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1
P

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ITINERARY

Objective 1.01
Objective 1.02
Objective 1.03
Objective 1.04
Objective 1.05
Objective 1.06

ETA

Network Basics
Network Types
Network Topology
Network Hardware
Network Media
Network Architectures

NEWBIE

SOME EXPERIENCE

EXPERT

6 hours

4 hours

2 hours

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Although individual computers can be quite powerful, they are still individual. Sharing files and resources among individual computers typically
means copying a file to a diskette, then manually walking that diskette to other
systemsfor example, working on a document after work, then returning that
updated document to work the next day in order to print it. Obviously, this is
a cumbersome and time-consuming process. If there were a means of connecting two or more computers, you could access your work from another
location (such as access a work computer from another computer in your
home), finish the work that night, and immediately send the work to a printer
located back at the office. This is the underlying premise behind a network
two or more computers connected together in order to share files, resources,
and even applications. This chapter introduces you to the basic concepts and
terminology needed to understand the tangible elements of common networks
and servers.

Objective 1.01

Network Basics

networked computer that provides resources is called a server. The computer accessing those resources is referred to as a workstation or client.
Servers are usually the most powerful computers on the network because they
require the added processing power to service the many requests of other computers sharing their resources. By comparison, workstations or clients are usually PCs that are cheaper and less powerful. As a rule, a computer may be a
server or a workstation, but rarely both (this separation greatly simplifies the
management and administration of the network). Of course, all of the computers on a network must be physically connected, and such connections are
typically established with network interface card (NIC) adapters, and copper (or
fiber-optic) cabling. The very latest network installations are even including wireless connections.

Local Lingo
Workstation or client
Server

The computer that accesses network resources.

The computer that provides the resources.

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Advantages of a Network
With individual computers, applications and resources (such as printers or scanners) must be duplicated between PCs. For example, if two data analysts want to
work on an Excel spreadsheet and print their results each day, both computers will
need a copy of Excel and a printer. If the users needed to share data, it would have
to be shuttled between the PCs on diskette or CD-RW. And if users needed to
share computers, they would have to wade through the other users systemeach
with its own desktop setup, applications, folder arrangement, and so on. In short,
it would be a wasteful, frustrating, and error-prone process. As more users become
involved, it wouldnt take long before the whole process would be impossible to
handle. However, if those two computers in our example were networked together,
both users could use Excel across the network, access the same raw data, and then
output their results to a single common printer attached to the network. If more
users were then added to the network, all users could share the application, data,
and resources in a uniform fashion. As a rule, computers that are part of a network
can share the following:

Documents (memos, spreadsheets, invoices, and so on)

E-mail messages
Word-processing software
Project-tracking software
Illustrations, photographs, videos, and audio files
Live audio and video broadcasts
Printers
Fax machines
Modems
CD-ROM drives and other removable media drives (such as Zip and
Jaz drives)
Hard drives

Exam Tip
The network administrator can configure the network, control user
accounts, and manage network security.

Because many computers can operate on one network, the entire network can
be efficiently managed from a central point (a network administrator). Consider the

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previous example and suppose that a new version of Excel became available to the
data analysts. With individual computers, each system would have to be upgraded
and checked separately. Thats not such a big deal with only two systems, but when
there are dozens (or hundreds) of PCs in the company, individual upgrades can
quickly become costly and impractical. With a network, an application only needs
to be updated on its server oncethen all the networks workstations can use the
updated software immediately. Centralized administration also allows security
and system monitoring to take place from one location.

Network Sizes
Computer networks typically fit into one of three groups depending on their size
and function. A local area network (LAN) is the basic classification of any computer
network. LAN architecture can range from simple (two computers connected by a
cable) to complex (hundreds of connected computers and peripherals throughout
a major corporation). The distinguishing feature of a LAN is that it is confined to a
limited geographic area such as a single building or department. If the computers
are connected over several buildings across a large metropolitan area, the network
is sometimes termed a metropolitan area network (MAN). By comparison, a wide
area network (WAN) has no geographical limit. It can connect computers and
peripheral devices on opposite sides of the world. In most cases, a WAN is made up
of a number of interconnected LANsperhaps the ultimate WAN is the Internet.

Local Lingo
Wide area network (WAN)

A network intended to cover a wide

geographical area. An example of the ultimate WAN is the Internet

with its global reach.

Objective 1.02

Network Types

etworks are generally divided into two distinct categories: peer to peer and
server-based. This is an important distinction because these two categories
are vastly different and offer different capabilities to the users. Peer-to-peer networks

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are simpler and less expensive network arrangements that appear in small organizations (such as home office or small workgroup applications). Server-based
networks are found in mid-sized and larger organizations where security, centralized administration, and high traffic capacity are important. Lets look a bit closer
at server-based networks.

Server-Based Networks
In most network situations, the duality of peer-to-peer networks is simply not
adequate. Limited traffic capability and security/management issues often mean
that networks need to use dedicated servers. A dedicated server is a computer that
functions only as a server to provide files and manage resourcesit is not used as
a client or workstation. Servers are optimized to handle requests from numerous
network clients quickly, and ensure the security of files and directories.
Consequently, server-based networks have become the standard models for modern business networking. Server-based networks are also known as client/server
networks (sometimes denoted as two-tier architectures).

Travel Advisory
Servers provide specific resources and services to the network, and
there may be several (perhaps many) servers available
in any given network depending on the networks size
and complexity.

As networks increase in size (i.e., as the number of connected computers

increases, and the physical distance and traffic between them grows), more than
one server is usually needed. Spreading the networking tasks among several
servers ensures that each task will be performed as efficiently as possible. Servers
must perform varied and complex tasks, and servers for large networks have
become specialized to accommodate the expanding needs of users. Some examples of different server types include

File and Print Servers

Database Servers
Application Servers

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Mail Servers
Fax and Communication Servers
Audio/Video Servers
Chat Servers
FTP Servers
News Servers
Gateway Servers
Firewalls and Proxy Servers
Web Servers

Server Software
One major issue that separates servers from peer computers is the use of software.
No matter how powerful a server may be, it requires an operating system (i.e.,
Windows NT/2000 or Novell NetWare) that can take advantage of the servers
resources. Servers also require their specific server applications in order to provide
their services to the network. For example, a Web server may use Windows NT and
Microsoft PWS. Its not important for you to fully understand software issues at this
point. Chapter 2 covers network protocols and operating systems in more detail.

Exam Tip
Modern networks use Windows NT or 2000 as the operating system,
and a growing number of networks are using Linux. A declining number of networks use Novell NetWare.

Client/Server Advantages
There is little doubt that server-based networks are more complicated to install and
configure, but there are some compelling advantages over peer-to-peer networks:

Servers allow for better resource organization and sharing.

A server is intended to provide access to many files and printers while
maintaining performance and security for the user. A servers data and
resources can be centrally administered and controlled. This centralized
approach makes it easier to find files and support resources than would
otherwise be possible on individual computers.
Sharing

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Security In a server-based environment, one administrator can manage network security by setting network policies and applying them to
every user.
Backups Backup routines are also simplified because only servers
need to be backed up (client/workstation PCs do not). Server backups
can be scheduled to occur automatically (according to a predetermined
schedule) even if the servers are located on different parts of the physical network.
Fault Tolerance Because data is mainly held on servers, fault-tolerant
data storage (such as RAID) can be added to the servers to prevent data
loss due to drive failures or system crashes. This creates a more reliable
server subject to less downtime.
Users A server-based network can support thousands of users. Such a
large network would be impossible to manage as a peer-to-peer network,
but current monitoring and network-management utilities make it possible to operate a server-based network for large numbers of users.

