INTRODUCTION

It is a truism that technological development depends on advances in the field of

materials. One dose not have to be an expert to realize the most advanced turbine or air-craft
design is of no use if adequate materials to bear the service loads and conditions are not
available. Whatever the field may be, the final limitation on advancement depends on
materials. Composite materials in this regard represent nothing but a giant step in the everconstant endeavour of optimization in materials.

Strictly speaking, the idea of composite materials is not a new or recent one. Nature
is full of examples wherein the idea of composite materials is used. The coconut palm leaf,
for example, is nothing but a cantilever using the concept of fiber reinforcement. Wood is a
fibrous composite: cellulose fibers in a lignin matrix. The cellulose fibers have high tensile
strength but are very flexible (i.e. low stiffness), while the lignin matrix joins the fibers and
furnishes the stiffness. Bone is yet another example of a natural composite that supports the
weight of various members of the body. It consists of short and soft collagen fibers
embedded in a mineral matrix called apatite. In addition to these naturally occurring
composites, there are many other engineering materials that are composites in a very
general way and that have been in use for very long time. The carbon black in rubber,
Portland cement or asphalt mixed with sand, and glass fibers in resin are common examples.
Thus, we see that the idea of composite materials is not that recent. Nevertheless, one can
safely mark the origin of the distinct discipline of the composite materials as the beginning
of the 1960s. It would not be too much off the mark to say that a concerted research and
development effort in composite materials began in 1965. Since the early 1960s, there has
been an increasing demand for materials that are stiffer and stronger yet lighter in fields as
diverse as aerospace, energy and civil constructions. The demands made on materials for
better overall performance are so great and diverse that no one material can satisfy them.
This naturally led to a resurgence of the ancient concept of combining different materials in
an integral-composite material to satisfy the user requirement. Such composite material
systems result in a performance unattainable by the individual constituents, and they offer
the great advantage of a flexible design; that is, one can, in principle, tailor-make the
material as per specifications of an optimum design.

1.1

DEFINITION OF COMPOSITE

Over the last thirty years composite materials, plastics and ceramics have been the
dominant emerging materials. The volume and number of applications of composite
materials have grown steadily, penetrating and conquering new markets relentlessly.
Modern composite materials constitute a significant proportion of the engineered materials
market ranging from everyday products to sophisticated niche applications.While
composites have already proven their worth as weight-saving materials, the current
challenge is to make them cost effective. The efforts to produce economically attractive
composite components have resulted in several innovative manufacturing techniques
currently being used in the composite industries. It is obvious, especially for composites,
that the improvement in manufacturing technology alone is not enough to overcome the cost
hurdle. It is essential that there be an integrated effort in designing, material processing,
tooling, quality assurance, manufacturing, and even programme management for
composites to become competitive with metals.

The composites industry has begun to recognize that the commercial applications of
composites promise to offer much larger business opportunities than the aerospace sector
due to the sheer size of transportation industry. Thus the shift of composite applications
from aircraft to other commercial uses has become prominent in recent years.Increasingly
enabled by the introduction of newer polymer resin matrix materials and high performance
reinforcement fibers of glass, carbon and aramid, the penetration of these advanced
materials has witnessed a steady expansion in uses and volume. The increased volume has
resulted in an expected reduction in costs. High performance FRP can now be found in such
diverse applications as composite armoring designed to resist explosive impacts, fuel
cylinders for natural gas vehicles, windmill blades, industrial drive shafts, support beams of
highway bridges and even paper making rollers. For certain applications, the use of
composites rather than metals has in fact resulted in savings of both cost and weight. Some
examples are cascades for engines, curved fairing and fillets, replacements for welded
metallic parts, cylinders, tubes, ducts, blade containment bands etc.

Further, the need of composite for lighter construction materials and more seismic
resistant structures has placed high emphasis on the use of new and advanced materials that
not only decreases dead weight but also absorbs the shock & vibration through tailored
microstructures. Composites are now extensively being used for rehabilitation/
strengthening of pre-existing structures that have to be retrofitted to make them seismic
resistant, or to repair damage caused by seismic activity.Unlike conventional materials (e.g.,
steel), the properties of the composite material can be designed considering the structural
aspects. The design of a structural component using composites involves both material and
structural design. Composite properties (e.g. stiffness, thermal expansion etc.) can be varied
continuously over a broad range of values under the control of the designer. Careful
selection of reinforcement type enables finished product characteristics to be tailored to
almost any specific engineering requirement.Whilst the use of composites will be a clear
choice in many instances, material selection in others will depend on factors such as
working lifetime requirements, number of items to be produced (run length), complexity of
product shape, possible savings in assembly costs and on the experience & skills the
designer in tapping the optimum potential of composites. In some instances, best results
may be achieved through the use of composites in conjunction with traditional materials.

Generally, a composite material is composed of reinforcement (fibers, particles,

flakes, and/or fillers) embedded in a matrix (polymers, metals, or ceramics). The matrix
holds the reinforcement to form the desired shape while the reinforcement improves the
overall mechanical properties of the matrix. When designed properly, the new combined
material exhibits better strength than would each individual material.

As defined by Jartiz, Composites are multifunctional material systems that provide

characteristics not obtainable from any discrete material. They are cohesive structures made
by physically combining two or more compatible materials, different in composition and
characteristics and sometimes in form.Kelly

very clearly stresses that the composites

should not be regarded simple as a combination of two materials. In the broader

significance; the combination has its own distinctive properties. In terms of strength or
resistance to heat or some other desirable quality, it is better than either of the components
alone or radically different from either of them.Berghezan defines as The composites are
3

compound materials which differ from alloys by the fact that the individual components
retain their characteristics but are so incorporated into the composite as to take advantage
only of their attributes and not of their shortcomings, in order to obtain an improved
material Van Suchetclan

explains composite materials as heterogeneous materials

consisting of two or more solid phases, which are in intimate contact with each other on a
microscopic scale. They can be also considered as homogeneous materials on a microscopic
scale in the sense that any portion of it will have the same physical property.

1.2

Characteristics of the Composites

Composites consist of one or more discontinuous phases embedded in a continuous

phase. The discontinuous phase is usually harder and stronger than the continuous phase
and is called the reinforcement or reinforcing material, whereas the continuous phase is
termed as the matrix.
Properties of composites are strongly dependent on the properties of their
constituent materials, their distribution and the interaction among them. The composite
properties may be the volume fraction sum of the properties of the constituents or the
constituents may interact in a synergistic way resulting in improved or better properties.
Apart from the nature of the constituent materials, the geometry of the reinforcement
(shape, size and size distribution) influences the properties of the composite to a great
extent. The concentration distribution and orientation of the reinforcement also affect the
properties.The shape of the discontinuous phase (which may by spherical, cylindrical, or
rectangular cross-sanctioned prisms or platelets), the size and size distribution (which
controls the texture of the material) and volume fraction determine the interfacial area,
which plays an important role in determining the extent of the interaction between the
reinforcement and the matrix.Concentration, usually measured as volume or weight
fraction, determines the contribution of a single constituent to the overall properties of the
composites. It is not only the single most important parameter influencing the properties of
the composites, but also an easily controllable manufacturing variable used to alter its
properties.

1.3

Classification of Composites
Composite materials can be classified in different ways. Classification based on the

geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement is convenient since it is the geometry of

the reinforcement which is responsible for the mechanical properties and high performance
of the composites. A typical classification is presented in Table-1. The two broad classes of
composites are(1)Fibrous composites (2)Particulate composites

Table- 1

Classification of composite

Composite materials

Particle reinforced composites

Fiber reinforced composites

Multi layered
composites

Single layer
composites

Continuous fiber
reinforced
composites

Discontinuous fiber
reinforced composites

Random
orientation
Unidirectional
reinforcement

Random orientation

Hybrids

Laminates

Preferred
orientation

Bi-directional
reinforcement

Preferred orientation

1.3.1 Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are
also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic, tetragonal, a platelet, or of other
regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not
very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the
composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of
matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve
performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion
resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage.

1.3.2 Fibrous composites

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its crosssectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of
contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the
fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension
discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might other
wise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of
non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws,
which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small crosssectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the
molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.

