BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

BASIC DATA PROCESSING SEQUENCE

There are three primary steps in processing seismic data --- deconvolution, stacking, and migration,
in their usual order of application.
Deconvolution acts along the time axis. It removes the basic seismic wavelet (the source time
function modified by various effects of the earth and recording system) from the recorded seismic trace
and thereby increases temporal resolution. Deconvolution achieves this goal by compressing the
wavelet.
Stacking also is a process of compression. In particular, the data volume is reduced to a plane of
midpoint-time at zero offset (the frontal face of the prism) first by applying normal moveout correction
to traces from each CMP gather, then by summing them along the offset axis. The result is a stacked
section.
Finally, migration commonly is applied to stacked data. It is a process that collapses diffractions and
maps dipping events on a stacked section to their supposedly true subsurface locations. In this respect,
migration is a spatial deconvolution process that improves spatial resolution.

FIG.1. Seismic data volume represented in processing coordinates midpointoffset-time. Deconvolution acts on the data along the time axis and increases
temporal resolution. Stacking compresses the data volume in the offset
direction and yields the plane of stacked section (the frontal face of the
prism). Migration then moves dipping events to their true subsurface
positions and collapses diffractions, and thus increases lateral resolution.
All other processing techniques may be considered secondary in that they help improve the
effectiveness of the primary processes. For example, dip filtering may need to be applied before
deconvolution to remove coherent noise so that the autocorrelation estimate is based on reflection
energy that is free from such noise.

BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

Wide band-pass filtering also may be needed to remove very low- and high-frequency noise. Before
deconvolution, correction for geometric spreading is necessary to compensate for the loss of amplitude
caused by wave-front divergence. Velocity analysis, which is an essential step for stacking, is improved
by multiple attenuation and residual statics corrections.

Preprocessing Sequence
Demultiplexing
Field data are recorded in a multiplexed mode using a certain type of format. The data first are
demultiplexed as described in Figure 2. Mathematically, demultiplexing is seen as transposing a big
matrix so that the columns of the resulting matrix can be read as seismic traces recorded at different
offsets with a common shot point. At this stage, the data are converted to a convenient format that is
used throughout processing. This format is determined by the type of processing system and the
individual company. A common format used in the seismic industry for data exchange is SEG-Y,
established by the Society of Exploration Geophysicists.

FIG. 2. Seismic data are recorded in rows of samples at the same time at consecutive
channels. Demultiplexing involves sorting the data into columns of samples all the
time samples in one channel followed by those in the next channels.
Editing
Preprocessing also involves trace editing. Noisy traces, traces with transient glitches, or
monofrequency signals are deleted; polarity reversals are corrected. In case of very shallow marine data,
guided waves are muted since they travel horizontally within the water layer and do not contain
reflections from the substratum.
Marine data are contaminated by swell noise and cable noise. These types of noise carry very lowfrequency energy but can be high in amplitudes. They can be recognized by their distinctive linear
pattern and vertical streaks. The swell noise and cable noise are removed from shot records by a low-cut

BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

filtering. Attenuation of coherent linear noise associated with side scatterers and ground roll may
require techniques based on dip filtering.
Gain Recovery
Following the trace editing and prefiltering, a gain recovery function is applied to the data to correct for
the amplitude effects of spherical wavefront divergence. This amounts to applying a geometric
spreading function, which depends on traveltime.
Optionally, this amplitude correction is made dependent on a spatially averaged velocity function, which
is associated with primary reflections in a particular survey area. Additionally, an exponential gain
function may be used to compensate for attenuation losses.

Geometric spreading correction:

The earth has two effects on a propagating wavefield;

a- In a homogenous medium, energy density decays proportionately to

Where

, where r is the

reduis of the wavefront (In practice, velocity usually increases with depth, which causes
further divergence of the wavefront and a more rapid decay in amplitudes with distance.).
b- The frequency content of the initial source signal changes in a time variant manner as it
propagates (In practice, high frequencies are absorbed more rapidly than low frequencies.).
The gain function for geometric spreading compensation is defined by;

is the reference velocity at a spacific time

Programmed gain control (PGC):

PGC is the simplest type of gain.

Gain function can be defined by interpolation between same scalar values specified at particular
time sample.
A single PGC function is applied to all traces in a gather or stacked section to prevent the relative
amplitude variation in the lateral direction.

