Newtonian Potensial

Fig.gravitational effects observed at point P due to imfinity extended body.

where S in this case represents the cross - selectional area of the twodimensional source. As
, the inner integral becomes the logarithmic potential of a wire with , and the potential of the
twodimensional distribution is given by
The gradient of equation 3.21 provides the gravitational attraction
which is perpendicular to the body. Because density is independent of the long dimension of the
body, it isi sometimes expressed as mass per cross - sectional are (S), where has dimensions of
length.
Equations 3.21 and 3.22 represent the Newtonian potential and attraction, respectively, of an
infinitely long body. The attraction also can be considered as originating from a special kindy of
source: a two-dimensional wafer corresponding to the intersection of the body with the x , y
plane (Figure 3.7). The attraction due to each element dS of the wafer is proportional to p (S)
anda inversely proportional to distance.
3.4 Gauss's Law for Gravity Fields
Fig. 3.7. Gravitational attraction of a two-dimensional body can be considered to originate from
a special kind of source located in the x , y plane. Each element of the body has an attraction
inversely proportional to distance.

Two-dimensional objects are generally easier to visualize than three-dimensional ones. Happily,
certain geologic features, such as fault contacts and synclines, sometimes can be approximated
by two-dimensional shapes there by simplifying the interpretive process. In Chapter 9, we will
describe the computation of the gravitational attraction of two-dimensional models with known
cross section.
3.4 Gauss's Law for Gravity Fields
Consider a region R bounded by surface S. Gauss's law states that the total mass in a region is
proportional to the normal component of gravitational attraction integrated over the closed
boundary of the region. This can be seen by first applying the divergence theorem (Appendix A)
to the normal component of gravity,
and then substituting Poisson's differential equation,
Newtonian Potential
Fig. 3.8. An application of Gauss's law to find total excess mass. Gravity measurements are made
on a horizontal surface Sp above all masses.
where MT is the total mass. This relationship provides an important constraint in geophysical
interpretations of gravity data, as we shall see in future chapters.
A well-known geophysical application of Gauss's lau is the estimation of total excess mass below
a surface on which the normal component of gravity is known (e.g., Hammer [109], LaFehr
[152]). Suppose that the vertical component of gravitu gz is known over a horizontal surface Sp,
as shown in Figure 3.8. All mass causing gz is bounded in volume and located below Sp. The
mass is enclosed by surface S, which is composed of Sp plus the z > 0 hemlsphere SH of radius
a, as shown in Figure 3.8. The left side of equation 3.23 becomes
The potential of a volume distribution as viewed at a great distance is not dependent on the
details of the distribution; that is, at large distances,
3.5 Green's Equivalent Layer
where again MT is the total mass. In other words, the potential of any bounded mass distribution
appears as a point source when viewed sufficiently far away. Hence, as a _> ~, r^2 du/dr can be
moved outside the last integral of equation 3.24, and
Combining with equation 3.23 provide
where Sp now includes the entire horizontal plane.
Hence, the vertical component of graviry integrated over an infinite plane is proportional to the
total mass below the plane, so long as the mass is bounded in volume. In principle, equation 3.25
provides a way to estimate the total excess mass causing an anomaly in measured gravity if we
can successfully isolate the field of the anomalous mass from all other gravitational sources. No
assumptions are required about the shape of the source or how the density is distributed, so long
as it is small with respect to the dimensions of the survey.