Fibers, because of their small cross- sectional dimensions, are not directly usable
in engineering applications. They are, therefore, embedded in matrix materials to form
fibrous composites. The matrix serves to bind the fibers together, transfer loads to the
fibers, and protect them against environmental attack and damage due to handling. In
discontinuous fiber reinforced composites, the load transfer function of the matrix is
more critical than in continuous fiber composites.

1.4

COMPONENTS OF A COMPOSITE MATERIAL

In its most basic form a composite material is one, which is composed of at least

two elements working together to produce material properties that are different to the
properties of those elements on their own. In practice, most composites consist of a bulk
material (the matrix), and a reinforcement of some kind, added primarily to increase the
strength and stiffness of the matrix.

Role of matrix in a composite

Many materials when they are in a fibrous form exhibit very good strength
property but to achieve these properties the fibers should be bonded by a suitable matrix.
The matrix isolates the fibers from one another in order to prevent abrasion and formation
of new surface flaws and acts as a bridge to hold the fibers in place. A good matrix should
possess ability to deform easily under applied load, transfer the load onto the fibers and
evenly distributive stress concentration.

Materials used as matrices in composites

In its most basic form a composite material is one, which is composed of at least
two elements working together to produce material properties that are different to the
properties of those elements on their own. In practice, most composites consist of a bulk
material (the matrix) and a reinforcement of some kind, added primarily to increase the
strength and stiffness of the matrix.

1.5 Bulk-Phases
(a) Metal Matrices
Metal matrix composites possess some attractive properties, when compared with
organic matrices. These include (i) strength retention at higher temperatures, (ii) higher
transverse strength, (iii) better electrical conductivity, (iv) superior thermal conductivity,
(v) higher erosion resistance etc. However, the major disadvantage of metal matrix
composites is their higher densities and consequently lower specific mechanical

properties compared to polymer matrix composites. Another notable difficulty is the

high-energy requirement for fabrication of such composites.

(b) Polymer Matrices

A very large number of polymeric materials, both thermosetting and
thermoplastic, are used as matrix materials for the composites. Some of the major
advantages and limitations of resin matrices are shown in Table-2.
Table- 2

Advantages and limitations of polymer matrix materials

Advantages

Limitations

Low densities

Low transverse strength

Good corrosion resistance

Low operational temperature limits

Low thermal conductivities

Low electrical conductivities
Transluscence
Aesthetic Colour effects
Usually the resinous binders (polymer matrices) are selected on the basis of
adhesive strength, fatigue resistance, heat resistance, chemical and moisture resistance
etc. The resin must have mechanical strength commensurate with that of the
reinforcement. It must be easy to use in the fabrication process selected and also stand up
to the service conditions. Apart from these properties, the resin matrix must be capable of
wetting and penetrating into the bundles of fibers which provide the reinforcement,
replacing the dead air spaces therein and offering those physical characteristics capable of
enhancing the performance of fibers.

Table-3 and 4 indicate the approximate service temperature ranges for the resins
and composites . It should be remembered that there is no place for compromise as to the
nature of the matrix material, particularly when it comes to the application temperature of
the composite. If the application temperature exceeds 300-350 0C metal matrix appears to
be the only alternative, at least for the present.

(c) Ceramic Matrices

Ceramic fibres, such as alumina and SiC (Silicon Carbide) are advantageous in
very high temperature applications, and also where environment attack is an issue. Since
ceramics have poor properties in tension and shear, most applications as reinforcement
are in the particulate form (e.g. zinc and calcium phosphate). Ceramic Matrix Composites
(CMCs) used in very high temperature environments, these materials use a ceramic as the
matrix and reinforce it with short fibres, or whiskers such as those made from silicon
carbide and boron nitride.
Table- 3

Application temperatures of some matrix material

Matrix material

Limit of
Long term exposure, 0C

Short term exposure

Unsaturated polyesters

70

100

Epoxies

125

200

Phenolics

250

1600

Polyimides

315

400

Aluminium

300

350

10

Table - 4

Trends for temperature application of heat resistant

composites

Fiber reinforced

Maximum service

Specific weight

Composite

temperature, 0C

gm/cm3

Carbon / Epoxy

180

1.4

Boron/Epoxy

180

2.1

Borsic / Aluminium

310

2.8

Carbon/Polyimide

310

1.4

Boron/Polyimide

310

2.1

Carbon/Polyaminoxaline

350

1.4

Carbon/Polybenzthiazole

400

14

Borsic/Titanium

540

3.6

Carbon/Nickel

930

5.3

Whisker/Metals

1800

2.8-5.6

Reinforcement
The role of the reinforcement in a composite material is fundamentally one of
increasing the mechanical properties of the neat resin system. All of the different fibres
used in composites have different properties and so affect the properties of the composite
in different ways. For most of the applications, the fibres need to be arranged into some
form of sheet, known as a fabric, to make handling possible. Different ways for
assembling fibers into sheets and the variety of fiber orientations possible to achieve
different characteristics.

11

Interface
It has characteristics that are not depicted by any of the component in isolation.
The interface is a bounding surface or zone where a discontinuity occurs, whether
physical, mechanical, chemical etc. The matrix material must wet the fiber. Coupling
agents are frequently used to improve wettability. Well wetted fibers increase the
interface surfaces area. To obtain desirable properties in a composite, the applied load
should be effectively transferred from the matrix to the fibers via the interface. This
means that the interface must be large and exhibit strong adhesion between fibers and
matrix. Failure at the interface (called de-bonding) may or may not be desirable.

1.6

TYPES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

The composite materials are broadly classified into the following categories as

shown in Figure-1 (a - e).

1.6.1

Fiber-reinforced composites
Reinforced-composites are popularly being used in many industrial applications

because of their inherent high specific strength and stiffness. Due to their excellent
structural performance, the composites are gaining potential also in tribological
applications. Fiber reinforced composites materials consists of fiber of high strength and
modulus in or bonded to a matrix with distinct interfaces (boundary) between them. In
this form both fibers and matrix retain their physical and chemical identities. Yet they
produce a combination of properties that cannot be achieved with either of the
constituents acting alone. In general, fibers are the principal load carrying candidates,
while the surrounding matrix keeps them in the desired location and orientation. A
Fibrous composite can be classified into two broad groups: continuous (long) fiber
composite and discontinuous (short) fiber composite.
1.6.2Continuous or long fiber composite
Continuous or long fiber composite consists of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed
phase in the form of continuous fibers. A continuous fiber is geometrically characterized
as having a very high length-to- diameter ratio. They are generally stronger and stiffer
12

than bulk material. Based on the manner in which fibers are packed within the matrix, it
is again subdivided in to two categories: (a) unidirectional reinforcement and (b)
bidirectional reinforcement. In unidirectional reinforcement, the fibers are oriented in one
direction only where as in bidirectional reinforcement the fibers are oriented in two
directions either at right angle to one another (cross-ply), or at some desired angle (angleply). When fibers are large and continuous, they impart certain degree of anisotropy to
the properties of the composites particularly when they are oriented. Multi-axially
oriented continuous fiber composites are also display near isotropic properties.

1.6.3 Discontinuous or short fiber composite

Short-fiber reinforced composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed
phase in form of discontinuous fibers (length < 100diameter). The low cost, ease of
fabricating complex parts, and isotropic nature are enough to make the short fiber
composites the material of choice for large-scale production. Consequently, the shortfiber reinforced composites have successfully established its place in lightly loaded
component manufacturing. Further the discontinuous fiber reinforced composite divided
into: (a) biased or preferred oriented fiber composite and (b) random oriented fiber
composite. In the former, the fibers are oriented in predetermined directions, whereas in
the latter type, fibers remain randomly. The orientation of short fibers can be done by
sprinkling of fiber on to given plane or addition of matrix in liquid or solid state before or
after the fiber deposition.The discontinuities can produce a material response that is
anisotropic, but the random reinforcement produces nearly isotropic properties.

1.6.4

Laminate Composites
Laminate Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by

matrix. Generally, these layers are arranged alternatively for the better bonding between
reinforcement and the matrix. These laminates can have uni- directional or bi-directional
orientation of the fiber reinforcement according to the end use of the composite. The
different types of composite laminates are unidirectional, angle-ply, cross-ply and
symmetric laminates. A hybrid laminate can also be fabricated by the use of different

13

constituent materials or of the same material with different reinforcing pattern. In most of
the applications of laminate composites, man-made fibers are used due to their good
combination of physico-mechanical and thermal behaviour.