Server Reliability
Reliability is basically the notion of dependable and consistent operationthe
probability that a component or system will perform a task for a specified period
of time. This includes the server as well as the network, and is often measured as
a function of the time between system failures using the term MTBF (mean time
between failure). Data integrity and the ability to warn of impending hardware
failures before they happen are two other aspects of reliability. Servers frequently
include reliability features such as redundant power supplies and fans, predictive
failure analysis for hard drives (SMART), and RAID (redundant array of independent disks) systems to ensure that a server continues to function and protect
its data even when trouble occurs. Other reliability features include the memory
self-test at boot time where the system detects and isolates bad memory blocks, as
well as ECC (error checking and correcting) memory to improve data integrity.

Server High Availability

A server must constantly be up and ready for immediate use, allowing a user to
access the resources they need in real time. This is the issue of high availability.
Another aspect of highly available servers is the capability to quickly recover from
a system failure (i.e., use a hot spare RAID disk to recover data from a failed
drive). Highly available systems may or may not use redundant components (such

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as redundant power supplies), but they should support the hot swapping of key
components. Hot swapping is the ability to pull out a failed component and plug
in a new one while the power is still on and the system is operating. A highly available system has the ability to detect a potential failure and transparently redirect
or failover the questionable processes to other devices or subsystems. For example, some SCSI drives can automatically move data from marginal sectors (i.e., sectors that produce occasional read errors) to spare sectors without the operating
system or the user being aware of the change.

Local Lingo
Hot swapping

A critical feature of modern servers that allows

devices to be exchanged without powering down the server.This

minimizes interruptions in the servers operation.

In general, availability is measured as the percentage of time that a system is

functioning and usable. For instance, a system that provides 99-percent availability on a 24 hours/day, 7 days/week basis would actually experience the loss of 88
processing hours a year (unacceptable to many users). However, a 99.999 percent
level of availability translates to about 5.25 minutes of unscheduled downtime per
year (though this level of availability may be quite costly to achieve).

Server Scalability
Computer customers of the past often bought mainframes twice the size they
needed in anticipation of future growth, knowing that they would eventually
grow into the machine. Today its possible to select computers to fit the task now,
then add more equipment as needs demandthis is known as scalability. A scalable PC has the ability to grow in size (capacity) and speed. Some machines offer
limited scalability by design, while some can grow to virtually any size needed.
Scalability includes the ability to add memory (RAM), add additional processors
(i.e., for multiprocessing platforms), and add storage (hard drives), and still work
within the limitations of the network operating system.

SMP
Because processors are a key element of server performance and scalability, it is a good
time to cover multiprocessing in a little more detail. A symmetric multiprocessing

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(SMP) machine is a computer that utilizes two or more processors. Each processor shares memory and uses only one copy of the operating system. SMP
machines can scale by starting small (with only two processors), then adding more
processors as business needs and applications grow. Beyond CPUs, such computers typically have the ability to scale memory, cache, and disks. Currently, SMP
machines are designed to scale from 232 processors. Most SMP systems will show
worthwhile improvements until they scale above eight processors (the diminishing return also varies based on the operating system and the applications in use).
While UNIX systems with 16 or more processors are not uncommon today,
Windows NT scalability is commonly thought to be limited to about four CPUs.
In addition, many operating systems or database applications can only utilize the
first 2GB of memory.

Server Clustering
Today, many high-end networks employ server clusters, where two or more server
PCs act like a single serverproviding higher availability and performance than
a single server could handle. Applications can move from one server to another,
or run on several servers at once, and all transactions are transparent to the users.
Clustering provides higher availability and scalability than would be possible if the
computers worked separately. Each node in the cluster typically has its own
resources (processors, I/O, memory, OS, storage, and so on), and is responsible for
its own set of users. The high availability of a server cluster is provided by failover
capability. When one node fails, its resources can be reallocated to one or more
other nodes in the cluster. Once the original node is restored to normal operation,
its resources can be manually (or automatically) switched back. Server clusters are
also easily scalable without an interruption of service. Upgrades can be performed
by proactively failing over the functions of a server to others in the cluster, bringing that server down to add components, then bringing the server back up into
the cluster and switching back its functions from the other servers.

Objective 1.03

Network Topology

n order to create a network, two or more PCs (and other peripheral devices)
must be connected together. However, there are several ways to arrange these
connections, and each connection scheme is known as a network topology. Each
topology offers its own unique capabilities and limitations. Unfortunately,

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topologies arent as simple as plugging one computer into anothereach

topology will require certain cabling, NIC adapters, network operating systems,
and other devices. For example, a particular topology can dictate the type of
cable that is used, and also how the cabling runs through floors, ceilings, and
walls. While most network topologies use physical cables to connect one computer to another, a growing number of networks use wireless transceivers for at
least some connections. Topology can also determine how computers communicate on the network. There are three traditional network topologies: bus, star,
and ring.

Exam Tip
The three popular network topologies are bus, star, and ring, though
many actual network implementations may mix topologies in one
area or another.

Bus Topology
The bus is the simplest and most straightforward type of network topology, and
is commonly used with Ethernet networks. With a bus (see Figure 1-1), computers are connected to each other in a straight line along a single main cable called
a trunk (a backbone or segment). Bus networks are easy to connect and inexpensive to implement, and a computer failure wont impair the entire network.
However, overall bus performance is limited, and cable breaks can shut down the
entire network.

Bus Operation
Computers on a bus network communicate by addressing data to a particular
computer and sending out that data to all computers on the cable. Only the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the original signal will accept
the informationall other computers simply ignore the data. Because data goes
out to all computers simultaneously, only one computer at a time can send messages. As you might expect, this also means the number of computers attached to
the bus will affect network performance. The more computers there are on a bus,
the more computers will be waiting to put data on the bus, and the slower the network will be.

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Terminator

Cable Segment

NIC

PC 1

NIC

PC 2

Terminator

NIC

PC 4

FIGURE 1-1

NIC

PC 3

Typical bus topology

The electronic signals that represent data are sent to the entire network, and
travel from one end of the cable to the other. If the signal is allowed to continue
uninterrupted, it will keep bouncing back and forth along the cable, and this signal bounce can prevent other computers from sending data. The signal must be
stopped after it has reached the proper destination address. To stop a signal from
bouncing, a simple device called a terminator is placed at each end of the network
cable to absorb the signals. This clears the cable so that other computers can send
data. When using a bus topology, both ends of each cable segment must be
plugged into something. For example, a cable end can be plugged into a computer
or a connector to extend the cables length. Any open cable ends not plugged into
something must be terminated to prevent signal bounce.

Bus Disruptions
Computers on a bus topology will either transmit data to other computers or listen
for data from other computers on the networkthey are not responsible for moving data from one computer to the next. As a result, if one computer fails, it does not
affect the rest of the network. This is a main advantage of the bus topology.
Unfortunately, bus-type networks are extremely sensitive to cable breaks. A break in

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the cable will occur if the cable is physically separated into two pieces (i.e., accidentally cut), or if at least one end of the cable becomes disconnected (i.e., someone
fiddles with a cable connection behind the PC). In either case, one or both ends of
the cable will not have a terminator, the signal will bounce, and all network activity will stop, causing the network to go down. The individual computers on the
network will still be able to function as stand-alone PCs, but they will not be able
to communicate with each other or access shared resources as long as the cable
remains broken. The computers on the down segment will continually attempt to
establish a connection, and this will slow the workstations performance until the
problem is resolved.

Expanding the Bus

It is fairly easy to expand the bus topology to accommodate more users and
peripheral devices. Simply remove a terminator from one end of the network
trunk, add a cable to another PCs T connector, then replace the terminator at
that last T connector (see Figure 1-1). If you need to extend a given cable length
to make it longer, you can fasten two cable lengths together using a barrel connector. However, connections tend to degrade signal strength, so should be used
only when absolutely necessary. Too many connectors can prevent the signal
from being received correctly. One continuous cable is preferable to connecting several smaller ones with connectors. As an alternative, a repeater can be
used to connect two cable lengths. A repeater actually boosts the signal
strength, so the signal remains stronger across multiple connectors or a longer
piece of cable.

