IPS-E-PR-895

ENGINEERING STANDARD
FOR
PROCESS DESIGN
OF
SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATORS
ORIGINAL EDITION
JULY 1997

This standard specification is reviewed and

updated by the relevant technical committee on
Jan. 2006. The approved modifications are
included in the present issue of IPS.

This Standard is the property of Iranian Ministry of Petroleum. All rights are reserved to the owner.
Neither whole nor any part of this document may be disclosed to any third party, reproduced, stored in
any retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior written consent of
the Iranian Ministry of Petroleum.

July 1997
CONTENTS :

IPS-E-PR-895
PAGE No.

0. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 2
1. SCOPE ............................................................................................................................................ 3
2. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................ 3
3. DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY ............................................................................................. 3
4. SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................... 4
5. UNITS.............................................................................................................................................. 5
6. GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................... 5
6.1 Solid-Liquid Separator Types ................................................................................................ 5
6.2 Separation Principles ............................................................................................................. 5
7. LIQUID FILTERS ............................................................................................................................ 6
7.1 General..................................................................................................................................... 6
7.2 Filter Selection ...................................................................................................................... 10
8. CENTRIFUGES............................................................................................................................. 14
8.1 General................................................................................................................................... 14
8.2 Selection of Centrifuges....................................................................................................... 16
9. HYDROCYCLONES...................................................................................................................... 18
9.1 General................................................................................................................................... 18
9.2 Hydrocyclone Size Estimation............................................................................................. 19
APPENDICES:
APPENDIX A SPECIFICATIONS FOR FILTER MEDIA ........................................................... 22
TABLE A.1 - TYPICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR METAL (MEMBRANE) FILTERS................... 22
TABLE A.2 - PRINCIPAL WEAVES FOR WIRE CLOTHS ......................................................... 22
TABLE A.3 - A TYPICAL LIST OF WIRE CLOTH SPECIFICATIONS *..................................... 23
TABLE A.4 - PERFORATED MESH SIEVES *............................................................................ 24
TABLE A.5 - PERFORATED METAL DATA *............................................................................. 25
APPENDIX B PRESSURE DROP CHARACTERISTICS OF STRAINERS.............................. 26
Fig. B.1 ESTIMATION OF PRESSURE LOSS IN TYPICAL Y-TYPE STRAINERS ................ 26
Fig. B.2 TYPICAL PRESSURE DROP CHARACTERISTICS FOR BASKET WITH 3mm
PERFORATIONS......................................................................................................... 27
APPENDIX C SPECIFICATIONS OF CENTRIFUGES AND CAPACITY CHECKING FOR
HYDROCYCLONES ............................................................................................ 28
TABLE C.1 - SPECIFICATIONS AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF
TYPICALSEDIMENTATION CENTRIFUGES....................................................... 28
TABLE C.2 - CENTRIFUGAL FILTERS CLASSIFIED BY FLOW PATTERN ............................ 29
C.1 CAPACITY CHECKING FOR SIZED HYDROCYCLONES ..................................... 30

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0. INTRODUCTION
"Process Design of Separators" are broad and contain various subjects of paramount importance.
Therefore, a group of process engineering standards are prepared to cover the subject of
mechanical separators. This group includes the following standards:
STANDARD CODE

STANDARD TITLE

IPS-E-PR-850

"Process Requirements of Vessels, Reactors and

Separators"

IPS-E-PR-880

"Process Design
Separators"

IPS-E-PR-895

"Process Design of Solid-Liquid Separators"

of

Gas

(Vapor)

-Liquid

"Filters and Filtration Handbook" by Christopher Dickenson has been used as main source
throughout this Standard. Therefore, the details to be referred to the mentioned source where
required.
This Engineering Standard Specification covers:
"PROCESS DESIGN OF SOLID-LIQUID SEPERATORS"

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1. SCOPE
This Engineering Standard Specification, covers minimum requirements for the process design
(including criteria for type selection) of solid-liquid separators used in the production of the oil and/or
gas, refineries and other gas processing and petrochemical plants.
Typical sizing calculation together with introduction for proper selection is also given for guidance.
Note:
This standard specification is reviewed and updated by the relevant technical committee on
Jan. 2006. The approved modifications by T.C. were sent to IPS users as amendment No. 1
by circular No. 275 on Jan. 2006. These modifications are included in the present issue of
IPS.
2. REFERENCES
Throughout this Standard the following dated and undated standards/codes are referred to. These
referenced documents shall, to the extent specified herein, form a part of this standard. For dated
references, the edition cited applies. The applicability of changes in dated references that occur
after the cited date shall be mutually agreed upon by the Company and the Vendor. For undated
references, the latest edition of the referenced documents (including any supplements and
amendments) applies.
IPS

(IRANIAN PETROLEUM STANDARDS)

"Engineering Standards for Units"
IPS-E-GN-100
IPS-E-PR-310
"Engineering Standards for Process Design of Water
Systems"
"Engineering Standards for Process Design of Gas (Vapor)
IPS-E-PR-880
-Liquid Separators"
3. DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY
The following is a glossary of terms used in the solid-liquid separation technology.
3.1 Critical Diameter
"Critical diameter" is the diameter of particles larger than which will be eliminated in a sedimentation
centrifuge.
3.2 Filter
A Filter is a piece of unit operation equipment by which filtration is performed.
3.3 Filter Medium
The "filter medium" or "septum" is the barrier that lets the liquid pass while retaining most of the
solids; it may be a screen, cloth, paper, or bed of solids.
3.4 Filtrate
The liquid that passes through the filter medium is called the filtrate.
3.5 Mesh
The "mesh count" (usually called "mesh"), is effectively the number of openings of a woven wire
filter per 25 mm, measured linearly from the center of one wire to another 25 mm from it. i.e.,:
Mesh = 25/(w+d)

(Eq. 1)

(see Clause 4 for Symbols and Abbreviations).