RMS Amplitude AGC:

The RMS amplitude AGC gain function is based on the rms amplitude within a specified time
gate on an input trace.
The gain function is computed as follows;
The input trace is subdivided into fixed time gate.
The amplitude of each sample in a gate is squared.
The mean of these values is computed and its square root is taken. This is rms
amplitude over this gate.

BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

Instantaneous AGC:

Instantaneous AGC is one of the most common gain types used.

The gain function is computed as follows;
The input trace is subdivided into fixed time gate.
The mean absolute value of trace amplitudes is computed within a specified time gate.
The ratio of the desired rms level to this mean value is assigned as the value of the gain
function.

Field Geometry
Finally, field geometry is merged with the seismic data. This precedes any gain correction that is offsetdependent. Based on survey information for land data or navigation information for marine data,
coordinates of shot and receiver locations for all traces are stored on trace headers. Changes in shot and
receiver locations are handled properly based on the information available in the observer's log. Many
types of processing problems arise from setting up the field geometry, incorrectly. As a result, the
quality of a stacked section can be degraded severely.
Elevation Statics
For land data, elevation statics are applied at this stage to reduce traveltimes to a common datum
level. This level may be flat or vary (floating datum) along the line. Reduction of traveltimes to a datum
usually requires correction for the near-surface weathering layer in addition to differences in elevation
of source and receiver stations. Estimation and correction for the near- surface effects usually are
performed using refracted arrivals associated with the base of the weathering layer.
The statics corrections require knowledge of the near-surface model. The near-surface often
consists of a low-velocity weathering layer. However, there are exceptions to this simplified model for
the near-surface. Areas covered with glacial tills, volcanic stringers, and sand dunes often have a nearsurface that may consist of more than one layer with different velocities. Layer boundaries can vary
significantly from a flat interface to an arbitrarily irregular shape. The single-layer assumption for the
near-surface also is violated when there is a lateral change in rock composition associated with
outcrops, pinchouts or a flood plain along a seismic profile.
In practice, a single-layer near-surface model often is sufficient for resolving long-wavelength statics
anomalies. Complexities in a single-layer near-surface model can be due to one or more of the following:
(a) Rapid variations in shot and receiver station elevations,
(b) Lateral variations in weathering velocity, and
(c) Lateral variations in the geometry of the refractor, which, for refraction statics, is
defined as the interface between the weathering layer above and the bedrock below.

BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

Processing Sequence
Deconvolution
Deconvolution compresses the wavelet in the recorded seismogram, attenuates reverberations and
short period multiples, thus increases temporal resolution and yields a representation of the subsurface
reflectivity.
Typically, prestack deconvolution is aimed at improving temporal resolution by compressing the
effective source wavelet contained in the seismic trace to a spike (spiking deconvolution). Predictive
deconvolution with a prediction lag (commonly termed gap) that is equal to the first or second zero
crossing of the autocorrelation function also is used commonly.
Although deconvolution usually is applied to prestack data trace by trace, it is not uncommon to
design a single deconvolution operator and apply it to all the traces on a shot record. Deconvolution
techniques used in conventional processing are based on optimum Wiener filtering.

Optimum Wiener Filtering

In signal processing, the Wiener filter is a filter proposed by Norbert Wiener. Its purpose is to reduce
the amount of noise present in a signal by comparison with an estimation of the desired noiseless signal.
Typical filters are designed for a desired frequency response. However, the design of the Wiener
filter takes a different approach. One is assumed to have knowledge of the spectral properties of the
original signal and the noise, and one seeks the linear time-invariant filter whose output would come as
close to the original signal as possible. Wiener filters are characterized by the following:
1. Assumption: signal and (additive) noise are stationary linear stochastic processes with known
spectral characteristics or known autocorrelation and cross-correlation
2. Requirement: the filter must be physically realizable/causal (this requirement can be dropped,
resulting in a non-causal solution)
3. Performance criterion: minimum mean-square error (MMSE)
Wiener deconvolution is an application of the Wiener filter to the noise problems inherent
in deconvolution. It works in the frequency domain, attempting to minimize the impact of deconvoluted
noise at frequencies which have a poor signal-to-noise ratio.
Given a system

Where * denotes convolution and:

is some input signal (unknown) at time t.

BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

is the known impulse response of a linear time-invariant system.
is some unkown additive noise, independent of
is our observed signal.
Our goal is to fin some
so that we can estimate
as follows:

Where

is an estimate of

that minimizes the mean square error.

