken out of service for periodic
maintenance and repair. Not all tank designs are equivalent in this regard. Rectangular
tanks with one or multiple sets of chain-and-flight mechanisms are considered more
problematic and require more frequent servicing. Circular designs, in contrast, have
drives that are accessible from the surface and may include options in which the collector blades and support members can be winched to the surface.

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Many regulators require some provision for redundancy that allows one or more
units to be taken out of service while maintaining fully compliant treatment. In some
states that allow water reclamation, plants need to have one spare, redundant unit to
ensure that users of the product water do not have supply interruptions. Some requirements stipulate that at least 75% of the unit process design capacity remain if the largest
parallel unit is taken out of service.

9.3.6 Effect of Flow Variations

Clarifier sizing is based on average and peak flows. Though such a procedure can produce an extremely conservative design in some cases, it is considered necessary because
little is known regarding the mechanisms by which flow variations affect clarifier efficiency, and generalized quantitative relationships are not available. It is reasonable,
however, to expect clarifier performance to reflect peak instantaneous flow rate loading,
although some dampening effect is inevitable.

9.3.7 Summary of Sizing Steps

Many of the principles of design discussed above can be integrated into an approach
that meets numerous objectives simultaneously. A step-by-step approach is given below.
(1) Determine the operating MLSS concentration range of the plant to maintain an
acceptable FM ratio, SRT, and effluent quality under various flow and mass
loading conditions. For most municipal plants, the range is 1 000 to 4 000 mg/L.
(2) Determine the anticipated range of the MLSS SVI (or ISV). Select a statistically
high value that would seldom be exceeded by the full-scale operating plant. This
maximum design value should be based on an analysis of existing records, pilotplant data, or information from similar full-scale plants. If no data exists, most
U.S. engineers contacted in a design practice survey said they would use an SVI
value of 150 mL/g; two said 100 mL/g was acceptable; and one suggested a conservative value of 250 mL/g (WPCF, 1989). In 2008, the authors contacted several
process experts from large firms and found that most use 90 to 95% values
obtained from statistical analyses of existing plant data. Where no data exist, they
use SVI values of 150 to 200 mL/g for conventional and extended aeration systems and 120 to 125 mL/g for systems with selectors. For those using the 90%,
some apply a factor of safety of 20% to the resulting surface area of the tankage.
(3) Provide for 20 to 100% of average dry weather flow (ADWF) RAS pumping rate
capacity (up to 150% for extended aeration systems or others using high MLSS
concentrations). An RAS rate increases higher than 80% of ADWF may be counterproductive because of the increased hydraulic load on the clarifier.

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(4) Determine the maximum theoretical solids loading rate (function of SVI) using
solids flux analysis to arrive at solids loading limit and resulting surface area.
This result should be checked against the governmental regulations that may
place limits on solids loading. If the regulation values are smaller than that
derived by the methods discussed, then a case is sometimes made to obtain a
waiver that allows the higher loading.
(5) Select an overflow rate to achieve the required effluent quality that is based on
influent wastewater flow rate characteristics. The overflow rate to produce a specific effluent TSS concentration has not been extensively researched but is known
to vary with the geometry of the tank inlet structure and depth. This rate probably will not exceed the solids-limiting value determined in Step 4. Allowance also
should be made for taking a tank out of service for maintenance or repair (see
text above for criteria).
(6) Select a depth to provide adequate solids clarification, thickening, and storage.
Allow 0.6 to 0.9 m (2 to 3 ft) for thickening; 1 m (3 ft) or more for buffering; and
2.4 m (8 ft) for clarification. More buffering depth is needed if diurnal or influent
pumping flow variations or peak flow conditions are atypically large (for example, greater than 21). Approximately 0.6 m (2 ft) of freeboard should be added
to determine overall tank wall height. More detailed methods of clarifier depth
requirement analysis are available in addition to the application of CFD modeling (ATV, 1973, 1976; Ekama et al., 1997).
(7) Provide a reasonable weir length and place the weirs at strategic locations. Block off
notches in rectangular tank launders at the outlet end of the tank and add baffles,
as needed, to eliminate problems with MLSS updraft near the effluent structure.
(8) Select a mechanism for sludge removal. Plows, spiral-curved blades, chain and
flight or hydraulic suction systems are available depending on shape.
(9) Provide other details to complete the design:
Flocculation inlet zones, preferably separated from the rest of the tank by baffles;
Midlength or midradius energy-dissipation baffles (these may not be needed
if a flocculating feed well is provided);
Full-radius skimmers (rotating trough or beach type for small tanks), fullwidth for rectangular tanks, or partial-radius beach-type for large radial flow
tanks (multiple blades, anti-rotation baffles and spray nozzles may be added);
Rails and walkways providing access to the sludge collection drive mechanism, skimming device, and launder area;
Launder covers, algae removal mechanism, or chlorine addition equipment, if
necessary, for algae control;
Hose bibs;

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Lighting and electrical receptacles to provide power for portable maintenance
equipment; and
Safety life buoy and bars to keep people out of drop boxes.

9.3.8 Shapes
The current consensus of design engineers is that there are no significant shape advantages between circular and rectangular clarifiers if all of the design details are well done
and in accordance with modern guidelines such as those of the Water Environment
Federation MOP FD-8 (2005a).
Design engineers consider two basic shapes viable: longitudinal and crossflow. By
far, the most common is the longitudinal design (WEF, 2005).
Most design engineers and operators prefer circular clarifiers for activated sludge
and specialty suspended-growth systems treating municipal wastewater. The reliability of the mechanisms for circular tanks typically is cited as the primary reason. Extensive details and text on these designs are given in a following section of this chapter
and in Water Environment Federation MOP FD-8 (2005a).
Except for a few square designs, square, hexagon, and octagon shapes are designed
with center or peripheral feed to establish an internal radial flow pattern. Some square
tanks may be loaded on one side and effluent taken off on the opposite side, but these
are rare.
For square designs with radial flow, sweeping sludge from the corner area is a
problem. Corner sweep mechanisms exist, but many of them have had mechanical
problems and have fallen into disfavor. In recent years, changes to eliminate corner
sweeping have become common. Fillets in the corners to enable simple circular sweeps
have been used in some and new, circular inner vertical walls have been used in others.
Hexagonal and octagonal tanks typically have adequate corner filleting to accommodate simple circular mechanisms.
All designs in this radial flow, noncircular category have an issue with launder
shape. If they are made circular, then corner areas that are difficult to skim are created.
If the weirs are placed along the straight walls, then the flow patterns are distorted and
automated brushing for algae control is not possible. In view of all these considerations,
tanks in this category have become highly unpopular.

9.3.9 Batch and Other Clarification

Sequencing batch reactor (SBR) processes are favored by some engineers because they
do not require separate clarifiers, making them economical. Nonetheless, proper provisions are needed to ensure a clear, high-quality supernatant when aeration and mixing
are terminated. The SBR processes are discussed in an earlier section of this chapter.

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Several devices for decanting are illustrated in a U.S. EPA report (James M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers, 1984). Although most commercially available decanting
devices function reasonably well, some of the initial designs led to excessive TSS discharges at the onset of the decant cycle. The turbulence of aeration transferred MLSS
into the decanter, and the TSS subsequently left the basin when the draw/decant cycle
started. This problem has been resolved by changes in decanter design or provisions
to return the initial decant to the reactor and continue the return until clarity improves
to a satisfactory level. Many SBR plants have sometimes experienced significant foam
buildup; the decant system should be designed accordingly. Most successful designs
keep the foam out of the effluent discharge by either incorporating baffles around the
decanter or decanting from below the liquid surface. Foam subsequently remains in the
reactor or it can be removed by separate skimming devices.
Tube-and-plate settlers have been added to activated sludge clarifiers in attempts
to improve performance, but the authors are not aware of any new tanks of this type
being designed for activated sludge settling. The thick nature of MLSS and algal
growths tend to clog the interstices of these devices, which then require frequent cleaning to retain efficiencies. The extra operational costs are perceived to be too high to justify the cost savings possible with the higher overflow rate.
Sludge recycle and ballast addition allow considerably higher hydraulic loading
and excellent suspended solids removal. These advantages, however, are offset by
higher costs for polymers, ballast microsand, and recirculation energy. A relatively low
level of inlet geometry sophistication has been found necessary for these designs. They
are not typically used to clarify activated sludge mixed liquor but have been tested with
some success for use on a temporary basis to handle wet weather peaking flows.

9.4 Rectangular Design

Rectangular clarifiers have been used for activated sludge mixed-liquor settling for
nearly a century and are found frequently large plant applications, although they are
used for all sizes. Common wall construction and space-saving footprints are attractive features. In addition, their galleries can accommodate piping and pumps. Rectangular feed channels in large plants also can involve some degree of common wall
construction.

9.4.1 Flow Patterns

Most activated sludge rectangular clarifiers have longitudinal flow patterns (Figure
14.116). A transverse-flow option has been introduced recently but few units of this
type are built and operating. An important distinction is that longitudinal tanks can
either have concurrent, countercurrent, or crosscurrent sludge removal. When the main

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FIGURE 14.116 Rectangular clarifier design features and nomenclature (hopper locations may vary)
(Ekama et al., 1997; reprinted with permission from IWA Publishing).

liquid stream reverses itself, it is referred to as a folded flow pattern. Rectangular clarifiers placed on top of each other are referred to as stacked clarifiers; one arrangement
incorporates a folded flow pattern in a vertical arrangement.
Longitudinal flow is a pattern in which the influent flow proceeds in a direction
parallel to the longitudinal of the tank. The flow pattern closely resembles plug flow in
theory, althoughsedimentation is taking place along the vertical axis. Dye studies have
shown that the rectangular design does not achieve ideal plug flow because of some
short circuiting.
In the transverse flow design, the influent flow enters from a channel along the
long side of a rectangular tank. Effluent weirs are placed on the opposite long side of the
tank to give a conventional crossflow pattern (Figure 14.117). If the effluent weirs are
located along the influent side of the tank, then this becomes a folded flow pattern. In
transverse clarifier designs, sludge withdrawal is accomplished by a traveling suction
mechanism, making the provision of sludge hoppers unnecessary. Or, hoppers can be
placed approximately 10 m (33 ft) apart along the short width of the tank where an
embedded collection header with orifices can be placed.
Stacked clarifiers consist of settling tanks, located one above the other, operating in
parallel, often with a common water surface. In this sense, they become modular units.
Stacking increases the clarifier surface area without increasing facility footprint. They
are also called tray clarifiers and can be double-decked or even triple-decked. Most
stacked clarifier designs are similar to conventional rectangular clarifiers in terms of
influent and effluent flow patterns and solids collection and removal. Stacked clarifiers
are covered in more detail in Chapter 12 and later in this section.

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FIGURE 14.117

Plan and section view of transverse-flow rectangular clarifier.

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In concurrent flow in a longitudinal clarifier, the clarified liquid and sludge flow
proceed down the length of the tank in the same direction. Inlet baffles or diffusers are
designed to distribute the flow across the width of the clarifier and dissipate the inlet
energy. The bulk of the mixed liquor solids settle to form a blanket interface. Settling
action of the solids and removal of the sludge flow stream produce a density current
along the bottom of the tank. The density current imparts a momentum that moves the
sludge efficiently along the length of the clarifier to the hopper on the downstream end.
Flights or scrapers assist the sludge movement.
The sludge hopper can be placed at the influent end so that the sludge is removed
more quickly. In this case, the sludge flow reverses itself and is called a countercurrent
sludge removal flow pattern. The sludge hopper can be placed at approximately midtank so that the sludge does not have to travel to the end of the tank for its removal. In
most rectangular secondary clarifiers, the sludge hoppers are at the opposite effluent
end or midtank.

9.4.2 Dimensions
Once the area and number of tanks needed for redundancy and normal size constraints have been established, specific tank geometric details can be defined. There
are acceptable minimum ratios of length-to-width that effectively limit the maximum
size of rectangular tanks. The length-to-width ratios of longitudinal rectangular clarifiers may range from 1.51 to 151. A minimum length-to-width ratio of 31 was recommended to prevent short circuiting, but it is typically greater than 51 (U.S. EPA,
1974a). Some references recommend that the length of the rectangular clarifier should
not exceed 10 to 15 times the depth (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). However, this lengthto-depth ratio has been exceeded with success at larger plants. The length, width, and
depth dimensions should be proportioned so that horizontal flow velocities are not
excessive.
9.4.2.1 Length
Rectangular clarifiers are seldom greater than about 100 m (300 ft) in length and are
typically 30 to 60 m (100 to 200 ft) long. In small clarifiers, such as those used in package plants, a minimum flow length of 3 m (10 ft) from inlet to outlet should be used to
prevent short circuiting (U.S. EPA, 1974a). There is concern for possible suspended
solids carryover with the increased hydraulic flow at the weir as the clarifier length is
shortened. The ultimate length of a tank is limited by stress on the collection mechanism
and need to transport sludge the entire length of the tank. For long tanks and for tanks
with midtank hoppers, multiple collector systems can be used.

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9.4.2.2 Width
For many years, the effects of deflection, buoyancy, and weight of wooden flights
restricted rectangular clarifiers with a single flight system in each tank to a nominal
width of 6 m (20 ft). Fiberglass composite materials have allowed single flight systems
to span widths of up to 10 m (33 ft). Multiple parallel flights can be constructed in wider
tanks provided with columns or partial walls to support parallel collector sprockets.
A significant disadvantage of multiple parallel flights is the larger percentage of
units taken out of service to repair a single mechanism. Also, the flow patterns might
not be as stable compared to long, narrow tanks. Therefore, baffles between sections of
wide tanks should be considered to direct the flow longitudinally.
9.4.2.3 Depth
Current practice is to provide a depth of approximately 4 to 5 m (approximately 12 to
16 ft) for activated sludge rectangular clarifiers. Differences depend on peak flows,
sludge loading storage requirements, and available recycle capacity. Some have
reported success with rectangular clarifiers that were only 3 m (10 ft) deep (Stahl and
Chen, 1996; Wahlberg et al., 1993, 1994). Crosby (1984a, 1984b) studied the effects of
sludge blankets and their maintenance and found that the top of the blanket determines
the depth available for clarification. This means that relatively shallow tanks with minimal blanket levels often perform as well as deeper tanks with thicker blankets. In cases
where the overflow weirs are located above an upturn of the density current, a bottom
depth below the weirs should be at least 4 m (12 ft) (WPCF, 1959).
Shallow clarifiers can limit storage and thickening capability of secondary clarifiers in an activated sludge system. This, in turn, may decrease the RAS concentration
and increase pumping demands. Ample depth is recommended to for storage of solids
and thickening during sustained peak flows and when solids loads exceed recycle
capacity (Boyle, 1975).
9.4.2.4 Flow Distribution to Parallel Units
Uniform flow distribution among clarifiers is critical to good performance. Once an
overloaded tank starts to lose part of its blanket, improved performance of the other
parallel, underloaded tanks is not sufficient.
An open, aerated distribution channel should be provided to convey the mixed
liquor from the reactor to multiple rectangular clarifiers. The flows should be distributed to each tank in proportion to their respective surface areas. Weir inlets that discharge vertically into the tank should be avoided because this may exacerbate density
current effects. Fixed submerged orifices do not need to be able to accommodate the
expected flow range or to include storm inlet gates. Submerged inlet gates provide flexibility for a range of flows and allow for tank isolation.

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Equal flow distribution to all tanks is required. Headloss across the gate or orifice
should be at least 10 times the total headloss of the feed channel or pipe.
Positive flow-splitting structure flumes and flow meters coupled with automatic
valves also have been used. Symmetry and effluent launder elevations should not be
relied upon for flow distribution.
Mixed-liquor feed channels should be gently aerated with maximum velocities
from 20 to 40 cm/s (0.7 to 1.3 fps) to prevent floc break up.
9.4.2.5 Inlet Geometry
Inlets dissipate energy, minimize the effects of density currents, distribute flow across
the tank width, and promote flocculation. For front end hopper arrangements, inlets
and associated baffles should not result in sludge blanket disturbance or scouring.
The degree of floc formation by the time the mixed liquor reaches the clarifier inlet
varies from plant to plant. A baffled flocculation zone at the inlet end uses some of the
inlet energy to do the mixing (Barnard et al., 2007; Kalbskopf and Herter, 1984). Inlets
to the flocculation zone can be quite different from those found to be most effective in
tanks that do not have such internal baffling.
9.4.2.6 Flow Distribution within Clarifiers
The introduction of flow to an individual tank is accomplished by multiple inlets that
are situated and sized to uniformly distribute flow over the width of the clarifier. In a
6-m (20-ft) wide tank, there are typically three to four inlet openings. Maximum horizontal spacing between inlets is 2 to 3 m (6.5 to 10 ft). Inlet baffles or diffuser elements
typically are placed in the flow path of the inlet stream. Solid target baffles to deflect the
flow or perforated (finger) baffles to break up any jetting action and disperse the flow
have been used. Single and double rows of slotted board baffles represent another
option. These features establish flow impingement to dissipate energy and promote
flocculation.
Headloss though transverse perforated or slotted inlet plates should be approximately four times the kinetic energy or velocity head of the approaching flow (WPCF,
1985). This often results in slotted openings of less than 5 cm (2 in.) wide.
Inlet design is more complicated for transverse-flow tanks because the inlet channel extends the length of the tank; detailed hydraulic analysis is warranted.
9.4.2.7 Inlet Design
There are many different inlet designs for longitudinal-flow rectangular tanks (Figures
14.118 through 14.123). Some include a flocculation zone baffled off from the quiescent
portion of the tank and others do not. For the degree of floc formation observed by
Kalbskopf and Herter (1984), the data in Figure 14.124 show that baffling off a portion

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14-237

A
Return sludge
Distribution
flume
Feed line

A
Plain view

FIGURE 14.118

D = 550
D = 550
L = 1.5D
L = 1.5D
Note: two basins supplied
from same feed line

Sludge
pocket
0

5m

Section A-A

Inlet design of Larsen (1977) to avoid floc breakup (note that D is in millimeters).

FIGURE 14.119 Secondary clarifier inlet used by the Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts (1 in.

52.54 cm; 1 ft  0.304 8
m).

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FIGURE 14.120 Distribution channel with funnel-shaped floor (Krauth, 1993) with a Stuttgart inlet
(Popel and Weidner, 1963).
of the head of the tank produced the best results. Data by Stahl and Chen (1996) show
that excellent effluent quality is obtained at several shallow concurrent flow clarifiers
equipped with only the impingement inducing diffusers (Figure 14.119). These findings were published before the modern testing protocols outlined in the WERF report
(2001); therefore, the degree of floc formation in each case was not quantified. Stahl and
Chen reported on fine-bubble aeration plants with low-velocity aerated channel transport of mixed liquor to the clarifiers. It is probably, therefore, that the floc was well

FIGURE 14.121 Aerated distribution channel (Krauth, 1993) with two staggered slotted baffles to dissipate inlet energy.