(a) Continuous fiber

(b) Particulate composites

(c) Flake composites

composite

(d) Random fiber (short fiber) Composite

Figure-1 (a-e)

(e) Laminate Composite

Schematic diagram of different types of Composite

14

1.7 Matrix Materials:The polymer matrix binds the fibers together so as to transfer the load to and
between them and protects them from environments and handling. Polymers or resin
system used to manufacture advanced PMCs are of two basic types thermoset and
thermoplastic resins.

1.7.1

Thermoset resins
Thermosets resins dominate the advanced composites industry today. While

thermoplastics have only a minor role. It is requires addition of a curing agent or hardener
and impregnation onto a reinforcing material, followed by a curing step to produce a
cured or finished part. Some of the more common thermoset resins are described briefly
here.
Epoxy resins are relatively low molecular weight monomers with low shrinkage
during cure. They can be partially cured and stored in that state. The cured epoxy resins
have, high chemical and corrosion resistance, good mechanical and thermal properties.
However, they are more expensive compared to polymer resin. The second of the
essential ingradients of an advanced composite system is the curing agent of hardener.
These compounds are very important because they control the reaction rate and determine
the performance characteristics of the finished part. Since these compounds act as
catalyst for the reaction, they must contain active sites on their molecules. Some of most
commonly used curing agent in the advanced composite industry is the aromatic amines
like 4.4 methylene-diaaniline(MDA) and 4.4-sulfonylianiline (DDS).
Unsaturated polyester resins are most widely used due to their good mechanical
properties, corrosion resistance, low weight and low cost. These consist of linear polymer
chains dissolved in styrene monomer. These polymer chains have reactive sites resulting
from the incorporation of the anhydrous forms of unsaturated dicarboxylic acids (e.g.
maleic anhydride). The reactive unsaturation sites on the polymer chain react and cross
linking with the styrene monomer via a free radical reaction. This reaction is usually
initiated by the addition of a peroxide catalyst, such as methyl ethyl ketone peroxide

15

(MEKP). The presence of an accelerator in the resin, such as cobalt octate, speed and
reaction at a given temperature. The additions of heat significantly speed up this cross
linking reaction.
Polyurethanes are another group of resins used in advanced composite process.
These compounds are formed by reacting the polyol component with an isocynate
compound, typically toluene diisocynate (TDI). Methylene diisocynate (MDI) and
Hexamethylene diisocynate (HDI) are also widely used. These are used to manufacture
fiber reinforced structural foams. Phenolic and amino resins are used extensively in
aircraft interiors because of their exceptional low smoke and heat release properties in the
event of a fire.
1.7.2

Thermoplast resins
Thermoplastic s resins require only heat and pressure to form the finished part.

Unlike the thermoset resins, the thermoplastics resins can usually be reheated and
reformed into another shape, if desired. Common examples of thermoplastics resins are
polyethelene, polystyrene, nylon, polycarbonate, polysufone, polyphenylene sulfide etc.
polyamides, polyimide, PEEK are relatively newcomers to the composite industry and
are used for high temperature application. These resins have better thermal stability and
flame resistance then the epoxy resins. Polyamide based composites have excellent
retention of strength in hot-wet environment but they are brittle and have very low
elongation at break.

Reinforcing Material:Fibers as reinforcing materials offer two advantages. Firstly, the bulk material is
always stronger when produced as small diameter fibers due to the natural exclusion of
large scale defects. Secondly, the fiber configuration allows the tailoring of the properties
in the specific directions. Fibers are added to the resin system to provide strength to the
finished part. The selection of reinforcing material is based on the properties desired in
the finished product. Fibers used in the advance composite manufacture come in various
forms, such as yarns. Rovings, chopped strand, woven fabric and mats. Each of these has
its own special application. In process such as filament windings or pultrusion, yarns and
16

rovings are used. When performs are used in parts manufacture, woven fabric or mat are
required. Four basic types of fiber reinforcing materials are used in the advanced
composite industry. These are briefly described in the following sections.

Glass fibers
Glass fibers are amorphous solids composed primarily of silica backbone in the
form of (-SiO4)n tetrahedral. It is the most common reinforcing material for polymer
matrix composites as they offer high strength at relatively low cost. They are available as
continuous and short fibers. However they have poor abrasion resistance, poor adhesion
to polymer matrixresins and tendency to absorb moisture. Coupling agents (e.g. silanes)
are used to overcome these drawbacks. There are five major type of glass used for
making fibers. The letter designation is taken from the characteristic property:
(i)

A-glass is a high-alkali glass. This offers good resistance to chemical, but

(ii)

lower electrical properties.

C-glass is a chemical glass, a special mixture with extremely high

(iii)

chemical resistance.
E-glass is an electrical grade with low alkali content. It has good

(iv)

insulation property and strongly water resistance.

S-glass is a high strength glass with 33% higher tensile strength then E-

(v)

glass.
D-glass has a low dielectric constant with superior electrical properties.

E-glass fiber dominates the current FRP industries and has very good mechanical
and electrical characteristics at a reasonable cost. S-glass contains a higher
percentage of alumina and silica as compared to E-glass.

Carbon/Graphite fibers
Carbon fibers is a high strength, high stiffness synthetic fiber that is used in a
variety of structural and electrical operation. Typical strength and stiffness of carbon fiber
(HT Type) are 5000 MPa and 250 GPa but it may vary depending on the precursor used.
It is manufactured by heating, oxidizing and carburizing of polyacrylonitrile polymer
fibers (PAN) or other precursor, like rayon and petroleum pitch. The PAN based fiber is
the most commonly used fiber in advanced composite industries today.
Aramid fibers

17

Aramid fibers (Kevlar 49) are made from aromatic polyamides and possess
unique properties like high tensile strength and modulus, temperature stability,
dimensional stability, flex performance, textile processibility and chemical resistance.
Typical values for strength and stiffness of Kevlar 49 TM (DuPont) are 3600 MPa and 131
GPa respectively.

Boron Fibers
Boron fibers are produced by chemical vapors deposition process in which a fine
tungsten wire or graphite filament is used as a core and boron-tri-chloride gas acts as
boron source. The fibers have a nominal diameters ranging from 0.1-0.2 mm. they are
characterized by low density, high tensile strength and high modulus of elasticity. The
high stiffness value makes boron fibers difficult to weave, braid, or twist, but they can be
formed into resin-impregnated tapes for hand lay-up and filament winding process. The
high cost of boron fibers has limited their use to aerospace applications.

Application of Polymer Matrix Composites

In an ever growing worldwide market of over 50,000 different types of
components,. It is nearly impossible to provide a complete list. However, some
application classified according to major market segments are indicated here.

Agriculture
Contains and enclosures, equipment components, feed troughs, fencing,
partitions, flooring, staging, silos and tanks.

Aviation
Containers, control surfaces, gliders and light aircraft construction, internal
fittings, partition and floors. Windows masks, gallery units and trolleys, structural
members, satellite components, aerials and associate enclosures, ground support
equipment component and enclosures.

Building and construction

External and internal cladding, permanent and temporary formwork and
shuttering, partitions, polymer concrete, pre-fabricated buildings, kiosks, cabins and

18

housings, structural and decorative building elements, bridge element and section, quay
facings, signposts and street furniture, staging, fencing and walkways.

Corrosion Resistance Equipment

Chemical plant linings, oil industry components pipes and ducts, chimneys, grid
flooring, staging and walkways, pressure vassels, processing tanks and vassels, fume
hoods, scrubbers and cooling tower components, assemblies and enclosures.

Deffence
Aircraft vehicle, aerospace and satellite components, enclosures and container s,
personnel armor, rocketry and ballistic items, shipping and transit containers, stimulators
and allied.

Electrical and electronic

Internal and external aerial components and fittings, circuit boards, generation and
transmission components, insulators switch-boxes and cabinets, booms, distribution posts
and pylons, telegraph poles, fuses tubes, transformer element, ladders and cableways.

Marine
Canoes and boats, yatchs, lifeboats and rescue vassels, buoys, boat accessories
and sub-assemblies, surf and sailboard, windows masks and internal mouldings and
fittings for ferries and cruise liners, work boats and trawlers.

