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UNIT-III

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LESSON

8
THE PROCESS OF CONTROLLING

CONTENTS
8.0

Aims and Objectives

8.1

Introduction

8.2

Definitions of Control

8.3

Characteristics of Control

8.4

Steps in Control Process

8.5

8.4.1

Establishing Standards

8.4.2

Measuring and Comparing actual Results against Standards

8.4.3

Taking Corrective Action

Types of Control
8.5.1

Past Oriented Controls

8.5.2

Future-Oriented Controls

8.6

Essentials of Effective Control Systems

8.7

Scope of Control

8.8

Let us Sum up

8.9

Lesson-end Activities

8.10 Keywords
8.11 Questions for Discussion
8.12 Suggested Readings

8.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this lesson is to discuss about the process of controlling in an organisation.
After studying this lesson you will be able to:
(i)

understand the meaning and characteristics of management control

(ii)

identify the steps involved in control process

(iii) describe requirements of control

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Controlling is an important function of management. It is the process that measures
current performance and guides it towards some predetermined objectives. Under primitive

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management, control was undertaken only when something went wrong and the objectives
of control was to reprimand the person responsible for these events and take action
against him. The modern concept of control envisages a system that not only provides a
historical record of what has happened to the business as a whole but also pinpoints the
reasons why it has happened and provides data that enable the manager to take corrective
steps, if he finds he is on the wrong track. Therefore, there is no intention to punish the
person for wrongdoing, but to find out the deviations between the actual performance
and the standard performance and to take steps to prevent such variances in future.
The concept of control is often confused with lack of freedom. The opposite of control
is not freedom but chaos or anarchy. Control is fully consistent with freedom. In fact,
they are inter-dependent. Without control, freedom cannot be sustained for long. Without
freedom, control becomes ineffective. Both freedom and accountability are embedded
in the concept of control.

8.2 DEFINITIONS OF CONTROL

Control is the process through which managers assure that actual activities conform to
planned activities. According to Breach - "Control is checking current performance against
predetermined standards contained in the plans, with a view to ensuring adequate progress
and satisfactory performance."
According to George R Terry - "Controlling is determining what is being accomplished
i.e., evaluating the performance and if necessary, applying corrective measures so that
the performance takes place according to plans."
According to Billy E Goetz - "Management control seeks to compel events to conform
plans".
According to Robert N Anthony - "Management control is the process by which managers
assure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently."
In the words of Koontz and O'Donnell - "Managerial control implies measurement of
accomplishment against the standard and the correction of deviations to assure attainment
of objectives according to plans."
In the words of Haynes and Massie - "Fundamentally, control is any process that guides
activity towards some predetermined goal. The essence of the concept is in determining
whether the activity is achieving the desired results.
In the words of J. L. Massie - "Control is the process that measures current performance
and guides it towards some predetermined goals."
In the words of Henry Fayol - "Control consists in verifying whether everything occurs
in conformity with the plan adopted, the instructions issued and the principles established.
Its object is to find out the weakness and errors in order to rectify them and prevent
recurrence. It operates on everything, i.e., things, people and actions".
From the above definitions it is clear that the managerial function of control consists in a
comparison of the actual performance with the planned performance with the object of
discovering whether all is going on well according to plans and if not why. Remedial
action arising from a study of deviations of the actual performance with the standard or
planned performance will serve to correct the plans and make suitable changes. Controlling
is the nature of follow-up to the other three fundamental functions of management.
There can, in fact, be not controlling without previous planning, organising and directing.
Controlling cannot take place in a vacuum.

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8.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROL

The Process of Controlling

Managerial control has certain characteristic feature. They are:

1.

Control is the function of every manager. Managers at all levels have to perform
this function to contribute to the achievement of organisational objectives.

2.

Control leads to appraisal of past activities. The deviations in the past are revealed
by the control process. Corrective actions can be initiated accordingly.

3.

Control is linked with future, as past cannot be controlled. It should anticipate

possible deviations and to think of corrective action for the control of such deviations
in the future. It is usually preventive as presence of control system tends to minimise
wastages, losses and deviations from standards.

4.

Control is concerned with setting standards, measurement of actual performance,

comparison of actual performance with predetermined standards and bringing to
light the variations between the actual performance and the standard performance.