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FIGURE 14.122 Aerated distribution channel with horizontal slab deflecting inlet flow
energy from a sludge hopper at the inlet end (Krebs et al., 1995).

formed. This suggests that if the floc entering the tank is well formed, then impingement diffusers may give excellent results. If, however, the floc are not well formed, then
a separate baffled area, such as recommended by Krebs et al. (1995) and Barnard et al.
(2007) (Figure 14.125), would be cost-effective.
For concurrent-flow tanks, density current problems can be minimized by positioning the inlet lower in the tank without placing it in the thickening zone, which is
typically reserved for the bottom 1 m (3 ft) of the tank. Locating the inlet too low may
scour the solids on the bottom and lead to resuspension. Inlet apertures should be positioned from approximately 2 m (6.5 ft) depth to midtank depth. Krebs et al. (1995) provide a method to calculate an inlet height.

FIGURE 14.123 Flocculator inlet zone with paddles. Sludge is withdrawn near the inlet and one-third
down the length of the tank (Kalbskopf and Herter, 1984).

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FIGURE 14.124 Improvement of effluent transparency with flocculation zone (Kalbskopf and Herter, 1984).

For the impingement-inducing diffusers, inlet port velocities are limited to a

range of 0.075 to 0.150 m/s (0.25 to 0.5 ft/sec). Das et al. (1993) demonstrated that
velocities in excess of 0.6 m/s (2 ft/sec) may cause deflocculation of the activated
sludge solids.
For countercurrent clarifiers with sludge hoppers at the inlet end, horizontal baffles to prevent density current flow into the hopper are recommended. Figures 14.122
and 14.125 show conceptual examples.

Overflow Elevation
Established based
on Maintaining
Acceptable Headloss

Secondary Clarifier Inter Section

2
2
Baffle
Type

Scale 1 10

FIGURE 14.125

Inlet for new secondary clarifiers (Barnard et al., 2007).

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9.4.2.8 Inlet Baffles and Flocculation Zones
If a baffled flocculation zone is designed, then inlet diffusers typically are not used. A
baffle will be located immediately downstream of the inlet openings to prevent jetting
of flow into the tanks. The target baffles can be simple walls, solid or perforated, spanning the width of the clarifier. Krebs et al. (1995) proposed a solid baffle in the upper
portion of the tank and a double row of slotted openings in the lower portion. Barnard
et al. (2007) recommended a similar design, after studying several options.
Mau (1959) showed that a single vertical row of slotted baffles was effective in distributing flow. However, a second row of vertical slotted baffles, where the boards are
opposed to the slots of the first baffle, improved energy dissipation and performance by
causing flow impingement. Kawamura (1981) recommended the installation of three
sets of perforated baffles spanning the full cross section. Okuno and Fukada (1982)
observed the best removal efficiencies from baffles with 5% open areas. Other investigators have tried more sophisticated designs, with different degrees of success (Collins
and Crosby, 1980; Crosby, 1984b; Rohlich, 1951). Price et al. (1974) concluded that lack
of symmetry is to be avoided, and complicated inlets do not necessarily give better
results than simple ones.
Mechanical flocculation is widely used in the water treatment industry. Most activated sludge clarifier flocculation zones have been adequately mixed by strategic direction of the incoming flow streams. Recommended values should be in the range of 30
to 70/s (Parker et al., 1971). The required volume of the inlet flocculation zone is calculated by residence time required for flocculation to be completed. Barnard et al. (2007)
suggests eight or more minutes; jar testing can be used to quantify this for existing
mixed liquors. Ample allowance should be made for peaking and short circuiting.
Increases to as much as 20 minutes or more could result.
9.4.2.9 Interior Baffles
Internal cross baffles can be considered to enhance settling and provide a more clarified
effluent. Various types of baffles have been investigated in rectangular tanks (solid, perforated, and combinations), and the effects of each can be quite different. In addition,
each of these baffle types can be sized differently or possibly configured in series.
For concurrent longitudinal rectangular tanks, it is uncommon to add baffles downstream of the flocculation zone baffle (if one is provided) because the intent is to have the
sludge blanket flow to outlet end of the tank. Baffles are effective in some designs of
countercurrent tanks, keeping most of the sludge in the front part of the tank and away
from the outlet weir area. Mechanisms to move the sludge to the front end must contend
with these baffles, which complicates the design of both systems. As a result, many countercurrent designs do not have cross baffles initially and may be retrofitted with them

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later. An extensive discussion of internal baffles for secondary clarifiers is provided by
WEF (2005a).
9.4.2.10 Stacked Clarifiers
Camp (1946) originally proposed stacking clarifiers for use in both primary and secondary clarification. Also called tray clarifiers, they can be double- or triple-decked and
can be used where space is constrained.
Stacked secondary activated sludge clarifiers were first constructed in Japan in the
early 1960s. Because of space constraints, rectangular clarifiers have been stacked two
or three deep. Osaka City has operated stacked facilities with satisfactory performance
for more than 20 years (Yuki, 1990). In the United States, stacked clarifiers were first
constructed at the Mamaroneck, New York, treatment plant in 1993, and have been constructed in Salem, Massachusetts, at the South Essex Sewerage District. Recent treatment plants incorporating stacked clarifiers include the Deer Island Treatment plant in
Boston, Massachusetts, the Ulu Pandan and Changi East plants, both in Singapore, and
the Stonecutters Wastewater Treatment Plant in Hong Kong. In theory, overflow and
weir rates should be similar to conventional rectangular and secondary clarifiers (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003).
There are two types flow regimes for stacked clarifiers: parallel and series. Parallel
flow is the most common stacked clarifier configuration (see Figure 14.126). Although
countercurrent sludge removal is shown, the concept would be appropriate for concurrent as well. In the less common series flow configuration, wastewater enters the lower
tray, flows to the opposite end, reverses direction in the upper tray, and exits the effluent channel (Figure 14.127).
Chain-and-flight mechanisms are used for sludge collection and removal from
stacked tanks. The arrangement of the stacked secondary clarifiers at the Changi East
Plant in Singapore provides for sludge withdrawal halfway down the length of the
clarifiers. There, scrapers move solids to a transverse perforated pipe located in a
midpoint hopper for each tank. The perforated-pipe arrangement also allows for a
flat tank bottom. Because the lower tray is submerged, scum is only removed from the
top tray.
Because of their more centralized design, stacked clarifiers require less overall piping, reducing pumping requirements. If covers are required for odor control, there is
less exposed surface area to cover. They do, however, incur more complex structural
design and construction costs. The stacked configuration typically will result in a
deeper structure and require more excavation and closer attention to the buoyant effect
caused by local groundwater conditions when tanks are taken out of service. Operational observation of the lower tray is precluded and its maintenance is more difficult.

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FIGURE 14.126

14-243

Stacked rectangular clarifier, series-flow type (Kelly, 1988).

FIGURE 14.127 Stacked rectangular clarifier; parallel-flow type showing double-sided weirs at same
water surface elevation.

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Additional detail and discussion of stacked clarifiers can be found in WEFs MOP FD-8
(2005a) and Kelly (1988).
9.4.2.11 Scum Removal
The collection and removal of floatables in the clarifier concerns both inlet and outlet
areas of the tank because foam passes through the middle of the tank unimpeded. If
influent baffles are used, then they have slotted surfaces or include small downwardopening gates to allow scum to pass through.
For rectangular tanks with concurrent sludge removal, chain-and-flight collectors
often are brought to the surface and move scum to the front of the tank for collection.
For counter-current designs, scum moves downstream and a collection barrier is
needed upstream of the effluent launder area.
A slotted roll pipe situated across the width of the tank can be used to remove
scum. It is positioned at the point where scum is concentrated by the movement of the
sludge flights on the surface of the clarifier. Scum flows into the horizontally mounted
pipe when the slot is rotated below water level. The pipe can be rotated manually or
automatically. Other designs use a separate set of chains and flights or spiral flight
arrangement to move the scum up a beach and into a trough.
Adjustable pan skimmers are also used on rectangular clarifiers. Water sprays can
be used to move scum towards the pan and prevent the setup of foam.
9.4.2.12 Outlets
The most common outlet for rectangular clarifiers is the surface launder. Some
designs provide submerged launders (also called outlet tubes or submerged pipes
with orifices).
In longitudinal tanks, effluent surface launders can be oriented either longitudinally or transversely (Figure 14.128). Longitudinal launders have one weir on each side,
unless placed against a side wall. Transverse (or lateral) launders located at the end of
the tank are single-sided, and lateral launders located upstream from the end wall are
double-sided. In transverse-flow tanks, a single-sided launder is provided on the entire
length of the outlet wall, which is the long side of the clarifier. This weir can be on the
same side as the inlet (folded-flow pattern) or on the opposite side. Because the flow per
unit width is much smaller in transverse tanks, a relatively low weir loading rate is
obtained even with a single, one-sided weir.
9.4.2.13 End-Wall Effect and Other Launder Design Considerations
Inlet density currents cause higher velocities in the liquid flow above the sludge layer
and can cause an updraft along the end wall (Anderson, 1945). To allow resettlement of
floc particles caught in this updraft, overflow is eliminated within a distance from the

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FIGURE 14.128

Plan views of typical surface weir configurations.

end wall equal to the tank depth (ATV, 1991). Alternatively, deflection baffles can be
installed below the weirs to deflect the upwelling caused by the density current.
Heavy cross winds on open tanks can easily cause sloshing and surging of water
over the weirs. To counteract this, fiberglass launders can either be substantially braced
or covered or the weir area can be provided with more freeboard to shelter it. Concrete
launders with fiberglass weir plates also can be used. Bridge-type mechanisms can pass
between the launders and then be supported from the floor.
Adjustable weir plates should be used with launders so that they can be accurately
leveled with the outlet weir of other clarifiers in parallel (Institute of Water Pollution

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Control, 1980). A v-notched weir is preferred over straight-edged because they are less
sensitive to slight differences in elevation and unbalanced flow caused by wind. Weir
troughs should be designed so that they will not be submerged at maximum design
flow and with a velocity of at least 0.3 m/s (1 ft/s) at one-half the design flow to prevent solids deposition (GLUMRB, 2004).
9.4.2.14 Weir Loading Rates
Surface launders in longitudinal rectangular clarifiers extend throughout the downstream 20 to 35% of long tanks; for short to moderately long tanks, this may increase to
50% or more. Launder spacing of 3 m (10 ft) is representative for larger tanks with
widths of at least 20 ft.
For small tanks, the peak hour weir loading rates should be limited to 250 m3/md
(20 000 gpd/ft). This limit can be applied for the upturn zone of larger tanks. In larger
tanks outside the upturn zone of an end-wall effect, the weir loading rates can be limited to 375 m3/md (30 000 gpd/ft). In any case, upflow velocity in the immediate vicinity of the weir should be limited to 3.7 to 7.3 m/h (12 to 24 ft/h).
9.4.2.15 Submerged Launders
Submerged launders can be oriented longitudinally or transversely. To counteract the
end-wall effect, outlets are omitted from this area. Submerged launders require automatic valves or weirs downstream to control water levels. Typical arrangements of submerged outlet tubes are shown in Figure 14.129.
Analysis of several headlosses serves as the basis for design for the outlet tube system. These losses include loss resulting from confluence of flow to the orifices, through
the orifice, and friction through the tubes. The ATV (1995) and Gunthert and Deininger
(1995) suggest the following hydraulic criteria:
Orifice diameter: 25 to 45 mm (1.0 to 1.75 in.);
Maximum velocity at tube exit: 0.6 m/s (2 fps); and
Maximum velocity through orifices: 0.6 to 1.0 m/s (2.0 to 3.3 fps).
Tubes are placed 30 to 35 cm (12 to 14 in.) below the water surface. Because the water
layer above the tubes cannot be regarded as part of the clear water zone, the entire
water depth of the clarifier should be increased to some degree over that of a conventional clarifier with effluent launders (Ekama et al., 1997).
Submerged launders allow scum to be concentrated at the far end of the tank. With
submerged outlets, variation in water level needs to be considered when designing the
scum removal systems.

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FIGURE 14.129

Submerged launders consisting of pipes with equally spaced orifices.

9.4.2.16 Sludge Withdrawal

Most rectangular clarifiers have sloping floors and hoppers at one or more locations.
Floor slope is typically 1%. Hoppers at either end of the tank are more effective with
shorter runs of piping through galleries to the recycle pumps. Midtank hoppers are
sometimes used when internal baffles are provided, because the gap provided by the
hoppers and between the sludge collectors are a convenient location for a baffle. Midtank hoppers can also have transverse collection systems such that sludge removal is
slightly different from tank to tank.
The trend for longitudinal, rectangular secondary clarifiers has been to follow the
concept of Gould (Figure 14.130), where hoppers are placed at midtank or the effluent
end. These tanks typically are used in large plants and are designed to minimize density currents and to avoid other hydraulic problems.
The typical hopper shape for rectangular clarifiers is an inverted pyramid with a
rectangular opening on top. The sides are recommended to have the slope of at least
52 from horizontal to prevent solids from accumulating on the upper walls. A single

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FIGURE 14.130 (a) Gould tank type I with sludge hopper at outlet end and (b) Gould tank type II with
sludge hopper at midpoint (Ekama et al., 1997; reprinted with permission from IWA Publishing).

rectangular tank may have two or more withdrawal hoppers, each equipped with a
withdrawal pipe. Separate controls for each hopper are absolutely necessary.
The effluent end hopper design conceptually provides a more ideal solution for
minimizing the breakup of the biological flocs because the sludge transport now takes
place in the same direction as the bottom density current. The sludge is kept out of the
relatively turbulent region of the inlet. Furthermore, the longer sludge detention time,
resulting from the effluent end hopper arrangement, can enhance the flocculation and
the dynamic filtration effects on the flocculent particles. Wahlberg et al. (1993) showed
that rectangular tanks with effluent end sludge collection can perform exceptionally
well up to SORs of 3.4 m/h (2 000 gpd/sq ft).
Effluent end hoppers result in a large amount of solids transported into the effluent region, which increases the potential of solids washout. In addition, bulk horizontal flow through the tank consists of the both the effluent and RAS; increasing RAS rates
to remove additional sludge can be self-defeating.
In rectangular tanks exceeding 40 m (130 ft) in length, the sludge hopper can be situated one-half to two-thirds of the way towards the end wall. This is referred to as a
Gould Tank-Type II. Two chain-and-flight mechanisms move sludge in the direction
of flow in the first half of the tank and against the direction of flow in the second half

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(Figure 14.130b). The countercurrent flow pattern that develops on the surface (primarily by the density current on the bottom and relative to the main direction of flow)
causes the effluent to travel a long and circuitous path and minimizes short circuiting.
Two or more hoppers can be placed in the middle of the tank with the first receiving the bulk on the sludge. After the bulk of sludge and effluent are removed, the
remaining velocities are so small that the lighter sludge can be transported easily to the
second hopper (Wilson and Ballotti, 1988). There are different sludge loading conditions in the first and second parts of the tank, and different flight speeds can be used.
Sludge removal systems for rectangular tanks typically feature chain-and-flight
scrapers. Traveling bridge, hydraulic suction, and reciprocating flight-collector systems
have been used.
In chain-and-flight, the flights are attached to two parallel chains driven by sprockets and move slowly along the clarifier floor, scraping the settled sludge to collection
hoppers. The sprocket wheels are mounted on rotating shafts. On their return path, the
flights can be designed to daylight and transport scum to collectors. This requires use
of four rotation points or sprockets. If the flights are not used to move scum on the surface, then only three rotation points are required. Sometimes, fifth sprocket can be used
to help guide and hold down the flights along the bottom of long tanks.
Historically, redwood or metal flights and steel chains have been used but stainless
steel or nonmetallic flights, chains, and sprockets have become more common. Typical
flights measure 5 to 6 m long (16 to 20 ft), depending on the width of the clarifier. Newer
flights can be 10 m (33 ft) long and entire systems can be up to 90 m (300 ft) long. Flights
generally are spaced at 3-m (10-ft) intervals and travel at speeds of 5 to 15 mm/s (1 to
3 fpm). Plastic-wear shoes fixed to the flights allow them to slide on rails near the surface and wear strips on the bottom of the clarifier so that the chain does not bear the full
weight of the flights. An adjustable rubber scraper should be attached to the bottom
edge and the sides of at least some of the flights to provide complete scraping and prevent unwanted stationary sludge deposits. The total length of the flight chain is limited
by the stresses exerted on the chains. The number of chains and direction of removal
depend on the hopper location.
A traveling-bridge collector can be equipped with either a scraper or a suction system. These systems were developed to solve the problem of having to dewater the tank
for chain-and-flight maintenance. However, there are few secondary clarifier installations in the United States.

9.5 Circular and Other Radial Flow Designs

Clarifiers equipped with rotating mechanisms have gained in popularity through the
years because they have a reputation for being mechanically the most trouble free and

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reliable. Most of the tanks used in suspended-growth, secondary applications are circular in plan view and have radial flow patterns. Square, hexagonal, and octagonal tanks
are somewhat like circular in the form of the hydraulic flow regimes that are typically
established, but have certain differences that limit their popularity. If filets are used in
the corners and simple collection mechanisms are used, these alternate shapes have
nearly all the advantages of circular tanks. For purposes of this chapter, tanks of these
shapes are considered essentially equivalent to circular tanks.
Circular tanks have the disadvantage of taking more footprint for equivalent
capacity rectangular units built with common wall construction. The former requires
more inlet, outlet, and sludge piping. Square, hexagonal, and octagonal units have some
common wall construction, but this advantage over circular is offset by a requirement
for thicker walls.
The circular shape requires separate structures for flow splitting ahead of the tanks
and for sludge pump stations. For flow splitting, the most common and effective
involves feeding the structure at a low elevation, causing flow to rise vertically and then
divide by flowing over two or more weirs. Another concept is to provide overflow
weirs or orifices along an aerated channel that has low horizontal velocities. On some
large plants, modulating butterfly gates with computer-controlled operators have been
used successfully.
For sludge removal, it is important to have independently measured and controlled withdrawal for each clarifier. Many engineers will find that measuring hydraulic
flows for this purpose is adequate. Some include solids concentration measurement that
enables mass flux monitoring without sampling. Such instrumentation typically is
located in a separate pump station serving multiple circular tanks.