Transportation
Automotive, bus, camper and vehicle components generally both under-body,
engine and body panels, truck, rail and other vehicle components and fittings, land and
sea containers, railway truck and signaling components, sky bus coaches and coach body
panels.

1.8 NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES:

Environmental awareness today motivates the researchers worldwide on the
studies of natural fiber reinforced polymer composite and cost effective option to
synthetic fiber reinforced composites. The availability of natural fibers and ease of
manufacturing have tempted researchers to try locally available inexpensive fibers and to
study their feasibility of reinforcement purposes and to what extent they satisfy the

19

required specifications of good reinforced polymer composite for different applications.

With low cost and high specific mechanical properties, natural fiber represents a good
renewable and biodegradable alternative to the most common synthetic reinforcement,
i.e. glass fiber.
The term NATURAL FIBER covers a broad range of vegetable, animal and
mineral fibers. However in the composite industry, it is usually refers to wood fiber and
agro based bast, leaf, seed, and stem fibers. These fibers often contribute greatly to the
structural performance of plant and, when used in plastic composites, can provide
significant reinforcement.. Natural organic fibers can be derived from either animal or
plant sources. The majority of useful natural textile fibers are plant derived, with the
exceptions of wool and silk. All plant fibers are composed of cellulose, whereas fibers of
animal origin consist of proteins. Natural fibers in general can be classified based on their
origin, and the plant-based fibers can be further categorized based on part of the plant
they are recovered from. An overview of natural fibers is presented in Figure2.
Generally, plant or vegetable fibers are used to reinforce polymer
matrices and a classification of vegetable fibers is given in Figure-3.
Plant fibers are a renewable resource and have the ability to be
recycled. The plant fibers leave little residue if they are burned for
disposal, returning less carbon dioxide (CO 2) to the atmosphere than is
removed during the plants growth.
The leading driver for substituting natural fibers for glass is that
they can be grown with lower cost than glass. The price of glass fiber is
around Rs. 300.00/- per kg and has a density of 2.5 g/cc. On the other
hand, natural fiber costs Rs. 15.00/- to 25.00/- per kg and has a density
of 1.2-1.5 g/cc. As can be seen from Table-5 the tensile strength of
natural fibers is substantially lower than that of glass fibers though the
modulus is of the same order of magnitude. However, when the
specific modulus of natural fibers (modulus per unit specific gravity) is

20

considered, the natural fibers show values that are comparable to or

even better than glass fibers. Material cost savings, due to the use of
natural fibers and high fiber filling levels, coupled with the advantage
of being non-abrasive to the mixing and moulding equipment make
natural fibers an exciting prospect. These benefits mean natural fibers
could be used in many applications, including building, automotive,
household appliances, and other applications.

Table-5

Properties of glass and natural fibers

Properties
E-glass Hemp
Ramie
Density (gm/cc)
Tensile strength

2.25

Flax

1.48

(MPa) 2400 550-900

1.4
800-1500

Fiber
Jute
Sisal

Coir

1.46

1.25

1.5

220

500

1.33

400-800 600-700

Youngs Modulus (GPa)

73

70

60-80

10-30

38

44

Specific Modulus (GPa)

29

26-46

7-21

29

Failure Strain

1.6

1.2-1.6

1.8

2-3

15-25

12

11

10

(%)

Moisture absorption(%)

21

12-17

Natural fiber

Organic

Inorganic
Mineral
fibers

Plant fibers

Animal fibers

Asbestos
fibers

Hairs and threads

(Cocoon or spider threads)

Fibers from dicotyledons

Seed fibers
e.g. Cotton,
Akon

Fibers from monocotveldons

Stem fibers Fruit fibers

e.g. Hemp, e.g. Kapok
Leaf fibers
Paina
Flax,
Jute,
Kenaf,
Ramie,
Nettle
Basic Lamina
Fiber
e.g. Abaca

Figure-2

Fruit fibers
e.g. Coir

Lamina fiber
e.g. Sisal,
Henequen
Cantala
Yucca
Phormium

Overview of natural fibers

22

Spear fibers
e.g. Bamboo

Petiolus fiber
e.g. Para

Reinforcing natural fiber

Non-wood natural fibers

Straw
fibers

Example:
Corn
Wheat
Rice

Figure-3

Bast
fibers

Example:
Hemp
Flax
Jute
Kenaf
Ramie

Wood fibers

Leaf
fibers

Seed/Fruit
fibers

Grass
fibers

Example:
Cotton,
Coir
Example:
Sisal
Henequen
Pineapple

Example:
Soft wood
Hard wood

Example:
Bamboo
Switch grass
Miscanthus

Classification of natural fiber that can be used as

reinforcements in polymers

1.9

STRUCTURE OF PLANT FIBER

Natural plant fibers are constituents of cellulose fibers, consisting of helically

wound cellulose micro fibrils, bound together by an amorphous lignin matrix. Lignin
keeps the water in fibers; acts as a protection against biological attack and as a stiffener to
give stem its resistance against gravity forces and wind. Hemicellulose found in the
23

natural fibers is believed to be a compatibilizer between cellulose and lignin. The cell
wall in a fiber (Figure-4) is not a homogenous membrane. Each fiber has a complex,
layered structure consisting of a thin primary wall which is the first layer deposited
during cell growth encircling a secondary wall. The secondary wall is made up of three
layers and the thick middle layer determines the mechanical properties of the fiber. The
middle layer consists of a series of helically wound cellular micro-fibrils formed from
long chain cellulose molecules. The angle between the fiber axis and the micro-fibrils is
called the microfibrillar angle. The characteristic value of microfibrillar angle varies from
one fiber to another. These micro-fibrils have typically a diameter of about 10-30 nm and
are made up of 30-100 cellulose molecules in extended chain conformation and provide
mechanical strength to the fiber.

Figure-4

Structure of an elementary plant fiber (cell)

Jute fiber composite

Jute is an annual plant in the genus corchorus. The major types grown are
generally known as white jute and tossa jute. Jute, grown mainly in India and
24

Bangladesh, is harvested at 2 to 3 months of growth, at which time it is 3-5 meters tall.

Jute has a pithy cover, known as jute stick and the blast fibers grow lengthwise around
this core. Jute blast fiber is separated from the pith in a process known as retting. Retting
is accomplished by placing cut jute stalks in ponds for several weeks. Microbial action in
the pond softens the jute fiber and weakens the bonds between the individual fiber and
the pith. The fiber stands are then manually stripped from the jute stick and hung on
tracks to dry. Very long fiber stands can be obtained this way. If treated with various oils
or conditioners to increase flexibility, the retted jute fiber stands are suitable for
manufacturing of textiles.
Jute is multicelled in structure (Fig. 5). The cell wall of a fibre is made up of a
number of layers: the so-called primary wall (the first layer deposited during cell
development) and the secondary wall (S), which again is made up of the three layers (S1,
S2 and S3). As in all lignocelluloses fibres, these layers mainly contain cellulose,
hemicelluloses and lignin in varying amounts. The individual fibres are bonded together
by a lignin-rich region known as the middle lamella. Cellulose attains highest
concentration in the S2 layer (about 50%) and lignin is most concentrated in the middle
lamella (about 90%) which, in principle, is free of cellulose.

25

Fig.5 Scheme of jute fibre structure

The S2 layer is usually by far the thickest layer and dominates the properties of
the fibres. Cellulose, a primary component of the fibre, is a linear condensation polymer
consisting of D-anhydro- glucopyranose units joined together by -1, 4-glucosidic bonds.
The long chains of cellulose are linked together in bundles called micro-fibrils (Fig. 6).

Fig.6
Structure of cellulose as it occurs in a plant cell wall
Hemicelluloses are also found in all plant fibres. Hemicelluloses are
polysaccharides bonded together in relatively short, branching chains. They are
intimately associated with the cellulose microfibrils, embedding the cellulose in a matrix.
Hemicelluloses are very hydrophilic and have lower molecular masses than both
cellulose and lignin. The degree of polymerization (DP) is about 50 200. The two main
types of hemicelluloses are xylans and glucomannans.

26

The jute fibre is polygonal or oval in cross section with a lumen as shown in Fig
5. The structure of the jute fibre is influenced by climatic conditions, age and the
fermentation process, which influence also the chemical composition (Table 6).

