Petrophysics MSc Course Notes

12.

Spectral Gamma Ray Log

THE SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOG

12.1 Introduction
The spectral gamma ray log measures the natural gamma
radiation emanating from a formation split into
contributions from each of the major radio-isotopic
sources. Analysis of the sources of the natural gamma
radiation give us added information concerning the
composition and likely lithology of the formation.
The spectral gamma ray log is commonly given the
symbol SGR.
A typical spectral gamma ray tool is shown in Fig. 12.1.

12.2 Principles
It will be remembered that the amplitude of the output
from the gamma ray sensor is proportional to the energy
of the incident gamma ray. We can use this information
to measure the proportion of the total gamma radiation
coming from each of potassium-40, the uranium-radium
series, and the thorium series for a particular formation.
Figure 10.1 shows that the energy distributions from
each of the major contributors to the natural gamma
radiation from a formation are different. The labeled
peaks in Figure 10.1 are the energies that are dominant
(most gamma rays have this energy). When the radiation
has traveled through the rock and drilling fluid to the
sensor, the energy distributions shown in Figure 10.1 are
added together because the rock contains different
amounts of each of radio-isotopes. The energy
distributions are also spread out in energy space as the
result of compton scattering. However, the energy peaks
from each of the major contributors to the gamma
radiation are still recognizable (Fig. 12.2).

Figure 12.1 The Spectral Gamma Ray Sonde (SGS).

(Courtesy of Reeves Wireline Ltd.)

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Spectral Gamma Ray Log

Counts

The spectral gamma ray tool uses the same sensor as the total gamma ray tool. The output from the
sensor is fed into a multi-channel analyzer that calculates the amount of radiation coming from the
energies associated with each of the major peaks. This is done by measuring the gamma ray count rate
for 3 energy windows centred around the energies 1.46 MeV for potassium-40, 1.76 MeV for the
uranium-radium series, and 2.62 MeV for the thorium series. These readings represent the gamma ray
radioactivity from each of these sources. Their sum should be the same as the total gamma ray value
measured by the total gamma ray tool, and is coded SGR if measured with a spectral gamma ray tool.
Any combination of the three components can be summed and analyzed. However, the most important
is the sum of the potassium-40 and thorium radiation, which is called the computed gamma ray
response (CGR).

K (1.46 MeV)
U (1.76 MeV)
Th (2.62 MeV)

1
3
2
Gamma Ray Energy, MeV

Figure 12.2 Measured gamma ray energy spectrum from a formation after compton scattering.

12.3 Calibration
The spectral gamma ray tool is calibrated using 4 sources of accurately known composition, one each
containing only K40, U238, and Th232, and one containing a mixture. Each of the sources is placed next
to the detector and the tool is used to make a measurement. The calibration is designed such that the
calibrated readings of the tool accurately report difference in the amount of radiation from each of the
radiation sources, and the total count rate is calibrated to the Houston test pit.

12.4 Log Presentation

The format for reporting the spectral gamma ray data is more complex than for the total gamma ray
log because it contains much more detailed information.
Track 1 is used to record the derived total gamma ray log (SGR), which is a sum of all the radiation
contributions, as well as the computed gamma ray log (CGR), which is the sum of the potassium and
thorium responses, leaving out the contribution from uranium.

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Spectral Gamma Ray Log

Tracks 2 and 3 are used to record the calculated abundances associated with the radiation from the
individual contributions from each of K40, U238, and Th232. It should be noted that potassium is reported
as a percentage, while U238 and Th232 are reported in parts per million (ppm).

SGR (API)
0

100
CGR (API)

100

Depth (m)

Figure 12.3 shows a typical spectral gamma ray log.

K (%)

Th (ppm)
0

40 0

10
U (ppm)

40

1050

1055

Figure 12.3 The presentation of the spectral gamma ray log.

12.5 Depth of Investigation

The depth of investigation is controlled by the same fundamental physics as for the total gamma ray
tool, and is identical to the total gamma ray tool (i.e., about 1 ft).

12.6 Logging Speed

While all the arguments concerning logging speed for the total gamma ray tool are also appropriate for
the spectral tool, the statistical fluctuations must now be applied to proportions of the total gamma
count rate. If good quality data for each of K40, U238 and Th232 are to be obtained, the logging speed
must consequently be lower. In practice, the log is usually run 2 to 3 time more slowly that the total
gamma ray log. However, this results in very high quality SGR logs.