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3.6 Open Area

Open area is defined as a percentage of the whole area of a woven wire filter, is shown by (Fo) and
can by calculated from the equation:
Fo =

w
100
(w + d)

(Eq. 2)

(see Clause 4 for Symbols and Abbreviations).

3.7 Overflow
The stream being discharged out of the top of a hydrocyclone, through a protruding pipe, is called
"overflow". This stream consists of bulk of feed liquid together with the very fine solids.
3.8 Septum
See 3.3.
3.9 Underflow
The stream containing the remaining liquid and the coarser solids, which is discharged through a
circular opening at the apex of the core of a hydrocyclone is referred to as "underflow".
4. SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
The following is a list of symbols and abbreviations of parameters used in this Standard and their
units of measurement.
AISI
American Iron & Steel Institute.
BG
Standard Birmingham Gage for sheet and hoop metal.
BSWG
British Standard Wire Gage.
D
Wire diameter, in (mm).
d50
The particle diameter for which a hydrocyclone is 50 percent efficient, in (m).
dp
size of particles separated in a hydrocyclone, (in m).
Dc
Diameter of hydrocyclone chamber, in (m).
Dpc
Critical diameter of particles in centrifuge, in (m).
Eq
Equation.
Ex
liter efficiency for particles with x micrometer diameter size.
g or G
Local acceleration due to gravity, in (m/s).
HEPA
High Efficiency Particulate Air (Filter).
L
Hydrocyclone feed rate , in (L/min.).
N
Number of particles per unit volume in upstream or downstream of filter.
OGP
Oil, Gas and Petrochemical.
P
Liquid, feed pressure for a hydrocyclone, in (kPa).
PVC
Polyvinyl Chloride.
PTFE
Polytetraflouroethylene.
Qc
Volumetric flow rate of liquid through the bowl of a sedimentation centrifuge, in
percent (%).
r
Radial distance from centre, (in centrifuge), in (m).
s
Thickness of liquid layer in a centrifuge, in (m).
Vg
Terminal settling velocity of a particle in gravitational field, in (m/s).
V
Volume of the liquid held in the bowl of a centrifuge, in (m).
w
Width of woven wire opening, in (mm).
x
Particle size, in (m).

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GREEK LETTERS

(beta)
l (rho)
p (rho)

Liquid phase density, in (kg/m).

(mu)
(omega)

Dynamic viscosity of continuous phase, in [cP=(mPa.s)].

Angular velocity, in radian/s, (rad/s).

Beta rating or Beta ratio of filter, (dimensionless).

Density of particle, in (kg/m).

(eta)

Efficiency of hydrocyclone in separating particles of diameter dp, in percent(%).

Theoretical capacity factor of a sedimentation centrifuge, in (m).

(sigma)

5. UNITS
This Standard is based on International System of Units as per IPS-E-GN-100, (SI) except where
otherwise specified.
6. GENERAL
In this Standard, process aspects of three types of most frequently used solid-liquid separators are
discussed more or less n details. These three types are:
- Filters.
- Centrifuges.
- Hydrocyclones.
Another frequently used type, i.e., gravity settlers, (e.g., clarifiers), is mentioned in brief, since this
type is discussed in details in IPS-E-PR-310 "Process Design of Water Systems". Types of
mechanical separators are generally shown in Fig. F.1 of IPS-E-PR-880, "Process Design of Gas
(Vapor) - Liquid Separators".
6.1 Solid-Liquid Separator Types
Solid-Liquid separator types often used in OGP Processes which are discussed in this Standard
are:
- Filters.
- Centrifuges.
- Hydrocyclones.
- Gravity Settlers.
6.2 Separation Principles
Solid-Liquid separation processes are generally based on either one or a combination of "Gravity
Settling", "Filtration" and "Centrifugation", principles.
The principles of these kinds of mechanical separation techniques are briefly described in the
following clauses. Note that as a general rule, mechanical separations occurs only when the phases
are immiscible and/or have different densities.
6.2.1 Mechanical separation by gravity
Solid particles will settle out of a liquid phase if the gravitational force acting on the droplet or
particle is greater than the drag force of the fluid flowing around the particle (sedimentation). The
same phenomenon happens for a liquid droplet in a gas phase and immiscible sphere of a liquid
immersed in another liquid.
Rising of a light bubble of liquid or gas in a liquid phase also follows the same rules, i.e., results
from the action of gravitational force (floatation).
Stokes' law applies to the free settling of solid particles in liquid phase.

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6.2.2 Mechanical separation by momentum

Fluid phases with different densities will have different momentum. If a two phase stream changes
direction sharply, greater momentum will not allow the particles of heavier phase to turn as rapidly
as the lighter fluid, so separation occurs. Momentum is usually employed for bulk separation of the
two phases in a stream. Separation by centrifugal action is the most frequently technique used in
this field.
6.2.3 Mechanical separation by filtration
Filtration is the separation of a fluid-solid or liquid gas mixture involving passage of most of the fluid
through a porous barrier which retains most of the solid particulates or liquid contained in the
mixture.
Filtration processes can be divided into three broad categories, cake filtration, depth filtration, and
surface filtration.
6.2.3.1 Patterns of filtration process
Regarding the flow characteristic of filtration, this process can be carried out in the three following
forms:
a) Constant-Pressure filtration. The actuating mechanism is compressed gas maintained at
constant pressure.
b) Constant-Rate filtration. Positive displacement pumps of various types are employed.
c) Variable-Pressure, variable rate filtration. The use of a centrifugal pump results in this
pattern.
7. LIQUID FILTERS
7.1 General
Filtration is the separation of particles of solids from fluids (liquid or gas) or liquid from liquid gas
mixture by use of a porous medium. This Standard Practice deals only with separation of solids
from liquid, i.e., "Liquid Filtration".
7.1.1 Mechanisms of filtration
Three main mechanisms of filtration are cake filtration, depth filtration and surface filtration. In cake
filtration, solids form a filter cake on the surface of the filter medium. In depth filtration, solids are
trapped within the medium using either, cartridges or granular media such as sand or anthracite
coal. Surface filtration, also called surface straining, works largely by direct interception. Particles
larger than the pore size of the medium are stopped at the upstream surface of the filter.
7.1.2 Types of liquid filters
Considering the flow characteristics, as mentioned in Clause 6.2.3.1, three types of filtration
processes exist, constant pressure, constant rate and variable pressure-variable rate. Regarding
the manner of operation, filtration may be continuous or batch.
Filter presses and vacuum drum filters are well known examples for batch and continuous filters
respectively.
Most commonly used types of liquid filters may be named as follows:
- Strainers.
- Screens.
- Cartridge Filters.
- Candle Filters.
- Sintered Filters.
- Precoat Filters.
- Filter Presses.