9.5.1 Flow Patterns

Circular tanks are fed from a center inlet pipe or through ports or inlet baffles at the
perimeter. Effluent is withdrawn over weirs or orifices near the surface at the tank wall
or from launders supported away from the wall. Figure 14.131 presents a simplified
illustration of these variations. The velocity vectors shown represent general movement
when clarifiers have a thin sludge blanket at the bottom.
For center feed tanks, the inlet velocities and density current combine to create a
donut roll pattern of flow in which the vectors go radially outward across the bottom
(or surface of the sludge layer), up along the wall and radially inward at the surface. In
peripheral feed tanks, a reverse rolling pattern is created. If there is a tangential velocity established by the inlet design details, then the roll described above will have a spiraling pattern. Movement of the collection and skimming mechanisms can further add
to the rotating and spiral velocity pattern of the liquid in the tank. Recognition of these

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FIGURE 14.131

Typical circular clarifier configurations and flow patterns.

internal velocities is important to prevent them from becoming excessive and scour
solids from the sludge blanket, degrading effluent quality.

9.5.2 Diameter
Clarifier diameter is a function of total area required and number of units. Mechanisms
are available more than 70 m (200 ft) in diameter although the upper limit is considered
to be 50 m (150 ft). For larger diameter clarifiers, wind can create surface currents that
upset the radial flow pattern and concentrate scum downwind.

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9.5.3 Side Wall Depth

Before the early 1980s, circular secondary settling tanks often had depths of 2.4 to 3.0 m
(8 to 10 ft) as measured at the wall. Performance data showed that a shift to greater
depths resulted in lower effluent suspended solids and more resistance to upset from
hydraulic peaking. Increased RAS concentrations also occurred with increasing depth
and guidelines were developed (Table 14.40).
In the 1984 survey, some of the largest environmental engineering consulting firms
in the United States reported using design depths of 4 to 5 m (12 to 15 ft) for activated
sludge clarifiers (Tekippe, 1984). Nearly 25 years later, the authors contacted many of
the same firms and found that the tabulated values are still followed although some
have even recommended going a foot deeper at the largest sizes. In Europe, it is not
uncommon to see new tank designs that are not this deep.
In the early 1980s, data by Parker (1983) and others quantified the value of deeper
circular tanks (Figures 14.132 and 14.133). The results suggest that, to obtain effluent
suspended solids of 10 g/L, depths of over 5 m (15 ft) may be required for overflow
rates above 0.85 m/h (500 gpd/sq ft). Additional data and discussion to back up the
advantages of greater depth are presented in Water Environment Federation MOP
FD-8 (2005a).
Although Table 14.40 provides useful guideline for design engineers in the United
States, there are more sophisticated ways of determining depth requirements. One of
the most sophisticated is the ATV approach that has been developed and used in Germany (ATV, 1973, 1975, 1976, 1988, 1991). In this approach, four functional depths are
defined and added together to obtain the recommended minimum tank depth. For
larger tanks, the common results often lead to depths of 4 m (12 ft) or more. Additional
details and design example are presented elsewhere (Ekama et al., 1997).

TABLE 14.40
clarifiers.

Minimum and suggested side water depths for activated sludge

Side water depth, m (ft)

Tank diameter, m (ft*)

Up to 12 (40)
1221 (4070)
2130 (70100)
3043 (100140)
43 (140)

Minimum

Suggested

3 (10)
3.3 (11)
3.7 (12)
4 (13)
4.3 (14)

3.7 (12)
3.7 (12)
4 (13)
4.3 (14)
4.6 (15)

* Note: ft ???.

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FIGURE 14.132 Performance response curves for conventional and flocculator clarifiers (gpd/sq ft  0.001 698 4
m3/m2h) (Tekippe and Bender, 1987; Parker and Stenquist, 1986).

9.5.4 Inlet Geometry

Most clarifiers designed in the United States are equipped with the mechanism drive
located at the top of the center column for both center and peripheral feed styles. For
center feed, the pipe also must bring influent into the tank and transmit rotational
torque from the drive into the bottom foundation.
The influent pipe should be sized to keep material in suspension but to keep velocities low enough to avoid floc breakup and excessive headloss. Many manufacturers design
the influent velocity at peak hour flow and maximum RAS flow, with one unit out of service, not to exceed approximately 1.4 m/s (4 ft/sec). Some other designers lower this to
about half of this value to minimize floc breakup. For peripheral feed tanks, the velocity of
inflow to the distribution feed trough or skirt should also be kept to less than this value.
For center feed tanks with ports that transmit flow from the feed pipe into the
feedwell, port velocities should not exceed feed-pipe velocities discussed above. Most
center-feed columns have four rectangular opening ports. They are often submerged,

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FIGURE 14.133 Effect of clarifier depth and flocculator center well on effluent suspended solids (gpd/sq ft  0.001 698 4
m3/m2h) (Parker, 1983).
although some designs may leave the top several centimeters of the ports exposed.
Instead of ports, another popular feed-pipe opening is to connect two segments of pipe
with four vertical structural steel channels welded to each pipe exterior.
For peripheral feed tanks, some designs have a raceway with multiple ports at its
bottom. Others have an open raceway in which tangential dispersion of influent is
achieved by introducing a directional spiral feed pattern. For those inlets with multiple
ports, the port spacing and size is performed by equipment manufacturers that have
computerized hydraulic models for this purpose. Most design engineers specify, for a
given range, that relative flows leaving different ports do not vary by more than 5% (or
such value) from the total flow divided by the number of ports.

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In many center-feed inlet designs, inlet ports discharge freely into the inlet feedwell. In some, however, deflectors are constructed just downstream to break up the
jetting velocities into the inlet baffled area. Likewise, for peripheral feed tanks with
multiple port bottom openings, a deflector plate typically is located immediately downstream of each port opening. This diffuses inflow and prevents jetting of flow down
below influent skirt and into the settling zone.
As shown in Figure 14.134, center-feed tanks also can be fed with horizontal or vertical pipes that discharge freely at their end. Some of these pipes can also be equipped
with a bell-mouth outlet that reduces the release velocity into the tank center.

FIGURE 14.134 Various conventional center-feed inlet designs: (a) side feed, (b) vertical pipe feed, and (c) slotted, vertical pipe feed.

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It is important to have a termination baffle or an upturned elbow on a horizontal
feed pipe so that it does not release flow with any residual horizontal velocities. Such
unbalanced velocity vectors can disturb internal flow patterns of the clarifier and affect
effluent quality.
9.5.4.1 Center Feed
Prior to the 1980s, when flocculating centerwells became common, the standard centerfeed inlet design (shown in Figure. 14.135) typically was used for activated sludge clarifiers and primaries. For activated sludge facilities, the feedwell size is often 20 to 25%
of the tank diameter. Criteria for downward velocity of flow determines the diameter
of the simple feedwell. Some designers and manufacturers advise that feedwell diameters should not exceed 10 to 15 m (35 to 45 ft) regardless of tank size. Likewise, downward flow velocities leaving the feedwell are often limited to about 0.7 m/min (2 or
2.5 ft/min).
The top elevation of the feedwell is generally designed to extend above the water
surface at peak-hour flow with one unit of service. A few ports are cut into the top portion of the baffle to allow scum to move from the feedwell into the tank proper. It is
common to place four such openings equidistant around the baffle.

FIGURE 14.135

Standard center inlet design.

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A typical center feedwell extends down from as little as 30% to as much as 75%
of the tank depth. Several manufacturers recommend that submergence be 25 to 50%
of the side water depth. It is also common that the center feedwell bottom edge be
located about 0.3 m (1 ft) below the bottom of the center feed pipe ports. It must be
low enough so that flow jetting out of the ports does not get below the baffle and out
into the settling zone.
One design concept recommends that the cylindrical area below the feedwell be
about equal to the feedwell cross-sectional area. This prevents a theoretical velocity
increase as the liquid enters the lower portion of the clarifier. In this case, the opening
under the feedwell would be measured as the side water depth minus the feedwell
depth. This requirement may conflict with the clarifier feedwell velocity criteria and
side water depth criteria discussed above. It is often necessary, therefore, to find a compromise that meets most of the criteria simultaneously.
In some conventional tanks, the feedwell rotates with the sludge scraper mechanism; whereas, in others, it remains stationary. The feedwell can be supported from the
bridge or from the sludge collector mechanism. If it is supported by the bridge and
does not rotate, then care should be taken to avoid aligning feed pipe ports with scum
port openings.
Figure 14.136 illustrates a typical inlet velocity pattern resulting from use of the
simple center feed inlet. The incoming density current creates a waterfall effect.
Crosby (1980) also reported that influent velocity vectors can be distorted by the sludge
collector riser pipes if they pass in front of the inlet ports of the feed pipe.
McKinney (1977) recommended a flat circular baffle (Figure 14.137) to reduce the
harmful effects of the cascading influent flow of activated sludge, mixed liquor. The
baffle is most valuable in tanks with plows and central hoppers for sludge removal. It
prevents scouring of the sludge hopper and facilitates plowing of sludge radially
inward as the influent flow moves in the opposite direction.

FIGURE 14.136

Typical velocity pattern of center feed tank.

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FIGURE 14.137
liquor flow.

Circular baffle provided to reduce cascade effect in influent mixed-

For activated sludge clarifiers, the bottom elevation of the center feedwell has a
significant effect on performance. The relative level of the sludge blanket surface must
then be considered in both design and operation of the clarifier. Sorenson (1979) examined the strategy of maintaining a deep sludge blanket within the clarifier. His data
indicated that maintenance of a high blanket using an automatic operator control produced better effluent quality compared to a tank with manual control. Crosby (1980)
showed that better performance could be obtained with a center feedwell bottom that
is either well above the sludge blanket or somewhat below the top of the sludge blanket. A shallow blanket separated from the well bottom is considered optimal for
sludges that settle well, but not for sludges that settle poorly. In the latter case, it may
be possible for an operator to improve performance by carrying a relatively thick blanket that provides some degree of solids filtration and settling. Operating with the bottom of the feedwell at nearly the same elevation as the top of the sludge blanket was
discouraged.
In many plant designs, mixed-liquor suspensions arriving at the clarifiers are not
fully flocculated. Performance can be improved, however, by using a separate flocculation zone. Simply increasing the size of the center feedwell is one approach. Some
have provided mechanical flocculators within this zone, whereas others have provided an energy-dissipating inlet (EDI) to distribute the flow into the flocculation
zone (Figure 14.138).
Kinnear (1998), Wahlberg et al. (1994), Parker et al. (1971), and others have studied
sizing of the flocculation centerwell. It is been shown that a detention time of approximately 20 minutes achieves well over 90% of the obtainable degree of floc formation.
Therefore, a rule of thumb has been to size the flocculation well to obtain 20 minutes of
residence time at average dry weather flow with an additional allowance of 50% for
RAS flow. A simpler approach is to set it equal to 30 to 35% of the clarifier diameter. If
the well is too large, then influent can plunge and short circuit the well.

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FIGURE 14.138

Center-column energy-dissipating inlet (EDI) and flocculation baffle.

Depth of projection into the clarifier by the flocculation well also is an important
design criterion. Many design engineers have arbitrarily set this at a value equal to
approximately one-half of the tank depth at the location of the baffle. With a sloped
floor, this would be a little deeper than one-half of the side water depth. In more recent
designs supported by results from computational fluid dynamic modeling, shallower
flocculation baffle penetrations have been used. Some of these are less than one-half of
the side water depth. If the baffle is too shallow, then some residual jets from the EDI
could fall below the bottom of the flocculation baffle and disturb the quiescence zone
of settling.
In some early designs, several slow-moving, pitch-blade vertical turbines were provided to obtain floc formation. Parallel operation of such systems has shown that equivalent results can be obtained with the mixers on or off. In recent years, EDIs have been
used to obtain adequate mixing within the flocculation zone, and mechanical mixers
are rarely, if ever, used.

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Tekippe (2002) reported on numerous clarifier inlet and EDI designs. Figure 14.138
shows a popular one that uses the simple hinged-gate alternate. The designer intended
to allow operators to set the adjustment chain to increase or decrease velocity entering
the flocculation zone. Tightening down the chain would increase headloss, inlet velocities, and stirring. In practice, many operators simply set the hinged gate at one location
(for example one-half or two-thirds open) and do not make further adjustments.
The diameter of the EDI often is set at approximately 10 to 13% of the tank diameter. Some design engineers use a detention time of 8 to 10 seconds. Making the EDI
too large subtracts from the volume of the flocculation zone and increases downward velocities.
Data such as that shown in Figure 14.139 supports use of EDIs with tangential
release of flow. Stirring was shown to be the best method of forming floc and delivering low effluent turbidities. Because many operators do not adjust the hinged gates,
designers have tried to improve performance by replacing the hinged gates with the
curved chutes, which has become a popular alternative (Figure 14.138).
In some recent comparisons, it was discovered that the curved chutes resulted in
excessive jetting into the flocculation zone. Studies by Elser (1998), Haug et al. (1999),

FIGURE 14.139

Reported results of different flocculation methods.

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and others at Hyperion (City of Los Angeles) demonstrated that the provision of an
EDI with such chutes actually performed worse than adjacent tanks with no EDI at
all. A similar side-by-side comparison for a trickling filter final clarifier was performed at Central Weber, Ogden, Utah. An EDI with curved chutes and its associated flocculation baffle did not perform as well as an old, large simple inlet well with
a bottom and diffusers containing a lattice structure around its lower perimeter
(Tekippe, 2002).
These findings led to modifications of the EDI to capitalize on impingement for
energy dissipation. One example is the double-gated EDI. Because double gates are provided, one can be opened more than the other to create adjustable degrees of rotation
within the flocculation baffle. Full-scale test results showed this design to be better that
that with curved chutes (Figure 14.140).

FIGURE 14.140 Diagnostic test results of different energy-dissipating inlet designs at

Central Weber, Utah (overflow rate [OFR]
1.4 m/h [825 gpd/sq ft]) (ISS
influent
suspended solids; DSS
dispersed suspended solids; FSS
flocculated suspended
solids; and ESS
effluent suspended solids).

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The side-by-side, full-scale studies conducted at the Hyperion Wastewater Treatment Plant, serving Los Angeles, California, led to an innovative design involving multiple diffusers located around the perimeter at the bottom of the EDI (Figure 14.141)
(Haug et al., 1999). In this arrangement, EDI effluent was conducted downward
through eight, 0.6-m (24-in) openings that had 32 small 0.35-m (14-in) diameter diffuser
pipes that were paired off to impinge against each other. Small openings are provided

FIGURE 14.141 Los Angeles, California, energy-dissipating inlet (EDI) patent drawing
and plan view.

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at the surface for passage of scum. This design was found to be far superior to alternatives using curved chutes and better than providing no EDI at all. All 36 clarifiers at
Hyperion were converted to this design, which has become known in the industry as
the LA EDI. Additional details regarding studies leading to this design are presented
in the Water Environment Federation MOP FD-8 (2005a).
Figure 14.142 illustrates another recently developed and marketed EDI design
(flocculating energy dissipating feedwell [FEDWA]). In this arrangement, flow enters
through four ports from the feed pipe. Opposite each port is a pair of vertical baffles
that form a corner. An opening is left midway between corners, and flow from adjacent corners impinges as it goes through the openings. Upon leaving this opening, it
is split at 90% and again forced to impinge on flow from adjacent openings. This
process is repeated one more time before the mixed liquor is discharged into the flocculation zone. Developers of the FEDWA inlet report good results; however, full-scale,
side-by-side tests have not been conducted and reported for comparison with most
alternatives yet.

FIGURE 14.142

Flocculating energy dissipating feedwell.

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Figure 14.143 shows another recent EDI design using the step-down energy gradient of multiple rows of concentric, offsetting slotted board baffles for impingement. It
has been used with reported effectiveness at Melbourne, Australia, but full-scale, published comparison data are pending. Figure 14.144 depicts another EDI concept in
which all flow entering from the feed-pipe ports is forced to rise vertically and leave the
EDI through veined openings of the surface. The pitch of the vanes creates a tangential
flow pattern in the surrounding flocculation zone.
Barnard et al. (2007) and Tekippe (2002) present a discussion of several EDI designs
and of a concept that releases the center-feed inlet flow vertically into a flocculation
zone without an EDI. More than 100 installations of the center well shown in Figure
14.145 exist worldwide. It is referred to as the SOLE (side outlet low energy) stilling
well design.
Tekippe (2002) presented data that showed a bell-mouthed, vertical-release inlet
pipe that created a gentle boil at the surface performed better than a parallel, full-scale
clarifier with an EDI at a large activated sludge plant in the United Kingdom. Barnard
et al. (2007) likewise reported good performance of the Stickney plant of the Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago (MWRDGC), Chicago, Illinois, in
which the inlet pipe is a cone-shaped concrete structure that allows for a vertical release

Multilayer Energy Dissipating Inlet Column

(MEDIC, US Patent APPL No. 11/373,749

FIGURE 14.143

Multilayer energy-dissipating inlet column (MEDIC) design.

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FIGURE 14.144

Energy-dissipating inlet with top-release vanes.

into the flocculation zone without feed pipe ports. A center-drive mechanism is used
and its torque is transmitted through vertical bars into the concrete cone. Effluent TSS
in the range of 5 to 7 mg/l has been observed at overflow rates of 2.0 to 2.2 m/hr (1 200 to
1 300 gpd/sq ft).
To prevent odors and unsightliness (Figure 14.146), it is important to move floatables out of the flocculation zone. In early years of design, the top elevation of the flocculation baffle was set to project above the water surface at all flowrates. This design
resulted in confinement of foam and other floatables even though scum ports were provided. At other sites, the top elevation was lowered to equal that of the bottom of the

FIGURE 14.145

Side outlet low energy (SOLE) stilling well (Barnard et al., 2007).

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FIGURE 14.146

A flocculation baffle that traps floatables creates odors.

v-notch effluent weirs. This allowed floatables to pass over the top of the flocculation
baffle, but directed most of the flow downward on the inside. At high flows, however,
supernatant would flow into the flocculation zone over the baffle. This, of course,
would dilute the contents of the flocculation zone and shorten detention time of the
incoming flow.
To avoid this problem, some facilities have designed the flocculation baffle to be
adjustable upward. This allows an operator to raise its level so that it projects above
the water surface but, at high flows, can be topped to flush the floatables out into the
tank proper. In some designs, it was most cost-effective to mount the flocculation baffle in a rigid position and bolt an adjustable plate at the top. Careful adjustment of this
plate would allow the flocculation baffle to overflow only at the desirable peak flow
periods. Some designers also are altering spray nozzle design to move the scum
through the ports more effectively or providing a scum removal mechanism inside of
the flocculation baffle if it is set high enough to prevent overtopping.
Several center-feed clarifiers are designed to release flow into a zone near the bottom of a tank. In some designs, a baffle with vertical slots has been used. In others, rotating arms with several portal openings have been used to distribute the incoming flow
just above the sludge zone. These designs, however, have been rarely used in the
United States and are not discussed further.