Table 6
A typical composition of jute fiber

There is a greater awareness of the need for materials with an expanding

population and jute based composite provide an opportunity to fill this growing need for
materials within a cost effective and acceptable environmental framework. Our history
using jute in textile applications has limited our expectations of performance, which,
ultimately, limits our ability to accept for improved jute-based composite materials. This
is interesting as we have accepted completely new material such as material alloys,
ceramics, and plastics that have limitations in their performance. But we tend to overlook
any deficiencies they may have because our expectations of these materials are higher
than those we have for jute-based composites. May be it is because we think we know
everything there is about jute because it is very old familiar fiber used by common people
for low cost markets.

27

Jute fiber is a not a low value resource with poor properties and it can be used in a
great many value added products. Using jute fiber for composite has many advantages.
Jute is renewable versatile nonabrasive, porous, hydroscopic, viscoelastic, biodegradable,
combustible, computable and reactive. The fiber has a high aspect ratio, high strength to
weight ratio, is low in energy conversion, and has good insulation properties. The jute
fiber composites can be very cost-effective material especially for building &
construction industry (panels, false ceilings, partition boards etc.), packing, automobile &
railway coach interiors and storage devices.

2.0

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF NATURAL FIBERS

The constituent of any natural fiber vary with origin, area of production, variety

and maturation of plant. The major constituent of a fully developed natural fiber cell
walls are cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and pectin. These hydroxyl-containing polymers
are distributed throughout the fiber wall .

2.1

Cellulose
The long thin crystalline micro-fibrils in the secondary cell wall are made of

cellulose. It is the reinforcing material and is responsible for the high mechanical strength
of fibers. It consists of a linear polymer of D-anhydroglucose units where two adjacent

28

glucose units are linked together by -1, 4-glycosidic linkages with elimination of one
water molecule between their -OH groups at carbon atoms 1 and 4. Chemically, cellulose
is defined as a highly crystalline segment alternating with regions of non-crystalline or
amorphous cellulose .
The glucose monomers in cellulose form hydrogen bonds both within its own
chain (intramolecular) forming fibrils and with neighboring chains (intermolecular),
forming micro-fibrils. These hydrogen bonds lead to formation of a linear crystalline
structure with high rigidity and strength. The amorphous cellulose regions have a lower
frequency of intermolecular hydrogen bonding, thus exposing reactive intermolecular
-OH groups to be bonded with water molecules. Amorphous cellulose can therefore be
considered as hydrophilic in nature due to their tendency to bond with water. On the other
hand, very few accessible intermolecular OH are available in crystalline cellulose and it
is far less hydrophilic than amorphous cellulose. Crystalline micro-fibrils have tightly
packed cellulose chains within the fibrils, with accessible OH groups present on the
surface of the structure. Only very strong acids and alkalis can penetrate and modify the
crystalline lattice of cellulose.

2.2

Hemicelluloses
Hemicelluloses differ from cellulose in three different ways. Firstly, unlike

cellulose (containing only 1,4--D-glucopyranose units) they contain several different

sugar units. Secondly, they exhibit a considerable degree of chain branching, whereas
cellulose is a linear polymer. Thirdly, the degree of polymerization of native cellulose is
ten to hundred times higher than that of hemicelluloses. Unlike cellulose, the constituents
of hemicelluloses differ from plant to plant. Hemicelluloses contain substituents like
acetyl (-COCH3) groups and glucoronic acid. By attaching ferulic acid and p-coumaric
residues, hemicelluloses can form covalent bonds to lignin . Due to this linking ability of
hemicelluloses, degradation of it leads to disintegration of the fibers into cellulose microfibrils resulting in lower fiber bundle strength .

29

Mainly the acid residues attached to hemicelluloses make it highly hydrophilic

and increase the fiber water uptake, which increases the risk of microbiological fiber
degradation. It has been found that hemicelluloses thermally degrade more at lower
temperatures (150-180C) than cellulose (200-230C) .

2.3

Lignin
Together with cellulose, lignin is the most abundant and important polymeric

organic substance in the plant world. Lignin increases the compression strength of plant
fibers by gluing the fibers together to form a stiff structure, making it possible for trees of
100 meters to remain upright. Lignin is essentially a disordered, polyaromatic, and crosslinked polymer arising from the free radical polymerizations of two or three monomers
structurally related to phenyl-propane. Free radical coupling of the lignin monomers
gives rise to a very condensed, reticulated, and cross-linked structure. The lignin matrix is
therefore analogous to a thermoset polymer in conventional polymer terminology. The
dissolution of lignin using chemicals aids fiber separation. When exposed to ultraviolet
light, lignin undergoes photochemical degradation. The lignin seems to act like a matrix
material within the fibers, making stress transfer on a micro-fibril scale and single fiber
scale possible.

2.4

Pectin
Pectin is a complex branched structure of acidic structural polysaccharides, found

in fruits and bast fibers. The majority of the structure consists of homopolymeric partially
methylated poly--(1-4)-D-galacturonic acid residues, but there are substantial 'hairy'
non-gelling areas of alternating -(1-2)-L-rhamnosyl--(1-4)-Dgalacturonosyl sections
containing branch-points with mostly neutral side chains (1-20 residues) of mainly Larabinose and D-galactose (rhamnogalacturonan-I). Pectin is the most hydrophilic
compound in plant fibres due to the carboxylic acid groups and is easily degraded by

30

defibration with fungi . Pectin along with lignin and hemicelluloses present in natural
fibres can be hydrolysed at elevated temperatures.

Environmental awareness today motivates the researchers worldwide on the

studies of natural fiber reinforced polymer composite and cost effective option to
synthetic fiber reinforced composites. The availability of natural fibers and ease of
manufacturing have tempted researchers to try locally available inexpensive fibers and to
study their feasibility of reinforcement purposes and to what extent they satisfy the
required specifications of good reinforced polymer composite for different applications.
With low cost and high specific mechanical properties, natural fiber represents a good
renewable and biodegradable alternative to the most common synthetic reinforcement,
i.e. glass fiber.
The term natural fiber covers a broad range of vegetable, animal and mineral
fibers. However in the composite industry, it is usually refers to wood fiber and agro
based bast, leaf, seed, and stem fibers. These fibers often contribute greatly to the
structural performance of plant and, when used in plastic composites, can provide
significant reinforcement.
Despite the interest and environmental appeal of natural fibers, there use is
limited to non-bearing applications due to their lower strength compared with synthetic
fiber reinforced polymer composite. The stiffness and strength shortcomings of bio
composites can be overcome by structural configurations and better arrangement in a
sense of placing the fibers in specific locations for highest strength performance.
Accordingly extensive studies on preparation and properties of polymer matrix composite
(PMC) replacing the synthetic fiber with natural fiber like Jute, Sisal, Pineapple,
Bamboo, Kenaf and Bagasse were carried out . These plant fibers have many advantages
over glass fiber or carbon fiber like renewable, environmental friendly, low cost,
lightweight, high specific mechanical performance.

31

Increased technical innovation, identification of new applications, continuing

political and environmental pressure and government investments in new methods for
fiber harvesting and processing are leading to projections of continued growth in the use
of natural fibers in composites. The ease availability of natural fibers and manufacturing
have motivated researchers world wide recently to try locally available inexpensive fibers
and to study their feasibility of reinforcement purposes and to what extent they satisfy the
required specifications of good reinforced polymer composite for different applications .