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- Rotary Drum Filters.

- Rotary Disk Filters.
- Belt Filters.
- Leaf Filters
- Tipping Pan Filters.
7.1.3 Filter media
There are many different types of filter media available and all have an important role in filtration.
The range includes: paper, natural and synthetic fibres, powders, felt, plastic sheet and film,
ceramic, carbon, cotton yarn, cloth, woven wire, woven fabric, organic and inorganic membranes,
perforated metal, sintered metals and many other materials. These may be generally divided into
four groups, General media, Membrane type media, Woven wire, and Expanded sheet media.
7.1.3.1 General types of media
Papers, with good capability of removing finer particles and limited mechanical strength as main
advantage and disadvantage, filter sheets, natural fabrics, syntethic fabrics either monofilament or
multifilament felts, needle felts, bounded media, wool resin electrostatic media, mineral wools,
diatomaceous earth, perlite, silica hydrogels, glass fibre, charcoal cloth, carbon fibre, anthracite and
ceramic media are some types of filter media in this group. Applications of filter cloths including
some advantages and disadvantages of this type of media are shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1 - APPLICATIONS OF FILTER CLOTHS
Material

Suitable for:

Maximum
service
temp.C
90

Polyester
(Terylene)
PVC

Aqueous solutions, oils, fats, waxes cold

acids
and volatile organic acids.
Aqueous solutions.
Aqueous solutions and dilute acids.
Acids, petrochemicals, organic solvents,
alkaline
suspensions.
Acids, common organic solvents, oxidising
agents. Acids and alkalis.

PTFE

Virtually all chemicals.

200

Polyethylene
Polypropylene

Acids and alkalis.

Acids, alkalis, solvents (except aromaties
and
chlorinated hydrocarbons). Acids,
alkalis, solvents, petrochemicals. Acids
(including curomic acid), petrochemicals.
Acids, alkalis, solvents, petroleum products.
Concentrated hot acids, chemical solutions.

70
130

Cotton
Jute wool
Nylon

Dynes
Orlon
Vinyon
Glassfibre

85
80
150
100
up to 90

Principal advantage(s)
nexpensive.
Easy to seal joints in filter
presses.
High strength or flexibility.
Easy cake discharge. Long
life.
Good strength and flexibility,
Initial shrinkage.
Extreme chemical resistance.
Excellent cake discharge.
Easy cake discharge.
Low moisture absorption.

110
over 150
110
250

Suitable for a wide range of

chemical solutions, hot or
cold (except alkalis).

Principal disadvantage(s)
Subject to attack by mildew and
fungi.
High shrinkage, subject to moth
attack in store. Absorbs water; not
suitable for
alkalis.
Not suitable for alkalis.
May become brittle.
Heat resistance poor.
High cost.
Soften at moderate temperatures.

Lacks fatigue strength for flexing.

Abrasive resistance poor.

7.1.3.2 Membrane filters

Particles with diameters from smaller than 0.001 m up to 1 m can be filtered by Microfiltration,
Ultrafiltration, Reverse Osmosis, Dialysis, Electrodialysis processes using Porous, Microporous and
Non-porous membranes.
Membranes may be made from polymers, ceramic and metals. Typical specification for metal
membranes are shown in Table A.1 of Appendix A.
7.1.3.3 Woven wire
Woven wire cloth is widely used for filtration and is available in an extremely wide range of materials
and mesh sizes.
It can be woven from virtually any metal ductile enough to be drawn into wire form, preferred
materials being phosphor bronze, stainless steel of the nickel/chrome type-AISI 304, 316 and 316L
and monel.

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Woven wire cloth is described nominally by a mesh number and wire size, i.e., N mesh M mm (or
swg). Mesh numbers may range from 2 (2 wires per 25.4 mm or 1 inch) up to 400. Fine mesh with
more than 100 wires per lineal 25.4 mm (inch) is called gauze. Woven wires may also be described
by aperture opening, e.g.,:
- coarse-aperture opening 1 to 12 mm;
- medium-aperture opening 0.18 to 0.95 mm (180 to 950 m);
- fine-aperture opening 0.020 to 0.160 mm (20 to 160 m).
Characteristics of different weaves for woven wire cloths and wire cloth specification are shown in
Tables A.2 and A.3 of Appendix A respectively.
7.1.3.4 Expanded sheet and non-woven metal mesh
Perforated metal sheets, Drilled plates, Milled plates and Expanded metal mesh are examples of
this type of filter media.
Most of the strainers, air and gas filters, etc., are usually made using the type of filters media.
Predictable and consistent performance is the main characteristic of it which results from the
controllability of the size of screen opening by the manufacturer. Some useful data for Perforated
plates are shown in Tables A.4 and A.5 of Appendix A.
7.1.4 Filter rating
Filters are rated on their ability to remove particles of a specific size from a fluid, but the problem is
that a variety of very different methods are applied to specifying performances in this way.
Quantitative figures are only valid for specific operating or test conditions.
7.1.4.1 Absolute rating
The absolute rating, or cut-off point of a filter refers to the diameter of the largest particle, normally
expressed in micrometers (m), which will pass through the filter. It therefore represents the pore
opening size of the filter medium. Filter media with an exact and consistent pore size or opening
thus, theoretically at least, have an exact absolute rating.
Certain types of filter media, such as papers, felts and cloths, have a variable pore size and thus no
absolute rating at all. The effective cut-off is largely determined by the random arrangement
involved and the depth of the filter. Performance may then be described in terms of nominal cut-off
or nominal rating.
7.1.4.2 Nominal rating
A nominal filter rating is an abritrary value determined by the filter manufacturer and expressed in
terms of percentage retention by mass of a specified contaminant (usually glass beads) of given
size. It also represents a nominal efficiency figure, or more correctly, a degree of filtration.
7.1.4.3 Mean filter rating
A mean filter rating is a measurement of the mean pore size of a filter element. It establishes the
particle size above which the filter starts to be effective.
7.1.4.4 Beta () ratio
The Beta ratio is a rating system introduced with the object of giving both filter manufacturer and
user an accurate and representative comparison amongst filter media. It is determined by a MultiPass test which establishes the ratio of the number of upstream particles larger than a specific size
to the number of down-stream particles larger than a specified size, i.e.,