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9.5.4.2 Peripheral Feed
In the 1960s, the concept of spreading inlet energy over a large portion of the tank volume led to development of peripheral feed circular clarifiers. As shown in Figures
14.147 and 14.148, influent is distributed around the perimeter by using of a channel
with bottom ports or by creating a spiral roll pattern.

FIGURE 14.147

Peripheral feed clarifier flow pattern.

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FIGURE 14.148

Peripheral feed clarifier with spiral roll pattern of flow distribution.

Several model and full-scale dye tests have been conducted on peripheral feed clarifiers (Dague, 1960). Results have indicated that peripheral feed tanks have a higher
hydraulic efficiency than center-feed models. Specifically, full-scale, activated sludge
tests conducted at Sioux Falls, South Dakota, showed that in addition to better
hydraulic efficiency, peripheral feed tanks also achieved higher suspended solids
removal than existing-center feed design. The latter, however, did not employ the flocculation centerwell concept developed in more recent years.
In some designs, a headloss across the orifices of approximately 25 mm (1 in.) at
average flow was used to obtain reasonably uniform distribution of flow around the
perimeter of the tank. For plants with large peaking factors, some maldistribution of
flow and solids occurred. Design criteria were changed to provide more headloss
(approximately 60 mm, or 2.5 in.) for better distribution at average flow. Peaks of more
than 3-to-1 accommodated the higher loss. At low flows, headlosses across the orifices
can be low and do not achieve good distribution. Under these conditions, however,
overflow rates are low and clarifier performance may still be satisfactory. Minimum
flow distribution, therefore, typically is not considered a limiting design criterion. For
plants with extreme peaking factors, a special overflow provision in the baffle wall or
tank wall can be added (Figure 14.147b).
For these inlet designs, the feed channel/zone is baffled off from the body of the
settling liquid. As such, floatables can accumulate on the inlet zone surface and generate odors and objectionable aesthetics if not removed. Provisions for this are discussed
below in the section on skimming systems.

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9.5.5 Interior Baffles

For many years, circular clarifiers were constructed without interior baffles, except for
the inlet well. In the 1970s and early 1980s, research engineers, including Crosby (1980),
McKinney (1977), and others, found that performance of activated sludge clarifiers
could be improved significantly by using strategically located interior baffles. Figure
14.149 illustrates another baffle that was found effective to help confine the sludge blanket to central portion of the clarifier. Crosby (1980) initially developed this baffle, which
extends from the bottom. It has been referred to as his midradius baffle although its
best location may not be at the midradius point.
Center-feed, activated sludge clarifiers often create an updraft of suspended solids
along the outer wall. Early studies by Anderson (1945) in Chicago, Illinois, revealed the
presence of this movement. His response was to construct double launders sufficiently
distant from the wall, allowing the updraft solids to resettle before the effluent reached
a weir. Crosby (1980) and McKinney (1977) independently arrived at another solution:
constructing a perimeter baffle to deflect flow back toward the center of the tank. The
conceptual design of these two options is shown in Figure 14.150. Further refinements
in this design are illustrated in Figure 14.150a, b, and c. For designs with the trough on
the outside of the tank wall, the Crosby design shown in Figure 14.150a is most appropriate.
For tanks with the trough on the inside of the tank wall, the three options shown
in Figure 14.150b, c, and d have been used. Stukenberg et al. (1983) recommended that
the bottom shelf of the trough be projected 0.63 m (2 ft) from the radius of the outlet

FIGURE 14.149 Baffles provided to reduce effect of outer wall rebound and upflow
(note that a tank typically would not have more than one such baffle).

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(e)

(f)

FIGURE 14.150 Alternative peripheral baffle arrangements: (a) Stamford, (b) unnamed,
(c) McKinney (Lincoln), (d) interior trough, (e) cantilevered, and (f) cantilever with
deflectors.
weir. Water Environment Federation (1998) presented a formula by Albertson (1995)
that gave minimum dimensions for the shelf bottom The author has since changed the
equations to the following:
Minimum shelf bottom, mm
460 mm  (25 mm/m)(diameter  9 m)
[Minimum shelf bottom, mm
18 in  (0.3 in/ft)(diameter  30 ft)]
The concept is that if the trough bottom was sufficiently wide, no inward projecting
shelf (horizontal baffle) is needed. Eliminating the shelf would simplify the formwork
in construction and eliminate the objectionable settlement of solids on the shelf. Some

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engineers have reduced the latter problem by adding the fillet option shown in Figure
14.150c. Others contend that even if the minimum SB criterion of Albertson is met, the
tank will produce a lower effluent TSS value if the shelf is provided to at least the radius
of the scum baffles and perhaps as far as the 0.63 m (2 ft) value of Stukenberg.
For cantilevered double launders that are constructed too close to the tank wall,
updraft solids typically escape. Parker et al. (1993) developed a special slotted baffle oriented at 45 from horizontal, to deflect the updraft solids away from the wall and below
the effluent trough for clarifiers of this design (Figure 14.150f). The baffle was constructed of strips of fiberglass roofing material that spanned from one support bracket to
another. A spacing of approximately 35 to 50 mm (1.5 to 2 in.) was allowed to permit a
small flow to rise and leave the outer weir. Most of the flow, however, was deflected to
the inner weir, and the suspended solids were projected toward the tank center. At Lincoln, Nebraska, this arrangement reduced effluent suspended solids from 35 to 28 mg/L.
Others have attempted to minimize the updraft problem by reducing the number
of notches or raise the outer weir of such a design to encourage most of the flow to leave
the tank by way of the inner weir. Blocking the outer weir completely is not recommended because it then creates a dead space between the outer weir and the wall.
Convenient peripheral baffles are now available commercially. Two are shown in
Figure 14.151. Additional detail discussion is given in WEP MOP FD-8 (2005a). Failure
to vent or clogging of vent holes can lead to structural failure of such fiberglass panels.

9.5.6 Scum Removal

Activated sludge clarifiers often experience scum formation because of denitrifying
sludges and foams (such as Nocardia filamentous bacteria). In the United States, it is common practice to remove floating materials from the surfaces of secondary clarifiers. For circular tanks, a variety of skimming mechanisms have been designed and are operated with
varying degrees of capacity and success. The most common system used for center feed
tanks is shown in Figure 14.152. It features a rotating skimmer arm and wiper that travels
around the outer edge of the tank next to a scum baffle. It moves the floatables onto a beach
or egress ramp connected to a scum removal box. The skimmer blade is most effective if it
is attached tangentially to the feed baffle, rather than perpendicular to it. The resulting
pitch angle of the tangential design helps move floatables to the outer area of the tank.
Some scum boxes are equipped with an automatic flushing valve located on the
center-most end of the box. The valve is mechanically actuated with each pass of the
skimmer. It results in a water flush of the solids into the box hopper bottom and discharge pipe. The flush volume and duration are typically adjustable.
This scum trough often extends several meters (feet) from the scum baffle toward
the center of the tank. Some designs extend this to the flocculating or center feedwell

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FIGURE 14.151

Two types of commercially available peripheral baffles.

and thereby obtain full radius skimming. For shorter scum troughs, a system is provided to move the floatables toward the outer scum baffle. A fixed, flexible antirotation
baffle, supported from the bridge and extended down to the surface of the tank, is used.
The baffle is placed at an angle to the skimmer arm that intersects the tank water surface. The resulting scissors-like movement pushes the scum outward.
Another method of moving floatables out toward the scum baffle is using of water
surface sprays. It is a good idea to locate the fixed scum beach on the downwind side of

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FIGURE 14.152 Alternative skimming designs for circular clarifiers: (a) revolving skimmers and fixed scum trough and (b) rotary ducking skimmers (Ekama et al., 1997;
reprinted with permission from IWA Publishing).

a tank. Yard piping arrangements may or may not make this option economically
attractive.
Another skimming concept, known as the ducking skimmer, is shown in Figure
14.152b. In this design, a skimmer board is connected to the sludge removal mechanism
through a hinged, counter-weighted assembly. It pushes the floatables toward a fixed,
rotating trough that turns into position as the skimmer board approaches and trips a
trigger switch. When the board reaches the rotating trough, it ducks under the trough,
and its counterweights return it to the surface to continue rotation around the tank. This

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device has an advantage of offering full-radius scum removal. Separate flushing is not
required, but some designs feature a deeper cut opening at the inner end of the rotating trough to take on more water, which moves the floatables into the collector box at
the other end of the trough.
Some installations have a reported high amount of maintenance associated with
the ducking skimmers. Issues have included controls, bearings, actuators and binding
of the rotating trough. Subsequent designs have been made more robust.
A third type of skimmer involves use of a full-radius traveling beach that rotates
with the drive cage and discharges into a central, annular well, from which the scum is
pumped out. A stationary, hanging flap that has its lower edge just below the water
surface bends as needed to push the scum up the beach as it travels below.
Peripheral feed clarifiers typically remove scum from the peripheral feed channel.
One design is to feed the tank unidirectional and locate a small scraper and beach or
overflow weir arrangement described above at the end of the feed channel. Scum
removal is facilitated by feeding the channel fed in one direction and decreasing the
cross-sectional area with distance around the tank. This can be achieved by making the
channel progressively narrower or by decreasing its depth by sloping the floor upward.
The latter design allows a fixed-width blade to fit the channel. If the channel becomes
increasingly narrow, then a narrow fixed, flexible, or hinged skimmer blade arrangement
has been used to accommodate the decreasing width (Figure 14.153). The weir gate can
be carefully adjusted so that scum overflows only at peak flow rates. In other designs, the
weir gate is motorized and mechanically lowered as the skimming arm approaches.
There have been incidents in which the feed channel foam problem has become so
severe that it overflowed the wall, dropping foam directly into the effluent channel. At
Denver Metro in Colorado, this problem led to the conversion of 10 peripheral feed
tanks to center feed. There are, however, hundreds of peripheral feed tanks, and most
correctly designed units do not have this problem.

9.5.7 Outlets
Outlets for most circular center-feed clarifiers consist of a single perimeter v-notch weir
that overflows into an effluent trough. Alternatives to this include cantilevered or suspended double weir troughs and submerged-orifice collector tubes.
For peripheral-feed designs, a singular perimeter weir is used in one concept.
Another includes provisions of a square, octagonal, or circular double-sided launder
suspended from the bridge or other structural support near the center of the tank.
In many states, regulations allow the weir loading that results from simply building
a perimeter weir. In others, regulations include a weir loading limit expressed in
flowrate divided by length of weir. For example, the Ten States Standards limit weir

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FIGURE 14.153 Plan and elevation of effective variable width influent channel skimming design for peripheral feed clarifiers.
loading to 250 m3/m2d (20 000 gpd/ft) for plants with average flows less than 0.04 m3/s
(1 mgd) and to 375 m3/m2d (30 000 gpd/ft) for larger plants (GLUMRB, 2004).
9.5.7.1 Peripheral Weir
There are two common designs for peripheral weir outlets for circular tanks. In the first,
a concrete trough is constructed on the inside of the tank wall. The weir plate is then

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bolted at the top of the inward face of the trough wall. In the second, the weir plate is
bolted to the inside of the tank wall. A concrete effluent trough is then constructed outside the tank wall. This can be less costly to build if soil elevation outside the tank can
be used beneficially in formwork construction.
The most common type of weir plate involves placement of 90 v-notches at 150- or
300-mm (6- or 12-in.) intervals. This design allows a balance of relatively low increases
in water surface elevation when flows increase with an allowance for imperfect leveling with reasonably good distribution. In contrast, a flat weir plate is susceptible to
unbalanced withdrawal if the weir is not perfectly level or if wind effects on the surface
are significant.
Some designers use square notches, which result in wider level changes with
flow changes and are more prone to partial blockage due to leaves, algae strings, and
other debris.
The proper sizing of troughs is an important aspect of design. Hydraulic formulas
for doing this are outside the scope of the text. References such as that by Boyle (1974)
and Fair and Geyer (1963) are recommended.
9.5.7.2 Cantilevered Double or Multiple Launders
In early years, and perhaps in some areas today, regulations that limit weir loading to
sufficiently low values have enticed designers to go with multiple weirs, serpentine weirs,
and other ways to increase weir length for a given diameter of tank. Requirements in
recent years have been relaxed in many design guidelines. Nevertheless, this cantilever
double launder concept remains. It offers the opportunity for solids moving up along to
the wall to resettle before inward flow takes them to the outer weir. Anderson (1945) and
others recommend that the outer weir be at least 25% of the tank radius from the wall.
9.5.7.3 Launders Suspended from the Bridge
For some small, circular tanks, the double-sided launder design discussed previously
are suspended from the bridge. Necessary structural trusses are constructed to stabilize
this form of outlet. This concept is used most widely with peripheral-feed clarifiers that
use the spiral-influent design. Peripheral feed tanks that use orifice feeding often have
an inward-projecting trough that is constructed with a wall common to the feed trough.
9.5.7.4 Submerged Orifices
Few circular tanks have been constructed with submerged orifices for effluent removal.
A typical design has a circular pipe located near the wall with evenly spaced circular
orifices cut into the top. A downstream hydraulic control device is required to maintain
a level within the clarifier. Advantages and disadvantages of this concept were presented previously.

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9.5.8 Sludge Withdrawal

There are two basic types of sludge removal mechanisms plows and hydraulic suction
used for activated sludge circular tanks.
For square tanks, spring- or counterweight-loaded corner-sweep plows have been
used to gather sludge from the corner areas outside the fixed-sweep circular area. If
tanks are sufficiently deep, filleted tank walls can be used to fill in the corners so that
circular mechanisms without corner sweeps can be used. This is preferable because corner sweeps are notorious for having mechanical problems. Hexagonal and octagonal
shapes typically include the same fillet concept.
9.5.8.1 Scrapers
There are several basic scraper designs used; Figure 14.154 shows four different types.
The multiblade plows, using straight scraper blades, have been used most extensively
in the United States. The designs using curved blades are typically referred to as spiral
plows and have been used for decades in Europe.
For small tanks, two single spirals typically suffice. For larger tanks, two spirals
may be added at 90 points from the others and extend only partway to the wall.

FIGURE 14.154 Scraper configuration in Germany (Guenthert, 1984). Type A is the

Nierskratzer type, where a1  a2. Type B is a logarithmic spiral with a constant at 45.
Types C and D are window shade type scrapers.

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Although blade angles of between 15 and 45 have been used, 30 has become popular in the United States. Suppliers report that the vast majority of new scraper mechanisms used for activated sludge are of the spiral design, as opposed to the multibladed
window shade type.
In early years, the tip speed of spiral scrapers was approximately 3 m/min
(10 ft/min). Based on several plant improvement projects, Albertson and others have
recommended values as high as 10 m/min (30 ft/min). These faster speeds, as well as
deepening the spiral blades closer to the center of the tank, give this system a relatively
high sludge-transport and removal capacity. The higher speeds do induce some stirring of the tank contents, especially in smaller tanks, which may affect clarification.
Some designs feature variable speed drives.
9.5.8.2 Hydraulic Suction
For activated sludge treatment with partial or complete nitrification, the occurrence of
denitrification in clarifiers can cause solids to float and effluent quality to degrade. In
the 1960s, the concept of hydraulic suction was engineered to assist in removing sludge
more rapidly. Kinnear (2002) showed that this concept was more effective to maintain
lower sludge blankets. Data in Figure 14.155 show that increasing sludge blanket depth

FIGURE 14.155 Effect of sludge blanket depth on effluent suspended solids (ESS) at pure
oxygen activated sludge plant; sludge volume index
51 to 166 mL/g, with an average
of 86 mL/g (Ekama et al., 1997; reprinted with permission from IWA Publishing).

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results in higher effluent solids in some cases, but, regardless of the blanket depth, an
adequate clear water zone is necessary for good performance.
To lift the sludge, a hydraulic head deferential is established by use of pumps or
adjustable valves to move solids into the collector arms. There are two fundamentally
different types of hydraulic suction removal mechanisms. The first, typically called
an organ or riser pipe, has a separate collector pipe for each suction inlet orifice. The
V-shaped plows direct the sludge to these pipes.
The other type has a single or double arm extending across the full radius of the
tank. The arm is tubular and has several orifice openings. It is typically referred to as a
manifold design but is also known as header, tubular, or Tow-Bro in recognition of
Townsend and Brower, who developed it.
Figure 14.156 shows a typical riser-pipe clarifier design. The horizontal runs of the
riser pipes are stacked verticallyan orientation that induces more tank stirring than
they were horizontal. Most designers prefer the latter. Each riser pipe of this mechanism is fitted with an adjustable telescoping weir, movable sleeve or ring arrangement
that allows the operator to adjust the flow independently for each suction inlet. Advantages and disadvantages are detailed in WEFs MOP FD-8 (WEF, 2005).
Riser-pipe designs often feature tubes that enter the collection box and pass in front
of the central feed pipe ports, which often are located just below the box. This interference can deflect the inflow and may result in some jetting of flow into the EDI or central feedwell. The relative sizes of pipe, their orientation, and proximity to these ports
need to be considered in plant design and specifications.
Riser-pipe clarifiers include a mechanical seal between the center column and each
return sludge well. If the seal leaks, then there is a loss of or decrease in water level differential between the tank and the well. Lower differentials can result in lower RAS
rates or no sludge removal.
The manifold-type hydraulic suction mechanism contains multiple orifices along
its radial length. Some clarifiers have a single tube; larger ones have two tubes opposite
each other (Figure 14.157).
The orifice openings are sized and spaced in the factory to obtain a near optimum
pattern of collecting solids from the floor. The hydraulic formulas and orifice spacing criteria are beyond the scope of this text. Some designs do have adjustable openings; the
tank, however, needs to be taken out of service to make the required adjustments. In view
of this, most operators do not change the settings, even though adjustments are possible.
With the manifold design, plugging of any particular orifice cannot be checked
without dewatering the tank. Instrumentation that compares flow to headloss can be
used to determine if some plugging has occurred, and some RAS stations are designed
to provide back flushing.

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FIGURE 14.156

Hydraulic sludge removal design with suction pipes.

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FIGURE 14.156

(continued).