Star Topology
The star topology is slightly more sophisticated than a bus approach because all PCs
on the network are tied to a central connection point called a hub (see Figure 1-2).
A star network is a bit more robust than the bus approach because connections
are direct from the PC to the hub. Its an easy matter to add clients to the network
simply by connecting them to an available port in the hub (multiple hubs can be
ganged together for larger networks with additional users). Since each connection
is independent, you dont need to worry about terminators, and a cable problem
or PC fault will only affect that particular workstationit wont disable the entire
network. However, more cabling is often required because each PC needs its own
cable to the hub. Also, a hub failure can disable all of the PCs attached to it
(though this is a fairly easy issue to troubleshoot).

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Cable segment
NIC

PC 1

NIC

Ports

PC 2

NIC

PC 3

Hub

NIC

PC 4

FIGURE 1-2

Typical star topology

Star Operation
Computers on a star network communicate by addressing data to a particular
computer and sending out that data through the hub to all computers on the
network. Only the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the
original signal will accept the informationall other computers simply ignore
the data. Because data goes out to all computers simultaneously, only one computer at a time can send messages. This means the number of computers
attached to the star will affect network performance. The more computers there
are on a star network, the more computers will be waiting to send data to the
hub and the slower the network will be. Unlike the bus topology, star network
connections are not bothered by signal bounce, so no special termination is
needed. You simply connect the PCs NIC adapter port to the corresponding
hub port.

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Star Disruptions
Computers on a star topology will either transmit data through the hub to other
computers or listen for data from the hubthey are not responsible for moving
data from one computer to another. As a result, if one computer fails, it does not
affect the rest of the network. This is an important advantage of the star topology.
Also, the fact that all of the networks PCs must come together to a single point
(the hub) means that the hub(s), server(s), and other key network devices can all
be conveniently located and serviced in one place. This improves network troubleshooting and administration. If a break or disconnection occurs with a cable,
only that PC is affected, and the remainder of the network can continue on normally. However, since the hub serves as a central communication point in the star
topology, a hub failure will quickly disable all of the PCs attached to it.

Expanding the Star

It is fairly easy to expand the star topology to accommodate more users and
peripheral devices. Additional users can simply be connected to an available port
on an existing hub. However, the added wiring becomes problematic. When a
nearby PC is added to a bus-type network, you only need to attach the new PC inline with the existing trunk wiring. When a new PC is added to a star-type network, you may need to run an entirely new cable from the PC to the hub. This may
require dozens (maybe hundreds) of feet of additional wiring, which may need to
be routed through floors, walls, and ceilings depending on whats between the user
and the hub.

Ring Topology
The ring topology (usually called token ring) is a bit more sophisticated than a bus
approach because the trunk cable that connects all PCs on the network basically
forms a loop (see Figure 1-3). Computers are connected in a continuous network
loop in which a key piece of data (called a token) is passed from one computer to
the next. The token is a data frame (or packet) that is continuously passed around
the ring. In actual practice, token ring networks are physically implemented in a
star configuration but managed logically as a loop. Workstations on a token ring
network are attached to a specialized hub called a multistation access unit (MAU).
Its an easy matter to add clients to the network simply by connecting them to an
available port in the MAU (several MAUs can be ganged together for larger networks with additional users). Since the overall effect is that of a loop, you dont

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Cable segment
Token
NIC

PC 1

NIC
Ports

PC 2

NIC

PC 3

MAU

NIC

PC 4

FIGURE 1-3

Typical ring (token ring) topology

need to worry about terminators. The token-passing approach ensures that all PCs
have equal access to the network, even when there are many users. On the negative side, more cabling is often required because each PC needs its own cabling to
the MAU. Also, each computer must pass a token to the next, so a PC failure (or a
MAU fault) can impair the entire network. This can easily complicate the troubleshooting process.

Ring Operation
The most popular method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. The token itself is little more than a short sequence of data bits that travel
around a token ring network, and each network has only one token. The token is
passed (received and retransmitted) from computer to computer. An advantage
of this retransmission is that each PC in the loop acts as a repeaterboosting the

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data signal to the next workstation. This process of token passing continues until
the token reaches a computer that has data to send. The sending computer modifies the token, puts an electronic address on the data, and reinserts this new data
package into the ring.
This data package passes by each computer until it finds the one with an
address that matches the address on the data. The receiving computer takes the
data and attaches a verification message to the token, which is readdressed to the
sender and returned to the ring. The sending computer eventually receives the verification message, indicating that the data has been received. After verification, the
sending computer creates a new token and inserts it on the network. The token
continues to circulate within the ring until another workstation needs it to send
data. Unlike the bus topology, ring network connections are not bothered by signal bounce, so no special termination is needed. You simply connect the PCs NIC
adapter port to the corresponding MAU port to add that PC to the loop.

Ring Disruptions
Computers in a token ring topology are constantly receiving and retransmitting
tokens from one computer to the next. As a result, if one computer fails or a cable
breaks, it interrupts the rest of the network. Since token rings also use MAUs to
pass data from one PC to the next (see Figure 1-3), a MAU failure can also disable
the network. These are important disadvantages of token ring topology, and can
present a technician with serious troubleshooting problems when faced with
locating the break in a token ring. On the plus side, a MAU provides a centralized
communication point for network administration and maintenance.

Expanding the Ring

Because a token ring is physically structured very similarly to a star network, its
fairly easy to expand the ring topology in order to accommodate more users and
peripheral devices. Additional users can simply be connected to an available port

Travel Advisory
The idea of a ring is only from a logical perspective. From a
practical standpoint, the network is wired as a stara
MAU is used to provide the ring feature.

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17

on an existing MAU. As with star clients, however, the added wiring can be problematic. When a nearby PC is added to a bus-type network, you only need to
attach the new PC inline with the existing trunk wiring. When a new PC is added
to a token ring network, you may need to run an entirely new cable from the PC
to the MAU. This may require dozens (maybe hundreds) of feet of additional
wiring, which may need to be routed through floors, walls, and ceilings depending on whats between the user and networks MAU.

Objective 1.04

Network Hardware

ow that youve had a chance to learn about server types and network topologies, its time to learn a bit more about the various hardware elements
involved with the implementation of a network. Network hardware has a profound impact on the speed, quality, and overall performance of the network. For
the purposes of this book, network hardware includes hubs, repeaters, bridges,
routers, gateways, network interface cards, and cabling.

Travel Advisory
Be careful when connecting hubs. Crossover cables are wired differently than
standard patch cables, and one will not work correctly in place
of the other. Check with the hub manufacturer to determine
whether you need a standard patch cable or a crossover cable.

Hubs
A hub is a central connection device that joins computers in a star topography. A
variation of the hub is a multistation access unit (or MAU, sometimes called a
token ring hub) used to connect PCs in a token ring topology. Hubs are now standard equipment in modern networks, and are typically classified as passive or
active. A passive hub does not process data at allits basically just a connection
panel. By comparison, active hubs (sometimes called repeaters) regenerate the
data in order to maintain adequate signal strength. Some hubs also have the ability to handle additional tasks such as bridging, routing, and switching. Hub-based
systems are versatile, and offer several advantages over systems that do not use

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hubs. For example, with an ordinary bus topology, a break in the cable will take
the network down. But with hubs, a break in any of the cables attached to the hub
affects only that limited segment of the network. An emerging generation of hubs
will accommodate several different types of cables. These are called hybrid hubs.

Repeaters
As electrical signals travel along a cable, they degrade and become distorted. This
effect is called attenuation. As cable lengths increase, the effects of attenuation worsen.
If a cable is long enough, attenuation will finally make a signal unrecognizable, and
this will cause data errors in the network. Installing a repeater enables signals to travel
farther by regenerating the networks signals and sending them out again on other
cable lengths. The repeater takes a weak signal from one cable, regenerates it, and
passes it to the next cable. As you saw above, active hubs frequently act as repeaters,
but stand-alone repeaters may be needed to support very long cable lengths.