5.

Control implies taking corrective measures. The object in checking the variations
or deviations is to rectify them and prevent their recurrence. It is only action which
adjusts performance to predetermined standards whenever deviations occur.

6.

Control can be exercised only with reference to and or the basis of plans. To quote
Mary Cushing Niles - "Whereas planning sets the course, control observes deviations
from the course or to an appropriately changed one".

7.

To some people, control is opposite of freedom. This is not true. Control is based on
facts and figures. Its purpose is to achieve and maintain acceptable productivity
from all resources of an enterprise. Therefore, control aims at results and not at
persons. It is for correcting a situation, and not for reprimanding persons.

8.

Information or feedback is the guide to control. The feedback is helpful to the

manager to determine how far the operations are proceeding in conformity with
plans and standards, and where remedial action is called for.

9.

Control involves continuous review of standards of performance and results in

corrective action which may lead to change in the performance of other functions
of management. This makes control a dynamic and flexible process.

10. Control is a continuous activity. It involves constant analysis of validity of standards,

policies, procedures etc.

8.4 STEPS IN CONTROL PROCESS

There are three basic steps in a control process:
l

Establishing standards.

Measuring and comparing actual results against standards.

Taking corrective action.

8.4.1 Establishing Standards

The first step in the control process is to establish standards against which results can be
measured. The standards the managers desire to obtain in each key area should be
defined as far as possible in quantitative terms. Standards expressed in general terms
should be avoided. Standards need to be flexible in order to adapt to changing conditions.
The standard should emphasis the achievement of results more than the conformity to
rules and methods. If they do not do so, then people will start giving more importance to
rules and methods than to the final results.
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While setting the standards, the following points have to be borne in mind:
(a)

The standards must be clear and intelligible. If the standards are clear and are understood
by the persons concerned, they themselves will be able to check their performance.

(b)

Standards should be accurate, precise, acceptable and workable.

(c)

Standards are used as the criteria or benchmarks by which performance is measured

in the control process. It should not be either too high or too low. They should be
realistic and attainable.

(d)

Standards should be flexible i.e., capable of being changed when the circumstances
require so.

8.4.2 Measuring and Comparing actual Results against Standards

The second step in the control process is to measure the performance and compare it with
the predetermined standards. Measurement of performance can be done by personal
observation, by reports, charts and statements. If the control system is well organised,
quick comparison of these with the standard figure is quite possible. This will reveal variations.
After the measurement of the actual performance, the actual performance should be
compared with the standards fixed quickly. A quick comparison of actual performance
with the standard performance is possible, if the control system is well organised. While
comparing the actual performance with the standards fixed, the manager has to find out
not only the extent of variations but also the causes of variations. This is necessary,
because some of the variations may be unimportant, while others may be important and
need immediate corrective action by the manager.

8.4.3 Taking Corrective Action

After comparing the actual performance with the prescribed standards and finding the
deviations, the next step that should be taken by the manager is to correct these deviations.
Corrective action should be taken without wasting of time so that the normal position can
be restored quickly. The manager should also determine the correct cause for deviation.
Taking corrective action can be achieved in the following way:
(a)

The manager should try to influence environmental conditions and external situations
in such a way as to facilitate the achievement of goals.

(b)

He should review with his subordinates the instructions given earlier so that he
may be able to give clear, complete and reasonable instructions in future.

(c)

There are many external forces which cannot be adjusted by the manager. They
have to be accepted as the facts of the situation, and the executives should revise
their plans in the light of these changing forces.
Check Your Progress

1.

Define control.

2.

What are the characteristics of the control process?

3.

Explain the steps in the control process.

8.5 TYPES OF CONTROL

Most control methods can be grouped into one of the two basic types:

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Future-oriented controls and

Past-oriented controls.

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8.5.1 Past-oriented Controls

The Process of Controlling

These are also known as post-action controls and measure results after the process.
They examine what has happened in a particular period in the past. These controls can
be used to plan future behaviour in the light of past errors or successes.

8.5.2 Future-oriented Controls

These are also known as steering controls or feed-forward controls and are designed to
measure results during the process so that action can be taken before the job is done or
the period is over. They serve as warning-posts principally to direct attention rather than
to evaluate e.g.: Cash flow analysis, funds flow analysis, network planning etc.