This may seem simple enough, but Gauss's lau has many limitations in such applications.
Gravity surveys are never available over infinite planes. The best that we can hope for is that the
survey extends well beyond the localized sources of interest. Unfortunately, isolated sources
never exist in nature, by the masses of interest from anomalies caused by all other local and
regional sources. We'll have more to say about this problem of ''regional-residual'' separation in a
later chapter.
3.5 Green's Equivalent Layer
An argument was presented in Section 2.1.3 on the basis of Green's third identity that any given
potential has an infinite variety of consistent boundary conditions. Here we carry that point a
little further and show that a gravitational potential caused by a three-dimensional density
distribution is identical to the potential caused by a surface density spread over any of its
equipotential surfaces (Ramsey [235]).
Let Se be a closed equipotential surface resulting from a distribution of mass with density p, and
let R represent the region inside Se . The gravitational potential is observed at point P outside of
Se. Green's second identity (Section 2.1.2) is given by
where U and V are any function with partial derivatives of first anda second order. Now let U be
the potential of the mass and let V = 1/ r , where r represents the distance away from P. Because P
is located outside the region, the second identity reduces to
where Uz is the constant potential of the equipotential surface. The first integral on the righthand side provides
The left-hand side of equation 3.26 is the potential of the density distribution observed at P. The
right-hand side is the potential at P of a surface distribution o spread ove Se, where o =
.
Hence, from the perspective of point P, the potential caused by a three-dimensional density
distribution is indistinguishable from a thin layer of mass spread ove any of its equipotential
surfaces. This relationship is called Green's equivalent layer.
Furthermore, the total mass of the body is equivalent to the total mass of the equivalent layer.
This can be seen by integrating the surface density over the entire surface and applying the
divergence theorem (Appendix A), that is,
Green's equivalent layer is of more than just academic interest. It shows that a potential can be
caused by an infinite variety of sources, thus demonstrating the nonuniqueness of causative mass
distributions. In later chapters, wi will discuss applications of equivalent layers to the
interpretation of gravity and magnetic data. The fact that the equivalent layer may have no
resemblance to the true source will be of no importance in those applications. These hypothetical
sources simply prove to be handy tools in manipulating the potential field.
3.6 Problem Set
1. Starting with the equivalent for gravitational attraction outside a uniform sphere, derive the ''
infinite slab formula ''
g = 2 (3.27)

where p and t are the density and thickness of the slab, respectively, and k is a unit vector
directed vertically down. (Hint : Use superposition of two spheres and let their radii > tak
terhingga.)
2. A nonzera density distribution that produces no eksternal field for a particular source geometry
is called an annihilator (Parker [207]). The annihilator quantitatively describes the
nonuniqueness of potential field data because any amount of the annihilator can be added to a
possible solution without effecting the field of the source. Find a simple annihilator p for a
spherical mass of radius a a as viewed from outside the sphere. (Hint: Let p represent density
contrast so that p can reach negative values.)
3. Let the radius and density of the earth be represented by a and p, respectively.
Newtonian Potential
(a) Show that the initial rate of decrease in g in descending a mine shaft is equal to g/a if p is
constant.
(b) Assume that the earth has a spherical core of radius b and density Pc # p. Show that
where xg/a is the initial rate of decrease of g in descending the shaft.
4. Use subroutine B.1 (Appendix B) to write a program that calculates the vertical attraction og
gravity along a horizontal profile directly over a buried sphere.
(a) Use the program to verify that the shape (but not the amplitude) of the profile is independent
of the sphere's radius.
(b) The horizontal profile has two points at which the horizontal gradient is maximum. Derive an
expression for the depth d to the center of the sphere in terms of the horizontal separation of
these two maximum horizontal gradients.
(c) Use the program to verify the answer in part (b)
5. An alluvium-filled basin lies within an otherwise homogeneous plain. Surrounding crustal
rocks have a density everywhere of pc. The thickness of the basin (i.e., the depth to basement) is
D . At the surface, the alluvium has a density of pa. The density of the basin, however, varies
with depth because of compaction of the alluvium. The density of the alluvium at the surface is
pa, but the density contrast Ap between alluvium and surrounding rocks descreases exponentially
with increasing depth according to the equation
where d is depth below the surface and Apo = pa - pc. The horizontal dimensions of the basin are
much larger than its depth, so the shape of the basin can be approximated as an infinite slab.
(a) Consider the gravitational attraction g measured above the center of the basin. Show that g
reaches a limiting value as D increases.
(b) What is this limit in terms of pa, pc, and lamda?
(c) Based on these result, discuss the limitations in trying to determine D from g for deep basins.