The manifold-type hydraulic suction device has gained in popularity compared to

the rise pipe alternative. The main advantage of the manifold is that it can be coupled
directly to RAS pumps or wet well with a substantial head deferential, which allows
suction of relatively dense sludges. Supporters of the design that argue lower RAS flow
rates are feasible. Results of a side-by-side test at a pulp and paper plant in Washington
reportedly has shown that the manifold type was able to obtain 1% RAS, whereas a parallel riser pipe achieved 0.6% (Ekama et al., 1997). At that plant, WAS is removed exclusively from manifold-equipped clarifiers.
A serious design issue with the manifold device is obtaining a good seal at the bottom. This device requires two seals, one at each side of the rotating collar that moves
with the suction tubes. In some early designs, the combination of silt or grit deposition
and suction from the RAS pumps led to abrasion and wear of the seal. If wear is excessive or suction adequate, then relatively low TSS water can be sucked through these
seals, thereby defeating the purpose of hydraulic suction. This leaking water can dilute
the RAS and eventually reduce flows through the orifices. Replacing the seals requires
tank dewatering. There are two or more successful modern seal designs. Figure 14.157

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FIGURE 14.157

Hydraulic sludge removal using typical suction header, or tube, design.

(detail A) shows a design with the seals located several inches above the floor to reduce
the problem of grit abrasion.
9.5.8.3 Hoppers
Traditionally, most U.S. activated sludge clarifiers using scraper mechanisms were
equipped with trapezoidal hoppers (Figure 14.158a). Depending on tank size, these
hoppers are typically a few meters deep and have walls with slopes of at least 50 above
horizontal. Other types of hoppers have been developed to prevent ratholing and
dilution of the RAS. One type consists of deep conical or annular sludge hoppers as
shown in Figure 14.158b. The rotating mechanism has stirrups that reach into the annular hopper to prevent bridging.
Another design concept was to make the sludge hopper and longer and narrower
and extend radially outward a distance of up to 25% of the tank radius. A plate with

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FIGURE 14.158 Circular clarifier with (a) trapezoid and (b) annular sludge hopper alternatives.

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several orifices was used to withdraw the sludge more uniformly over this larger radial
distance. Details of this design are given by Albertson and Okey (1992).
Even for tanks with hydraulic suction, some engineers design a separate deep
trapezoidal hopper at the bottom of the activated sludge clarifiers from which to waste
sludge. They believe that thicker sludge can be achieved in this way.
9.5.8.4 Collection Rings and Drums
Within the last decade, sludge and drums and other variations have been developed to
assist in removal of sludge plowed to the center by spirals or multiple plows. Two such
devices are shown in Figure 14.159 a and b. In the sludge-ring design, an annular area

FIGURE 14.159 The (a) sludge ring and (b) sludge drum to remove solids from activated sludge final clarifiers.

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with multiple orifices is provided to remove sludge continuously from a full radius
around the center column.
Some engineers have been concerned about plugging potential of sludge-ring orifices, resulting in development of the sludge drum. This design has only two large
openings, one at the interior end point of each spiral blade. The opening is fixed relative to the blade end and the drum rotates with the mechanism. There are other minor
variations of this fundamental design (Figure 14.157). In this design, only a flat
washer-shaped top plate of the drum rotates and two inverted U-tubes lift RAS into
the drum. Some of these devices are patented and remain relatively novel, but are
reported to be effective in specific installations.
9.5.8.5 Drive Location
Most clarifiers in the United States are driven from the center column or from a fixed
bridge that spans the full width of the tank. In Europe, it is common to have a drive
located at the tank wall. This powers rubber tires that ride on the top of the tank wall
and rotate the bridge that spans the tank diameter and is pivoted in the middle.
9.5.8.6 Floor Slopes
Most clarifiers with plow or spiral mechanisms in the United States have a constant
floor slope of 1 on 12. Albertson and Okey (1992) have promoted the use of a dual-slope
floor that provides a steeper slope in the center for large tanks. This steeper slope provides for greater depth and sludge compaction.
For hydraulic suction clarifiers, a 1-on-12 slope can be used. Because it is not necessary to move the sludge across the floor, relatively flat floors with slope of 1 or 2% for
draining are common.

9.5.9 Other Considerations

9.5.9.1 Return Activated Sludge Pumping
For activated sludge plants, many designers elect to couple the suction side of RAS
pump manifolds to the sludge removal hoppers or hydraulic suction mechanisms.
These pump stations, therefore, do not have a wet well. They do not, however, expose
mixed liquor to air, where odors could be released or scum problems in the wet well
could form.
It is important that a single pumpand not moreis connected to each circular
clarifier. Such single, direct-piping arrangements prevent suction of dilute mixed liquor
from one tank and reduced flows from another.
An alternative design provides for each clarifier sludge line to discharge into a wet
well by way of a flow-control valve. Such a valve allows independent discharge of

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sludges and separate control of each. The RAS pumps then operate on a level control
signal to maintain the desired level in the wet well. In plants with many circular clarifiers, this arrangement offers the advantage of fewer RAS pumps. It does, however,
generate the disadvantages of maintaining a wet well and its associated scum and odor
problems.
Symmetry is never an acceptable principal to use to balance the withdrawal of
sludge from parallel clarifier hoppers. Independent control from each hopper is an
absolute necessity.
9.5.9.2 Algae Control
Algae growth is a common problem with many activated sludge clarifiers that have
weirs and open troughs. Several strategies are available:
Covers to keep the launder areas dark to prevent growth.
Periodic release of chlorine solution (derived from gaseous chlorine) through a
diffuser line at the launders. Sodium hypochlorite has a tendency to precipitate
calcium carbonate clog the orifices of a chlorine diffusion line. Lower concentration of hypochlorite solutions can reduce this problem.
Physical control using brushes and sprays. For circular clarifiers, brushes can be
attached to the rotating skimmer arms. This has been successful in many applications but does require periodic adjustment and replacement of the brushes.
Rotating water jet spray systems are also available for circular clarifiers. This can
clean irregular shapes of tanks and weirs, including cantilevered, double-weir
launders and could be used in rectangular clarifiers as a fixed-grid system.

9.6 Control Strategy and Facilities Design

The performance of activated sludge clarifiers has a significant effect on effluent water
quality, aeration basin MLSS concentration and performance, and efficiency of solids
handling facilities. The operator needs a control strategy and information to make correct, timely decisions to ensure efficient operation of the activated sludge clarifier system. Elements of strategy include making proactive adjustments to RAS rates, WAS
rates to keep the system in balance, and blanket heights; information is needed to determine when to take processes out of service at the most opportune times. In small, conservatively designed plants, this process can be done with relative information. In large,
complex plants with many units operating in parallel, however, it has been found most
cost-effective to reduce manpower by providing increasing sophistication in instrumentation, controls, and automation. A recent survey of more than 110 wastewater plants
at 45 utilities in the United States indicates that only 10% use primary or secondary clar-

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ifier sludge blanket level monitoring instrumentation, and approximately 5 to 10% use
suspended solids concentration analyzers (Hill et al., 2001).
More comprehensive coverage of instrumentation and controls of secondary clarifiers can be found in WEFs MOP FD-8 on clarifier design (2005a) and in MOP 11 (1996).

9.6.1 Key Parameters

The key process variables that need to be monitored for efficient and cost-effective clarifier solids control are:

Effluent water quality,

Return activated sludge rate and concentration,
Waste activated sludge rate and concentration,
Settleability of mixed liquor solids,
Quantity of solids retained in the clarifiers (a function of blanket thickness/
volume and concentration),
Quantity of solids in the aeration basin(s),
Mechanism speed,
Mechanism mechanical loads and torques, and
Plant influent flows and waste loads, including fluctuations that may result in
transfers of large amounts of solids from the aeration basins to the clarifiers.

Online measurement of effluent suspended solids or turbidity can be provided for individual or multiple clarifiers for real-time monitoring of performance
Strategies and equipment used to measure and make adjustments, where possible,
to these variables are covered below. In some cases, management of certain variables
merely consists of monitoring and rarely making adjustments unless warnings are given.

9.6.2 Return and Waste Activated Sludge Strategies

The amount of solids retained in the clarifiers can be monitored by frequent manual or
automated measurement of sludge blanket depth and WAS/RAS solids concentration.
Monitoring the concentration and volume of the WAS and MLSS retained in the aeration basin is a critical part of any control strategy. The MLSS and WAS concentration
and RAS recycle rate measurements are used routinely to adjust WAS withdrawal rate
and to maintain consistent steady-state performance.
Manual sludge sample collection followed by gravimetric TSS analysis in the plant
laboratory is the most frequently practiced method for monitoring activated sludge
MLSS, RAS, and WAS concentration fluctuations. Typically, plant staff collects one to
three sludge samples throughout the day and analyzes these samples for TSS applying

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standard laboratory methods and procedures or using high-speed centrifuges. Standard laboratory TSS analysis is relatively time-consuming (typically 2 to 3 hours) and,
because of time constraints, typically is completed a few times per day at larger facilities and less frequently at smaller plants. Solids determination by centrifugation of
activated sludge samples takes only 15 to 20 minutes and is widely practiced in many
plants. The TSS measurement by calibrated photometric methods also is used.
For more automation, several sludge concentration analyzers are commercially
available for online measurement and monitoring of MLSS and WAS concentrations.
Continuous solids concentration measurements allow for tracking solids inventory fluctuations in real time and getting more accurate representation of system performance.
In addition, automated solids inventory monitoring avoids human errors and reduces
the time required for sampling and sample processing. On the other hand, installation
and operation of online instrumentation requires additional expense, more specialized
operator skills for calibration and servicing of sensors, and frequent equipment field
testing to avoid potential errors caused by inaccurate readings or instrument drift.
Therefore, the right level of deployment of such equipment is best defined on a sitespecific basis.
Higher degrees of automated activated sludge solids inventory control systems
have been reported at medium and large WWTPs (Ekster, 1998, 2000; Hinton-Lever,
2000; Samuels, 2000; Wheeler et al., 2001). An activated sludge system performance
optimization study was completed at the 93 000 m3/d (25 mgd) Burlington Skyway
WWTP in Halton, Ontario, Canada (Wheeler et al., 2001). Results have proven that
automation of secondary clarifier sludge blanket level monitoring combined with close
monitoring and control of activated sludge solids inventory can yield significant
improvement of effluent quality at minimal additional expense.
While monitoring sludge blanket, activated sludge solids inventory, and plant
influent flow variations improve understanding of clarifier performance. A sudden
increase in sludge blanket depth in the secondary clarifiers at typical influent flows
and loads and well-operating sludge withdrawal pumps typically indicates deterioration of sludge settleability. Nearly all plants manually collect samples and perform
tests to measure this, although automation was achieved on an experimental basis in
1990 in Japan.
Accurate influent flow measurement and monitoring are essential for efficient
control of the clarification process. In many plants, influent flowrate is used as a main
activated sludge system control parameter, and RAS rate is adjusted proportionally.
Primary effluent or final effluent flows might be more appropriate if flows are equalized or recycle streams are significant. As a minimum, online flow measurement is recommended for continuous monitoring of plant influent, RAS, and WAS flowrates.

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9.6.3 Concentration and Density Measurement

Sludge concentration measurements are used in activated sludge treatment to give
operators the information needed to optimize process performance. In the past, sludge
concentration instrumentation has found limited application in full-scale plants, mostly
because of inconsistency and inaccuracy. Analyzer instrumentation problems typically
were caused by the presence of air bubbles, sensor fouling, or a change in water color.
The new generation of equipment has built-in provisions to mitigate these problems
and can provide consistent and accurate readings. Reliable sludge blanket and concentration analyzers are commercially available and have a proven track record.
Several different measurement methods or types of equipment are used including
light-emitting (optical), ultrasonic, and nuclear solids analyzers. Table 14.41 summarizes key areas of implementation of the various sludge concentration and density
measurement technologies. Some of the commercially available analyzers are combined with sludge blanket level detectors, which generally amplify the benefits of
automatic sludge monitoring and control. Additional details are provided in WEFs
MOP FD-8 (2005a).

TABLE 14.41
equipment.

Areas of application of sludge concentration and density measurement

Typical applications

Accuracy

Notes

0.5% of full
instrument span

Avoid use for

Primary sludge higher
than 3% solids;
Thickened sludge; and
Wastewater with visibly
apparent color.

0.5% of full
instrument span

Avoid use for

Wastewater; and
An MLSS concentration
lower than 2 000 mg/L.

0.5% to 1% of full
instrument span

Avoid use for

Wastewater
MLSS, RAS, and WAS; and
Low concentration primary
sludge.

Light-emitting (optical) analyzers

Sludge density meters: Sludge
with solids concentrations from
0.1 to 6% solids.
Turbidemeters: Wastewater of
turbidity between 0.01 and 10 000
NTU (TSS of 1 to 3 000 mg/L).
Ultrasonic analyzers
Sludge with solids concentrations
from 0.1 to 10% solids.

Nuclear analyzers
Sludge with solids concentrations
greater than 4% and lower than
15% solids.

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Device installation varies depending on the type of instrument and recommended
manufacturer installation details. The best location of inline sludge concentration measurement devices is on a vertical line with an upflow. The solids concentration measurement device must be installed where sludge is well-mixed and accurately represents the actual concentration. The operation range of the instrument must match the
range of the measured solids concentration. Measurement devices must be located so
that they are easy to access and maintain. The analyzer probe must be easily removable
for service without shutting down process piping and disturbing the operation of the
sludge pumping system.
Sludge sample lines must be large enough to prevent plugging. It is recommended
to provide a flushing tap next to the instrument and a sample box, so that samples can
be collected manually at the point of instrument installation for calibration purposes.
For large WWTPs, it is preferred that separate measurement devices be installed on
sludge withdrawal lines from the individual clarifiers to gain a better control over the
operation and performance of these units. Sludge density measurement devices must
be installed coupled with sludge flow measurement devices. The displays of the sludge
concentration and flowrate measurement instrumentation must be located adjacent to
each other for direct observation and comparison.
Inline solids analyzers are used for measuring RAS, and WAS concentrations.
When measuring MLSS concentration in aeration basins, analyzer sensors are directly
immersed in the basins and mounted on holders off the walls. If a wall-mounted optical solids concentration analyzer is used, then the sensor should be immersed at least
0.04 m (1.5 in.) below the activated sludge tank water surface and should be located
a minimum of 0.15 m (6 in.) away from the aeration basin wall. If the wall is bright
and reflective, then distance from the sensor to aeration basin wall should be at least
0.3 m (12 in.). Installing the optical sensor too close to a wall can cause infrared light
backscatter, resulting in a higher intensity signal. Optimum self-cleaning of immersed
suspended solids analyzers is achieved by turning the sensor surface into the flow
direction.

9.6.4 Sludge Blanket Depth Measurement

Sludge blanket depth is a key indicator of secondary clarifier performance. The depth
of the sludge blanket is the distance from the clarifier surface to blanket top. The blanket thickness is the distance from the top of the sludge blanket to the bottom of the clarifier. The sludge blanket typically varies daily within certain predictable limits because
of result of diurnal flow fluctuations. The blanket depth also may vary because of
process changes induced by plant operators. Day-to-day fluctuations in a plant operated under relatively stable conditions are relatively slow and are typically limited to

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within 0.3 to 0.6 m (1 to 2 ft). Significant and abrupt changes in sludge blanket depth in
clarifiers typically are caused by either a large increase in influent flow (transient flow
conditions) or by a stoppage or malfunction of the sludge collection and/or withdrawal
systems. This parameter also can be influenced by several activated sludge system performance changes, and its fluctuations over time provide critical information about
overall health of the activated sludge system.
Sludge blanket depth at full-scale treatment plants is most typically determined
by manual measurements using calibrated clear plastic tube (also named core sampler
or sludge judge). The key disadvantage of manual measurement is that it is a discrete
sample measurement that gives only a snapshot representation of the sludge blanket
level at a given time and location. Variables, such as the sampling location and time,
location of the sludge collection mechanism at the time of the measurement, speed of
tube descent, ambient light conditions, and subjectivity of operator readings and sampling skills, contribute to the sometimes limited benefits of manual sludge blanket
measurement.
One key advantage of the manual plastic tube sampler is that it also allows for collection of a sludge sample in which TSS concentration is representative of the average
solids concentration of the sludge blanket, a parameter which could be used to calculate
the sludge blanket SRT and, ultimately, to determine the optimum sludge withdrawal
rate. Manual plastic tube samplers are reliable, inexpensive, require little maintenance,
and can be easily replaced if damaged. In addition, one manual plastic tube sampler can
be used to monitor multiple clarifiers.
Another type of manual equipment for sludge blanket depth measurement is sight
glass. This type of sludge blanket finder consists of a sight glass and light source
attached at the lower end of a graduated piece of aluminum pipe approximately 38 mm
(1.5 in.) in diameter. The sight glass is lowered carefully into the clarifier through the
zones of clear liquor and individual particles until the top of the homogenous sludge
blanket is observed.
For small plants and plants with clarifiers where the sludge blanket does not vary
significantly over time, manual sludge blanket depth measurement is generally adequate. If blanket depth is to be used for RAS rate control, manual depth determinations
are not adequate during bulking events, and return of solids to the aeration basin will
lag behind the influent load.
In medium and large WWTPs with more complex activated sludge and solidshandling systems, installation of instrumentation for continuous sludge blanket measurement interlocked with automated control of secondary sludge withdrawal systems
warrants consideration. The benefits of automated sludge blanket depth measurements
for WAS and RAS flow rate control have also been documented at a number of full-scale