Exam Tip
A repeater is used for baseband systems, while an amplifier is used
for broadband systems.

It is important to realize that repeaters are simply signal amplifiers. They do

not translate or filter the network signals from one cable to another. For a repeater
to work properly, both cables joined by the repeater must use the same packets,
logical protocols, and access method. The two most common access methods are
carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) and token passing. A repeater cannot connect a segment using CSMA/CD to a segment using the
token-passing access method. It will not allow an Ethernet network to talk to a
token ring networkthere are other more sophisticated devices used for that type
of translation. However, repeaters can move packets from one kind of physical
media to another. For example, a repeater can take an Ethernet packet coming
from a thin coaxial cable and pass it on to a fiber-optic cable (provided that the
repeater is capable of accepting the physical connections).

Bridges
A bridge offers more features for a busy network. A bridge can act like a repeater
to extend the effective length of a network cable. However, a bridge has more

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intelligence, and can also divide a network to isolate excessive traffic or problem
data. For example, if the volume of traffic from one or two computers (or a single
department) is flooding the network with data and slowing down the entire operation, a bridge could isolate those computers (or department). Rather than distinguish between one protocol and another, bridges simply pass all protocols along
the network. Since all protocols pass across bridges, it is up to the individual computers to determine which protocols they can recognize. Bridges can also link different physical media such as twisted-pair cable and thin coaxial cable.

Routing Data
A bridge also offers superior data-handling capabilities not provided by hubs and
repeaters. Bridges listen to all traffic, check the source and destination address of
each packet, and build a routing table (as information becomes available) so that
they can sort data to different parts of the network efficiently. Bridges actually have
the ability to learn how to forward data. As traffic passes through the bridge, information about the computer addresses is stored in the bridges memory. The bridge
uses this information to build a routing table based on source addresses. Initially,
the bridges memory is empty, and so is the routing table. As packets are transmitted, the source address is copied to the routing table. With this address information, the bridge eventually learns which computers are on which segment of
the network.
When the bridge receives a packet, the source address is compared to the routing table. If the source address is not there, it is added to the table. The bridge then
compares the destination address with the routing table database. If the destination address is in the routing table and is on the same network segment as the
source address, the packet is discarded (because its assumed that another PC on
the same part of the network has received the data). This filtering helps to reduce
network traffic and isolate different parts of the network. If the destination address
is in the routing table and not in the same segment as the source address, the
bridge forwards the packet out of the appropriate port to reach the destination
address. If the destination address is not in the routing table, the bridge forwards
the packet to all its ports except the one on which it originated.

Reducing Traffic
Remember that many PCs on a network may need to send data, but not all PCs may
need to receive that data. Often, all PCs must receive data to see whether the information is intended for that workstation, then each must wait for an opportunity to

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send data itself. In a large network, this can significantly reduce network performance. However, large networks often group PCs into departments, and the data
sent between departments is often far less than the traffic sent between PCs within
the same department. By using bridges to separate the overall company network
into several smaller departmental groups, it is possible to reduce the traffic going out
to the entire network, and thus improve the overall networks performance.

Routers and Brouters

When youre working in more complex network environments that use several
different network segmentseach with different protocols and architecturesa
bridge is often inadequate to handle fast and efficient communication between
diverse segments. Such a complex network demands a sophisticated device that
knows the address of each segment, determines the best path for sending data, and
filters broadcast traffic to the local segment. This type of device is called a router.
As with a bridge, routers can filter and isolate network traffic, and also connect
network segments. Further, routers can switch and route packets across multiple
networks. They do this by exchanging specific protocol information between separate networks. Routers have access to more packet information than bridges, and
routers use this additional information to improve packet deliveries. Routers are
used in complex networks because they provide better traffic management. For
example, routers can share status and routing information with one another, and
use this information to bypass slow or malfunctioning connections.
There are two principle router types: static and dynamic. A static router is
sometimes called a manual router because all routes must be configured manually by the network administrator. Routing tables are fixed, so the static router
always uses the same route (even if network activity changes). This means theres
no guarantee that the router is using the shortest routes. By comparison,dynamic
routers must be configured initially, but they will adapt to changing network conditions automaticallyusing lower cost or lower traffic routes as needed.

Routing Data
Routers maintain their own routing tables, which usually consist of network
addresses (though host addresses can also be kept if the network needs it). To
determine the destination address for incoming data, the routing table includes all
known network addresses, logical instructions for connection to other networks,
knowledge of the possible paths between routers, and even the costs of sending
data over each path. Thus, a router uses its routing table to select the best route for

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data transmission based on costs and available paths. You should understand that
the routing tables used for bridges and routers are not the same thing. Routers
require specific addresses. They understand only the network numbers that allow
them to communicate with other routers and local NIC addresses, so routers dont
talk to remote computers.
When routers receive packets destined for a remote network, they send them
to the router that manages the destination network. The use of routers allows
designers to separate large networks into smaller ones, and routers offer an element
of security between the segments. Unfortunately, routers must perform complex
functions on each packet, so they are slower than most bridges. For example, as
packets are passed from router to router, source and destination addresses are
stripped off and then re-created. This enables a router to route a packet from a
TCP/IP Ethernet network to a server on a TCP/IP token ring networka feature
unattainable with a bridge.

Reducing Traffic
Routers do not look at the destination node address. Instead, they look only at the
network address, and will pass information only if the network address is known.
Routers will not allow corrupted data to be passed onto the network. This ability
to control the data passing through the router reduces the amount of traffic
between networks, and allows routers to use these links more efficiently than
bridges. Consequently, routers can greatly reduce the amount of traffic on the
network and the wait time experienced by users.

Local Lingo
Brouter

An advanced router that includes the features of a bridge.

As router technology continues to advance, you may see the term

brouter fall into disuse.

Switches
Many network equipment companies incorporate a technology called switching into
their router designs. Switches use basic logic to detect a packets destination address
(typically an IP address), then send the packet to the corresponding portion of the
network. This behavior makes the network more efficient. If the switch doesnt know

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the destination, the router can query other routers in the network in an attempt to
determine the correct path. Today, switching is an essential part of router design.

Gateways
A gateway acts as a powerful interpreter designed to connect radically different
networks. Although slower than a bridge or router, a gateway can perform complex functions such as translating between networks that speak different languages
(using techniques such as protocol and bandwidth conversion). For example, a
gateway can convert a TCP/IP packet to a NetWare IPX packet (and vice versa).
Gateways enable communication between entirely different architectures and
environments. They effectively repackage and convert data going from one type
of network to another so that each can understand the others data. A gateway
repackages information to match the requirements of the destination system, and
changes the format of a message so that it conforms to the application running at
the receiving end of the transfer. In most cases, gateways are task-specific, which
means that they are dedicated to a particular type of transfer. They are often
referred to by their task (i.e., Windows NT Server-to-SNA Gateway).

Network Interface Cards

The network interface card (NIC) functions as an interface between the individual computer (server or client) and the network cabling (see Figure 1-4).
Internally, the NIC must identify the PC on the network and buffer data between
the computer and the cable. When sending data, the NIC must convert the data
from parallel bytes into serial bits (then back again during reception). On the network side, a NIC must generate the electrical signals that travel over the network,
manage access to the network, and make the physical connection to the cable.
Every computer on the network must have at least one NIC port installed.
Modern NICs increase their effective throughput using advanced techniques of
adapter teaming such as adapter fault tolerance (AFT), which provides automatic

Local Lingo
Network interface card (NIC)

This is a PC hardware device that

forms a critical interface between a computer (workstation or

server) and the rest of the network.

