MEM05 Metal and Engineering

Training Package

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MEM05026C
Apply welding principles

Learner guide

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Version 2

Training and Education Support

Industry Skills Unit
Meadowbank

Product Code: 5807

MEM05026C Apply welding principles

Acknowledgments

The TAFE NSW Training and Education Support Industry Skills Unit, Meadowbank
would like to acknowledge the support and assistance of the following organisations
and people in the production of this learner guide.
BOC Gases Australia
CIGWELD/Thermadyne Australia
Fronius Australia
Lincoln Electric Company Australia
Silverwater Welding Supplies
Standards Australia
Welding Industries of Australia

Writers:

Ed Harkness (From existing TAFE publications)

Stephen Davies (TES Industry Skills Unit)

Reviewers:

Stephen Davies
Education Programs Manager
TAFE NSW

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Enquiries

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Project Manager:

John Anderson (Hunter Institute)

Vince Aranda (Illawarra Institute)
Peter Stauffer (Hunter Institute)

Enquiries about this and other publications can be made to:

Training and Education Support Industry Skills Unit, Meadowbank

Meadowbank TAFE
Level 3, Building J,
See Street,
MEADOWBANK NSW 2114

Tel: 02-9942 3200

Fax: 02-9942 3257

TAFE NSW (Training and Education Support, Industry Skills Unit

Meadowbank) 2014
Copyright of this material is reserved to TAFE NSW Training and Education
Support, Industry Skills Unit Meadowbank. Reproduction or transmittal in whole
or in part, other than for the purposes of private study or research, and subject to
the provisions of the Copyright Act, is prohibited without the written authority of
TAFE NSW Training and Education Support, Industry Skills Unit Meadowbank.

ISBN: 978-1-74236-515-2

TAFE NSW (Training & Education Support Industry Skills Unit, Meadowbank) 2014

MEM05026C Apply welding principles

Table of Contents
Introduction.................................................................................. 11
1. General introduction............................................................................ 11
2. Using this learner guide........................................................................ 11
3. Prior knowledge and experience............................................................ 13
4. Unit of competency overview................................................................ 13

Topic 1: Welding regulations......................................................... 21

Introduction........................................................................................... 21
Workplace health and safety (WHS) .......................................................... 23
Review questions.................................................................................... 24

Topic 2: Welding safety................................................................. 27

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Introduction........................................................................................... 27
Hazards................................................................................................. 27
Hazardous locations ................................................................................ 28
Industrial gas cylinders............................................................................ 34

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Scaffolding ............................................................................................ 37
Skin and eye damage prevention .............................................................. 38
Protective clothing and equipment (PPE) ................................................... 39
X-ray and gamma-ray radiation................................................................. 40
Industrial injuries.................................................................................... 40
Review questions.................................................................................... 41

Topic 3: Electrical terms................................................................ 45

Introduction........................................................................................... 45
Types of welding current.......................................................................... 46
Alternating current ................................................................................. 47
High frequency machines (HF).................................................................. 49
Constant current (drooping voltage) welding machine.................................. 50
Constant potential welding machine........................................................... 51
Motor generators.................................................................................... 51
Other equipment..................................................................................... 54

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MEM05026C Apply welding principles

Topic 4: Arc welding conditions..................................................... 63

Introduction........................................................................................... 63
Current/amperage................................................................................... 63
Polarity.................................................................................................. 65
Review questions.................................................................................... 69

Topic 5: Manual metal arc welding electrodes............................... 71

Introduction........................................................................................... 71
Covered electrodes.................................................................................. 71
Electrode classification............................................................................. 72
Type of flux coatings................................................................................ 75

Storage, handling and conditioning electrodes............................................. 78

Review questions.................................................................................... 81

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Topic 6: Elements in carbon steel.................................................. 83

Introduction........................................................................................... 83
Weldability of carbon steels...................................................................... 83
Influence of elements on weldability of carbon steels................................... 86

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Review questions.................................................................................... 89

Topic 7: Heat treatment ............................................................... 93

Introduction........................................................................................... 93
Effects of welding heat on carbon steels .................................................... 94
Effects of heat on mechanical properties..................................................... 95
Heat treatments method.......................................................................... 95
Heating methods .................................................................................... 98
Temperature measuring devices...............................................................101
Review questions...................................................................................104