8.6 ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE CONTROL SYSTEMS

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Suitable: The control system should be appropriate to the nature and needs of the
activity. A large firm calls for controls different from those needed for a small firm.
In other words, control should be tailored to fit the needs of the organisation. The
flow of information concerning current performance should correspond with the
organizational structure employed. If a superior is to be able to control overall
operations, he must find a pattern that will provide control for individual parts.
Budgets, quotas and other techniques may be useful in controlling separate
departments.
Timely and Forward Looking: The control system should be such as to enable
the subordinates to inform their superiors expeditiously about the threatened
deviations and failures. The feedback system should be as short and quick as
possible. If the control reports are not directed at future, they are of no use as they
will not be able to suggest the types of measures to be taken to rectify the past
deviations. A proper system of control should enable the manager concerned to
think of and plan for future also.
Objective and Comprehensive: The control system should be both, objective and
understandable. Objective controls specify the expected results in clear and definite
terms and leave little room for argument by the employees. This is necessary both
for the smooth working and the effectiveness of the system.
Flexible: The control system should be flexible so that it can be adjusted to suit the
needs of any change in the environment. A sound control system will remain
workable even when the plans change or fail outright. It must be responsive to
changing conditions. It should be adaptable to new developments including the
failure of the control system itself. Plans may call for an automatic system to be
backed up by a human system that would operate in an emergency.
Economical: Economy is another requirement of every control. The benefit derived
from a control system should be more than the cost involved in implementing it. A
small company cannot afford the elaborate control system used by a large company.
A control system is justifiable if the savings anticipated from it exceed the expected
costs in its working.
Acceptable to Organisation Members: The system should be acceptable to
organisation members. When standards are set unilaterally by upper level managers,
there is a danger that employees will regard those standards as unreasonable or
unrealistic.
Motivate People to High Performance: A control system is most effective when
it motivates people to high performance. Since most people respond to a challenge,
successfully meeting to tough standard may well provide a greater sense of
accomplishment than meeting an easy standard. However, if a target is so tough that it
seems impossible to meet, it will be more likely to discourage than to motivate effort.

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8.

Corrective Action: Merely pointing of deviations is not sufficient in a good control

system. It must lead to corrective action to be taken to check deviations from
standard through appropriate planning, organizing and directing. In the words of
Koontz and O'Donnell, "An adequate control system should disclose where failure
is occurring, who is responsible for them and what should be done about them." A
control system will be of little use unless it can generate the solution to the problem
responsible for deviation from standards.
9. Reflection of Organisation Pattern: Organization is not merely a structure of duties
and function, it is also an important vehicle of control. In enforcing control the efficiency
and the effectiveness of the organisation must be clearly brought out.
10. Human Factor: A good system of control should find the persons accountable for
results, whenever large deviations take place. They must be guided and directed if
necessary.
11. Direct Control: Any control system should be designed to maintain direct contact
between the controller and controlled. Even when there are a number of control
systems provided by staff specialists, the foreman at the first level is still important
because he has direct knowledge of performance.
12. Focus on Strategic Points: A good system of control not only points out the
deviations or exceptions but also pinpoints them where they are important or strategic
to his operations.

8.7 SCOPE OF CONTROL

The scope of control is very wide. A well designed plan of control (or control system)
covers almost all management activities. According to Holden, Fish and Smith, the main
areas of control are as follows:

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1.

Control over policies: The success of any business organisation to a large extent,
depends upon, how far its policies are implemented. Hence the need of control
over policies is self-evident. In many enterprises, policies are controlled through
policy manuals.

2.

Control over organisation: Control over organisation is accomplished through the

development of organisation chart and organisation manual. Organisation manual
attempts at solving organisational problems and conflicts making long-range
organisation planning possible, enabling rationalisation of organisation structure,
helping in proper designing of organisation and department.

3.

Control over personnel: The statement that Management is getting the work
done through people underlines sufficiently the importance of control of personnel.
All employees working at different levels must perform their assigned duties well
and direct their efforts in controlling their behaviour. Personal Director or Personnel
Manager prepares control plan for having control over personnel.

4.

Control over wages and salaries: Such type of control is done by having
programme of job evaluation and wage and salary analysis. This work is done
either by personnel department or industrial engineering department. Often a wage
and salary committee is constituted to help these departments in the task of controlling
wages and salaries.