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FIGURE 1-4

23

The Symbios SYM22915 NIC (Courtesy of LSI Logic Corp.)

redundancy for your adapter. If the primary adapter fails, the secondary takes over.
Adaptive load balancing (ALB) allows balancing the transmission data flow
between two to four adapters.

Cabling
Finally, networks of all sizes and configurations depend on the physical cabling
that connects all of the PCs and other hardware together. Cabling (also referred to
as network media) comes in many different configurations, but common cabling
used for everyday networking includes unshielded twisted pair (UTP), coaxial
cable, shielded twisted pair (STP), and fiber-optic (FO) cable. As a technician, you
should understand the three main considerations for cabling:

Resistance to crosstalk (electrical currents between pairs of wires in the

same cable)
Resistance to interference from outside electrical fields (noise created by
electric motors, power lines, relays, and transmitters)
Ease of installation

These are important issues because cables resistant to crosstalk and interference can be run longer and support higher data transmission rates. For example,

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coaxial and shielded twisted-pair cable have a thin metal foil outer layer that offers
good resistance to electrical noise, but the extra foil creates a larger, thicker cable
that is more difficult to pull through conduit and walls during installation.
Unshielded twisted pair is thinner and easier to install, but offers less resistance to
electrical noise. By comparison, fiber-optic cable carries light signals instead of
electrical pulses, so it is impervious to electrical interference. This allows fiberoptic cable to carry signals faster and farther than any other type of cable.
Unfortunately, FO cable is often far more expensive than other cable types, and
proper installation demands specialized tools and training.

Objective 1.05

Network Media

very computer in any kind of network must ultimately be connected to one

another. These connections are responsible for transmitting vast amounts of
information between the computers and peripheral devices. Although wireless
networking is growing in popularity, the vast majority of network connections are
made physically, using a variety of cable typeseach intended for a specific type
of network architecture. We usually refer to this interconnecting wiring as network
media. While there are well over 2,000 different types of cabling, most network
applications use only three different cable types: coaxial, twisted pair, and fiberoptic cable.

Local Lingo
Network media

This term covers the wide variety of interconnec-

tions used to attach workstations to the server.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or simply coax) is an inexpensive, flexible, and rugged type of
transmission cable. Coaxial cables use a single copper wire at the center of an
internal insulating layer, then covered by a finely braided metal shield, and covered by a protective outer jacket (see Figure 1-5). Its light weight and flexibility
make coaxial cable easy to install in a wide range of office environments. That wire
in the middle of the coaxial cable is what actually carries the signal. It is often a

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Outer Jacket

Braided Shield
Insulator

Core

FIGURE 1-5

solid copper wire, but might sometimes be stranded aluminum. A fairly thick
dielectric insulating layer surrounds the core, and this separates the core from the
metal shielding. A braided wire mesh acts as an electrical ground and protects the
core from electrical noise and crosstalk. The shielding also protects transmitted
data from electrical noise. For additional protection, a coaxial cable may incorporate one layer of foil insulation and one layer of braided metal shielding (dual
shielding), or two layers of foil insulation and two layers of braided metal shielding (quad shielded). Additional shielding adds greatly to the cables cost and
weight. Finally, a protective outer cover of rubber, Teflon, or PVC plastic is used to
jacket the cable. Youll generally find two types of coaxial cable used in networking: thin and thick.
All coaxial cables are attached using specialized quick-twist connectors called
BNC connectors. A BNC T connector is an adapter used to attach two lengths of
cable to your NIC. If you need to adapt two lengths of cable to make one longer run,
use a BNC barrel connector. Finally, youll need a BNC terminator to cap each end
of the cable run (usually attached to the unused port of the last BNC T connectors).

Thinnet and Thicknet Cable

As the name implies, thinnet cable is thinroughly 0.25 in (diameter)and can
carry electrical signals for over 600 ft. The cable industry refers to this common
type of cable as RG-58. Thinnet cable presents a 50 impedance (signal resistance) to the data signals flowing through it. The cables small diameter makes it
flexible and easy to install just about anywhere.
Thicknet cable (sometimes called standard Ethernet cable because of its use
with early Ethernet networks) offers a diameter of 0.5 intwice the diameter of

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thinnet cable. The copper core wire is also thicker, and this allows thicknet cable
to transfer signals well over 1,500 ft. This ability to carry signals a great distance
makes thicknet an ideal choice for a backbone cable thats able to connect several
smaller thinnet network segments. Unfortunately, thicknet cable does not bend
easily, so it is considerably harder to install.
The transition from thicknet to thinnet cable is made with a transceiver device.
The transceivers sharp points pierce the thicknet cable (referred to as a vampire
tap) in order to contact the cables core and shielding. An output cable from the
transceiver attaches to the computers corresponding NIC port. In many cases, the
NIC adapter requires an attachment unit interface (AUI) port connector (also
known as a Digital Intel Xerox (DIX) connector) to accommodate the transceiver.

Cable Grades
Chances are that youll be running coaxial cable through walls, in ceilings, under
floors, and in or through other odd locations throughout your facility. Its important to remember that ordinary coaxial cable uses a jacket of PVC or other synthetic material that makes it easy to pull and route. However, building fire codes
generally prohibit the use of everyday coaxial cable in a buildings plenum (the
shallow space in many buildings between the false ceiling and the floor above).
During a fire, PVC jackets will burn and generate poisonous gases. Coaxial cable
rated for plenum-grade use employs insulation and jacket materials that are certified to be fire resistant and produce a minimum amount of smoke. This reduces
poisonous chemical fumes in the event of a fire. Plenum cable can also be used in
the plenum area and in vertical runs (such as up a wall) without conduit. Be sure
to review and understand the fire safety codes for your location when building,
servicing, or expanding your network.

Twisted-Pair Cable
Another popular cable type that is commonly used with current networks is called
twisted pair. As the name suggests, a twisted pair is little more than two insulated
lengths of copper wire twisted around each otherthough a typical twisted-pair
cable carries two, three, or even four pairs of wire contained in a single plastic, PVC,
or Teflon jacket (see Figure 1-6). The physical twisting of the wires works to cancel
out electrical noise from adjacent pairs, as well as other noise sources such as motors,
relays, and transformers. Twisted-pair cable is either shielded or unshielded, and the
choice between these two may have a profound impact on the reliability of your
data (especially if you must carry data over a distance).

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RJ-45 Connector

Twisted Pair Cable

Four Pairs

FIGURE 1-6

A typical twisted-pair cable

Twisted-pair cabling uses RJ-45 telephone connectors. At first glance, these

connectors look like the RJ-11 telephone connectors that attach your telephone
cord to the wall. The RJ-45 connector is slightly larger, and will not fit into an RJ11 telephone jack. The RJ-45 connector handles eight cable connections, while the
RJ-11 supports only four. This means you cant accidentally exchange your telephone and network connectors.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

When there are one or more pairs of twisted wire, but none of the pairs (nor the
full cable) contains additional metal foil or braid for shielding, the twisted-pair
cable is said to be unshielded twisted pair (UTP). UTP is an inexpensive and versatile cable that has been very popular with 10BaseT networks. The maximum
cable length for a UTP network segment is about 328 ft. National standards organizations have specified the type of UTP cable that is to be used in a variety of
building and wiring situations. These standards include five distinct categories for
UTP denoted Category 1 through Category 5.
One reason why UTP is so popular is because many buildings are prewired for
twisted-pair telephone systems using a type of UTP. In fact, extra UTP is often
installed to meet future cabling needs as part of the facilitys prewiring process. If
preinstalled twisted-pair cable meets the category requirements to support data

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transmission, it can be used in a computer network directly. However, common
telephone wire (Category 1 wire) might not have the twisting and other electrical
characteristics required for clean, secure, computer data transmission.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

In order to avoid degradation of the data because of crosstalk and noise, twisted pairs
of wire are often shielded with a wrap of thin metal foil. A fine copper braid then surrounds all of the pairs, and a thick protective jacket of plastic, Teflon, or PVC is applied.
These metal shields reduce signal errors and allow the cable to carry data faster over a
greater distance. Other than the shielding, UTP and STP cable is identical.