The Wiener deconvolution filter provides such a

domain:
|

. The filter is most easily described in the frequency

Where * denotes complex conjugation and:

and
are the Fourier transforms of and , respectively at frequency domain.
is the mean power spectral density of the input signal
is the eman power spectral density of the noise
.
The filtering operation may rather be carried out in the time-domain, or in the frequency domain:

Where
is the Fourier transform of
to obtain .

and then performing a inverse Fourier transform on

The Wiener filter applies to a large class of problems in which any desired output can be considered, not
just the zero-lag spike. Five choices for the desired output are:
Type 1: Zero-lag spike,
Type 2: Spike at arbitrary lag,
Type 3: Time-advanced form of input series,
Type 4: Zero-phase wavelet,
Type 5: Any desired arbitrary shape.

Spiking Deconvolution
The process with type 1 desired output (zero-lag spike) is
called spiking deconvolution. Crosscorrelation of the desired
spike (1,0,0,.,0) with input wavelet ( , , ,.,
)
yields the series ( ,0,0,....,0).

A flowchart for Wiener filter design

and application

BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

In conclusion, if the input wavelet is not minimum phase, then spiking deconvolution cannot convert
it to a perfect zero-lag spike. Although the amplitude spectrum is virtually flat as shown in frame A), the
phase spectrum of the output is not minimum phase as shown in frame (m). Finally, note that the
spiking deconvolution operator is the inverse of the minimum- phase equivalent of the input wavelet.
This wavelet may or may not be minimum phase.

Prewhitening
As we mentioned in the previous section spiking deconvolution cannot convert a minimum phase
wavelet to a perfect zero-lag spike. What if we had zeroes in the amplitude spectrum of the input
wavelet? To study this, we apply a minimum-phase band-pass filter with a wide passband (30-108 Hz) to
the minimum-phase wavelet . Deconvolution of the filtered wavelet does not produce a perfect spike;
instead, a spike accompanied by a high-frequency pre- and post-cursor results. This poor result occurs
because the deconvolution operator tries to boost the absent frequencies, as seen from the amplitude
spectrum of the output.

Predictive deconvolution
The type 3 desired output, a time-advanced from of the input series, suggests a prediction process.
Given the input
, we want to predict its value at some future time (t + ), where is prediction lag.
Wiener showed that the filter used to estimate
can be computed by using a special form of
the matrix equation derived by Robinson and Treitel.
CMP Sorting
Seismic data acquisition with multifold coverage is done in shot-receiver (s,g) coordinates. Figure 4a
is a schematic depiction of the recording geometry and ray paths associated with a flat reflector. Seismic
data processing, on the other hand, conventionally is done in midpoint-offset (y,h) coordinates. The
required coordinate transformation is achieved by sorting the data into CMP gathers. Based on the field
geometry information, each individual trace is assigned to the midpoint between the shot and receiver
locations associated with that trace. Those traces with the same midpoint location are grouped
together, making up a CMP gather.
Figure 4b depicts the geometry of a CMP gather and raypaths associated with a flat reflector. Note
that CDP gather is equivalent to a CMP gather only when reflectors are horizontal and velocities do not
vary horizontally. However, when there are dipping reflectors in the subsurface, these two gathers are
not equivalent and only the term CMP gather should be used.
The following gather types are identified in Figure 5:
A)
B)
C)
D)
E)

Common-shot gather (shot record, field record),

Common-receive gather,
Common-midpoint gather (CMP gather, CDP gather),
Common-offset section (constant-offset section),
CMP-stacked section (zero-offset section).

BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

FIG. 4. (a) Seismic data acquisition is done in shot-receiver {s,g) coordinates. The processing
coordinates, midpoint-(half) offset, (y, h) are defined in terms of (s, g): y = {g + s)/2, h = {g - s)/2. The
shot axis here points opposite the profiling direction, which is to the left. On a flat reflector, the
subsurface is sampled by reflection points which span a length that is equal to half the cable length,
(b) Seismic data processing is done in midpoint-offset (y, h) coordinates. The raypaths are associated
with a single CMP gather at midpoint location M. A CMP gather is identical to a CDP gather if the
depth point were on a horizontally flat reflector and if the medium above were horizontally layered.

BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

Normal Moveout
Consider a reflection event on a CMP gather. The difference between the two-way time at a given
offset and the two-way zero-offset time is called normal moveout (NMO). Reflection traveltimes must
be corrected for NMO prior to summing the traces in the CMP gather along the offset axis.
The normal moveout depends on:

Velocity above the reflector,

Offset,
Two-way zero-offset time associated with the reflection event,
Dip of the reflector,
The source-receiver azimuth with respect to the true-dip direction, and
The degree of complexity of the near-surface and the medium above the reflector.