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x=

IPS-E-PR-895

Nu
Nd

(Eq. 3)

Where:

is beta rating (or beta ratio) for contaminants larger than x m;

is number of particles larger than x m per unit of volume upstream;

is number of particles larger than the x m per unit of volume downstream.

Nu
Nd

7.1.4.5 Filter efficiency for a given particle size

Efficiency for a given particle size (Ex) can be derived directly from the ratio by the following
equation:
Ex =

x-1
x

(Eq. 4)

100

Where:
is filter efficiency for particles with x micrometer diameter size;

Ex

x(beta)

is rating or B ratio of filter, (dimentionless);

is particle size, in (m).

TABLE 2 - FILTER RATING

Value at
x mm

1.0
1.5
2.0
10
20
50
75
100
200
1000
10,000

Cumulative
efficiency
%

particles x m

Stabilised downstream count

m where filter is
x

challenged upstream with

1,000,000 particles
x m
1,000,000
670,000
500,000
100,000
50,000
20,000
13,000
10,000
5000
1000
100

0
33
50
90
95
98.0
98.7
99.0
99.5
99.90
99.99

Example:
If a filter has a 5 rating of 100, this would mean that the filter is capable of removing 99% of
all particles of greater size than 5 m.
7.1.4.6 Filter efficiency (separation efficiency)
As noted previously the nominal rating is expressed in terms of an efficiency figure. Efficiency
usually expressed as a percentage can also be derived directly from the Beta ratio as this is
consistent with the basic definition of filter efficiency which is:

1-

Number of emergent particles

100 (%)
Number of incident particles

(Eq. 5)

7.1.4.7 Filter permeability

Permeability is the reciprocal expression of the resistance to flow offered by a filter. It is normally

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expressed in terms of a permeability coefficient, but in practice, permeability of a filter is usually

expressesd by curves showing pressure drop against flow rate.
7.2 Filter Selection
7.2.1 Factors to be considered in filter selection
Three major factors which should be considered in filter selection are performance, capital and
operating costs and availability. Performance and some other important factors are discussed in the
following sections.
7.2.1.1 Performance
Filter performance may be determined by the "cut-off" achieved by the filter (see 7.1.4.1) and/or
other methods explained in Clause 7.1.4. The most meaningful figure now widely adopted is the
"Beta Rating" associated with a particle size and efficiency figure (see 7.1.4.5)
7.2.1.2 Filter size
The size of filter needs to be selected with regards to the acceptable pressure drop and time
required between cleaning or element replacement. This is closely bound up with the type of
element and the medium employed.
Where space is at a premium, the overall physical size can also be a significant factor.
7.2.1.3 Surface versus depth filters
Surface type filters generally have relatively low permeability. To achieve a reasonably low pressure
drop through the filter, the element area must be increased so that the velocity of flow through the
element is kept low.
7.2.1.4 Compatibility
Other essential requirements from the filter element are complete compatibility with the fluid and
system. Compatibility with the fluid itself means freedom from degradation or chemical attack or a
chemically compatible element. At the same time, however, mechanical compatibility is also
necessary to ensure that the element is strong enough for the duty involved and also free from
migration.
7.2.1.5 Contamination levels
Contamination level may also affect the type of filter chosen for a particular duty, thus an oil bath
filter for example may be preferred to a dry element type in a particularly dust laden atmosphere
(e.g., internal combustion engines operating under desert conditions) due to its large dust holding
capacity.
7.2.1.6 Prefiltering
Particularly where fine filtering is required, the advisability or even necessity of prefiltering should be
considered. In fact, with any type of filter which shows virtually 100% efficiency at a particle size
substantially lower than the filtering range required, prefiltering is well worth considering as an
economic measure to reduce the dirt load reaching the filter depending on the level of
contamination involved.
7.2.2 Liquid filter selection guide
7.2.2.1 Selection of media
Basic types of fluid filters are summarised in Table 3 whilst Table 4 presents a basic selection
guide.
It must be emphasised, however, that such a representation can only be taken as a general guide.