2.5 Matrix Material

Because it is much more than dispersing glue in MMC, the matrix alloy
should be chosen only after giving careful consideration to its chemical compatibility
with the reinforcement, to its ability to wet the reinforcement, and to its own
characteristics properties and processing behavior.
One very crucial issue to consider in selection of the matrix alloy
composition involves the natural dichotomy between wettability of the reinforcement and
excessive reactivity with it. Good load transfer from the matrix to the reinforcement
depends on the existence of a strongly adherent interface. In turn, a strong interface
requires adequate wetting of the reinforcement by the matrix. However, the attainments
of wetting and aggressive reactivity are both favored by strong chemical bonding
between the matrix and reinforcement. Adjusting the chemical composition to accomplish
this delicate compromise is difficult as many subtleties are involved. To illustrate the
complexity, several examples concerning alloying additions to aluminium matrix metal
relative to Silicon carbide whiskers, Boron reinforced and Graphite reinforced aluminum
composites and the effect of insidious impurities from various origins have been
documented by numerous investigators .
As a rule of alloying element addition, the added element should not form
intermetallic compounds with the matrix elements and should not form highly stable
compounds with the reinforcements. The best properties can be obtained in a composite
system when the reinforcement whiskers or particulates and matrix are as physically and
32

chemically compatible as possible. Special matrix alloy compositions, in conjunction

with unique whisker coatings, have been devised to optimize the performance of certain
metallic composites.
MMC materials have a combination of different, superior properties to an
unreinforced matrix which are; increased strength, higher elastic modulus, higher service
temperature, improved wear resistance, high electrical and thermal conductivity, low
coefficient of thermal expansion and high vacuum environmental resistance. These
properties can be attained with the proper choice of matrix and reinforcement
Composite materials consist of matrix and reinforcement. Its main
function is to transfer and distribute the load to the reinforcement or fibres. This transfer
of load depends on the bonding which depends on the type of matrix and reinforcement
and the fabrication technique.
The matrix can be selected on the basis of oxidation and corrosion
resistance or other properties . Generally Al, Ti, Mg, Ni, Cu, Pb, Fe, Ag, Zn, Sn and Si are
used as the matrix material, but Al, Ti, Mg are used widely.

2.6 FABRICATION METHODS OF MMCs

In recent years the potential of metal-matrix composite (MMC) materials
for significant improvement in performance over conventional alloys has been recognized
widely. However, their manufacturing costs are still relatively high. There are several
fabrication techniques available to manufacture the MMC materials: there is no unique
route in this respect. Due to the choice of material and reinforcement and of the types of
reinforcement, the fabrication techniques can vary considerably. The processing methods
used to manufacture particulate reinforced MMCs can be grouped as follows.

Solid-phase fabrication methods: diffusion bonding, hot rolling, extrusion,

drawing, explosive welding, PM route, pneumatic impaction, etc. .

33

Liquid-phase fabrication methods: liquid-metal infiltration, squeeze casting,

compo casting, pressure casting, spray co-deposition, stir casting etc.

Two phase (solid/liquid) processes: Which include Rheocasting and Spray

atomization.
Normally the liquid-phase fabrication method is more efficient than the

solid-phase fabrication method because solid-phase processing requires a longer time.

The matrix metal is used in various forms in different fabrication methods. Generally
powder is used in pneumatic impaction and the powder metallurgy technique, and a
liquid matrix is used in liquid-metal infiltration, plasma spray, spray casting, squeeze
casting, pressure casting, gravity casting, stir casting, investment casting, etc. A
molecular form of the matrix is used in electroforming; vapour deposition and metal foils
are used in diffusion bonding, rolling, extrusion, etc.
There are certain main manufacturing processes which are used presently
in laboratories as well as in industries are diffusion bonding, the powder metallurgy route,
liquid-metal infiltration, squeeze casting, spray co-deposition, stir casting and compo
casting. Brief Description of these processes is given below.

2.6.1

Solid phase fabrication methods

There are several ways to fabricate MMC using solid-phase materials but

among them diffusion bonding and the powder metallurgy route are used widely.

2.6.2 Diffusion bonding

This method is normally used to manufacture fibre reinforced MMC with
sheets or foils of matrix material. Figure 6 shows the different steps in fabricating MMC
by diffusion bonding.
Here primarily the metal or metal alloys in the form of sheets and the
reinforcement material in the form of fibre are chemically surface treated for the

34

effectiveness of interdiffusion. Then fibres are placed on the metal foil in pre-determined
orientation and bonding takes place by press forming directly, as shown by the dotted
line. However sometimes the fibres are coated by plasma spraying or ion plating for
enhancing the bonding strength before diffusion bonding, the solid line shows this. After
bonding, secondary machining work is carried out. The applied pressure and temperature
as well as their durations for diffusion bonding to develop, vary with the composite
systems. However, this is the most expensive method of fabricating MMC materials.

Starting material

Foil

Monofilament

Bundle

Surface treatment
Surface treatment
Winding

Plasma spraying

Iron plating

Cutting of preformed material

Assembly of preformed material

Fabrication (diffusion bonding)

Heat treatment

Semi product:
Sheet,Strip, etc.

Check

Machining

35
Composite components

Joining parts
Final check

Fig.6 Flow chart for composite fabrication by diffusion bonding

2.6.3 Powder metallurgy (PM) technique

The PM technique shown in Fig.7 is the most commonly used method for
the preparation of discontinuous reinforced MMCs. This technique

is used to

manufacture MMCs using either particulates or whiskers as the reinforcement materials.

In general process the powders of matrix materials and reinforcement are first blended
and fed into a mould of the desired shape. Pressure is then applied to further compact the
powder (cold pressing). In order to facilitate the bonding between the powder particles,
the compact is then heated to a temperature that is below the melting point but
sufficiently high to develop significant solid-state diffusion (sintering). The consolidated
product is then used as a MMC material after some secondary operation.
This method is popular because it is reliable compared with other
alternative methods, but it has also some demerits. The blending step is a time
consuming, expensive and potentially dangerous operation. In addition, it is difficult to
achieve an even distribution of particulate throughout the product and the use of powders
requires a high level of cleanliness, otherwise inclusions will be incorporated into the
product with a deleterious effect on fracture toughness, fatigue life, etc.

36

37

2.7

Liquid phase fabrication techniques

Most of the MMCs are produced by this technique. In this technique, the

ceramic particles are incorporated into liquid metal using various processes. The liquid
composite slurry is subsequently cast into various shapes by conventional casting
techniques or cast into ingots for secondary processing. The process has major advantage
that the production costs of MMCs are very low. The major difficulty in such processes is
the non-wettability of the particles by liquid aluminium and the consequent rejection of
the particles from the melt, non-uniform distribution of particles due to their preferential
segregation and extensive interfacial reaction.

2.7.1

Liquid metal infiltration

This process can also be called fibre-tow infiltration. Fibers tows can be

infiltrated by passing through a bath of molten metal. Usually the fibres must be coated in
line to promote wetting. Once the infiltrated wires are produced, they must be assembled
into a preform and given a secondary consolidation process to produce a component.
Secondary consolidation is generally accomplished through diffusion bonding or hot
moulding in the two-phase liquid and solid region.
The fabrication process of MMC by vacuum metal infiltration used by
Chapman et al. is shown in Fig.8. These authors used Aluminium oxide fibre FP
(polycrystalline fibre) of Du Pont Company. In this technique, as the first step, FP yarn is
made into a handleable FP tape with a fugitive organic binder in a manner similar to
producing a resin matrix composite prepeg. Fibre FP tapes are then laid-up in the desired
orientation, fibre volume loading, and shape, and are then inserted into a casting mold of
steel or other suitable material. The fugitive organic binder is burned away, and the mold
is infiltrated with molten metal and allowed to solidify. Metals such as Aluminium,
magnesium, silver and copper have been used as the matrix materials in this liquid
infiltration process because of their relatively lower melting points. This method is

38

desirable in producing relatively small-size composite specimens having unidirectional

properties.

MOLD PREPARATION

FIBER FP PREPARATION

AL-LI ALLOY
PREPARATION

PREPARE FIBER FP TAPE

* Flexible, fugitive binder
PRE-FORM OR CONSOLIDATE
*Volume loading
* Orientation
LOAD FP PREFORM
INTO MOLD
BURNOFF
BINDER
*Conventional
heating to 5000 C

APPLY WASHCOAT
TO INTERNAL
SURFACES OF

AL-2.0 WT % LI
ALLOY
*conventional foundry
melting with flux cover

COMPLETE MOLD
ASSEMBLY
* Install system
* Vacuum seal mould
PREHEAT CASTING
MOLD ASSEMBLY

INFILTRATE
FP PREFORM
SOLIDIFY

Fig. 8

2.7.2

Flow chart for FP/Al plate casting

Squeeze casting

39

Squeeze casting is a one-step metal forming process in which a metered

quantity of liquid metal in a reusable die is subjected to a rapid solidification under high
pressures (50 to 100 MPa) to produce close-tolerance, high-integrity finished shapes. The
fabrication process of MMC by squeeze casting is shown in Fig. 9. The preform of the
ceramic fibre is pre-heated to several hundred degrees centigrade below the melting
temperature of the matrix and then set into a metal die. The Al or Mg alloy is heated to
just above its melting temperature and is then squeezed into the fibre preform by a
hydraulic press to form a mixture of fibre and molten metal.
This process can be used for large scale manufacturing but it requires
careful control of the process variables, including the fiber and liquid metal preheat
temperature, the metal alloying elements, external cooling, the melt quality, the tooling
temperature, the time lag between die closure and pressurization, the pressure levels and
duration and the plunger speed. Imperfect control of these process variables results in
various defects, including freeze chocking, preform deformation, fiber degradation, oxide
inclusions and other common casting defects. However, in practical use, squeeze casting
is the most effective method of constructing a machine parts with a complex shape in a
short time.