NMO for a Flat Reflector

Figure 6 shows the simple case of a single horizontal
layer. At a given midpoint location M, we want to compute
the reflection traveltime t along the raypath from shot
position S to depth point D then back to receiver position
G. Using the Pythagorean theorem, the traveltime
equation as a function of offset is :

Where
is the distance (offset) between the source and
receiver positions, is the velocity of the medium above the
reflecting interface, and is twice the traveltime along the
vertical path MD.

Fig .6. The NMO geometry for a single

horizontal reflector. The traveltime is
described by a hyperbola represented
by the equation.

NMO for a Dipping Refractor

Figure 7 depicts a medium with a single dipping reflector. We
want to compute the traveltime from source location S to the
reflector at depth point D, then back to receiver location G.
For the dipping reflector, midpoint M is no longer a vertical
projection of the depth point to the surface. The terms CDP
gather and CMP gather are equivalent only when the earth is
horizontally stratified. When there is subsurface dip or lateral
velocity variation, the two gathers are different. Midpoint M
and the normal-incidence reflection point D' remain common
to all of the source-receiver pairs within the gather, regardless
of dip.

Fig .7. The NMO geometry for a single

dipping reflector.

BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

The equation for a dipping reflector is:

From the geometry of the dipping reflector

so:

Where is the dip angle of the reflector

Moveout Velocity versus Stacking Velocity

Table 3-3 summarizes the NMO velocity obtained from various earth models. After making a the smallspread and small-dip approximations, moveout is hyperbolic for all cases and given by

The hyperbolic moveout velocity should be distinguished from the stacking velocity that optimally
allows stacking of traces in a CMP gather. The hyperbolic form is used to define the best stacking path
as

where
is the velocity value which produces the maximum amplitude of the reflection event in
the stacked trace.
Velocity Analysis
In addition to providing an improved signal-to-noise ratio, multifold coverage with nonzero-offset
recording yields velocity information about the subsurface. Velocity analysis is performed on selected
CMP gathers or groups of gathers. The output from one type of velocity analysis is a table of numbers as
a function of velocity versus two-way zero-offset time (velocity spectrum). These numbers represent
some measure of signal coherency along the hyperbolic trajectories governed by velocity, offset, and
traveltime.
In areas with complex structure, velocity spectra often fail to provide sufficient accuracy in velocity
picks. When this is the case, the data are stacked with a range of constant velocities, and the constantvelocity stacks themselves are used in picking velocities.

BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

Factors Affecting Velocity Estimates Velocity estimation from seismic data is limited in accuracy and
resolution for the following reasons:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)

Spread length,
Stacking fold,
signal-to-noise ratio,
Muting,
Time gate length,
Velocity sampling,
Choice of coherency measure,
True departures from hyperbolic moveout, and
Bandwidth of data.

Multiples Attenuation
Multiple reflections and reverberations are attenuated using techniques based on their periodicity
or differences in moveout velocity between multiples and primaries. These techniques are applied to
data in various domains, including the CMP domain, to best exploit the periodicity and velocity
discrimination criteria.
Deconvolution is one of the methods of multiple attenuation that exploits the periodicity criterion.
Often, however, the power of conventional deconvolution in attenuating multiples is underestimated.
CMP stacking facilitates attenuation of multiples based on velocity discrimination between primaries
and multiples. This criterion to attenuate multiples also can be exploited in the fk, rp and Radontransform domains. The degree of success depends on the moveout difference between primaries and
multiples, and hence, on velocities and arrival times of primary reflections, and the cable length.
Specifically, the moveout difference between primaries and multiples decreases at shallow times, low
velocities, and at near offsets.
Frequency-Wavenumber Filtering (fk filtering)
Coherent linear events in the tx domain can be separated in the fk domain by their dips. This
allows us to eliminate certain types of unwanted energy from the data. In particular, coherent linear
noise in the form of ground roll, guided waves, and side-scattered energy commonly obscure primary
reflections in recorded data.
These types of noise usually are isolated from the reflection energy in the fk domain. Ground roll
is a type of dispersive waveform that propagates along the surface and is low-frequency, largeamplitude in character. Typically, ground roll is suppressed in the field by using a suitable receiver array.