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Particular applications tend to favour a specific type of filter and element or range of elements.
Furthermore, filtering requirements may vary considerably. Thus, instead of being a contaminant,
the residue collected by the filter may be the valuable part which needs to be removed easily
(necessitating the use of a type of filter which builds up a cake). Equally, where the residue
collected is contamination, ease of cleaning or replacement of filter elements may be a necessary
feature for the filter design.
As a rough or primary selection procedure, the following steps may be followed:
1) Find the particle size range, either from design data or use Table 5.
2) Find suitable filter media using Tables 4 and 6.
3) Considering other process factors, find the proper filteration type and filter medium from
Tables 3 and 7.
7.2.2.2 Selection of filter type
When the filter medium type is fixed, filter type selection should be performed based upon the
process requirements like the allowable pressure drop, physical size, cleaning period, cleaning
method, the value of the residue and the actions which should be taken on it, etc. There are the
factors which dictate whether a continuous or a batch filter should be choosen.
Other important factors to be taken into consideration are cost and maintainability of the filter.
More information about liquid filters may be found in the Appendices of this Standard and in other
sources.
TABLE 3 - BASIC TYPES OF FLUID FILTERS
Type
Surface

Depth

Media
(i) Resin-impregnated paper
(usually pleated).
(ii) Fine-wove fabric cloth
(pleated or 'star' form)
(iii) Membranes.
(iv) Wire mesh and perforated metal.
(i) Random fibrous materials

Remarks
Capable of fine (nominal) filtering
Low permeability.
Low resistance than paper.
Ultra-fine filtering.
Coarse filtering and straining.
Low resistance and high dirt capacity.
Porosity can be controlled/graduated by
manufacture
Provide both surface and depth filtering. Low resistance.
Sintered metals mainly, but ceramics for
high temperature
filters.

(ii) Felts
Edge

(iii) Sintered elements

(i) Stacked discs.

(ii) Helical wound ribbon

Precoat

Diatomaceous earth, pearlite powered

volcanic rock, etc.

Adsorbent

(i) Activated clays

Paper media are capable of extremely

filtering.
Metallic media have high strength

fine
and rigidity.

Form filter beds deposited on flexible semi-flexible or rigid

elements.
Particularly suitable for liquid clarification.
Effective for removal of some dissolved
contaminants in water, oils, etc. Also used as
precoat or filter bed material.
Particularly used as drinking water filters.

(ii) Activated charcoal

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TABEL 4 - GENERAL SELECTION GUIDE FOR FLUID FILTERS

Submicrometre
(under 1)

Element
Perforated metal
Wire mesh
wire gauze
pleated paper
Pleated fabric
Wire wound
Wire cloth
Sintered wire cloth
Felt
Metallic felt
Edge type, paper
Edge type, ribbon element
Edge type, nylon
Microglass
Mineral wool

Ultra-fine
(1-2.5)

Very fine
(2.5-5)

Fine
(5-10)

Fine/medium
(10-20)

-
-

Medium
(20-40)

-
-
-
-
-

Coarse
(over 50)

-
-

Ceramic
Filter cloths
Membrane
Sintered metal
Sintered PTFE
Sintered polythene

-
-

-
-
-
Limited
application
for liquids
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

TABEL 5 - GENERAL GUIDE TO CONTAMINANT SIZES

Particle size mm
Contaminant
Hemoglobin
Viruses
Bacteria
Yeasts and fungi
Pollen
Plant spores
Inside dust
Atmospheric dust
Industrial dusts
Continuously suspended dusts
Oil mist
Tobacco smoke
Industrial gases
Aerosols
Powdered insecticides
Permanent atmospheric pollution
Temporary atmospheric pollution
Contaminants harmful to machines
Machine protection normal
Machine protection maximum
Silt control
Partial silt control
Chip control
Air filtration, primary
Air filtration, secondary
Air filtration, ultra-fine
Staining particle range

under
0.01

0.01-0.1

0.1-1

1-10

10-100

100-1000

-
-

-
-
-
-
-

-
-
-

12

-
-
-
-

-
-
-
-

(10-15)
(25-40)
-

-
-
-

-
(3-5)

-
-

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TABLE 6 - REPRESENTATIVE RANGE OF CONTAMINANT REMOVAL

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TABLE 7 - SUMMARY OF MEDIA CHARACTERISTICS

8. CENTRIFUGES
8.1 General
Centrifugal separation is a mechanical means of separating the components of a mixture by
accelerating the material in a centrifugal field.

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Commercial centrifuges can be divided into two broad types, sedimentation centrifuges and
centrifugal filters.
8.1.1 Sedimentation centrifuges
Sedimentation centrifuge remove or concentrate particles of solids in a liquid by causing the
particles to migrate through the fluid radially toward or away from the axis of rotation, depending on
the density difference between particles and liquid.
In commercial centrifuges the liquid-phase discharge is usually continuous.
8.1.1.1 Sedimentation by centrifugal force
A solid particle settling through a liquid in a centrifugal-force field is subjected to a constantly
increasing force as it travels away from the axis of rotation. It therefore never reaches a true
"terminal" velocity.
However, at any given radial distance r the settling velocity of a sufficiently small particle is very
nearly given by the Stokes-law relation.
If Stokes settling of a dilute suspension of uniform particles occurs in a tubular bowl of radius r,
containing a thin layer of liquid of thickness s, with a given flow rate Q, the critical diameter
D pc of centrifuge is given by:

D pc =

9Q. .s
( p 1 )V . 2 .r

(Eq. 6)
Most particles with diameters larger than Dpc will be eliminated by the centrifuge, most particles with
smaller diameters will appear in the effluent, and particle with diameter Dpc will be divided equally
between effluent stream and settledsolids phase.
8.1.1.1.1 The concept
The following equation can be derived from the stokes law:

Qc = 2 Vg.

(Eq. 7)

In which Vg is the terminal settling velocity of a dispersed particle in the gravitational field. Equation
7 defines the theoretical capacity factor which has the dimension of an area and can simply be
interpreted as the area of a gravity settling tank that has a separation performance equal to that of
the centrifuge, provided that the factor Vg is the same for both.
In theory, the concept allows comparison between geomertically and hydrodynamically similar
centrifuges operating on the same feed material, Equation 7 shows, that the sedimentation
performance of any two similar centrifuges handling the same suspension is the same if the quantity
Qc/ is the same for each. In practice, an efficiency factor is often introduced to extend the use of
to compare dissimilar centrifuges. The concept permits scale-up between similar centrifuges
solely on the basis of sedimentation performance.
Table C.1 of Appendix C, lists operating characteristics of some typical contrifuges.
8.1.2 Centrifugal filters
The centrifugal filter supports the particulate solids phase on a porous septum, usually circular in
cross section, through which the liquid phase is free to pass under the action of centrifugal force.
The density of the solid phase is important only for calculation of the mass loading in the available
volume of the basket. A more important parameter is the permeability of the filter cake under the
applied centrifugal force.