12.7 Vertical Resolution

The vertical resolution is often better than the total gamma ray tool as a consequence of the slower
logging speeds. Resolutions as low as 1 foot have been obtained with some tools.

12.8 Borehole Quality

As with the total gamma ray log, the spectral tool can be run centered in the borehole or pushed up
against the borehole wall (eccentred). If the borehole suffers from caving, the spectral gamma ray log
can be badly affected in the same way as the total gamma ray tool, although the effect is not as bad for

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Spectral Gamma Ray Log

the eccentred version. Correction charts for the spectral gamma ray tools are also supplied by the
logging tool company for centred and eccentred configurations.

12.9 Mud Type

The density of the mud has a bearing on the detection rate, as a higher density mud absorbs the gamma
rays more efficiently and reduces count rate. This is taken into account by the borehole correction,
which is done for a given drilling mud density (mud weight). The worst effects are seen when barite
mud is used, as barite is efficient at adsorbing gamma rays. Again, the eccentred version is less
susceptible to mud weight.
The problem with KCl-based drilling mud is also apparent with the spectral tool. However, the effect
of the KCl mud will only be apparent in the SGR, CGR and potassium logs. Again, the eccentred
version is less susceptible to KCl mud.

12.10 Uses of the Spectral Gamma Ray Log

The spectral gamma ray log is an extremely useful log, especially for subtle lithological and
compositional analysis, which benefits from its high vertical resolution. In the analysis of spectral
gamma ray data, use is commonly made of the ratios of the abundances of the main radioactive
sources. For example the Th/K ratio. It should be noted, however, that this is not a dimensionless ratio
as the Th is measured in ppm and the K is measured in percent. Thus Th=12 ppm and K=4%, gives
Th/K=3, where the units are usually not mentioned, but are actually parts per ten thousand (ppm/%).

12.10.1

Determination of Lithology

12.10.1.1

Discriminating between Sands, Shales and Accessory Minerals

It was seen in the discussion concerning the total gamma ray log that clean sands can sometimes
produce high gamma ray readings which would confuse them with shales. Such sandstones include
those containing feldspars, micas, glauconite, and heavy minerals including uranium-bearing ores.
The extra information supplied by the spectral gamma ray tool can, in most cases, help recognize these
situations, and calculate the amount of the particular radioactive minerals present.
Radioactive sandstones fall into one of six main groups, which are classified below, and may be
recognized using Figs. 12.4 and 12.5.
Clay-Bearing Sandstones. If clay minerals are known to be present in the rock, they may be
identified using Fig. 12.5.
Arkose sandstones. These contain feldspars, which have a significant potassium content, but a low
thorium content. The Th/K ratio will therefore be low (<1 ppm/%), as shown in Fig. 12.4.
Micaceous sandstones. These contain mica, which has a potassium composition that is less than
feldspars and a thorium content that is higher. The Th/K ratio is usually between 1.5 and 2.5 ppm/%.

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Spectral Gamma Ray Log

Graywackes. These contain both feldspars and micas, and give Th/K ratios intermediate between 1
and 2.5 ppm/%.
Greensands. These contain glauconite, which is a mica group mineral containing iron, magnesium
and potassium. It has Th/K ratios between 1 and 1.5 ppm/%.
Heavy mineral-bearing sandstones. The heavy minerals are often abundant in either U or Th or
both. The U and Th values are usually sufficiently high to ensure high U/K and Th/K ratios even if the
sandstones also contains potassium in the form of feldspars, micas or glauconite. Typically Th/K
values will be above 25 ppm/%, and U/K values will be above 20 ppm/%.

Figure 12.4 Thorium/potassium cross-plot for mineral identification using spectral gamma ray data.

K Feldspar

K Feldspar
Micas

Chemical Maturity
Increases

Glauconite
Muscovite
& Illite
Interstratified
Muscovite & Illite
Kaolinite
& Chlorite
Weathering
Increases

Clays

Bauxite

10
Th/K (ppm/%)

100

Figure 12.5 Thorium/potassium ratio plot for mineral identification using spectral gamma ray data.

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The fact that sands that do not contain clays are sometimes radioactive, as seen above, indicates that
there will be occasions when the shale volume calculated from the total gamma ray log (GR) or the
total gamma ray log from the spectral tool (SGR) will be misleading. However, we can calculate the
shale volume from the individual readings of the spectral gamma ray log (K, Th, and U), and from the
computed gamma ray log (CGR).