Topic 8: Welding terms and symbols........................................... 107

Introduction..........................................................................................107
Types of welds ......................................................................................107
Parts of a weld and general terms............................................................108
Parts of a preparation.............................................................................111

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MEM05026C Apply welding principles

Weld positions.......................................................................................113
Welding symbols....................................................................................115
Review questions...................................................................................121

Topic 9: Preparing weld joints..................................................... 125

Introduction..........................................................................................125
Types of edge preparations......................................................................126
Fusible inserts.......................................................................................129
Methods of preparing joints.....................................................................130
Jigs and fixtures.....................................................................................131
Review questions...................................................................................132

Topic 10: Metal cutting and gouging............................................ 135

Introduction..........................................................................................135

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Preparing metal parts for welding.............................................................135

Guided cutting.......................................................................................140
Oxygen-fuel gas gouging.........................................................................142
Applications...........................................................................................142

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Automated thermal cutting .....................................................................145

Electrode holder.....................................................................................153
Operating techniques..............................................................................154
Plasma arc cutting..................................................................................155
Hazards................................................................................................161
Maintenance of equipment.......................................................................162
Mechanical cutting..................................................................................162
Review questions...................................................................................164

Topic 11: Welding procedures..................................................... 167

Introduction..........................................................................................167
Proving a welding procedure....................................................................167
Types of procedures...............................................................................168
Review questions...................................................................................174

Topic 12: Weld testing................................................................. 177

Introduction..........................................................................................177

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MEM05026C Apply welding principles

Types of weld testing..............................................................................177

Destructive testing.................................................................................177
Non-destructive testing methods..............................................................184
Weld faults............................................................................................188

Topic 13: Welding alloy steels..................................................... 199

Introduction..........................................................................................199
Physical and Mechanical properties...........................................................199
Alloy steels............................................................................................199
Effects of alloying elements on steel.........................................................203
Welding processes for joining low alloy steels.............................................208

Welding processes for HSLS.....................................................................209

Review questions...................................................................................214

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Topic 14: Non-ferrous metals...................................................... 219

Introduction..........................................................................................219
Aluminium and aluminium alloys..............................................................219
Copper and copper alloys........................................................................225

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Nickel and nickel alloys...........................................................................228

Cutting non-ferrous metals......................................................................230
Safety precautions.................................................................................231
Review questions...................................................................................233

Topic 15: Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)............................... 237

The process...........................................................................................237
Equipment............................................................................................239
Polarity/current......................................................................................249
Weld defects..........................................................................................253
GTAW safety..........................................................................................255
Review questions...................................................................................257

Topic 16: Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and

Flux cored arc welding (FCAW).................................... 261
Introduction..........................................................................................261
The GMAW process.................................................................................261

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MEM05026C Apply welding principles

Welding guns.........................................................................................264
Welding variables...................................................................................267
Correcting weld and machine faults..........................................................278
Safety..................................................................................................280
Flux cored arc welding (FCAW).................................................................281
Flux cored wires.....................................................................................282
Shielding gases......................................................................................286
Review questions...................................................................................287
How the process works...........................................................................291
Equipment ...........................................................................................291

Consumables.........................................................................................296
SAW variables........................................................................................297

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Edge preparations..................................................................................300
Typical SAW faults..................................................................................303
Safety .................................................................................................304
Electro-slag welding (consumable guide)...................................................306

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Topic 18: Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)...................................... 311

The OAW process...................................................................................311
Equipment for OAW................................................................................312
Welding torches.....................................................................................318
OAW weld faults.....................................................................................324
Low temperature welding processes..........................................................324
Consumables.........................................................................................326
Uses.....................................................................................................327

Resource Evaluation Form........................................................... 333

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MEM05026C Apply welding principles

Recognition of prior learning (RPL)