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Centrifugal filtration is often applied to batch production on fine, slow draining solids, but it is better
suited to handle medium to coarse particles that require fair to good washing and a low residual
liquid content.
8.1.2.1 Performance charateristics of centrifugal filters
Table C.2 of Appendix C shows the classification of centrifugal filters and their performance
characteristics.
8.2 Selection of Centrifuges
Table 8 indicates the particle size range to which the centrifuge types are generally applicable.
Table 9 summarizes the several types of commercial centrifuges, their manner of liquid and solid
discharge, their unloading speed, and their relative maximum (pumping) capacity. When either the
liquid or the solid discharge is not continuous, the operation is said to be cyclic.
Cyclic or batch centrifuges are often used in continuous processes by providing appropriate
upstream and downstream surge capacity.
Note:
That unless operating data on similar material are available from other sources, continuous
centrifuges should be selected and sized only after tests on a centrifuge of identical
configuration.

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TABLE 8 - CLASSIFICATION OF CENTRIFUGES BY SIZE OF DISPERSED PARTICLES

TABLE 9 - CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMERCIAL CENTRIFUGES

8.2.1 Power requirement

Typical energy demand values for sedimentation centrifuges handling dilute slurries, in joules per
liter of feed, are, for tubular and disk, 950 to 9500, for nozzle-discharge disk, 1900 to 11500, and for
helical-conveyer decanters, 2800 to 14300. Nozzle-discharge centrifuges typically consume 54000
to 144000 kJ/1000 kg of solids discharged through the nozzles.
Typical values for centrifugal filters handling moderately concentrated feeds, in killojoules per tonne
(1000 kg) of dry solids, are, for automatic batch (constant speed), 10800 to 36000, for automatic
batch (variable speed), 18000 to 90000, for "pusher" centrifuges, 7200 to 27000, and for vibrating
and oscillating conical-screen machines, 1080 to 36000.

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8.2.2 Required data for selection

For preliminary screening as to the suitability of the application for centrifugal separation and
tentative selection of suitable centrifuge types, the following information is needed:
1) Nature of the liquid phase (s)
a) Temperature.
b) Viscosity at operating temperature.
c) Density at operating temperature.
d) Vapor pressure at operating temperature.
e) Corrosive characteristics.
f) Fumes are noxious, toxic, inflammable, or none of these.
g) Contact with air is not important, is undesirable, or must be avoided.
2) Nature of the solids phase
a) Particle size and distribution.
b) Particles are amorphous, flocculant, soft, friable, crystalline, or abrasive.
c) Particle size degradation is unimportant, undesirable, or highly critical.
d) Concentration of solids in feed.
e) Density of solids particles.
f) Retained mother liquid content,-------% is tolerable, ------% is desired.
g) Rinsing to further reduce soluble mother liquor impurities is unnecessary or
required.
3) Quantity of material to be handled per batch or per unit time.
9. HYDROCYCLONES
9.1 General
Hydrocyclones are used for solid-liquid separations; as well as for solid classification, and liquidliquid separation. It is a centrifugal device with a stationary wall, the centrifugal force being
generated by the liquid motion.
9.1.1 Variables affecting hydrocyclone performance
9.1.1.1 Effects of process variables
The ability of this gravity-force machine to effect an adequate solids/liquid separation is governed by
Stokes law. Specifically, the ease of separation is directly proportional to the suspended particle
diameter, squared times the relative density (specific gravity), differential between the solid and the
liquid phases, and inversely proportional to the viscosity of the continuous liquid phase.
9.1.1.2 Effect of mechanical design characteristics
The ability of a hydrocyclone to meet required solids/liquid separation needs is governed by the
design variables of the equipment itself. These variables include cone diameter, overall body length,
as well as the dimensions of the feed, apex, and vortex openings. Regardless of the "Stokes" data
available and the equipment design formulas that may exist, the suitability of a hydrocyclone to a
given process must depend upon existing information known from past experience or upon results

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developed by laboratory or field testing.

9.2 Hydrocyclone Size Estimation
The following procedure can be used to estimate the size of Hydrocyclone needed for a particular
application.
1) Estimate dp and from process requirements,

(Eq.9)

Where:
dp

is the selected particle diameter, i.e., particles with

diameters of dp(depending on efficiency,) and larger should be separated, in m;

is the efficiency of the cyclone in separating any particle of diameter dp, in percent.

2) Calcudate d50 using the following equation:

(dp/d50 - 0.115)3 = -1n (1 -

100

(Eq. 8)

Where:
d50

is the particle diameter for which the hydrocyclone is 50 percent efficient, in m.

The d50 particle diameter is actually the diameter of the particle, 50 percent of which will
appear in the overflow, and 50 percent in the underflow. (See 3.7 and 3.9 for definitions).
3) Calculate the diameter of the hydrocyclone chamber, Dc (in meters), from the equation:

Dc=

d 50 L1.2 ( p 1 )

4.5 10 9

Where:

is the density of solid particles, in kg/m;

is the density of the liquid, in kg/m;

is viscosity of the liquid, in c P, (mPa.s);

is the rate of flow of feed, in L/min.

4) Other dimensions of the hydrocyclone can be estimated from Fig. 1.

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HYDROCYCLONE-TYPICAL PROPORTIONS
Fig. 1
5) Feed Pressure
Normally, a centrifugal pump produces the pressure needed for the operation of the Hydrocyclone.
A minimum feed pressure must be provided at the inlet of the Hydrocyclone in order to keep a
steady centrifugal field inside the apparatus, and to make up for static-pressure losses (friction
losses and the centrifugal head). The minimum allowable feed pressure, Pmin, is given by Equation
10:
(Eq. 10)

Pmin = 190.7 - 21.26 ln (1000 DC)

Where:
Pmin

is in kilopascals, (kPa).