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

WWTPs (Bush, 1991; Dartez, 1996; Ekster, 1998 and 2000; Hinton-Lever, 2000; Hoffman
and Wexler, 1996; Rudd et al., 2001; Samuels, 2000).
Automated sludge blanket depth measurement is recommended for WWTPs with
significant variations of diurnal influent water quality and quantity and associated frequent shift of sludge blanket levels. In cases where sludge blanket level fluctuations are
frequent (changes of more than more than 0.32 m [1 ft] up and down several times per
day) and clarifiers are relatively shallow (side water depth of less than 3.66 m [12 ft]),
use of variable frequency drive (VFD) motors for the sludge withdrawal pumps is recommended. If VFD-controlled motors are used, then sludge blanket monitoring instrumentation and pump control equipment operation can be interlocked to automatically
adjust the clarifier sludge pump withdrawal rate to keep the sludge blanket at an optimum, near-constant level.
Most commercially available sludge blanket level detectors are based on ultrasonic
or optical measurement of sludge concentration. These devices have provisions for
compensating sensor measurement for temperature, fouling, and aging.
Ultrasonic sludge blanket level analyzers are subject to blinding by gas bubbles
generated as a result of uncontrolled denitrification. The gas bubbles, when trapped on
the surface of the sonic sensor, alter the readings. Therefore, the ultrasonic sensors must
be designed with cleaning provisions. Typically, small utility water pumps are installed
on the rail above the sensor or right on the sensor. These pumps typically run intermittently and wash the sensors to maintain accuracy of the instrument readings.
The use of optical sludge blanket level detectors is limited by their higher costs and
relatively lower accuracy. Optical analyzers are subjected to interference by accumulation of solids on the analyzer sensor and by light reflection from nearby objects (smooth
walls and sunlight reflecting tank and equipment surfaces).
Blanket level detectors must be installed in locations that do not cause interference with normal operation of the sludge collection and removal system. Typically,
the stationary sludge blanket meters are installed on the catwalk or on the side rail of
the clarifiers. The stationary ultrasonic sludge blanket sensors are mounted 4 to 8 cm
(1.5 to 3 in.) below the liquid surface. They are equipped with skimmer guards to protect the sensors from damage.
The best location for measuring sludge blanket depth is where the actual depth is
equal to the average clarifier depth. In circular clarifiers with inward sloping floors,
this point is typically one-third of the distance from the outside wall of the clarifier
center to the middle. In rectangular clarifiers, the most appropriate location of routine
sludge blanket measurement is typically at the midpoint of clarifier basin length.
Because clarifier configuration, type, and size vary, the most representative location
for measurement of the average sludge blanket depth should be based on a series of

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manual sludge blanket measurements at three to five locations along the clarifier
radius or length.
Typically, sludge collection arms of circular clarifiers rotate approximately once
every 15 to 30 minutes, and the sludge collection mechanism (scraper or suction header)
movement disturbs the sludge blanket. If the sludge blanket is measured manually, then
depth readings are should be taken when the sludge collection mechanism (bridge) is
perpendicular to the measuring location. Taking the sludge blanket level measurement
at this location minimizes the effect of sludge collection mechanism movement.
Automated sludge blanket level analyzers typically take continuous (several times
per second) interface level readings. This enables the operating staff to observe the
sludge blanket behavior in real time. Blanket depth measurement instrumentation can
produce an average sludge blanket level or interface level by averaging the sludge
profile at present intervals of 15 to 60 seconds, which eliminates wide changes in the
blanket level readings caused by sludge collection rake passage or temporary shortterm upsets.
Individual automated sludge blanket level analyzers are recommended to be
installed in all clarifier units of the WWTP rather than in only one. Comparison of
sludge blanket behavior of the individual units can help identify and potential problems related to uneven flow distribution among the clarifiers, malfunction of sludge
collection and withdrawal systems, or other site-specific events that cause individual
clarifier units to perform differently.
Selecting the most appropriate instrumentation for the specific application is critical for reliable monitoring and control of clarifier solids concentration and sludge blanket. Most sensors perform well under ideal conditions that manufacturers use to determine their specifications for accuracy, reproducibility, and other key operational
parameters. However, sensor performance in the field can be unsatisfactory and
require a period of calibration and adjustment to the site-specific conditions of the
application (Hill et al., 2001). Instrumentation field testing can provide information
needed to select the most appropriate equipment. Onsite testing, which can be costly
and time-consuming, is the most reliable way to select the best monitoring system.
Information from organizations that specialize in evaluation of water and WWTP monitoring equipment, such as the Instrumentation Testing Association, Henderson,
Nevada, are recommended.

9.6.5 Equipment and Instrumentation

Instrumentation to monitor clarifier drive unit provide protection for clarifier drive
gearbox and sludge collection flights/arms. Typical monitored parameters are torque,
power, and motion detection.

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Torque gauges or motor power provide indirect monitoring of clarifier sludge
concentration (Wilkinson, 1997). This approach, however, is relatively simplistic and
inaccurate because torque gauges and power monitors are designed to provide protection of the clarifier driver mechanisms against overload rather than to indicate solids
concentration.
Suppliers of clarifier drives can provide drive torque monitoring devices. High
torque and high-high torque warning, alarm, and shutoff switches typically are
installed at each clarifier drive mechanism. Torque indication can be read from a scale,
which is expressed as a percentage of the maximum torque load. A high-torque condition is represented by a torque load at 40 to 50%; a high-high torque is 80 to 85% of the
maximum design. The high torque condition is alarmed, and the high-high condition
stops the drive.
Some equipment manufacturers offer positive torque overload protection of the
clarifier drives, which allows it to produce a controlled preset maximum torque. The
drive will run continuously at this torque, but, when needed, it will safely produce a
higher, controlled, short-term running torque to keep the solids in the clarifier moving.
When the drive with a positive torque overload protection experiences load demand
above the high-high (cutoff) level, it will simply slip without overheating or overstressing. This type of drive overcomes process upset without risk of damaging the sludge
collection equipment.
Similar to torque, the clarifier drive motor power (measured in watts) or current
draw/amperage (measured in amperes) could be monitored to provide motor and
drive overload protection.
The clarifier sludge collection mechanism motion can also be monitored. Typically, loss-of-motion switches are installed on the clarifier drives to detect when they
stop moving.

10.0 SUSPENDED-GROWTH BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT

SYSTEM EXAMPLE
The following example shows one way of designing an activated sludge system using
the information presented earlier in this chapter. The example is brief and does not
address all of the analysis, concerns, and safety factors that should be included in a real
full-scale plant design. The first section provides hand calculations that can be used for
simple nitrification and denitrification systems. The second section uses IWAs ASM1
model for the same criteria (Henze et al., 2000).
An existing WWTP is nearing its design capacity and requires a new suspendedgrowth biological treatment train to allow it to treat future flows projected over the

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20-year planning period. Based on flow and load projections and plant mass balances,
the design influent loading conditions for the new activated sludge system are:
Flow
Average day
Maximum month
Peak hour

37 850 m3/d

45 420 m3/d

75 700 m3/d

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) loading

Average concentration
Average mass load
Maximum month mass load

140 mg/L

5 299 kg/d

6 124 kg/d

Total suspended solids loading

Average concentration
Average mass load
Maximum month mass load

90 mg/L

3 405 kg/d

3 946 kg/d

Total Kjeldahl nitrogen loading

Average concentration
Average mass load
Maximum month mass load

30 mg/L

1 135 kg/d

1 361 kg/d

Total phosphorus loading

Average concentration
Average mass load
Maximum month mass load

7 mg/L

265 kg/d

318 kg/d

Analysis of historic data indicates the following conditions are applicable to the
system:
Influent BOD has a BODultBOD5 ratio of 1.46.
Influent TSS is 80% volatile solids.
Influent VSS is 40% nonbiodegradable under the SRT conditions anticipated.
Design SVI is 150 mL/g.
Process temperatures are 15C average, 20C maximum week, and 12C minimum week. Historic data indicates maximum month conditions can occur in
either the warm or cold season.
For the diffused aeration system under consideration at appropriate diffuser
submergence conditions, refer to Table 14.42.

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

TABLE 14.42

Anticipated aeration diffuser characteristics.

Airflow per diffuser,* m3/h

diffuser (scfm/diffuser)

Diffuser density,
diffuser/m2 (diffusers/100 ft2)

SOTE, %

0.850 (0.5)

1.94 (18)
2.58 (24)
3.23 (30)
4.84 (45)

29
32
34
38

1.699 (1.0)

1.94 (18)
2.58 (24)
3.23 (30)
4.84 (45)

27
28
30
32

2.55 (1.5)

1.94 (18)
2.58 (24)
3.23 (30)
4.84 (45)
1.94 (18)

26
27
28
30
26

* Based on US Standard Conditions of temperature of 23C (68F) and absolute pressure of 101 kPa (14.7 psia)
with a resulting air density of 1.205 kg/m3 (0.075 lb/cf).

Over the aeration basin, F, values of 0.3, 0.4, and 0.7 are anticipated at the first,
middle, and final aeration zones, respectively. In addition, 45% of the total oxygen demand is exerted in the first zone, 35% in the second, and 20% in the final.
A
value of 0.98, pressure of 100 kPa (1 atm), and a C*20 of 10.5 mg/L are appropriate for the wastewater and site.
In the base case, the facility has the following effluent requirements, which are not anticipated to change over the planning period:
Maximum monthly BOD5
Maximum weekly BOD5

20 mg/L

30 mg/L

Maximum monthly TSS

Maximum weekly TSS

20 mg/L

30 mg/L

Maximum monthly NH3-N

Maximum weekly NH3-N

3 mg/L

5 mg/L

The goal of the analysis of the base case is to provide initial estimates for aeration basin
volume, aeration system capacity, and secondary clarifier size for the new suspendedgrowth biological treatment system.

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10.1 Aeration Basin Volume

Based on review of the discharge limits, target effluent concentrations of 10 mg/L
BOD5, 15 mg/L TSS, and 2 mg/L NH3-N will be used for design calculation purposes.
Design engineers should document the model and associated parameters used. In
this case, for both heterotrophic organic removal and nitrifier conversion of ammonium
to nitrate, biological activity will be modeled using processes of growth and endogenous respiration with debris production consistent the design equations presented in
the Chapter. Table 14.43 provides the model parameters. This case assumes that hydrolysis of particulate organic material is not rate limiting and that influent organic material converts quickly to soluble constitutes.
It is also necessary to decide upon and document the reactor model. In this case, a
single completely mixed suspended-growth biological reactor followed by a clarifier
without biological activity, similar to the reactor configuration shown in Figure 14.15,
is assumed. With these selections for the biological activity model and the reactor
model, the analytical solutions presented in the chapter can be used.
Because the system is required to nitrify, the design SRT is calculated for the nitrification requirements by combining Equations 14.10 and 14.11. A design dissolvedoxygen concentration of 2.0 mg/L in the aeration basins and a minimum safety factor
of 2.0 will be used. The cold weather condition will be the constraining case for aeration
basin volume.
1
SNH 4 -N
SO 2

( aut )
 baut
SRTmin
K N  SNH 4 -N KO  SO 2
1
2
2

(0.44)
 0.06
0.205 d1
SRTmin
0.66  2 0.5  2
1

4.9d
SRTmin
1
 SRTmin  SF
4.9  2.0
9.8d
SRTdesign
Use SRTdesign
10d.
For preliminary sizing of components, assume the system operates at a 10-day SRT
under all conditions. The cold weather conditions effluent concentrations of organic
substrate and ammonium are calculated by:
Sb , e
KS

1  bh SRT
1  (0.11)(10)

20
SRT  ( h  bh )  1
10  (3.5  0.11)  1

Sb , e
1.3 mg BOD ult/L

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14-297

Heterotrophic biomass maximum specific growth rate

Heterotrophic biomass growth rate expression
half velocity coefficient
Heterotrophic biomass true yield
Heterotrophic biomass decay coefficient
Nitrifier biomass maximum specific growth rate
Nitrifier biomass growth rate expression ammonium
half velocity coefficient
Nitrifier biomass browth rate expression
dissolved oxygen half velocity coefficient
Nitrifier biomass true yield
Nitrifier biomass decay coefficient
Debris (non-biodegradable) fraction coefficient
Theoretical oxygen demand of active biomass
Nitrogen content of active biomass
Phosphorus content of active biomass
Theoretical oxygen demand of debris
Nitrogen content of debris
Phosphorus content of debris
Fixed solids associated with active biomass
Fixed solids associated with debris biomass

h
KS

Yaut
baut
fd
ibm,ThOD
ibm,N
ibm,P
iX???,ThOD
iX???,N
iX???,P
ibm,FSS
iX???,FSS

KO

Yh
bh
aut
KN

Description

Symbol

Example problem, parameter values.

gVSS/gNH4-N
1/d
gVSS/gVSS
g ThOD/g VSS
gN/gVSS
gP/gVSS
gThOD/gVSS
gN/gVSS
gP/gVSS
gFSS/gVSS
gFSS/gVSS

mgO2L

gVSS/gBODult
1/d
gVSS/gVSS d
mgN/L

gVSS/gVSS d
mgBODult/L

Unit

0.15
0.10
0.15
1.42
0.12
0.024
1.42
0.12
0.024
0.176
0.176

0.50

0.40
0.15
0.75
1.0

6.0
20

Value at 20C

0.15
0.06
0.15
1.42
0.12
0.024
1.42
0.12
0.024
0.176
0.176

0.50

0.40
0.11
0.44
0.66

3.5
20

Value at 12C

14-298

TABLE 14.43

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

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Effluent soluble organic substrate mass rate for the maximum month flow is
(45 420 m3/d)(1.3 g/m3)/1 000
59 kg BODult/d
Effluent ammonium mass rate for the maximum month flow is:
(45 420 m3/d)(0.6 g/m3)/1 000
27 kg NH4-N/d
SNH4-N,e
K N

1  (0.06)(10)
1  baut SRT

(0.66)

2
SO 2
10  0.44
 0.006  1
SRT   aut
 baut  1
0.5  2
K S

O2

SNH4-N,e
0.6 mg NH 4 -N/L

Aeration basin sizing will be based on cold weather, maximum month loadings. The
design solids productions for the maximum month are:
Fixed solids from the influent
(3 945 kg TSS/d)(1  0.8)
789 kg FSS/d.
Non-biodegradable VSS from the influent
(3 945 kg TSS/d)(0.8)(0.4)

1 264 kgVSS/d.

Px , Xha

Yh (Mass BOD ult in  Mass BOD ultout ) 0.4(6 124  1.46  59)


1  bh SRT
1  (0.11)(10)

The production of active heterotrophic biomass is:

Px,Xha
1 692 kg VSS/d
The production of debris associated with the heterotrophic biomass is:

Px , Xh , i

fd  bh  SRT  Yh (Mass BOD ult in  Mass BOD ult out )

1  bh SRT

Px , Xh , i

0.15  0.11  10  0.4(6 124  1.46  59)

1  (0.11)(10)

Px,Xh,i
279 kgVSS/d

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

The fixed solids created through and associated with heterotrophic activity are:
PX,Xh,FSS
(ibm,FSS  Px,Xha)  (ii,FSS  Px,Xh,i)
PX,Xh,FSS
(0.176  1 692)  (0.176  279)
PX,Xh,FSS
347 kg FSS/d
The mass rate of nitrogen assimilated into heterotrophic biomass components is:
N assimilated by heterotrophic biomass
(ibm,N  Px,Xha) (iiN  Px,Xh,i)
N assimilated
(0.12  1 692)  (0.12  279)
N assimilated
236 kg N/d
As noted above, it is assumed that all of the influent TKN is hydrolyzed to NH4-N.
The amount of ammonium used by the nitrifiers is then equal to the influent mass TKN
rate minus the effluent mass rate and the nitrogen assimilated into the heterotrophic
biomass:
Px , Xna

Yaut (Mass NH 4 Nutilized)

0.15((1 098)


1  (0.06)(10)
1  baut SRT

NH4-N used by nitrifiers
1 361  27  236
1 098 kg N/d

The production of active nitrifier biomass is:
Px,Xna
103 kgVSS/d
The production of debris associated with the nitrifier biomass is:

Px , Xhni

fd  baut  SRT  Yaut (Mass NH 4 Nutilized)

1
 baut SRT

Px , Xhni

0.15  0.06  10  0.15  (1 098)

1  (0.06)(10)
Px,Xn,i
9 kg VSS/d

The fixed solids created through and associated with nitrifier activity is:
PX,Xn,FSS
ibm,FSS  Px,Xna  ii,FSS  Px,Xn,i
PX,Xn,FSS
(0.176  103)  (0.176  9)
PX,Xn,FSS
19 kg FSS/d

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The total cold weather maximum month VSS and TSS solids productions are then
4 502 kg TSS/d

0.74 kg TSS/kg BOD 5 removed
6 124 BOD 5 /d
These results generate a 74% VSS content of the waste sludge solids and mixed liquor.
The resulting total observed yield is:
PX,VSS
1 264  1692  279  103  9
3 47 kg VSS/d
PX,TSS
3 347 kg VSS/d 789  347  19
4 502 kg TSS/d
Both results should be compared to similar values from historic plant operating data to
judge the validity of the assumptions. In some cases, when the situation matches the
noted assumptions, Figure 14.20 may be used to calculate solids production as a function of BOD5 removed.
A review of Figure 14.19 suggests a maximum design MLSS of 2 800 mg/L for 12C
and an SVI of 150 mL/g. For this case, a value of 2 500 mg/L will be considered as a
lower MLSS is conservative for aeration basin sizing.
Using the definition of SRT and maximum month cold weather:
SRT =

VMLSS
Px

The required aeration basin volume can be calculated from:

V

(10 d) (4 502 kg TSS/d) 106 mg 1 m 3

3
1 kg 103 L
18 008 m basin volume
(2 500 mg/L)

This volume corresponds to an HRT of 11.4 hours based on average influent flow. A
review of typical activated sludge design parameters listed in Table 14.3 suggest this
value is somewhat greater than that provided at typical CAS systems.
At this point, it may worthwhile to investigate the potential basin volume reduction possible with MBR technology. If the design MLSS concentration is 8 000 mg/L
MLSS in the above sizing calculation, then rather than 2 500 mg/L, the basin volume is
5 628 m3 and HRT is based on average influent flow of 3.6 hours.

10.2 Aeration Requirements

For brevity, aeration requirements for the maximum month condition under cold
temperatures are considered below. In the detailed design of an actual activated sludge

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

aeration system, peak day, maximum month, average month, and minimum month
under all temperature conditions must be considered to establish maximum system
requirements, verify proper turndown design, and ensure that adequate mixing occurs
at minimum gas flow rates. A detailed example addressing the entire range of diffused
aeration system design issues can be found elsewhere (Wilford and Conlon, 1957). In
addition, publications by Johnson (1996) and Johnson and McKinney (1994) present
models and techniques of comparing various types of diffusers and their arrangements
to predicted performance.
A polynomial equation to predict KLaT is presented as a function of velocity gradient, floor coverage, lateral spacing, and airflow rate per unit volume. Coefficients of the
model are based on regression analyses of numerous plants.
The mass of organic substrate oxygen demand equivalents entering the system at
maximum month conditions is estimated to be:
(6 124 kg BOD5/d)(1.46 kg BODult/kg BOD5)
8941 kg OD/d
Using the nitrogen (III) oxidation state as the reference, ammonia and ammonium
have 0 theoretical oxygen demand and nitrate has a 4.57 mg ThOD/mg N equivalency. Therefore, an estimate of the nitrate production is required to accomplish an oxygen demand balance around the system.
The amount of ammonium used by the nitrifiers has previously been calculated as:
NH4-N used by nitrifiers
1 098 kg N/d
A small portion of this ammonium is assimilated into nitrifier biomass components,
The mass rate of NH4-N assimilated into nitrifier biomass is calculated as:
N assimilated into nitrifier biomass
(0.12  103)  0.12  9
13 kg N/d
The amount of nitrate produced is calculated as:
Mass rate of nitrate production
1 098
13
1 085 kg NO3-N/d
And the theoretical oxygen demand leaving the as nitrate is:
Nitrate oxygen demand
4.57  1085
4958 kg ThOD/d
The mass of oxygen demand leaving the system as organic substrate was previously
established to be 59 kg BODult/d.