5.

Control over costs: Cost control is exercised by the cost accountant, by setting
cost standards for material, labour and overheads and making comparison of actual
cost data with standard cost. Cost control is supplemented by budgetary control
systems.

6.

Control over methods: Control over methods is accomplished by conducting

periodic analysis of activities of each department. The functions performed, methods

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adopted and time devoted by every employee is studied with a view to eliminate
non-essential motions, functions and methods.
7.

Control over capital expenditures: It is exercised through a system of evaluation

of projects, ranking of projects in terms of their rank power and appropriate capital
to various projects. A capital budget is prepared for the whole firm. A capital
budgeting committee reviews the project proposes and approves the projects of
advantages to the firm. Capital budgeting, project analysis, break-even analysis,
study of cost of capital, etc. are some popular techniques of control over capital
expenditure.

8.

Control over research and development: Such activities are highly technical in
nature so no direct control is possible over them. By improving the ability and
judgement of research staff through training programmes and other devices, an
indirect control is exercised on them. Control is also exercised by having a research
on the business.

9.

Control over external relations: Public relations department is responsible for

controlling the external relations of the enterprise. It may prescribe certain measures
for other operating departments which are instrumental in improving external
relations.

The Process of Controlling

10. Overall control: It is effected through budgetary control. Master plan is prepared
for overall control and all the departments are made involved in this procedure. For
effective control through the master plan, active support of the top management is
essential.

8.8 LET US SUM UP

Controlling is an important function of management. It is the process that measures
current performance and guides it towards some predetermined objectives. Control is
fully consistent with freedom. In fact, they are inter-dependent. Without control, freedom
cannot be sustained for long. The control system should be appropriate to the nature and
needs of the activity. A large firm calls for controls different from those needed for a
small firm. This chapter provided insight into nature, scope and process of control. The
various types of control and their importance are also highlighted.

8.9 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Planning and control are after thought of as a system; control is also often referred to as
a system. What is meant by this? can both statements be trees?

8.10 KEYWORDS
Control
Part Oriented Control
Future Oriented Control
Budgeting
Standard Costing
Effective Control

8.11 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

Define 'control'. What are the elements of control? How do managers exercise
control?

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2.

Discuss the concept and process of control. State the requirements of an effective
control system.

3.

Why is control a must in business management? What are the requirements of an

effective control system?

4.

"The essence of control is action". Comment.

5.

"The controlling function of management is similar to the function of the thermostat

in a refrigerator". Comment.

8.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Billy E. Goetz, "Management Planning and Control", McGraw-Hill, New York (1979)
Chris Argyris, "Personality and Organization", Harper and Row, New York (1957)
Charles Handy, "Trust and the Virtual Organization", Harvard Business Review
(may - June 1995)
Douglas S. Sherwin, "The Meaning of Control", in Max D. Richards and William A
Nielander (eds. Readings in Management, D.B Taraporevala, Bombay (1971).
George R. Terry, "Principles of Management", Richard D. Irwin, Homewood III (1988).
George R. Terry and Stephen G. Franklin, "Principles of Management" AITBS, Delhi
(2000).
G. B. Giglione and A.G. Bedein, "Conception of Management Control Theory",
Academy of Management Journal, (June 1974)
Harold Koontz, Cyril O'Donnell, and Heinz Weihrich, "Management", McGraw-Hill,
New York (1984).
John A. Pearce and Richard B. Robinson, "Strategic Management" Homewood III
Richard D. Irwin (1988)
McGregor Douglas, "The Human Side of Enterprise", McGraw Hill Book Company,
New York (1960).
Peter F. Drucker, "Management Tasks, Responsibilities and Practices", Harper &
Row, New York (1974).
Paul E. Holden, L.S. Fish, and Hubert L. Smith, "Top Management Organisation and
Control", McGraw-Hill, New York (1981).
Scanlon Burt K., "Principles of Management and Organisation Behaviour", John
Wiley and Sons (1973).
Tom K. Reeves and Joan Woodward, "The Study of Management Control", Joan
Woodward (ed.) "Industrial Organization, Behaviour and Control", Oxford University
Press, London (1970).
P.G. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.

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