Exam Tip
There are two types of twisted pair cable: shielded and
unshielded.

IBM Cabling System

If you work with network cabling for any length of time, chances are that youll
encounter the IBM cabling system. IBM introduced its cabling system in 1984 to
ensure that network cabling and connectors would meet the specifications of their
own equipment. The IBM cabling system classifies cable into types rather than
categories. For example, Category 3 cable (voice-grade UTP cable) is denoted as
Type 3 cable in the IBM system.
One element unique to the IBM cabling system is the cable connector. These
IBM Type A connectors (commonly known as universal data connectors) are different from standard BNC or other connectors. They are neither male nor femaleyou
can connect one to another by flipping either one over. These IBM connectors require
special faceplates and distribution panels to accommodate their unique shape.

Fiber-Optic Cable
Traditional wire cable handles data in the form of electrical signals (i.e., voltage and
current). Fiber-optic (FO) cable is fundamentally different in that it uses specialized
optical materials to carry data as pulses of light. This makes fiber-optic cable uniquely
immune to electrical noise and crosstalk, and allows FO cable to carry a high data

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bandwidth over several miles with surprisingly effective securitythat is, the FO cable
cannot be tapped without interrupting the data. Fiber-optic cable transmissions are
extremely fast, easily handling 100Mbps and with demonstrated data rates to 1Gbps.
An optical fiber consists of an extremely thin fiber of glass (called the core)
surrounded by another layer of glass with slightly different optical characteristics
(known as the cladding). The cladding effectively keeps light signals in the core
material as it passes down the cable. Because each fiber only passes signals in one
direction, a complete cable includes two strands in separate jackets: one strand
transmits and the other receives. A coating of plastic surrounds each glass strand,
and Kevlar fibers provide strength. Plastic (rather than glass) is sometimes used as
the optical material because it is cheaper and easier to install, but plastic is not as
optically clear as glass, and cannot carry light signals over the same long distance.

Travel Assistance
There is a tremendous amount of information regarding network cable
types and standards.You can review the Data Communications
Cabling FAQ at http://www.faqs.org/faqs/LANs/cabling-faq/
for more information.

Objective 1.06

Network Architectures

he architecture of a network is basically the way it is designed, and the way

information is exchanged. There are two basic types of network architectures
that you should be familiar with: Ethernet and token ring. This part of the chapter examines these architectures in more detail and explains the impact of cabling
and access techniques.

Understanding the Packet

To the novice, it may seem that networks exchange information as a continuous
stream of data between computersthis is not the case. Sending large amounts of
data at one time causes other computers to wait idly while the data is being
moved. This monopolizes the network and wastes the time of other users waiting
to use the networkespecially if a transmission error requires the data to be

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retransmitted. Rather than exchanging entire files at one time, data is broken
down into much smaller chunks. Each chunk is wrapped with the essential details
needed to get the data to its correct destination without errors. These organized
chunks are called packets (or frames), and it may require many packets to transfer
an entire file from one network computer to another.
By transferring data in small packets, wait times seen by other computers on
the network are much smaller because numerous computers on the network take
turns sending packets. Should a packet arrive at a destination computer in a damaged or unreadable state (because of signal attenuation), it is much easier and
faster to retransmit that packet rather than the entire file. Packet data typically
contains information (such as e-mail messages or files), but many other types of
data can be exchanged in packets, such as command and control data or session
control codes (i.e., feedback that indicates a packet was received properly, or
requires retransmission).

Local Lingo
Packets

Network data that has been divided up and packaged with

overhead information needed for transmission across the network.The

format of a packet will vary depending on how the network is configured. Packets are reassembled at the destination to re-create the
original data.

Packet Organization
A packet is basically made up of three parts: header, data, and trailer. Data is preceded by a header, which includes a signal that indicates a packet is being transmitted, a source address, a destination address, and clock information to
synchronize the transmission. The actual data being sent is included after the
header. The header of the packet may vary greatly in size depending on the particular network, but most networks include from 512 bytes to 4KB. Remember
that most files are much larger than this, so it may take many packets to transmit
a complete file. A trailer follows the data. The exact content of a trailer may vary,
but a trailer usually contains error-checking information called a cyclical redundancy check (CRC). The CRC is a number produced by a mathematical calculation performed on the packet at its source. When the packet arrives at its
destination, the calculation is made again. If the results of both calculations are

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the same, the data in the packet has remained intact. If the calculation at the destination differs from that at the source, the data has changed during the transmission, and a retransmission is requested.

Travel Advisory
The exact formation and length of a packet will depend on the networks
communication protocolthe set of rules or standards that
enable computers to connect with one another and exchange
information with as little error as possible.

Access Methods
Of course, the computers on a network cant just start spewing packets at any
point. While network traffic may seem to be moving simultaneously, a closer look
will reveal that computers are actually taking turns placing their data on the network. If two computers place their data onto the network at the same time, both
data packets would collide and be destroyed. The flow of network traffic must
be carefully regulated. The rules that govern how data is sent onto (or taken from)
a network are called the access method. An access method provides the traffic control needed to organize data transmissions on the network. It is also important to
realize that all computers on the network must use the SAME access method.
Otherwise, network problems would occur because some access methods would
monopolize the cable. There are three major access methods: CSMA, token passing,
and demand priority.

CSMA/CD
In the carrier sense multiple access with collision detection method (CSMA/CD),
each computer on the network (clients and servers alike) checks to see that the
cable is free before sending a packet. If data is currently on the cable, the computer will not sendit will wait and check the cable again. Once a computer has
transmitted data on the cable, no other computer can transmit data until the
original data has reached its destination and the cable is free again. This is often
known as a contention method because two or more computers are contending
for the network cable. If two or more computers happen to send data at exactly

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the same time, there will be a data collision. The two computers involved will
stop transmitting for random periods of time, then attempt to retransmit. The
CSMA/CD technique is only useful up to about 1.5 miles. Beyond that, it might
not be possible for a computer at one end to sense that a computer at the other
end is transmitting. CSMA/CD can be frustratingly slow when network traffic
is heavy.

Exam Tip
CSMA/CD is the most common form of access method and is
normally used with Ethernet networks.

CSMA/CA
The carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance method (CSMA/CA) is
similar to CSMA/CD, but allows each computer to signal its intention to transmit
data before the packet is actually sent. This enables other computers to sense when
a data collision might occur, and thus avoid transmissions that might result in collisions. The problem with this approach is that broadcasting the intent to transmit actually adds to the network traffic and can result in even slower network
performance. This makes CSMA/CA the least popular access method.

Token Passing
With the token-passing method, a special type of packet (called a token) is circulated around a cable ring from computer to computer. In order for any computer
on the ring to send data across the network, it must wait for a free token. When a
free token is detected, the computer waiting for the token will take control of it.
The sending computer then modifies the packet to include appropriate headers,
data, and trailers, and sends the new packet on its way. The receiving computer
accepts the packet and its data, then creates another token for the sending computer indicating that the packet had been received. When the sending computer
receives this token, it creates a new free token and passes it back onto the ring.
When a token is in use by a computer, other computers cannot transmit data.
Because only one computer at a time can use the token, no contention (or collision) takes place, and no time is spent waiting for computers to resend tokens due
to network traffic.

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Demand Priority
The demand-priority method is a fairly new approach intended to service the
100Mbps Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.12 or 100VG-AnyLAN) based on the star
(or star/bus) topology. Hubs manage network access by doing round-robin
searches for requests to send from all nodes on the network. As with CSMA/CD,
two computers using demand priority can cause contention by transmitting at
exactly the same time. With demand priority, however, it is possible to decide
which types of data will be given priority if contention occurs. If a hub receives
two requests at the same time, the highest-priority request is serviced first. If the
two requests are of the same priority, both requests are serviced by alternating
between the two.
Demand priority offers several powerful advantages over CSMA/CD. First,
communication only takes place between the sending computer, hub, and destination computer. This means transmissions are not broadcast to the entire network. Second, demand priority uses twisted-pair cabling (four pairs), which
allows computers on the network to receive and transmit at the same.