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Oxygen demand equivalents leaving the system as heterotrophic and autotrophic
biomass components are estimated as:
Biomass ThOD
ibm,ThOD  (Px,Xha  Px,Xna)  iXi,ThOD  (Px,Xhi  Px,Xni)

1.42  (1 692103)  1.42  (2799)
2 958 kg ThOD/d
The aeration requirements during cold weather maximum month conditions are calculated using a steady-state oxygen demand balance around the system while recognizing that the aeration system provides an input of oxygen at OTRf and that oxygen has
a 1 g ThOD/g O2 equivalency. As discussed below, the complete design of the aeration system requires consideration of other conditions in addition to the maximum
month case.
At steady state, the oxygen demand input to the system equals the oxygen demand
leaving the system resulting in the following balance equation:
8 941  OTRf (1 g OD/g O2)
4 958  59 2 958
OTRf
8 941  4 958  59  2 958
10 882 kg O2/d
This oxygen demand is met through aeration of the activated mixed liquor and this
value represents the estimated OTRf in Equation 14.33 for the system at the process conditions under consideration.
Using Equation 14.33 and the known and assumed conditions, the OTRfSOTR can
be calculated for each zone of the aeration basin.
At 12C, 
1.19, and at the site conditions,
1.0. A process water dissolved
oxygen concentration of 2.0 mg/L will be used for each zone. For the first zone:
For the middle zone,
OTR f
(1.19  0.98  1.0  10.5  2.0)

0.4  1.024(1220)

0.32
SOTR
10.5
OTR f
(
C * 20  C)

 F T 20
SOTR
C * 20
OTR f
(1.19  0.98  1.0  10.5  2.0)

0.3  1.024(1220)

0.24
SOTR
10.5

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For the final zone,
(1.19  0.98  1.0  10.5  2.0)
OTR f

0.7  1.024(1220)

0.56
10.5
SOTR
Based on historic oxygen use patterns,
First zone, OTRf
0.45 (10 882 kg O2/d)
4 896 kg O2/d;
Middle zone, OTRf
0.35 (10 882 kg O2/d)
3 809 kg O2/d; and
Final zone, OTRf
0.20 (10 882 kg O2/d)
2 176 kg O2/d.
The SOTR for each zone is then calculated as:
First zone,

SOTR

4 896 kg O 2 /d

20 400 kg O 2 /d;
0.24

Middle zone,

SOTR

3 809 kg O 2 /d

11 903 kg O 2 /d; and
0.32

Final zone,

SOTR

2 176 kg O 2 /d

3 886 kg O 2 /d;
0.56

For this condition, diffuser flux equals 1.699 standard m3/h per diffuser. A diffuser density of 4.84 diffusers/m2 is selected for the first zone (SOTE of 32%); 3.23 diffuser/m2 for
the middle zone (SOTE of 30%); and 1.94 diffuser/m2 for the final zone (SOTE of 27%).
The required airflow to each zone is then calculated as follows.
First zone,

9 584 m3/h (standard conditions)
1 kg air
1 1
1
qs
(20 400 kg O 2 /d)

0.23 kg O 2 1.205 kg/m 24 0.32

Second zone,
1 kg air
1 1
1
qs
(11 903 kg O 2 /d)

0.23 kg O 2 1.205 kg/m 24 0.30

5 965 m3/h (standard conditions)

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Final zone,
1 kg air
1 1
1
qs
(3 886 kg O 2 /d)

0.23
kg
O
1
.
205
4
kg
/
m

24 0.27
2

2 164 m3/h (standard conditions)
The number of diffusers can then be calculated as follows.
First zone,
Diffusers

9 584 m 3 /h

5 641 diffusers
1.699 m 3 /h/diffuser

Diffusers

5 965 m 3 /h

3 511 diffusers
1.699 m 3 /h/diffuser

Diffusers

2 164 m 3 /h

1 274 diffusers
1.699 m 3 /h/diffuser

Middle zone,

Final zone,

At a liquid depth of 6.0 m, the floor area of each zone is 1 000 m2.
The chosen diffuser density can then be checked as follows.
First zone,
5 641

5.64 diffusers/m 2
1 000
Middle zone,
3 511

3.51 diffusers/m 2
1 000
Final zone,
1 274

1.24 diffusers/m 2
1 000

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For both the first and the middle zone, calculated diffuser densities are slightly
higher than assumed diffuser densities. Use of calculated values will provide a conservative design because SOTE at these higher densities will be higher than initially
assumed SOTEs. The calculated diffuser density at the final zone is less than the initial assumption and, therefore, an iterative approach is required to determine a suitable diffuser flux and density. Extrapolating known diffuser density and SOTE and
using the methodology above, airflow equals 2364 m3/h (standard conditions) with
1391 diffusers at a density of 1.39 diffusers/m2, which is suitable at maximum month
conditions.
In the detailed design of the aeration system, additional conditions must also be
examined to ensure adequate peak capacity and suitable turndown capabilities are provided. Peak requirements may be based on the peak day of maximum month or, in
some cases, on the peak four-hour oxygen demand. The minimum recommended diffuser flux, associated SOTE, and resultant SOTR must be compared at minimum oxygen demand conditions (minimum month in the initial years) to determine if the minimum diffuser flux allowed for proper diffuser operation will control the minimum
aeration rate. In addition, the range of conditions for the initial phase of operation
should be considered. These conditions likely will suggest that only a portion of the
total diffusers be provided initially with blanks provided for additional diffusers over
the life of the aeration basins.
The total airflow for maximum month, cold weather conditions is
Total maximum month airflow
9 584  5 965  2 364
17 913 standard m3/h
As noted in the previous section for full-floor grid configurations, a value of 0.6 L/m2s
is often used as a target minimum airflow for mixing purposes. Assuming a minimum
recommended diffuser flux of 0.85 standard m3/hr per diffuser, at minimum airflow
conditions the proposed system provides
First zone,
(5 641 diffusers) (0.85 m 2 /h/diffusers)
(1 000 m 2 ) (3 600 s/hr)

1 000 L
1 m 3
1.3 L/m 2  s

Middle zone,
(3 511 diffusers) (0.85 m 2 /h/diffusers)
(1 000 m 2 ) (3 600 s/h)

1 000 L
1 m 3
0.82 L/m 2  s

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Final zone,
(1 391 diffusers) (0.85 m 2 /h/diffusers)
(1 000 m 2 ) (3 600 s/h)

1 000 L
1 m 3
0.33 L/m 2  s

The first and middle zones indicate that mixing should not be a controlling concern. In
the final zone, mixing requirements may play a role in the minimum aeration rate.

10.3 Secondary Clarification

Figure 14.19 was reviewed to find a maximum design MLSS of 2 800 mg/L for 12C
and a SVI of 150 mL/g. Sizing of the aeration basin was based on a MLSS of 2 500 mg/L
because lower MLSS values produce conservative aeration basin volume; higher MLSS
are conservative for secondary clarifier sizing, and, therefore, a value of 2 800 mg/L
will be used. This shows that MLSS, aeration basin volume, and clarifier surface area
are interdependent. By using an MLSS greater in clarifier sizing than in aeration basin
sizing, however, the system will be able to operate at a SRT greater than the design
value at design conditions. Alternative process configurations, including step feed and
contact stabilization, result in spatial variations in mixed-liquor concentration along the
aeration basin. This can result in lower mixed liquor concentrations flowing to secondary clarifiers and can affect clarifier sizing.
Design SVI for this system has been established as #150 mL/g.
The RAS pumping capacity is assumed to be 20 to 100% of average daily flow
(8 000 to 40 000 m3/d).
A maximum allowable solids loading rate can be determined iteratively from Figure 14.112 (assuming unstirred SVI is reported) and a solids balance around the conceptual junction point of RAS and influent flows. For the first iteration, an RAS concentration of 10 000 mg/L is assumed. From the graph at an SVI of 150 mL/g, the allowable
solids loading rate is 200 kg/m2d (41 lb/d/sq ft) and the operating underflow is
approximately 0.849 m/h (500 gpd/sq ft). The required surface area at peak flow and
2 800 mg/L MLSS can be calculated from
1 000 L  1 kg
75 700 m 3 /d  (0.849 m/h  24 h/d  SA)  2 800 mg/L 
1 m 3  106 mg
SA

200 kg/m 2 d
Solving for SA (clarifier surface area)
1483 m2

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The underflow is then 0.849 m3/m2h  1 483 m2  24 h/d
30 200 m3/d, which is
within the pumping capacity range provided. The MLSS and RAS rate used in the calculation can be checked using a mass balance around the conceptual junction point of
influent and RAS flows. The 47 mg/L is the influent nonvolatile and nonbiodegradable
volatile solids.
(75 700 m3/d) (47 mg/L)  (30 200 m3/d)(10 000 mg/L)

MLSS (75 700 m3/d  30 200 m3/d)
MLSS
2 885 mg/L
This finding indicates that, at design conditions, to maintain a 2 800-mg/L MLSS, an
RAS flow less than 30 200 m3/d (8 mgd) will be required and, therefore, the surface
area calculated is appropriate and conservative. Had the calculated MLSS been less
than the design value, a second iteration at a higher RAS concentration would have
been required.
With the clarifier surface area calculated above, the surface OFR is 1.06 m3/m2h at
average conditions and 2.13 m3/m2h at peak flow conditions. These values are slightly
higher than average but within the range of acceptable values. If two clarifiers were
used, then this loading would equate to each being approximately 30 m (100 ft) in diameter. Allowance should be made for one tank out of service. Currently some state regulations and U.S. EPA construction grant program guidance recommend that no more
than 25% of design capacity be lost with the largest unit out of service. If two tanks are
used, then the surface area of each can be increased by 50% to meet this criterion and the
diameter of each would increase accordingly to approximately 38 m (125 ft). This redundancy allowance would result in a total secondary clarification surface area of 2 268 m2.
A final step in circular clarifier sizing would be to check availability of the modular size
or manufacturers preferences of the proposed sludge collection system and to provide
appropriately dimensioned tanks of the next larger diameter to those calculated above.

10.4 Summary for the Base Case

The new 37 850 m3/d (10 mgd) suspended-growth biological treatment train address
BOD5 and ammonia pus ammonium nitrogen effluent limits has the following
requirements:
$Total aeration basin volume of 18 008 m3;
A maximum month, cold weather condition oxygen requirement of 10 882
kgO2/d met using a diffused aeration system with total airflow rate of 17 913
standard m3/h; and

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Secondary clarification surface area of 1 483 to 2 268 m2, depending on the number of units provided and degree of reliability/redundancy appropriate.

10.5 Addressing Nutrients

The base case addressed design of a system with effluent BOD5 and ammonia plus
ammonium-N limits. In many cases activated sludge systems are now also called
upon to remove nitrogen and phosphorus. As discussed earlier, nutrient removal
processes use configurations with multiple staged anaerobic, anoxic, and aerobic
zones. Successful design and operation of nutrient removal systems requires that the
complex interaction between numerous competing processes and components is
understood and addressed. The complexity of biological activity and reactor behavior and the number of variables important to nutrient removal require the use of computer models for detailed solutions. Some insight, however, can be developed with
simple hand calculations.
For example, the potential effect of a total effluent nitrogen limit of 10 mg N/L on
the base system can be calculated. A simplistic calculation can be used to identify a target amount of denitrification to be accomplished to meet this potential total effluent
nitrogen limit. As previously calculated, the effluent ammonium plus ammonia N at the
maximum month cold weather condition was 0.6 mg N/L. Allowing for an effluent
solids of 15 mg TSS/L at 80% VSS and 12% N of VSS results in 1.4 mg N/L of effluent
particulate N. To meet the total effluent nitrogen requirement, the effluent nitrate concentration must be below the total effluent nitrogen limit (10 mg N/L) minus the sum of
the effluent ammonia (0.6 mg N/L) and effluent particulate N. That is, the allowable
effluent nitrate concentration is calculated as 10 mg N/L  (0.6 mg N/L  1.4 mg N/L)
8 mg NO3-N/L. For the maximum month flow, this concentration results in 363 kg
N/d of nitrate leaving the system.
The amount of nitrate produced was calculated previously as 1085 kg N/d; this
nitrate leaves the system through the effluent and WAS flows, which equal the influent
flow. The effluent nitrate concentration at the design condition considered under the
base case was:
(1 085 kgN/d)/(45 420 m3/d)(106mg/kg)/(1 000 L/m3)
24 mg/L.
Thus to meet the total N limit, the effluent nitrate must be reduced from 24 mg N/L
to less than 8 mg N/L, and a mass of greater than 722 kg N/d of nitrate must be
denitrified.

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Using a mass balance around the aerobic zone, and the bifurcations following it, for
a preanoxic configuration with complete nitrate removal in the preanoxic zone, the
mass of nitrate returned to the anoxic zone is found to be equal to:
Mass returned
mass produced  (QRAS  QRECYLCE)/(Qinfluent  QRAS  QRECYCLE)
In this case, the mass desired to be returned, the mass produced, and the influent flow
are known. Using QRAS of 30 200 m3/d, solving for QRECYCLE results in a minimum
recycle flow of 60 139 m3/d, or 132% of the maximum month influent flow.
The Refling-Stensel equation, with an adjustment for temperature, can be used to
calculate a preliminary estimate of a required anoxic zone volume. Previously, design
MLSS was determined to be 2 500 mg/L with a VSS content of 77%, yielding the design
MLVSS of 1 925 mgVSS/L for the condition under consideration.
Solving for Vanoxic results in:
rx,NO,12oC
[0.03  (FM)  0.029]  1.06(1220)

722 kg N/dremoved
6 124 kg BOD 5/d

0.03
 0.029  1.06(1220)
3
3
Vanoxic  1.925 kg VSS/m
Vanoxic  1.925 kg VSS/m

Vanoxic

[722 kg N/dremoved  1.06( 2012 ) ]  0.03  6 124 kg BOD 5/d

0.029  1.925 kg VSS/m 3

17 323 m3

This volume equals an HRT of 11.0 hours based on average influent flow and reflects the
low denitrification rate associated use of slowly biodegradable substrate and biomass
decay reported as the basis of the equation (Grady et al., 1999). This is a large volume that,
if implemented as an unaerated zone before the aerated zone of the base case, would
affect kinetic and mass balance calculations results for the base case. While this calculation
illustrates the possible significance of a new total nitrogen limit, it should be used as an
indicator of the gravity of the situation and not as the final design or planning value.
Designers also can use the heterotrophic growth rate expression to estimate
potential maximum rate of denitrification at an optimum point in the preanoxic zone.
Previous calculations generated 922 mgVSS/L of active heterotrophic biomass (i.e.,
2 500 mg/L  1 662 kgVSS/d active biomass/4 505 kgTSS/d total
922 mgVSS/L of
active heterotrophic biomass). A version of Equation 14.18 appropriate to the parameter unit basis can be used to estimate the optimal point rate of nitrate use by the het-

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erotrophic growth based on three assumptions: (1) kinetic and stoichiometric parameters from the base case are used; (2) substrates (readily biodegradable organics and
nitrate) are not rate limiting in an early part of the zone and dissolved oxygen is not
present, and (3) a fraction of heterotrophs are using nitrate, , of 0.5.
ryNO , 12 oC

ryNO , 12 oC

Yh  ibm, ThOD  1
Ko , h
Sb
SNO3 -N
 h
 X ha
2.86  Yh
K s  Sb K NO3 -N  SNO3 -N K o , h  So

0.4  1.42  1
 0.5  3.5  (1)  (1)  (1)  (922 mg/L)
 605 mg NO 3 N/Ld
2.86  0.4

The negative result indicates nitrate is being used because concentration is decreasing.
This value represents a potential maximum value that might be achieved. The comparable value nitrate use rate from the Refling-Stensel equation computed above is 45
mg NO3-N/Ld. This exercise illustrates the potential for process configuration optimization that can be developed with use of more sophisticated modeling tools.
A final, simple calculation that can be used to investigate the implications of preanoxic denitrification is the possible effect on oxygen requirement and aeration system. As
noted previously, when the nitrogen (III) oxidation state is taken as the reference, nitrate
has a 4.57 mg ThOD/mg N equivalency. In denitrification, neglecting any minor assimilative nitrate use, dinitrogen is produced in kind with nitrate consumption and dinitrogen has a 1.71 mg ThOD/mg N equivalency. Thus the net theoretical oxygen demand
change with nitrate consumption in the denitrification process is 2.86 mg ThOD/mg N.
The 722 kg N/d of nitrate removal considered in these calculations to achieve a 10 mg
N/L total effluent nitrogen is equivalent to 2 065 kg ThOD/d. In the base case without
denitrification, it was determined the aeration system would have to provide 10 822 kg
O2/d for design situation considered. If pre anoxic denitrification were implemented it
might reduce the oxygen requirement and aeration system usage by approximately 20%.
As noted above, complex models are required for a thorough analysis of nutrient
removal systems. The following paragraphs illustrate the principals of modeling. For
this example, the ASM 1 model will be used (Henze et al., 2000). The ASM models differ in some fundamental ways from the hand calculations described above:
(1) It is a death/regeneration model. This means the decay rates and fraction of particulate decay products used are lower than the conventional Monod approach.
(2) It is used for single, completely stirred tank reactors (CSTRs). Thus, for long
length to width tanks, or tanks in series, multiple ASM models must be run to
characterize the performance.

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(3) It can be run in either steady state or dynamic mode, depending on the needs of
the project.
(4) Influent parameters of the ASM 1 models are primarily COD. BOD is not used in
these models. So influent BOD data must be converted to COD.
The ASM 1 matrixcalled a Peterson matrixis shown in Table 14.44. In this
matrix, the rate expressions are listed in the left column, and the state variables are
given across the top row. Table 14.45 provides the forms of the rate expressions. These
rate expressions are a growth (max) or decay (b) term multiplied by a series of Monod
type terms (switching functions) that adjust a particular rate according to the conditions present in the CSTR. Table 14.46 provides the recommended values for the kinetic
and stoichiometric constants, which are the values that will be used in this example.
To get the uptake rate (mg/Lday) of a particular component, all stoichiometric
coefficients in that components column are multiplied by the rate expression in that
stoichiometric coefficients row.
This matrix of equations must be solved simultaneously to get the effluent quality
from that reactor. Computers and numeric solution routines are used this solution; the
math is available through commercial and academic simulators.