40

Fiber Preform
Die 1

Die 2
Platen

MMC

Tt

Ta
v

a)

Casting with MMC

c)

b)

d)

Fig.9 Sequences of the Squeeze casting process with a vertical

machine (a) pouring (b) casting (c) squeezing and (d) ejecting

2.7.3

Spray co-deposition method

Spray-deposition method is an economical method of producing a

particulate composite. A schematic of the Alcan spray deposition process is shown in Fig.
2.5. The alloy to be sprayed is melted in a crucible by induction heating. The crucible is
pressurized and the metal is ejected through a nozzle into an atomizer where, at the same
time, particles (reinforcement) are injected into the atomized metal and deposited on a
pre-heated substrate placed in the line of flight. A solid deposit is built up on the collector.
The deposited strip, when cold, is moved from the substrate for subsequent rolling. The
shape of the final product depends on the atomizing condition and the shape and the
motion of the collector.

41

Furnace
SiC
Atomiser

Sic injection
Solid deposit

Pressure relief

vents

Collector

spray chamber

Mezanine Floor
To air

Over spray

powder
Reinforced wall

Cyclone
Collector

Over spray
powder

Floor

Fig.10

2.7.4

Schematic of spray deposition equipment

Stir casting
Stir-casting techniques shown in Fig.11 are currently the simplest and

most commercial method of production of MMCs. This approach involves mechanical

mixing of the reinforcement particulate into a molten metal bath and transferred the
mixture directly to a shaped mould prior to complete solidification. In this process, the
crucial thing is to create good wetting between the particulate reinforcement and the
molten metal.
.

Microstructural inhomogeneties can cause notably particle agglomeration

and sedimentation in the melt and subsequently during solidification. Inhomogeneity in

reinforcement distribution in these cast composites could also be a problem as a result of
interaction between suspended ceramic particles and moving solid-liquid interface during

42

solidification. This process has major advantage that the production costs of MMCs are
very low.

Motor

Screw

Drive
Stirrer

Furnace
Crucible

Molten metal
Bottom pouring
system

Fig.11

MMC by casting route through Stir Casting method

2.7.5 Compocasting
Other than PM, thermal spraying, diffusion bonding and high-pressure
squeeze casting, this is the most economical method of fabricating a composite with
discontinuous fibres (chopped fibre, whisker and particulate). This process is the
improved process of slush- or stir-casting.
A schematic of the compo casting equipment used to fabricate the
composites is shown in Fig.12. The apparatus consists of an induction power supply (50
kW, 3000 Hz), a water-cooled vacuum chamber with its associated mechanical and
diffusion pumps and a crucible and mixing assembly for agitation of the composites.
First, a metal alloy is placed in the system with the blade assembly in place. Then the
chamber is evacuated and the alloy is superheated above its melting temperature and

43

stirring is initiated by the DC motor to homogenize the temperature. The induction power
is lowered gradually until the alloy is 40 to 50% solid, at which point the non-metallic
particles are added to the slurry, However, the temperature is raised during adding in such
a way that the total amount of solid, which consists of fibres and solid globules of the
slurry, does not exceed 50%. Stirring is continued until interface interactions between the
particulates and the matrix promote wetting.The melt is then superheated to above its
liquid temperature and bottom poured into the graphite mould by raising the blade
assembly. The melt containing the non-metallic particles is then transferred into the lower
die-half of the press and the top die is brought down to shape and solidify the Composite
by applying the pressure. This is using to make the composite of the highest values of
volume fractions of reinforcement.
D. C. motor

sight port
rotation

shaft and blade assembly

bearing
Feeder trough

Thermo couple

Power cables

motor and feeder control

inlet
water cooled
induction coils
outlet
water cooled stainless
insulation

water cooled

steel chamber

Graphite mould
stand

Fig. 12.

Compocasting: mixing fibres (or Particulates) with metal

44

2.8 FABRICATION METHODS OF PMCs

There are two general divisions of composites manufacturing processes: open
molding and closed molding. With open molding, the gel coat and laminate are exposed
to the atmosphere during the fabrication process. In closed molding, the composite is
processed in a two-part mold set, or within a vacuum bag. There are a variety of
processing methods within the open and closed molding categories:
a) Open Molding Method: Hand Lay-Up, Spray-Up, Filament Winding
b) Closed Molding Method: Compression molding, Pultrusion, Vacuum Bag Molding,
Vacuum Infusion Processing, Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)

2.8.1 Open Molding

Open molding process is saturating fiber reinforcement with resin, using manual
rollout techniques to consolidate the laminate and removing the entrapped air. A major
factor in this operation is the transfer of resin from a drum or storage tanks to the mold.
The means used to transport the resin, in many cases, characterizes the specific process
method.
a) Hand Lay Up
Hand lay-up is an open molding method suitable for making a wide variety of
composites products including: boats, tanks bathware, housings, truck/auto components,
architectural products and many other products ranging from very small to very large.
Production volume per mold is low; however, it is feasible to produce substantial
production quantities using multiple molds. Simple, single-cavity molds of fiberglass
composites construction are generally used.

45

Molds can range from very small to very large and are low cost in the spectrum of soft
composites molds.
Gel coat is first applied to the mold using a spray gun for a high-quality surface.
When the gel coat has cured sufficiently, roll stock fiberglass reinforcement is manually
placed on the mold. The lamination resin is applied by pouring, brushing, spraying, or
using a paint roller. FRP rollers, paint rollers, or squeegees are used to consolidate the
laminate, thoroughly wetting the reinforcement, and removing entrapped air. Subsequent
layers of fiberglass reinforcement are added to build laminate thickness Fig 13.
Simplest method offering low-cost tooling, simple processing and wide range of
part sizes are the major advantages of this process. Design changes are readily made.
There is a minimum investment in equipment. With skilled operators, good production
rates consistent quality is obtainable.

Fig 13 Hand Lay-Up Technique

b) Spray Lay-Up
Spray-up or chopping is similar to hand lay-up in its suitability for making boats,
tanks, transportation components and tub/shower units in a large variety of shapes and
sizes. A chopped laminate has good conformability and is sometimes faster than hand layup in molding complex shapes. In the spray-up process the operator controls thickness
and consistency, therefore the process is more operator dependent than hand lay-up.
Although production volume per mold is low, it is feasible to produce substantial

46

production quantities using multiple molds. As with hand lay-up, gel coat is first applied
to the mold prior to spray-up of the substrate laminate.
Continuous strand glass roving and catalyzed resin are fed through a chopper gun, which
deposits the resin-saturated chop on the mold as shown in fig 14. The laminate is then
rolled to thoroughly saturate the glass strands and compact the chop. Additional layers of
chop laminate are added as required for thickness.

Fig 14 Spray up Technique

c) Filament Winding
Filament winding is an automated open molding process that uses a rotating
mandrel as the mold. The male mold configuration produces a finished inner surface and
a laminated rough surface on the outside diameter of the product. Filament winding
results in a high degree of fiber loading, which provides high tensile strengths in the
manufacture of hollow, generally cylindrical products such as chemical and fuel storage
tanks, pipes, stacks, pressure vessels, and rocket motor cases. Mandrels of suitable size
and shape, made of steel or aluminium form the inner surface of the hollow part. Some
mandrels are collapsible to facilitate part removal.

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Figure 15 shows the schematic picture of a typical filament winding process.

Continuous strand roving is fed through a resin bath and would onto a rotating mandrel.
The roving feed runs on a trolley that traverses the length of the mandrel. The filament is
laid down in a predetermined geometric pattern to provide maximum strength in the
directions required. When sufficient layers have been applied, the laminate is cured on
the mandrel. The molded part is then stripped from the mandrel. Equipment is available
for filament winding on a continuous basis with two axes winding for pressure cylinders.
This process makes high strength-to-weight ratio laminates and provides a high degree of
control over uniformity and fiber orientation. The filament winding process can be used
to make structures, which are highly engineered and meet strict tolerances. Because
filament winding is automated, the labor factor for filament winding is lower than other
open molding processes.