Ethernet
Ethernet can trace its origins back to the late 1960s when the University of
Hawaii developed a network that would connect computers across its large campus. This early network employed a bus topology, baseband transmission, and a
CSMA/CD access method. Xerox built upon this scheme, and by 1975 introduced
the first Ethernet networking products intended to operate over 2.5Mbps and
connect more than 100 computers across a 1km trunk. This early implementation of Ethernet proved so popular that Xerox, Intel, and Digital (DEC) collaborated on the 10Mbps Ethernet standard (now one of several specifications
allowing computers and data systems to connect and share cabling). Ethernet has
become one of the most popular network architectures for the desktop computer,
and is used in network environments of all sizes. Today, Ethernet is considered to
be a nonproprietary industry standard that is widely supported by network hardware manufacturers.

Ethernet Packets
An Ethernet packet (commonly called a frame among Ethernet users) is between
64 and 1,518 bytes long (51212,144 bits), and every packet includes control
information. For example, the Ethernet II packet format used for Transmission

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Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the standard for data transmission over networks (including the Internet). This packet includes six distinct
areas. The preamble marks the start of the packet (similar to the start bit used in
serial communication). The addresses denote the destination and source addresses
for the packet. A type entry is used to identify the network layer protocolusually
either IP (Internet Protocol) or IPX (Novells Internetwork Packet Exchange). The
packets data then follows, and the packet is concluded by error checking (CRC)
information.

Ethernet Performance Notes

Ethernet performance can be improved by dividing a crowded segment into two
less-populated segments, then joining them with either a bridge or a router. This
reduces the traffic on each segmentbecause fewer computers are attempting to
transmit onto the segment, the apparent access time improves. You may consider
dividing segments if new users are quickly joining the network or if new bandwidth-intensive applications (i.e., database or video software) are added to the
network. Ethernet architecture is also quite versatile, and can use multiple communication protocols or connect mixed computing environments such as
NetWare, UNIX, Windows, or Macintosh.

10BaseT (IEEE 802.3)

10BaseT is an Ethernet standard designed to support 10Mbps baseband data
transmission over Category 3, 4, or 5 twisted-pair cable (UTP). UTP cable is more
common, but STP can be substituted without difficulty. Cables are connected with
RJ-45 connectors. Each computer uses two pairs of wire: one pair is used to receive
and the other pair is used to transmit. While Ethernet LANs are traditionally configured in a bus topology, a growing number are set up as a star topology (using
bus signaling and access methods). The hub of a 10BaseT network typically serves
as a multiport repeater. The maximum length of a 10BaseT segment is 328 ft,
though repeaters can be used to extend this maximum length. The minimum
cable length between computers is 8 ft. A 10BaseT Ethernet LAN will serve up to
1,024 computers.

10Base2 (IEEE 802.3)

10Base2 is an Ethernet standard designed to support 10Mbps baseband data transmission over thin coaxial (thinnet) cable. Cables are connected with BNC connectors

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(including barrel connectors, T connectors, and terminators). 10Base2 Ethernet

LANs are traditionally configured in a bus topology. The maximum length of a
10Base2 segment is 607 ft, though repeaters can join up to five segments to create
an effective bus length of over 3,000 ft. The minimum cable length between computers is 2 ft. A 10Base2 Ethernet LAN will only serve up to 30 computers per segment, but this is often ideal for small department and workgroup situations.

10Base5 (IEEE 802.3)

10Base5 is an Ethernet scheme (called standard Ethernet) designed to support
10Mbps baseband data transmission over thick coaxial (thicknet) cable. 10Base5
Ethernet LANs are traditionally configured in a bus topology, and the maximum
length of a 10Base5 segment is 1,640 ft, though repeaters can join up to five segments to create an effective bus length of over 8,200 ft. The backbone (or trunk)
segment is the main cable from which transceiver cables are connected to stations
and repeaters. The minimum cable length between transceivers is 8 ft. A 10Base5
Ethernet LAN will only serve up to 100 computers per segment, and this is often
ideal for small to mid-sized network situations.

Travel Advisory
A thicknet network can combine as many as five cable segments connected by
four repeaters, but only three segments can have computers attached.This
means two segments are untapped, and are often known as inter-repeater
links. This is known as the 5-4-3 rule. Remember that the length of the
transceiver cables is not used to measure the distance of the
thicknet cableonly the end-to-end length of the thicknet
cable segment itself is used.

Cabling a 10Base 5 network can be a bit more involved than other Ethernet configurations. The thicknet cabling includes transceivers that provide communications
between the computer and the main LAN cable, and are attached to the main cable
with vampire taps. Once a transceiver is placed on the main cable, a transceiver cable
(a.k.a. a drop cable) connects the transceiver to the NIC. A transceiver cable attaches
to a NIC through an AUI (or DIX) connector. Other cabling is attached with
N-series connectors, including barrel connectors and terminators.

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10BaseFL
It is also possible to run an Ethernet network over fiber-optic cable. 10BaseFL is
designed to support 10Mbps baseband data transmission over fiber-optic cable
between computers and repeaters. The main reason for using 10BaseFL is to
accommodate long cable runs between repeaters, such as between buildings. The
maximum distance for a 10BaseFL segment is about 6,500 ft.

100BaseVG
Originally developed by Hewlett-Packard, the 100BaseVG (voice grade) AnyLAN
scheme is an emerging networking technology that combines elements of both
Ethernet and token ring architectures. This type of architecture is known by several terms: 100VG, AnyLAN, 100BaseVG, or simply VG. 100BaseVG supports a
minimum data rate of 100Mbps in a star (or cascaded star) topology across
Category 3, 4, and 5 twisted-pair (as well as fiber-optic) cable. Because 100BaseVG
is compatible with existing 10BaseT cabling systems, it is a simple matter to
upgrade from existing 10BaseT installations (though new hubs and NIC adapters
will be required). 100BaseVG uses the demand-priority access method that allows
for two priority levels (low and high), and supports both Ethernet frames and
token ring packets. While data transmission rates are higher, the cable distances of
100BaseVG are limited when compared to other implementations of Ethernet. A
cable run from the 100BaseVG hub to a computer cannot exceed about 820 ft.

100BaseX
There are several variations of the 100BaseX family depending on the media
being used. 100BaseT4 uses four-pair Category 3, 4, or 5 UTP cable, 100BaseTX
uses two-pair Category 5 UTP or STP cable, and 100BaseFX uses two-strand fiberoptic cable. But all are referred to as Fast Ethernet because of their 100-Mbps
transmission speeds. 100BaseX also uses CSMA/CD in a star-wired bus topology (similar to 10BaseT where all cables are attached to a hub).

Token Ring
IBM introduced the token ring architecture in 1984 for personal, midrange, and
mainframe computers. The main objective behind token ring was to establish a simple and reliable wiring method using twisted-pair cable, which could connect individual workstations to a central location. The architecture of a token ring network

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is technically a physical ring. However, rather than cabling the network PCs in an
actual circle (which could make upgrades and workstation additions a real nightmare), the token ring approach uses a star topology where all PCs are connected
to a central hub called a multistation access unit (MAU). In effect, the ring is provided by the MAU rather than by the physical cabling.
Cable segments can range from 148 ft656 ft (depending whether the cable is
shielded or unshielded), and requires a minimum of 8 ft between computers. A segment will support up to 72 computers using unshielded cable, though up to 260 computers can be supported on a segment with shielded cable. Rings can be connected
through the use of bridges. Although Ethernet is more popular, many large companies are selecting token ring architecture to support mission-critical applications.