RPL is not applicable for this competency unit. MEM05026C Apply welding principles
is a welder certification unit and therefore will require candidates to formally
undertake an externally set examination as previously indicated.
This unit, along with all other AS 1796 Certifications require a formal examination
/ assessment process as outlined in section 2 of the Standard. Students who have
successfully achieved a TAFE NSW AS 1796 Certification are eligible to receive
full recognition for certificates 1-9 from external industry associations such as the
Australian Welding Institute (AWI) and Welding Technology Institute of Australia
(WTIA). For detailed information on recognition procedures, students will need to
contact either or both of the two industry associations on their respective websites:
http://www.austwelding.com.au/ and
http://www.wtia.com.au/

Unit parthway

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MEM05026C Apply welding principles is a unit in the MEM05, Metal Engineering

Industry Training Package. It is a unit of study in Certificate III and IV in
Engineering and Diploma in Engineering-Advanced Trade. It may also be selected
as a unit of study in other Engineering courses, packaged to include a group of
fabrication and specialist units.

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In conjunction with further units of study, welder certification provides students with
the knowledge and skills to carry out first class welding operations in an engineering
workshop or site. A pathway of training in the use of applying welding principles
could include the following competency units:

MEM05042B
Perform
weld to code
stnadards
using FCAW

MEM05043B
Perform
welds to code
standards
using GMAW

MEM05044B
Perform
welding
to code
standards
using GTAW

MEM05045B
Perform pipe
welds to code
standards
using MMAW

MEM05046B
Perform
weld to code
standards
using MMAW

MEM05026C
Apply Welding
Principles

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MEM05026C Apply welding principles

Elements and performance criteria:

Element

Performance criteria

1. Apply all statutory and

regulatory requirements
to welding procedures.

1.1. Statutory and safety requirements are applied

to welding

2. Interpret all welding

terms, codes and
symbols.

2.1. Welding terms and symbols are correctly

interpreted.

3. Determine the effects of

heat treatment on metal
in relation to welding.

3.1. Reasons for performing heat treatment are

identified.
3.2. Processes such as pre-heat/post-heat
treatment, stress relieving, normalising and
annealing are appropriately applied.

Required knowledge and skills

The following describes the knowledge and skills required for this unit. These
include:

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Required knowledge:

Any applicable industry standards, national/Australian standards, NOHSC guidelines, state/territory regulatory codes of practice/standards for the applicable
welding processes
Safe work practices and procedures

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Hazards related to welding

Safety equipment and procedures related to welding activities

Welding terminology

Welding codes and symbols

Logical sequence of welding processes

Tools, equipment, techniques used in welding
Effect of heat treatment on metal.

Required skills
Interpreting welding specifications including terms, codes and symbols
Planning the sequence of welding operations

Access and equity considerations

All workers in Metal and Engineering industries should be aware of access,
equity and human rights issues in relation to their own area of work
All workers should develop their ability to work in a culturally diverse
environment
In recognition of particular issues facing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
communities, workers should be aware of cultural, historical and current issues
impacting on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people

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Assessors and trainers must take into account relevant access and equity issues,
in particular relating to factors impacting on Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait
Islander clients and communities.

Work health and safety (WHS)

Your teacher will encourage you to assist in identifying/eliminating hazards and to
devise control measures for potential risks to yourself and others that may arise
during practical sessions. The Work, Health and Safety Act 2011 (WHS Act) and
WHS Regulations are enforced throughout all Australian States and Territories.
This legislation is aimed at providing consistency, certainty and clarity across
Australia making it easy to understand workplace health and safety responsibilities.
The WHS Act and its regulations will require both teachers and learners to take
reasonable steps to control and monitor potential risks in the classroom, practical
workshops and in the workplace. Detailed information relating to the WHS Act and
regulations can be found on the following websites:

WorkCover Authority of NSW www.workcover.nsw.gov.au

What you will need

Students will require the following:

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Pens, pencils and calculator

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Safe Work Australia www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au

Learner resource MEM05026C Apply welding principles

Wallet card

Upon successful completion of this knowledge based unit and at least one (1) of the
following practical competency units (see list below) you will be eligible to receive a
TAFE NSW issued wallet card which recognises your certification to AS 1796.
MEM05042B Perform welds to code standards using flux core arc welding
process
MEM05043B Perform welds to code standards using gas metal arc welding
process
MEM05044B Perform welds to code standards using gas tungsten arc welding
process.
MEM05045B Perform pipe welds to code standards using manual metal arc
welding process
MEM05046B Perform welds to code standards using manual metal arc welding
process.