10.5.1 Influent Characterization and Fractionation

The BOD, TSS, and VSS data presented earlier can be used to fractionate the wastewater
into COD fractions. The relevant parameters are:
Maximum month BOD5 loading
Maximum month TSS loading
Volatile suspended solids
Non-biodegradable VSS
Raw wastewater BODult/BOD5 ratio
Chemical oxygen demand of VSS
Filtrate non-biodegradable COD ( fsi)
Fraction of soluble, rapidly biodegradable COD

6 124 kg/d

3 946 kg/d

80%

40% of the VSS

1.46

1.42 g COD/g VSS

5% of the total COD

60%

Based on these parameters, the VSS (on a mass basis) is made up of the following
fractions:
Total VSS
Biodegradable VSS
Non-biodegradable VSS

3 157 kg/d

1 894 kg/d

1 263 kg/d

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1

Stoichiometric coefficients (ij):

13.2
(1YH)/(14*2.86YH)  iXB/14
13.3
iXB/141/7YA

8. Hydrolysis of
entrapped
organic nitrogen

7. Hydrolysis of
entrapped organics
1

1fp

5. Decay of
autotrophs

6. Ammonification
of soluble
organic nitrogen

1fp

4. Decay of
heterotrophs

3. Aerobic growth
of autotrophs
1
1
fp

(4.57YH)/
YH

1/YA

1

1

iXB
1/YA

iXB

1

1

iXB 
fpixp

iXB
fpixp

1.
SI
mg COD/L

fp

2.
SS
mg COD/L

1

3.
XI
mg COD/L

(1YH)/
2.86YH

4.
XS
mg COD/L

1

5.
XB,H
mg COD/L

1/YH

6.
XB,A
mg COD/L

2. Anoxic growth
of heterotrophs

7.
XP
mg COD/L

1/14

13,3

13,2

XB/14

8.
SO
mg COD/L

iXB

9.
SNO

mg N/L

(1YH)/
YH

10.
SNH

mgN/L

1

11.
SND

mg N/L

1/YH

13.
SALK

12.
XND

mg N/L

1. Aerobic growth
of heterotrophs

Processes (j):

Model Components (i):

Component Units:

meq/L

TABLE 14.44 Activated sludge model no. 1 stoichiometry matrix (Henze et al., 2000; reprinted with permission from
IWA Publishing).

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TABLE 14.45 Activated sludge model no. 1 process rate expressions (Henze et al., 2000; reprinted
with permission from IWA Publishing).
Process

Units

Rate Equation

1. Aerobic growth
of heterotrophs

mgCOD/L/d

H*{SS/(KS  SS)}*{SO/(KO,H  SO)}*XB,H

2. Anoxic growth
of heterotrophs

mgCOD/L/d

g*H*{SS/(KS  SS)}*{KO,H/(KO,H  SO)}*{SNO/(KNO 

SNO)}*XB,H

3. Aerobic growth
of autotrophs

mgCOD/L/d

A*{SNH/(KNH  SNH)}*{SO/(KO,A  SO)}*XB,A

4. Decay of
heterotrophs

mgCOD/L/d

bH*XB,H

5. Decay of
autotrophs

mgCOD/L/d

bA*XB,A

6. Ammonification
of soluble
organic nitrogen

mgN/L/d

ka*SND*XB,H

7. Hydrolysis of
entrapped organics

mgCOD/L/d

kh[(XS/XB,H)/(KX  (XS/XB,H)]*[{SO/(KO,H  SO)} 

h*{KO,H/(KO,H  SO)}*{SNO/(KNO  SNO)}]*XB,H

8. Hydrolysis of
entrapped
organic nitrogen

mgN/L/d

[XND/XS]*kh*[(XS/XB,H)/(KX  (XS/XB,H)]*[{SO/KO,H  SO)} 

h*{KO,H/(KO,H  SO)}*{SNO/(KNO  SNO)}]*XB,H

Total COD of the influent is calculated as follows:

Particulate non-biodegradable COD,
Xi
non-biodegradable VSS (kg VSS)  COD of the VSS
Xi
1 263  1.42
1 793 kg COD/d
Particulate biodegradable COD,

1 894  1.42
2 690 kg COD/d
Total COD,
BOD ult

BOD 5 

1
BOD 5
CODT

 Xi

1  YH  fd
1  f si

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14-315

TABLE 14.46 Activated sludge model no. 1 parameters and typical values at neutral pH (Henze et al.,
2000; reprinted with permission from IWA Publishing).
Symbol

Unit

Stoichiometric parameters
YA
YH
fP
iXB
iXP

mg cell COD formed (mg N oxidized)1

mg cell COD formed (mg COD oxidized)1
Dimensionless
mg N (mg COD)1 in biomass
mg N (mg COD)1 in products from biomass

Kinetic parameters
H
KS
KO,H
KNO
bH
g
h
kh
KX
A
KNH
KO,A
bA
ka

Day1
mg COD L1
mg O2L1
mg NO3-N L1
Day1
Dimensionless
Dimensionless
mg slowly biodegradable COD (mg cell COD*day)1
mg slowly biodegradable COD (mg cell COD)1
Day1
mg NH3-N L1
mg O2 L1
Day1
L (mgCOD*day)1

Value at 20C

Value at 10C

0.24
0.67
0.08
0.086
0.06

6.0
20.0
0.20
0.50
0.62
0.8
0.4
3.0
0.03
0.80
1.0
0.4
0.05 to 0.15
0.08

0.24
0.67
0.08
0.086
0.06

3.0
20.0
0.20
0.50
0.20
0.8
0.4
1.0
0.01
0.3
1.0
0.4
0.05 to 0.15
0.04

The soluble COD fractions are therefore:

Si
CODT  fsi
12 545  0.05
627 kg COD/d
Ss
CODT  Xi  Xs  Si
12 545  1 793  2 690  627

7 435 kg COD/day
The ASM 1 actually groups a portion of the soluble biodegradable COD into the Slowly
biodegradable fraction (Xs). Therefore the final Xs and Ss fractions are:
Xs
2 690  (1  0.6)  7 435
5 664 kg COD/d
Ss
7 435  0.6
4 462 kg COD/d
The fractionation of nitrogen follows a similar logic. Unlike the hand-calculation example, it is necessary to determine what the actual ammonia concentration is so that the

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

particulate nitrogen fractions can be determined. For this example, the following parameters were used:

1 135 kg/d

70%

4%

3%

Maximum month TKN loading

Ammonia fraction of TKN
Soluble non-biodegradable nitrogen
Nitrogen content of the VSS
These parameters result in the following values:
Ammonia loading (Snh)
Particulate biodegradable nitrogen (Xnd)
Soluble biodegradable nitrogen (Snd)
Particulate non-biodegrable nitrogen
Soluble non-biodegradable nitrogen

795 kg/d

57 kg/d

200 kg/d

38 kg/d

45 kg/d

The ASM 1 model does not explicitly handle the non-biodegradable nitrogen fractions. Soluble non-biodegradable nitrogen simply passes through the CSTR and is
added to the effluent TKN. The particulate non-biodegradable nitrogen is associated
with the particulate non-biodegradable COD and can be handled as a fraction of that
material.
The ASM 1 model does not use loads in calculations, which means that this must
be converted to concentrations. The maximum month flow of 45 420 m3/d results in
the values shown in Table 14.47.

TABLE 14.47

ASM 1 model influent at 45 420 m3/d flow.

Component

Units

Value

Units

Value
3

XB,H
XB,A
XP

Heterotrophic organisms
Autotrophic organisms
Particulate products

kg/COD/d
kg/COD/d
kg/COD/d

0
0
0

g COD/m
g COD/m3
g COD/m3

0.0
0.0
0.0

Xi
XS
SS

Inert particulates
Particulate organics
Soluble organics

kg/COD/d
kg/COD/d
kg/COD/d

1 793
5 664
4 462

g COD/m3
g COD/m3
g COD/m3

39.5
124.7
98.2

SNH
SNO
SND

Soluble ammonia N
Soluble nitrate/nitrite N
Soluble organic N

kg N/d
kg N/d
kg N/d

795
0
200

g N/m3
g N/m3
g N/m3

XND
SO
SALK

Biodegradable particulate organic N

Oxygen
Alkalinity

kg N/d
kg O2/d
moles/d

57
0
220

g N/m3
g O2/m3
moles/m3

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17.5
0.0
6.2
1.3
0.0
4.8

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-317

10.5.2 Modification of Decay Rate for Activated Sludge Models

The decay rate (b) and fraction of particulate products ( fD) must be changed to reflect
use in a death/regeneration model. This is done with the following equations:
fD , asm

basm

fD  (1  YH )
1  fD  YH

b
1  YH  (1  fD )

10.5.3 Nitrification Only

The first design example looked at nitrification in a single CSTR and resulted in an SRT
of 10 days and targeted a MLSS value of 2 500 mg/L. It also was assumed that the recycled activated sludge rate would be 50% of the influent flow rate.
By iteratively changing the basin volume until the target MLSS was achieved, the
ASM model resulted in a basin volume of 18 600 m3 compared to the hand calculation of 18 008 m3. Table 14.48 provides the full results for the model. The ASM model
predicted 0.4 mg NH4-N/L; the hand calculation 0.6 mg NH4-N/L. In addition, the
TABLE 14.48

Single tank with nitrification.

Reactor concentrations
Feed

#1

#N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A

Secondary
effluent

XB,H
XB,A
XP

Heterotrophic organisms
Autotrophic organisms
Particulate products

g COD/m3
g COD/m3
g COD/m3

0.0
0.0
0.0

1 077
74
510

8.6
0.6
4.1

Xi
XS
SS

Inert particulates
Particulate organics
Soluble organics

g COD/m3
g COD/m3
g COD/m3

39.5
126.3
100.6

954
15
3.8

7.6
0.1
3.8

SNH
SNO
SND

Soluble ammonia N
Soluble nitrate/nitrite N
Soluble organic N

g N/m3
g N/m3
g N/m3

17.5
0.0
6.2

0.37
15
0.4

0.37
14.9
0.4

XND
SO

Biodegradable particulate organic N

Oxygen

g N/m3
g O2/m3

1.3
0.0

0.9
2.0

0.0
2.0

SALK
VSS

Alkalinity
Volatile suspended solids

moles/m3
g/m3

4.8

2.6
1 850

2.6
14.8

TSS
BOD5

Total suspended solids

Biological oxygen demand

g/m3
g O2/m3

2 501

20.0
7.5

mg/L/hr
kg/day

23
10 367

Oxygen requirements
Oxygen uptake rate
Actual oxygen demand (AOR)

Total

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

ASM model predicted an actual oxygen demand (AOR) of approximately 10 400 kg/d;
the hand calculation gave 10 800 kg/d. All values are well within the expected accuracy
given the different kinetic and stoichiometric parameters used.
The example problem then segregates the aerobic zone into three sections to determine the staging of the aeration system. For this to be a real exercise, that means that
each grid is equivalent to a single CSTR, otherwise each grid would have the same aeration demand. Hence, the ASM model was set up with three tanks in series to better
determine the oxygen split in the system. Results from are shown in Table 14.49.
The oxygen split predicted by the ASM model is 57%, 26%, and 17%, compared to
the design example assumption of 45%, 35%, 20%. This shows that the ASM model is
able to provide more specific information on the design of the aeration system. The
staged system also results in a lower overall effluent ammonia level (0.1 mg/L versus
0.4 mg/L for the single tanks system).

10.5.4 Denitrification System Design

The example also designs an anoxic zone into the system. The goal is to achieve an effluent TN value of 8 mg/L. If the aerobic SRT is kept the same (i.e., 10 days), then the total
TABLE 14.49

Three tanks in series with nitrification.

Reactor concentrations
Feed

#1

#2

#3

#N/A #N/A

Secondary
effluent

XB,H
XB,A
XP

Heterotrophic organisms
Autotrophic organisms
Particulate products

g COD/m
g COD/m3
g COD/m3

0.0
0.0
0.0

1 098
74
499

1 089
74.7
503

1 068
74.9
508

8.6
0.6
4.1

Xi
XS
SS

Inert particulates
Particulate organics
Soluble organics

g COD/m3
g COD/m3
g COD/m3

39.5
126.3
100.6

954
30
7.4

953.8
12.3
2.7

953.8
8.9
2.0

7.7
0.1
2.0

SNH
SNO
SND

Soluble ammonia N
Soluble nitrate/nitrite N
Soluble organic N

g N/m3
g N/m3
g N/m3

17.5
0.0
6.2

2.65
11
0.6

0.3
13.9
0.4

0.1
15.2
0.3

0.10
15.2
0.3

XND
SO

Biodegradable particulate organic N

Oxygen

g N/m3
g O2/m3

1.3
0.0

1.3
2.0

0.9
2.0

0.8
2.0

0.0
2.0

SALK
VSS

Alkalinity
Volatile suspended solids

moles/m3
g/m3

4.8

3.2
1 868

2.9
1 853

2.8
1 839

2.8
14.8

TSS
BOD5

Total suspended solids

Biological oxygen demand

g/m3
g O2/m3

2 524

2 504

2 486

20.0
6.4

mg/L/hr
kg/day

40
6 009

18
2 675

12
1 790

Oxygen requirements
Oxygen uptake rate
Actual oxygen demand (AOR)

Total

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

14-319

system SRT must go up by the same proportion. The nitrified mixed-liquor return rate
of 132% of the influent flow remains the same; by trial-and-error, the anoxic volume
was increased until the desired 8 mg/L TN was achieved. The resultant anoxic volume
was 3000 m3 compared to 17 000 m3 calculated in the design example, and MLSS was
calculated to be approximately 2400 mg/L at a total SRT of 11.2 days. Table 14.50 shows
the results of this simulation. For comparison purposes, the three nitrate uptake rates
are shown below:
Refling-Stensel
45 mg NOX-N/L/d
Second method
605 mg NOX-N/L/d
ASM 1 model
149 mg NOX-N/L/d
Table 14.50 provides the reduced overall AOR (9 500 kg/d versus 10 500 kg/d) as a
result of the denitrification; the AOR requirement distribution has flattened out in the
three aerobic reactors to 50%, 31%, and 19% because of the soluble uptake in the
anoxic zones.

TABLE 14.50

Denitrification system simulation results with 132 percent nitrified recycle.

Reactor concentrations
Feed

#1

#2

#3

#4

#N/A

Secondary
effluent

XB,H
XB,A
XP

Heterotrophic organisms
Autotrophic organisms
Particulate products

g COD/m3
g COD/m3
g COD/m3

0.0
0.0
0.0

961
70
527

977
70.4
529

977
70.7
531

969
70.8
534

6.0
0.4
3.3

Xi
XS
SS

Inert particulates
Particulate organics
Soluble organics

g COD/m3
g COD/m3
g COD/m3

39.5
126.3
100.6

954
58
15.4

953.8
27.8
5.5

953.8
14.0
3.2

953.8
9.3
2.3

5.9
0.1
2.3

SNH
SNO
SND

Soluble ammonia N
Soluble nitrate/nitrite N
Soluble organic N

g N/m3
g N/m3
g N/m3

17.5
0.0
6.2

6.68
0.7
0.6

2.2
3.8
0.4

0.4
5.7
0.4

0.1
6.4
0.3

0.12
6.4
0.3

XND
SO

Biodegradable particulate organic N

Oxygen

g N/m3
g O2/m3

1.3
0.0

2.0
0.0

1.4
2.0

1.0
2.0

0.8
2.0

0.0
2.0

SALK
VSS

Alkalinity
Volatile suspended solids

moles/m3
g/m3

4.8

5.1
1 809

4.6
1 801

4.3
1 792

4.2
1 785

4.2
11.1

TSS
BOD5

Total suspended solids

Biological oxygen demand

g/m3
g O2/m3

2 444

2 433

2 422

2 413

15.0
5.0

31
4 736

19
2 915

12
1 848

Oxygen requirements
Oxygen uptake rate
Actual oxygen demand (AOR)

Total
mg/L/hr
kg/day

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Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment

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Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

TABLE 14.51

Denitrification system with 190 percent nitrified recycle.

Reactor concentrations
Feed

#1

#2

#3

#4

#N/A

Secondary
effluent

XB,H
XB,A
XP

Heterotrophic organisms
Autotrophic organisms
Particulate products

g COD/m3
g COD/m3
g COD/m3

0.0
0.0
0.0

964
69
528

976
69.3
530

976
69.7
531

970
69.8
533

6.0
0.4
3.3

Xi
XS
SS

Inert particulates
Particulate organics
Soluble organics

g COD/m3
g COD/m3
g COD/m3

39.5
126.3
100.6

954
49
12.6

953.8
25.6
5.2

953.8
14.0
3.2

953.8
9.6
2.4

5.9
0.1
2.4

SNH
SNO
SND

Soluble ammonia N
Soluble nitrate/nitrite N
Soluble organic N

g N/m3
g N/m3
g N/m3

17.5
0.0
6.2

5.48
1.0
0.6

2.0
3.6
0.4

0.4
5.2
0.4

0.1
5.8
0.4

0.13
5.8
0.4

XND
SO

Biodegradable particulate organic N

Oxygen

g N/m3
g O2/m3

1.3
0.0

1.8

1.4
2.0

1.0
2.0

0.8
2.0

0.0
2.0

SALK
VSS

Alkalinity
Volatile suspended solids

moles/m3
g/m3

4.8

5.1
1 804

4.6
1 798

4.4
1 791

4.4
1 785

4.4
11.1

TSS

Total suspended solids

g/m3

2 438

2 429

2 420

2 412

15.0

BOD5

Biological oxygen demand

Oxygen requirements
Oxygen uptake rate
Actual oxygen demand (AOR)

g O2/m

5.1
Total

mg/L/hr
kg/day

30
4 558

20
2 955

13
1 912

9 424

In this particular system, the denitrification rate is limited by the available nitrate
in the anoxic zone. The nitrate level of 0.4 mg N/L in the anoxic zone is close to the half
saturation value (KNO
0.5) for nitrate. Therefore, additional denitrification could be
obtained by increasing the nitrified recycle rate (NRCY). In Table 14.51, the NRCY was
increased until the anoxic zone nitrate reached approximately 1 mg/L, resulting in an
NRCY rate of 190% of the influent flow rate. This resulted in a drop in the effluent total
nitrogen to 7.4 mg/L. The AOR also dropped to 9 400 kg/d.

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