Feed pressure should not be allowed to rise, in general, above a certain value, Pmax, in order to
avoid excessive power consumption; Pmax can be estimated from Equation 11:
Pmax = 533.3 + 31.04 Dc - 66.93 ln (1000 Dc) + 2.088/Dc
Where:
Pmax

is in kilopascals, (kPa).

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(Eq. 11)

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Note:
If available pressure differential and flow rate of a Hydrocyclone is fixed by the process, then
the suitability of the selected unit can be checked by the chart presented in Appendix C.

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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
SPECIFICATIONS FOR FILTER MEDIA
TABLE A.1 - TYPICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR METAL (MEMBRANE) FILTERS
Max. pore size
of filters
(diameter in mm)
2.0
3.0
5.0
8.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0

Open pore area

per 1 dm
(approx. values)
4.6 mm
10.5 mm
29.0 mm
74.0 mm
1.2 cm
3.3 cm
5.8 cm
9.0 cm
13.0 cm
23.6 cm
39.0 cm
32.0 cm
38.0 cm
48.0 cm
44.0 cm

Models available
Discs
Squares
(max. diameter in mm)
(max. edge length in mm)
150
140
150
140
300
140
300
140
300
140
500
140
500
140
500
140
500
140
500
140
500
140
500
140
500
140
500
140
500
140

TABLE A.2 - PRINCIPAL WEAVES FOR WIRE CLOTHS

Name
Square
Plain or twilled

Characteristics

Absolute rating
range m

Largest open area and lowest flow

resistance. Aperture size is the same in
both directions.

20-300+

Plain Dutch single

weave

Good contaminant retention

properties with low flow resistance.

20-100

Reverse plain
Dutch weave

Very strong with good contaminant

retention.

15-115

Twilled Dutch
double weave

Regular and consistent aperture size.

6-100

Remarks
Most common type of weave.
Made in all grades from coarse to
fine.
Openings are triangular.

Used for fine and ultra-fine

filtering.

(to be continued)

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APPENDIX A (continued)
TABLE A.3 - A TYPICAL LIST OF WIRE CLOTH SPECIFICATIONS *

m
25
28
32
38
40
42
45
50
56
63
75
75
80
85
90
95
100
106
112
125
140
150
160
180
200
200
224
250
280
315
400
400
435
500
500
500
560
560
630
630
630
710
710
800
800
-------------------------------

Aperture
Mm
0.025
0.028
0.032
0.038
0.04
0.042
0.045
0.05
0.056
0.063
0.075
0.075
0.08
0.085
0.09
0.095
0.1
0.106
0.112
0.125
0.14
0.15
0.16
0.18
0.2
0.2
0.224
0.25
0.25
0.315
0.4
0.4
0.425
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.56
0.56
0.63
0.63
0.63
0.71
0.71
0.8
0.8
1
1
1.25
1.6
2
2.5
3.15
4
5
6.3
7.1
8
10
12.5
16

Open
Area
%
25
28
28
36
31
29
31
34
34
47
46
36
38
46
41
46
38
46
34
34
31
36
38
32
38
35
34
37
31
37
42
38
36
51
44
37
44
37
51
48
37
48
37
51
38
54
38
57
58
61
61
64
64
64
70
70
64
64
67
69

Wire
Dia
Mm
0.025
0.025
0.028
0.025
0.032
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.040
0.040
0.036
0.053
0.050
0.040
0.050
0.045
0.063
0.05
0.08
0.09
0.112
0.10
0.10
0.14
0.125
0.14
0.16
0.16
0.22
0.20
0.22
0.25
0.38
0.20
0.25
0.32
0.28
0.36
0.25
0.28
0.40
0.32
0.45
0.32
0.5
0.36
0.61
0.4
0.5
0.56
0.71
0.8
1.0
1.25
1.25
1.4
2
2.5
2.8
1.2

Mech
--500
480
425
460
425
400
350
325
115
300
270
250
230
200
200
200
180
180
150
165
130
120
100
100
100
80
80
75
65
60
50
50
40
40
36
36
33
30
30
28
30
28
25
25
22
22
20
18
16
16
12
10
8
6
5
4
3
3
2
---

Wire
Dia
in
0.0010
0.0010
0.0011
0.0010
0.0012
0.0014
0.0014
0.0014
0.0016
0.0016
0.0014
0.0021
0.0020
0.0016
0.0020
0.0018
0.0025
0.0020
0.0032
0.0035
0.0045
0.0040
0.0040
0.0055
0.0050
0.0055
0.0065
0.0065
0.009
0.008
0.009
0.010
0.011
0.008
0.010
0.012
0.011
0.014
0.010
0.011
0.016
0.012
0.018
0.012
0.020
0.0014
0.0025
0.0016
0.0020
0.0022
0.0028
0.0022
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.055
0.08
0.10
0.11
0.12

* "Filters & Filtration Handbook", CHRISTOPHER DICKENSON, 3rd. Ed., 1992, Elsevier
Advanced Technology.
(to be continued)

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APPENDIX A (continued)
TABLE A.4 - PERFORATED MESH SIEVES *
Nominal width of
aperture (side of square)
mm
in
4
101.60
3
88.90
3
76.20
2
69.85
2
63.50
2
57.15
2
50.80
17/8
47.63
1
44.45
15/8
41.28
1
38.10
13/8
34.93
1
31.75
11/8
28.58
1
25.40
7/8
22.23

19.05
5/8
15.88

12.70
3/8
9.53
5/16
7.94

6.35
3/16
4.76

Plate
thickness
BG
10
10
12
12
14
14
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
18
18
18
20

Aperture tolerances
Average
%
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.21
0.20
0.21
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.25
0.23
0.27
0.32
0.40
0.53
0.58
0.60
0.64

Maximum
units
80
70
60
55
50
45
40
40
35
35
30
30
30
30
25
20
20
20
20
20
18
15
12