Fig 15 Filament Winding Process

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2.8.2 Closed Molding Method

a) Compression Molding
Compression molding is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for
molding complex, fiberglass-reinforced plastic parts on a rapid cycle time. There are
several types of compression molding including: sheet molding compound (SMC) which
are, bulk molding compound (BMC), thick molding compound (TMC), and wet lay-up
compression molding.
Compression molding tooling consists of heated metal molds mounted in large
presses. Tooling is usually machined steel or cast alloy molds that can be in either single
or multiple-cavity configurations. Steel molds are hardened and sometimes chrome plated
for enhanced durability. The molds are heated using steam, hot oil, or electricity. Side
cores, provisions for inserts, and other refinements are often employed. Mold materials
include cast of forged steel, cast iron, and cast aluminum.
The mold set is mounted in a hydraulic or mechanical molding press. The molds
are heated to 2500 to 4000 F. A weight charge of molding compound is placed in the open
mold as shown in fig 16. The two halves of the mold are closed and pressure is applied.
Depending on thickness, size, and shape of the part, curing cycles range from less than a
minute to about five minutes. The mold is opened and the finished part is removed.
Typical parts include: automobile components, appliance housings and structural
components, furniture, electrical components, and business machine housings and parts.
Compression molding produces fast molding cycles and high part uniformity. The
process can be automated. Good part design flexibility and features such as inserts, ribs,
bosses, and attachments can be molded in .Good surface finishes are obtainable,

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contributing to lower part finishing cost. Subsequent trimming and machining operations
are minimized in compression molding.

Fig.16 Compression Molding Technique

b) Pultrusion
Pultrusion is a continuous process for the manufacture of products having a
constant cross section, such as rod stock, structural shapes, beams channels, pipe, tubing,
fishing rods, and golf club shafts. Pultrusion produces profiles with extremely high fiber
loading, thus pultruded products have high structural properties. Hardened steel dies are
machined and include a perform area to do the initial shaping of the resin- saturated
roving. The dies include heating which can be electric or hot oil. The latest pultrusion
technology uses direct injection dies, in which the resin is introduced inside the die,
rather than through an external resin bath, which may be called as partial RTM.
Continuous strand fiberglass roving, mat, cloth, or surfacing veil is impregnated
in a resin bath, then pulled (pul-trusion) through a steel die, by a powerful tractor
mechanism (Refer fig17). The steel die consolidates the saturated reinforcement, sets the
shape of the stock, and controls the fiber/resin ratio. The die is heated to rapidly cure the

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resin. Many creels (balls) of roving are positioned on a rack, and a complex series of
tensioning devices and roving guides direct the roving into the die.
The process is a continuous operation that can be readily automated. It is
adaptable to both simple and complex cross-sectional shapes. Very high strengths are
possible due to the fiber loading and labor costs are low.

Fig 17 Pultrusion Process

c) Vacuum Bag Molding
The mechanical properties of open-mold laminates can be improved with vacuum
bagging. By reducing the pressure inside the vacuum bag, external atmospheric pressure
exerts force on the bag. The pressure on the laminate removes entrapped air, excess resin,
and compacts the laminate. Vacuum bagging can be used with wet-lay laminates and
prepreg advanced composites. In wet lay-up bagging the reinforcement is saturated using
hand lay-up, then the vacuum bag is mounted on the mold and used to compact the
laminate and remove air voids. In the case of pre-impreg advanced composites molding,
the prepreg material is laid-up on the mold, the vacuum bag is mounted and the mold is
heated or the mold is placed in an autoclave that applies both heat and external pressure,
adding to the force of atmospheric pressure. The prepreg-vacuum bag-autoclave method
is most often used to create advanced composites used in aircraft and military products.
Molds are similar to those used for conventional open-mold processes.

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In the simplest form of vacuum bagging, a flexible film (PVA, nylon, mylar, or
polyethylene) is placed over the wet lay-up, the edges sealed, and a vacuum drawn. A
more advanced form of vacuum bagging places a release film over the laminate, followed
by a bleeder ply of fiberglass cloth, non-woven nylon, polyester cloth, or other material
that absorbs excess resin from the laminate. Fig 18 shows the schematic picture of
vacuum bag molding process. A breather ply of a non-woven fabric is placed over the
bleeder ply, and the vacuum bag is mounted over the entire assembly. Pulling a vacuum
from within the bag uses atmospheric pressure to eliminate voids and force excess resin
from the laminate. The addition of pressure further results in high fiber concentration and
provides better adhesion between layers of sandwich construction. When laying noncontoured sheets of PVC foam or balsa into a female mold, vacuum bagging is the
technique of choice to ensure proper secondary bonding of the core to the outer laminate.
Vacuum bag processing can produce laminates with a uniform degree of
consolidation, while at the same time removing entrapped air, thus reducing the finished
void content. Structures fabricated with traditional hand lay-up techniques can become
resin rich and vacuum bagging can eliminate the problem. Additionally, complete fiber
wet-out can be accomplished if the process is done correctly. Improved core-bonding is
also possible with vacuum bag processing.

Fig 18 Vacuum Bag Molding

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d) Vacuum Infusion Processing

Vacuum infusion is a variation of vacuum bagging where the resin is introduced
into the mold after the vacuum has pulled the bag down and compacted the laminate. The
method is defined as having lower than atmospheric pressure in the mold cavity. The
reinforcement and core material are laid-up dry in the mold. This is done by hand and
provides the opportunity to precisely position the reinforcement. When the resin is pulled
into the mold the laminate is already compacted; therefore, there is no room for excess
resin. Very high resin to glass ratio are possible with vacuum infusion and the mechanical
properties of the laminate are superior. Vacuum infusion is suitable to mold very large
structures and is considered a low volume molding process. Molds are similar to those
used for conventional open-mold processes.
The mold may be gel coated in the tradition fashion. After the gel coat cures, the
dry reinforcement is positioned in the mold. This includes all the plies of the laminate and
core material if required. A perforated release film is placed over the dry reinforcement.
Next a flow media consisting of a course mesh or a crinkle ply is positioned, and
perforated tubing is positioned as a manifold to distribute resin across the laminate. The
vacuum bag is then positioned and sealed at the mold perimeter. A tube is connected
between the vacuum, bag and the resin container. A vacuum is plied to consolidate the
laminate and the resin is pulled into the mold (fig 19).
Vacuum infusion can produce laminates with a uniform degree of consolidation,
producing high strength, lightweight structures. This process uses the same low cost
tooling as open molding and requires minimal equipment. Very large structures can be
fabricated using this method. Vacuum infusion offers a substantial emissions reduction
compared to either open molding or wet lay-up vacuum bagging.

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Fig 19 Vacuum Infusion Process

e) Resin Transfer Molding
Resin transfer molding is an intermediate volume molding process for producing
composites. The RTM process is to inject resin under pressure into a mold cavity.
Vacuum assist can be used to enhance resin flow in the mold cavity. RTM can use a wide
variety of tooling, ranging from low cost composite molds to temperature controlled
metal tooling. RTM can utilize either hard or soft tooling, depending upon the
expected duration of the run. Soft tooling would be either polyester or epoxy molds,
while hard tooling may consist of cast machined aluminum, electroformed nickel shell, or
machined steel molds. RTM can take advantage of the broadest range of tooling.
Figure 20 shows the picture of resin transfer molding process of polyester resin
with peroxide catalyst. The mold set is gel coated conventionally, if required. The
reinforcement (and core material) is positioned in the mold and the mold is closed and
clamped. The resin is injected under pressure, using mix/meter injection equipment, and
the part is cured in the mold. The reinforcement can be either a preform or pattern cut roll
stock material. Performs are reinforcement that is pre-formed in a separate process and
can be quickly positioned in the mold. RTM can be done at room temperature; however,
heated molds are required to achieve fast cycle times and product consistency.
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This closed molding process produces parts with two finished surfaces. By laying
up reinforcement material dry inside the mold, any combination of materials and
orientation can be used, including 3-D reinforcements. Part thickness is determined by
the tool cavity.

Fig 20 Resin Transfer Molding

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