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MEM05026C Apply welding principles

X-ray and gamma-ray radiation

Some non-destructive weld testing methods involves radiography. Radiographic
testing is done by trained personnel who are responsible for ensuring the area
is safety-signposted. All other persons must remain outside the designated area
during testing. Exposure to radiographic rays can cause long term damage and must
be avoided at all times.

Canary
yellow

Black

Industrial injuries

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Radiation warning symbol

While good housekeeping and safe work practices prevent most industrial accidents,
injuries sometimes happen. Typical industrial injuries include:

cuts

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burns (minor and major)

abrasions

bone fractures

neck and spinal damage.

Many cuts burns and abrasions are minor and are treated with little loss of work
time. However all injuries, no matter how small, should be reported to the first aid
officer to help plan future safety procedures.
More serious injuries should be treated by qualified personnel. On-the-spot first aid
should not be a substitute for qualified assistance. The following steps, in the event
of an accident are a guide only:
act quickly
switch off any electrical circuits involved
do not touch burns or remove clothing from burnt areas
send for medical assistance
stay with the victim at all times
never move the victim if a back or neck injury is suspected.

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Review questions
These questions have been included to help you revise what you have learnt in
Topic 2: Welding safety.
Short-answer questions
1. List four (4) sources of fumes generated from thermal cutting or welding
operations.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. List three (3) precautions that must be taken when welding in a confined space.

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_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

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_______________________________________________________________

3. Explain how gas cylinders should be supported when they are lifted by a crane.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

4. Briefly explain why MMAW electrodes must be removed from holders when hung
on scaffold staging where there are wire ropes.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
5. Name three (3) harmful rays emitted from an electric arc.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

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MEM05026C Apply welding principles

Multiple choice questions (tick the correct answer)

6. The first precaution against fire or explosion in a hazardous location is:

no welding or cutting is permitted

high frequency equipment must not be used
there must be an inspection of the area
the tradesperson must hold a current pressure welding certificate

7. The background colour of the identifying shoulder label on an oxygen cylinder is:

red
white
yellow
green

degreasing before welding

adequate ventilation
workers to take salt tablets regularly to avoid dehydration
small diameter electrodes to be used

9. Welding filter lens must be:

shade 13 minimum
approved and identified by Australian Standards
made in Australia
green

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8. Confined spaces require:

10. The primary circuit, high frequency units and welding leads:

are serviced by welding tradespersons

are safe to use in wet conditions
can be assumed free of all hazards
can all be hazardous

True or False questions (circle the correct response)

11. A container that has held flammable or toxic materials must be examined by a
responsible person before welding.
True False
12. All lead lighting in confined spaces must be 32 volts maximum.
True False

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13. Acetylene cylinders are colour coded peacock blue.

True False

14. Radiographic weld tests present no danger to the operator.

True False

15. LPG is a fuel gas.

True False

16. Argon cylinders are fitted with right hand threaded connections.

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True False

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MEM05026C Apply welding principles

Topic 3: Electrical terms

Introduction
Welding operators must have a basic knowledge of electricity and understand the
electrical requirements of various arc welding processes. This topic is intended to
assist you understand the basic terminology and application of electricity associated
with arc welding processes. The electrical terms in common use are briefly
explained below:

Current (Symbol I or A)
Also referred to as amperage, current is the measurement of electron flow through
a given circuit. The term current measures the amount of electricity that flows
through a circuit in a second. The level of current supplies the heat energy required
for welding. An amp is a unit of electric current.

Voltage (Symbol V or E)

Resistance (Symbol O or )

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Voltage or electric potential is the driving force (force or pressure) that enables a
current to flow within an electrical circuit. A volt is a unit of electric pressure.

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Resistance is the restriction to current flow in an electrical circuit. Every component

in the circuit, including the conductor, has some degree of resistance to current
flow. The unit of resistance is the ohm. The welding arc has its heat energy released
and resulting high temperature from the resistance in the arc column.