Vsh CGR =

CGR CGRmin
CGRmax CGRmin

K K min
Vsh K =
K max K min
Th Thmin
Vsh Th =
Thmax Thmin
Vsh U =

U U min
U max U min

(12.1)

(12.2)

(12.3)

(12.4)

Equations (12.1) to (12.3) are better shale indicators than Eq. (11.1), since the random contribution of
U is eliminated. Equation (12.4), is almost never used.

12.10.1.2

Carbonate Formations

In pure carbonates, thorium will usually be absent because the common thorium ions are insoluble,
and potassium will also be negligible. So we can say that, if the formation has very low Th and K
abundances, the rock may be a pure carbonate. The rock, however, may contain uranium. Uranium
usually indicates material of an organic origin as organisms are extremely good at concentrating and
storing uranium. Uranium ions are either soluble or insoluble depending upon their oxidation state.
Highly oxidized uranium ions, from oxidizing environments (such as deserts) are insoluble. Thus a
carbonate, which also has low U abundance, comes from an oxidizing (maybe desert) environment.
Conversely, non-oxidized uranium ions from sub-surface depositional environments are more soluble,
and hence can be present in carbonates.
It should be noted that oxidizing environments are not conducive to the conservation of organic
material, while reducing environments not only favour the conservation of organic material, they aid
the conversion of the organic material to hydrocarbons. The source organic material for hydrocarbons
in carbonate rocks is often algal mats that are incorporated in the deposited rocks in a sub-sea
(reducing) environment and contain a significant amount of uranium.
In clay-bearing carbonate rocks high total gamma readings are not related only to the clay fraction, but
are also due to the presence of uranium-radium series isotopes of organic origin. High total gamma ray
readings are therefore not a reliable indicator of the shaliness of a carbonate. However, if the spectral
gamma ray log indicates the presence of K and Th together with the U, it may be said that the K and
Th contributions are associated with the clay content of the shaly carbonate, while the U is associated
with some organic source which was deposited in a reducing environment that favours the

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conservation of organic material. Similarly, high K and Th values together with low U indicates a
shaly carbonate, deposited in an oxidizing environment which is not a favourable environment for the
conservation of organic material.
Note that K and Th must be present together for a clay to be indicated. The presence of K and no Th
(with or without U) is usually an indicator of the remains of algal mats in the carbonate, or of
glauconite. Thus, when calculating the shaliness of a carbonate, it is better to use the CGR (Eq. 12.1)
as in the case of sandstones in 12.10.1.1 above.
The actual values of K and Th in the shaly carbonate will depend upon the type of clay present, as
shown in Fig. 12.4.
Note that isolated intervals of any combination of high U, K and Th in carbonate rocks may
correspond to stylolites, which tend to concentrate uranium, organic matter, and clay minerals.
Table 12.1 shows the main interpretations of the spectral gamma ray data for carbonate rocks.
Table 12.1 Interpretation of spectral gamma ray data in carbonates.
K

Th

Low

Low

Low

Explanation

Pure carbonate, no organic matter or

oxidizing environment.
Low
Low
High
Pure carbonate, organic matter,
reducing environment.
Low
High
Low
Not a carbonate, or shaly carbonate
with rarer low K high Th clay
minerals, no organic matter or
oxidizing environment.
Low
High
High
Not a carbonate or shaly carbonate
with rarer low K high Th clay
minerals, organic matter, reducing
environment.
High
Low
Low
Glauconite carbonate, no organic
matter or oxidizing environment.
Also consider K-bearing evaporites.
High
Low
High
Algal carbonate, or glauconite
present, organic matter, reducing
environment.
High
High
Low
Shaly carbonate, no organic matter
or oxidizing environment.
High
High
High
Shaly carbonate, organic matter,
reducing environment.
Note: Stylolites can locally concentrate U, clays and organic matter.