A seismic pulse travelling with velocity

spread within an apparent velocity:

at angle to the vertical propagate across the

BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

Along the spread direction, each individual sinusoidal component of the pulse will have an
apparent wave number
related to its individual frequency where:
Hence , a plot of frequency against apparent wavenumber for the pulse will yield a
straight line curve with a gradient of .
k filtering is to enact a twodimensional Fourier transformation of the seismic data from
the tx domain, then to filter the k plote by removing a wedge-shaped zone or zones
containing the unwanted noise events, and finally to transform back to tx domain.
The following are the steps involved in fk filtering:
(a) Starting with a common-shot or a CMP gather, or a CMP-stacked section, applies 2-D Fourier
transform.
(b) Define a 2-D reject zone in the fk domain by setting the 2-D amplitude spectrum of the fk
filter to zero within that zone and set its phase spectrum to zero.
(c) Apply the 2-D fk filter by multiplying its amplitude spectrum with that of the input data set.
(d) Apply 2-D inverse Fourier transform of the filtered data.

Statics Corrections and Frequency-Wavenumber Filtering

It should be noted that coherent linear noise on shot gathers can be influenced kinematically by
surface topography and near-surface refractor geometry. Specifically, linearity of the coherent noise
may be distorted across a shot record. Distortions along a linear event in the tx domain cause
smearing of energy over a broad range of wavenumbers in the fk domain. This, in turn, would make it
difficult to specify a pass-fan for reflection energy. It can be concluded that statics corrections, at least in
the form of field statics, should be applied to shot records prior to fk filtering.
The Slant-Stack Transform

The Radon Transform

Velocity Stack Transformation

Linear Uncorrelated Noise Attenuation

BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

Migration

A seismic section is assumed to represent a cross-section of the earth. The assumption works well
when layers are-flat, and fairly well when they have gentle dips.
With steeper dip the assumption breaks down; the reflections are in the wrong places and have the
wrong dips.
In estimating the hydrocarbons in place, one of the variables is the areal extent of the trap. Whether
the trap is structural or stratigraphic, the seismic section should represent the earth model.
Dip migration, or simply migration, is the process of moving the reflections to their proper places
with their correct amount of dips.
This results in a section that more accurately represents a cross-section of the earth, delineating
subsurface details such as fault planes. Migration also collapses diffraction.

Migration Methods
The objective of seismic data processing is to produce an accurate as possible image of the
subsurface target, within the constraints imposed by time and money provided. In a few cases the CMP
stack, in time or depth, may suffice. In almost every case, today, some sort of migration is required to
produce a satisfactory image. There are two general approaches to migration: post-stack and pre-stack.
Post-stack migration is acceptable when the stacked data zero-offset. If there are conflicting dips with
varying velocities or a large lateral velocity gradient, a pre stack partial migration is used to resolve
these conflicting dips.

Pre-Stack Partial Migration (PSPM)

This process, also called dip moveout or DMO, applied before stack provides a better stack section
and an improved migration after stack. Figure 8 shows how this occurs. After NMO, the trace is
effectively moved to the midpoint position but if there is significant dip the reflection from the dipping
reflector is at neither the right place nor the right time. Pre-stack partial migration moves the reflection
to the zero offset point (ZOP). The reflection is still not quite at the right place and time but the zerooffset assumption of post-stack migration is satisfied. Thus, post-stack migration completes the imaging
to the right place and time.

Fig.8. Relationship between zero-offset point and midpoint for a dipping reflector

BASIC DATA PROCSSING SEQUENCE

Kirchhoff Migration
Diffraction migration or Kirchhoff migration is a statistical approach technique. It is based on the
observation that the zero-offset section consists of a single diffraction hyperbola that migrates to a
single point Migration involves summation of amplitudes along a hyperbolic path. The advantage of this
method is its good performance in case of steep-dip structures. The method performs poorly when the
signal-to-noise ratio is low.

Finite Difference Migration

This is a deterministic approach that recalculates the section using an approximation of the wave
equation suitable for use with computers. One advantage of the finite difference method is its ability to
perform well under low signal-to-noise ratio condition. Its disadvantages include long computing time
and difficulties in handling steep dips.

Frequency Domain or F-K Domain Migration

Stolt and Phase-Shift migration operate in the F-K domain. Phase shift migration is considered to be
the most accurate method of migration but is also the most expensive. It is a deterministic approach via
the wave equation instead of using the finite difference approximation. The 2-D Fourier transform is the
main technique used in this method. Some of the advantages of F-K method are fast computing time,
good performance under low signal-to-noise ratio, and excellent handling of steep dips. Disadvantages
of this method include difficulties with widely varying velocities.