Open circuit voltage (OCV)

Open circuit voltage is the potential available when the welding machine is turned
on but before the arc is struck. The OCV can be measured with a voltmeter at the
output terminals of the welding machine before welding takes place. The level of
OCV is carefully controlled by manufacturers of welding machines to avoid electric
shock to the operator. Modern machines are fitted with a voltage reduction device
(VRD) to provide added safety to the operator.
Examples of open circuit voltages:
a.c. manual arc welding machines 50-80 OCV (80 volts maximum)
d.c. manual arc welding machines 60-115 OCV (115 volts maximum).
Some types of a.c. manual metal arc welding machines have dual OCV ranges.
These machines allow the operator to deal with a wider range of situations, such as:
the use of small diameter electrodes which require a high OCV and low
current
special electrode types such as hydrogen controlled, have basic fluxes. They
can be difficult to strike and require a high OCV between 70-80 volts to
establish the arc
large electrodes with larger cross sectional area require less OCV.

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Arc voltage
Arc voltage is the measure of voltage across a welding machines terminals while the
machine is working and welding is taking place. The arc voltage for most machines
is in the range of 20-35 volts.

Voltage reduction device(VRD)

VRD stands for voltage reduction device and is safety device fitted to a welding
machine. The purpose of a VRD is to reduce the maximum unloaded open circuit
voltage (OCV) across the machines terminals to a safe voltage. When a welding
circuit resistance is greater than 200 ohms (for example when touching the human
body) the machine's VRD will sense this and limit the OCV to around 12 volts.

Types of welding current

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Direct current

When a load less than 200 ohms resistance is applied to the machines output, the
VRD will sense this and allow the machines maximum OCV to flow to enable welding
to take place. Australian Standards 1674.2 2003 states the voltage across the
machines terminals must be less than 35 volts for d.c. and 25 volts for a.c.

When the electrons move in the same direction at all times, this is called direct
current (d.c.).

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In a direct current machine, the electrons flow constantly from the terminal marked
negative (-) to the terminal marked positive (+).
The way these terminals are connected to the welding circuit determines the
polarity of the connection.

Time
Direct current
The diagram above shows the current and voltage delivered over a period of time.
The level stays constant because the current flows in only one direction.
Australian Standard 1101.3-2005 defines this as either electrode positive or
electrode negative. The word pole simply means the end of the arc polarity
means which terminal is connected to the electrode end of the arc.

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The normal connection is electrode negative (-) because of the direction of electron
flow, the job is at the positive (+) receiving end of the electron flow in the arc and
more heat is released at that point.
Heat distribution in a direct current arc is approximately 2/3rds at the positive pole
and 1/3rd at the negative pole. For this reason, consumable wire electrodes such
as those used with the GMAW process are connected to the positive (+) terminal to
allow the wire to rapidly melt-off to form the weld.
When using the GTAW process the opposite is in place, the non-consumable
tungsten electrode is connected to the negative (-) terminal. This arrangement
allows 2/3rds of the heat energy to flow from the electrode tip into the workpiece
where it is required.

Alternating current

Time

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When the electron flow reverses its direction at regular intervals, it is called an
alternating current (a.c.). Australian standard cycle time for alternating current is
50 cycles per second, or 50Hz (hertz).

1 cycle = 1/50 of a second or 20 ms

Typical a.c. sine wave

The current acts for the same length of time for both the positive (+) and negative
(-) parts of the cycle (10ms) ie. the time distribution between positive and negative
is 50/50. This gives a 50/50 heat distribution as well.

a.c. phases

The single wave graph shown below illustrates a single alternating current phase.
This is the type of current available from a 240v power point. Power generation
plants that supply mains power, deliver three phase current to make better use of
the distribution system.

Single
phase
ACa.c.
Single
phase
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The main industrial supply is 415v 3-phase. Some of the transformer type welding
machines will only use 415v single phase input. This is clearly marked on power
source compliance plates, which also gives the rating and duty cycle of the machine.

ThreeThree
phasephase
AC a.c.
Rectified a.c.

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a.c. can be changed to d.c. by passing the current through a heavy-duty

semi-conducting diode. This will allow the current to pass in one direction but not in
the reverse. The result is a single-directional current flow.