12.10.1.3

Evaporites

Large total gamma ray values are commonly associated with shales and certain types of potassiumbearing evaporite. We can discriminate between these because the potassium-bearing evaporites have
much larger potassium abundances and zero thorium resulting from the insolubility of thorium ions in

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water. Evaporites are deposited in oxidizing environments, so the uranium is usually also very low or
zero. Some K-bearing evaporites are shown in Table 12.2.
Table 12.2 Potassium-bearing evaporites.
Name

Composition

K
(wt%)

Density
[FDC]
(g/cm3)

Pe
[LFDC]
(b/e)

Porosity
[CNL]
(%)

T
[Sonic]
(
s/ft)

Sylvite
Langbeinite
Kainite
Glaserite
Carnalite
Polyhalite

KCl
K2SO4(MgSO4)2
MgSO4 KCl(H2O)2
(K Na)2SO4
KCl MgCl2(H2O)6
K2SO4 MgSO4 (CaSO4)2
(H2O)2

52.44
18.84
15.7
24.7
14.07
13.37

1.86
2.82
2.12
2.7
1.57
2.79

8.51
3.56
3.5
4.09
4.32

-3
-2
>60
>60
25

74
52
83
57.5

12.10.2

Unconformity Detection

The mean Th/K ratio of large intervals of formations is usually approximately constant. This is
because it depends ultimately upon the depositional conditions. Hence any sudden changes in the
mean Th/K ratio can act as an indicator of sudden change in depositional environment, such as at an
unconformity.

12.10.3

Inter-well Correlation

Volcanic ashes (bentonitic intervals) are considered to be deposited at exactly the same time over a
wide area. They can therefore be used to correlate between wells. Peaks in the thorium abundance log
are generally considered the best signature in this correlation.

12.10.4

Recognition of Igneous Rocks

The values of Th and U from the spectral gamma ray log are used together with the density from the
density log and the sonic wave travel time from the sonic log to identify and discriminate between
igneous rocks. Most igneous rocks show a Th/U ratio close to 4, as shown in Fig. 12.6. The exception
is syenite (Th/U=0.52). Note the progression from low values of both Th and U for ultramafic rocks to
higher values as the rocks become more acidic, but with constant Th/U.

12.10.5

Diagenesis

Diagenesis is studied using the Th/K ratio derived from spectral gamma ray logs.

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40
Granite
Granodiorite
Diorite
Ultramafic

Weathering
Effect

Th (ppm)

30

Syenite (Th=1300,
U=2500, Th/U=0.52)

20

10

10
U (ppm)

15

20

Figure 12.6 Thorium-Uranium cross-plot for igneous rocks. (Courtesy of Schlumberger).

12.10.6

Sedimentology

The spectral gamma ray log provides a large amount of data that can help discriminate between
depositional environments and allow grain size and mineralogical composition to be constrained.
Some of the more important sedimentologically relevant data are shown in Table 12.3.
Table 12.3 Sedimentological inferences from spectral gamma ray data.
SGR Observation

Sedimentological Inference

Presence of glauconite
Phosphatic deposits

Marine, mainly continental shelf origin.

Marine, mainly continental shelf origin, with warm water in a reducing
environment.
Low energy, reducing conditions
Analysis of depositional environment.
Warm, humid, continental environment with good drainage.
Indicator of the degree of evolution of sand facies, only found in
abundance close to the igneous source.

Uranium
Clay type
Bauxite
Feldspars

12.10.7

Estimation of Uranium Potential

Direct measurement of the amount of uranium present in the rocks, and its variation.

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12.10.8

Spectral Gamma Ray Log

Cation Exchange Capacity

The cation exchange capacity of the rock may be calculated by knowing the type and quantity of clays
present in the rock from spectral gamma ray data.

12.10.9

Radioactive Scaling

Unusually raised U contents are frequently observed in the perforated intervals of old wells due to the
build-up of uranium salts.

12.10.10

Hydrocarbon Potential

Organic matter is good at concentrating uranium. If this is deposited in a reducing environment it can
be preserved and transformed to hydrocarbons. Hence, there is a correlation between the presence of
uranium and hydrocarbons. It is possible to evaluate the total organic carbon content of rocks from the
uranium content derived from the spectral gamma ray log providing the relationship is calibrated using
core data. The hydrocarbon potential of the rock may then be derived from the total organic carbon
content.

12.10.11

Fracture Detection

Uranium is soluble in reducing conditions. Dissolved uranium salts may then be precipitated along
fractures, causing local peaks in the uranium spectral gamma ray log. However, local uranium peaks
do not unambiguously indicate fractures, so their presence must be checked on image logs.

12.10.12

Stylolite Detection

Stylolites concentrate clay minerals, organic matter and uranium, and can be compacted into thin
bands which show up as thin peaks in the uranium spectral gamma ray log.

12.10.13

Phosphate Detection

Uranium is also associated with phosphates, which are encountered with evaporites.

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