Token Ring Packets

The token ring packet is a bit more involved than an Ethernet packet, but contains
the same essential information. A start delimiter indicates the start of a packet, and
access control information describes the packet as a token (being passed around the
network) or data (having a specific destination). Packet control information will
carry details for all computers, or only for one computer. The packet is directed with
a destination address and source address, and then the data to be transferred is
included. Data may also include network commands or status information. A packet
check sequence will provide CRC error-checking information, and an end delimiter
marks the end of the packet. Packet status information is tagged onto the packet that
tells whether the packet was recognized or copied, or if the destination address was
even available. This information is passed back to the sending computer.

Token Ring Operation

Now is a good time to review token ring operation. When the network initializes, a
token is generated that then travels around the ring and polls each computer until
one of the computers wants to transmit datathat computer then takes control of
the token. After a computer captures the token, it sends a data packet out to the network. The packet proceeds around the ring until it reaches the computer with the
address that matches the destination in that packet. The destination computer copies
the frame into a receive buffer, and updates the packets Packet Status field to indicate
that the information was received. The updated packet continues around the ring
until it arrives back at the sending computer. The sending computer acknowledges
the successful transmission, then removes the packet from the ring and transmits a
new token back to the ring. It is important to remember that a computer cannot

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transmit unless it has possession of the token, and no other computer can transmit
data while the token is in use by a computer. Only one token at a time can be active
on the network, and the token can travel in only one direction around the ring.

System Monitoring and Fault Tolerance

One major advantage of the token ring architecture is its self-monitoring (or selfdiagnosing) capability. Normally, the first computer to come online in a token ring
network is assigned to monitor network activity. The monitoring computer verifies that packets are being delivered and received correctly by checking for packets
that have circulated the ring more than once (and ensuring that only one token is
on the network at a time). This monitoring process is called beaconing. A beacon
announcement is produced every seven seconds. The beacon is passed from computer to computer throughout the entire ring. If a station does not receive an
expected announcement from a PC upstream, it tries to notify the network. It
sends a message of the neighbor that did not respond and attempts to diagnose
the problem without disrupting the entire network. If a correction cannot be
made automatically, service will be required.
In addition, MAUs incorporate a certain amount of fault tolerance. When one
computer fails in a true token-passing network, the token cannot be passed and
the network fails. MAUs are designed to detect a NIC failure and disconnect that
computer from the network. This bypasses the failed PC so that the token can continue on to the next subsequent computer. This means a faulty computer or connection will not affect the rest of the token ring network.

CHECKPOINT
Objective 1.01: Network Basics

Networks connect computers together in

order to share files, resources, and even applications.

Objective 1.02: Network Types

There are peer-to-peer and server-based

networks. A networked computer that provides resources is called a server.
The computer accessing those resources is referred to as a workstation or
client. Server-based networks allow resources, security, and administration to
all be handled from a single central location.

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Objective 1.03: Network Topology

Bus, star, and ring are the three major

topologies used in current networks. A bus topology connects all PCs in a single line (or trunk). Bus networks use terminators to prevent signal bounce
across the cabling. A star topology connects all PCs to a single central hub
without the use of terminators, but a hub failure can disable the entire network. The ring topology connects all PCs in a logical loop, and uses a token
to pass control of the network from system to system.

Objective 1.04: Network Hardware

A bridge can act like a repeater to

extend the effective length of a network cable, but it can also divide a network
to isolate excessive traffic or problem data. A router knows the address of each
segment, determines the best path for sending data, and filters broadcast traffic to the local segment. A gateway can perform complex functions such as
translating between networks that speak different languages (using techniques such as protocol and bandwidth conversion). The network interface
card (or NIC, and also known as a LAN adapter) functions as an interface
between the individual computer (server or client) and the network cabling.

Objective 1.05: Network Media

Cabling (or network media) comes in

many different configurations, including unshielded twisted pair (UTP),
coaxial cable, shielded twisted pair (STP), and fiber-optic (FO) cable.
Coaxial cables are available in thinnet and thicknet versions. There are five
categories of unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable. IBM cabling is separated
into nine categories.

Objective 1.06:Network Architectures

Access methods regulate the flow of

traffic on the network. There are three major access methods: CSMA, token
passing, and demand priority. There are several types of Ethernet: 10BaseT,
10Base2, 10Base5, 10BaseFL, 100BaseVG, and 100BaseX. Token ring passes
control from PC to PC through the use of special packets (called tokens).

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. A networked computer that provides resources is called a
A.
B.
C.
D.

Peer
Node
Server
Client

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2. A document that is loaded into your workstations memory so that you can

edit or use it locally is typically stored on a

A.
B.
C.
D.

Database server
File and print server
Web server
Telnet server

3. The notion of dependable and consistent server operation is termed

A.
B.
C.
D.

Scalability
Availability
Reliability
Redundancy

4. Grouping more than one server to perform the same job in the network

is called
A.
B.
C.
D.

Clustering
Failover
Redundancy
Scalability

5. Which topology connects computers to each other in a straight line along a

single main cable called a trunk?

A.
B.
C.
D.

Line
Star
Ring
Bus

6. Which topology connects all PCs on the network to a central connection

point called a hub?

A.
B.
C.
D.

Line
Star
Ring
Bus

7. Which topology/architecture will shut down if the MAU fails?

A.
B.
C.
D.

Line
Star
Ring
Bus

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8. What kind of network hardware can also divide a network to isolate excessive

traffic or problem data?

A.
B.
C.
D.

Repeater
Amplifier
Bridge
Patch panel

9. RG-58 is a type of
A.
B.
C.
D.

Coaxial cable
Shielded twisted pair
Unshielded twisted pair
Fiber-optic cable

10. 10BaseT is a form of

A.
B.
C.
D.

Token ring
ARCnet
Gigabit Ethernet
10Mbps Ethernet

REVIEW ANSWERS
1.

C Server: A server provides network resources which are requested by a

workstation (or client). This is different than a peer-to-peer network where

each member of the network can provide resources.
2.

B File and print server: File and print servers manage the users overall
access and use of file and printer resources. The document stored on the file
and print server is loaded into your workstations memory so that you can
edit or use it locally.

3.

C Reliability: Reliability refers to dependable and consistent operation

the probability that a component or system will perform a task for a specified period of timeand is often measured as a function of the time between
system failures using the term MTBF (mean time between failure).
4.

A Clustering: Server clusters employ two or more server PCs that act
like a single server to provide higher availability and performance than
a single server could handle. Applications can move from one server to
another, or run on several servers at once, and all transactions are transparent to end users.

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5.

D Bus: With a bus, computers are connected to each other in a straight line
along a single main cable called a trunk (also called a backbone or segment).
The bus is the simplest and most straightforward type of network topology,
and is commonly used with Ethernet networks.

6.

B Star: The star topology connects all PCs on the network to a central connection point called a hub. A star network is a bit more robust than the bus
approach because connections are direct from the PC to the hub, so its an
easy matter to add clients to the network simply by connecting them to an
available port in the hub.

7.

C Ring: The computers in a token ring topology are constantly receiving

and retransmitting tokens from one computer to the next. Since token rings
also use MAUs to pass data from one PC to the next, a MAU failure can disable the network.
8.

C Bridge: A bridge offers more features for a busy network. A bridge can
act like a repeater to extend the effective length of a network cable, but a
bridge has more intelligence, and can also divide a network to isolate excessive traffic or problem data.

9.

A Coaxial cable: Thinnet cable is thin (roughly 0.25 inches in diameter),

presents a 50 impedance to data signals, and can carry electrical signals for
over 600 ft. The cable industry refers to this common type of cable as RG-58.
10.

D 10Mbps Ethernet: 10BaseT is an Ethernet standard designed to support

10Mbps baseband data transmission over Category 3, 4, or 5 twisted-pair
cable (UTP).