Single diode rectifier

The graph shown above is for a single diode rectifier. It only uses one half-cycle
and the full power of the input is not used. This is called half-wave rectification.
If diodes are used in pairs the whole of the ac input is put to use. This called full
wave rectification.

a.c. full-wave single phase

(all available current is used in the negative cycle)
More advanced welding power sources used for MMAW, GMAW and GTAW will use
the full three phases and full wave rectification. Output level is much more steady
and similar to the direct current generator. These machines use a bridge rectifier
which is made up of three diodes to cope with the three phases.

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Typical three phase current

High frequency machines (HF)

Alternating current (ac) welding machines work well when using flux coated
electrodes requiring a current of about 80 amps or more, but when current values
are lowered for smaller electrodes, striking the arc becomes difficult.

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A high frequency (HF) unit generates a high voltage (3000v) but minimal current
at 2 million Hz (2 MHz). This secondary superimposed voltage allows the welding
arc to ignite (strike) without the electrode physically touching the surface of the
job. It will also maintain an arc when the voltage and current values are low. High
frequency current does not add to the heat input of the main welding arc.
Welding leads are covered with a special type of insulation to avoid the high
frequency arc through and to prevent being degraded by the ozone generated in the
corona discharge surrounding them while the current is flowing.

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High frequency is used for:

welding with small diameter electrodes

gas tungsten arc welding with a.c.

initiating an arc when using gas tungsten arc welding with d.c.

High frequency safety

When using high frequency with welding equipment, the operator must take care to
avoid accidental, unintentional arcing causing eye injury. As indicated above, the
arc can start without the electrode physically striking the work surface.
Care should be taken to protect the high frequency unit from wet weather or
moisture conditions as this greatly increases the risk of fatal electric shock. While
high frequency current does not have high amperage it will assist in directing the
main welding current through a persons body.
Electrode leads should be kept clear of metal surfaces as the high frequency pilot
arc will discharge through the insulation causing rubber-covered leads to break
down. Securely fasten the work clamp to the work and ensure that both the work
and work table are isolated from building frames or support structures.
Failure to do this may result in the welding current damaging both the machine and
the primary wiring potentially creating an electrical hazard for workshop personnel.

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Constant current (drooping voltage) welding machine

All manual metal arc welding machines which maintain constant current have a
drooping volt/amp characteristic curve. The open circuit voltage (OCV) is higher
than the voltage needed for welding, but is needed at that value to enable easy
striking of the electrode.
Once the arc is established, the voltage will drop to a pre-set level for welding.
This is called the arc voltage. This characteristic holds the current constant even
during small variations in arc length, which naturally occur because the electrode is
manually fed into the arc.
When the electrode makes contact with the job it results in a short-circuit which
allows maximum current to flow. As the contact is broken the arc establishes and
the pre-set current and voltage come into action for welding.

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Voltage

The graph below shows the volt-amp conditions during welding. It can be seen from
the graph that a comparatively large change in voltage will only have a small effect
on the current setting. This effectively maintains a near-constant current to the arc.

Current (amps)

Volt-amp curve in a drooping voltage machine

Some modern electronically controlled power sources deliver true constant current
whereby a change in arc length results in no change in welding current. A typical
volt-amp characteristic of a true constant current power source is shown in the
diagram below.
U (V)

no change in
welding current
with change
in arc length

I (A)

Constant current power source

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It can be seen that there is no change in welding current despite a change in arc
length.

Constant potential welding machine

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) machines have a relatively flat volt-amp output
curve. These machines have a lower open circuit voltage than those used for
manual metal arc welding and are not suitable for this process.
To produce consistently uniform welds, GMAW power sources must be able to
produce and maintain a constant voltage and arc length throughout the welding
operation. This consistency is achieved by using a constant voltage (CV), also called
constant potential power source in conjunction with a wire feed mechanism.

Constant voltage machines are designed to produce a relatively flat voltage/current

characteristic. For example, as the wire stick out length increases with this type of
machine the welding current will automatically decrease. Conversely, as wire stick
out length decreases, welding current will increase but voltage remains constant.
An example of the flat voltage/current type relationship is illustrated below.
OCV

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Voltage

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Operating point

Current

CV flat volt /current characteristic

Note: Modern inverter power sources can produce drooping and constant potential
power supply depending on the welding process selected.

Motor generators

There are two types of motor generators, these include:

1. 415v mains supply connected to an electric motor which drives a generator
producing a suitable range of welding currents. This type machine features a
variable voltage for finer control over arc conditions.
2. Petrol or diesel engine driven generators produce welding current. Most of the
currently produced by this type of machine is based on heavy-duty alternators.
Current output can be rectified to d.c. as needed.
Both a.c. and d.c. welding supplies are available as welding output current. Many of
them provide auxiliary outlets for power tools and wire feeder units.

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MEM05026C Apply welding principles

Review questions
These questions have been included to help you revise what you have learnt in
Topic 3: elementary electricity.
Short answer questions
1. Define the following electrical terms:
Voltage.
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Amperage.

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Open circuit voltage (OCV).

PL

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SA
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2. Explain why all welding machine terminals must have tight, metal to metal
connections.
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________________________________________________________________

3. Name three (3) types of power sources capable of delivering direct current
(d.c.) for welding.
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MEM05026C Apply welding principles

Multiple choice questions (tick the correct answer).

4. Which of the following power sources does not have a choice of polarity?

rectifier
inverter
transformer
generator

5. Which of the following power sources can be used on locations without on-site
power?
rectifier
inverter
transformer
generator

size of clamp opening

voltage range
size of welding cable
current carrying capacity

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PL

6. Welding work clamps are rated by:

7. A high frequency unit is attached to a welding machine to

increase weld metal deposition

enable the arc to be struck without touching the work
prevent undercut
change a.c. to d.c.

8. An alternating current (a.c.) sine wave has a:

positive half cycle and a negative half cycle

positive cycle only
negative cycle only
flat characteristic

True/false questions (circle the correct response).

9. All welding power sources have the same open circuit voltage.
True False

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MEM05026C Apply welding principles

10. The maximum open circuit voltage for a.c. welding machines is 80v.

True False

11. Voltage is the unit of pressure in an electrical circuit.

True False

12. d.c. inverters can be used for MMAW, GTAW and GMAW.

True False

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PL

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TAFE NSW (TES, Industry Skills Unit Meadowbank) 2014

MEM05026C Apply welding principles

Topic 4: Arc welding conditions

Introduction
With electric arc welding the variables depend on the process selected. In this topic
we compare the effects of changes to weld conditions on weld quality and stability
of the arc using the manual metal arc welding process.

Current/amperage
The current/amperage setting controls the heat energy available to the welding
arc. Electrode manufacturers will always label the electrode packet with the type of
electrode and current range settings recommended for that type and size.

reduce arc stability making it difficult to strike and maintain the arc
reduce penetration
produce poor weld appearance
cause problems removing slag from the toes of the weld
reduce welding speeds
increase the risk of slag inclusions
produce excessively convex bead shapes.

PL

Using recommended current settings will give the deposited metal its full strength
and other important properties. Most general purpose (GP) electrodes are used at
currents near the top of their recommended range. Lower settings make electrodes
difficult to run consistently. Using too low a current/amperage setting for a given
type and size electrode can:

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When operating within the recommended current range, penetration and bead
shape improve as current settings increase. However, using too high a current/
amperage setting for a given type and size electrode can cause:
porosity due to overheating of the electrode and deterioration of the flux
coating
increased spatter levels
poor weld appearances
undercut
a reduction in alloying elements from the deposited metal
increased consumption rate of the electrode.
Attempts to gain increased penetration by increasing current settings beyond the
recommended maximum can be counter-productive. If deep penetration is required
then a deep-penetration electrode should be used.

Voltage
A minimum arc voltage is needed to maintain the welding arc. MMAW electrodes will
operate successfully within a fairly narrow voltage range. Within this range there is
a noticeable effect upon weld penetration, bead width and blending at the toes of
the weld run.
The general effect of increasing arc voltage is to spread and flatten the weld bead,
which can be said for all arc processes. Basic types of a.c. transformer and a.c./d.c.
transformer-rectifier machines have no means of varying the arc voltage. Some
transformer machines have dual-voltage terminals however this only gives a choice

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