%
0.50
0.49
0.50
0.51
0.52
0.53
0.50
0.53
0.51
0.55
0.53
0.58
0.56
0.62
0.60
0.69
0.80
0.80
1.00
1.06
1.16
1.20
1.33

Units
200
170
150
140
130
120
100
100
90
90
80
80
70
70
60
60
60
50
50
40
36
30
25

1 Unit = 0.0001 (in) and/or 2.54 m

* Source : See Table A.3.
(to be continued)

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APPENDIX A (continued)
TABLE A.5 - PERFORATED METAL DATA *

Size of hole
mm
In
Round hole
0.015
0.38
0.0215
0.55
0.0275
0.70
0.0315
0.80
0.043
1.09
0.049
1.40
0.055
1.50
0.059
1.5
0.065
1.64
0.069
1.75
0.085
2.16
0.097
2.45
0.112
2.85
Square hole (parollel)

open
area
10
20
30
32
25
25
32
37
36
19
33
36
50

0.059
1.50
0.125
3.17
0.236
6.00
0.256
6.35
0.273
7.00
0.375
9.52
0.437
11.00
0.500
12.70
0.750
19.05
1.00
25.40
Square hole (alternate)

44
44
54
44
41
44
49
44
56
44

0.069
1.75
0.125
3.17
0.187
4.75
0.250
6.75
0.312
7.93
0.375
9.53
0.437
11.10
0.500
12.70
0.750
19.05
1.0
25.40
Diamond squares

32
32
44
44
64
56
60
53
56
57

0.178
0.375
0.500
0.625
0.750
1.0

36
49
48
42
44
43

4.75
9.52
12.70
15.87
19.05
25.40

* Source : See Table A.3.

25

Size of hole
mm
In
Round end slots
0.3940.019
10.000.50
0.3940.039
10.001.00
0.3940.059
10.001.50
0.7870.059
20.002.00
0.3940.079
10.002.00
0.7870.079
30.002.00
0.5180.098
13.002.50
0.7870.098
20.002.50
0.4270.118
12.003.00
0.7870.118
20.003.00
0.9840.117
25.003.50
Square and slots (parallel)

open
area
13
23
32
34
30
30
28
31
38
47
38

0.3940.016
10.000.40
0.3940.022
10.000.56
0.3940.03
10.000.76
0.8120.043
20.001.10
0.8000.057
20.321.44
0.7300.0625
19.051.59
0.5110.089
13.003.50
0.7870.128
20.003.35
0.7810.150
19.841.96
0.7300.187
19.054.75
0.6250.250
15.876.35
0.7870.314
20.008.00
Diagnrial slots

14
19
25
33
29
27
37
41
41
45
47
49

0.4840.020
12.290.50
0.4840.024
12.290.62
0.4690.029
11.910.73
0.4690.042
11.911.07
0.8120.043
20.621.09
0.3900.093
9.902.38
0.4690.125
11.913.17
0.5000.156
12.701.96
0.5000.041
12.701.04
0.7870.078
20.002.00
0.4540.059
11.501.50
0.7500.059
19.053.17
Triangular holes

14
19
12
25
27
27
37
36
28
29
24
40

0.125
3.17
0.197
5.00
0.256
6.50
0.3750.437
9.5211.11
Oral holes

26
15
26
16

7.003.00
9.004.25
9.005.00
14.006.00
13.507.00

32
38
45
46
45

0.2760.118
0.3540.167
0.3540.197
0.5510.236
0.5310.276

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APPENDIX B
PRESSURE DROP CHARACTERISTICS OF STRAINERS

ESTIMATION OF PRESSURE LOSS IN TYPICAL Y-TYPE STRAINERS

Fig. B.1
Note:
This chart is based on water of relative density (specific gravity) 1.0 and viscosity 2-3 cSt.
Screens are clean and are 40 40 woven wire mesh.
(to be continued)

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APPENDIX B (continued)

TYPICAL PRESSURE DROP CHARACTERISTICS FOR BASKET WITH 3mm PERFORATIONS

Fig. B.2

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APPENDIX C
SPECIFICATIONS OF CENTRIFUGES AND CAPACITY CHECKING FOR HYDROCYCLONES
TABLE C.1 - SPECIFICATIONS AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF
TYPICALSEDIMENTATION CENTRIFUGES
Bowl
Diameter
Mm
45
105
25

Speed
r/min.

Maximum
Centri fugal

50.000
15.000
15.000

62.400
13.200
15.900

0.021-0.056
0.023-2.3
0.045-4.5

1.49
2.24

178
330
610
254

12.000
7.500
4.000
10.000

14.300
10.400
5.500
14.200

0.023-2.3
1.14-11.4
4.5-45
4.3-9

91-910

0.246
4.74
5.6
14.9

Discharge

406
685
762

6.250
4.200
3.300

8.900
6.750
4.600

5.68-34
9-90
9-90

360-3600
910-10.000
910-10.000

29.8
93.2
93.2

Helical

152

8.000

5.500

To 4.5

27-227

3.73

Convever

356
457
635
813
1016
1372

4.000
3.500
3.000
1.800
1.600
1.000

3.380
3.130
3.190
1.470
1.450
770

To 17
To 11.4
To 50.8
To 56.8
To 58
To 170

453-1360
453-1360
2270-11000
2720-9100
9100-163000
18150-54400

14.9
11.2
112
44.7
74.6
112

Knife

508

1.800

920

**

0.028

***

14.9

discharge

915
1727

1.200
900

740
780

**
**

0.115
***
0.574 ***

22.4
29.8

Type
Tubular

Disk
Nozzle

Typical
Motor size
Kw

Notes:
* Turbine drive.
** Widely variable.
*** Maximum volume of solids that the bowl can contain, in m.
(to be continued)

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APPENDIX C (continued)
TABLE C.2 - CENTRIFUGAL FILTERS CLASSIFIED BY FLOW PATTERN
BASKET CAPACITY*
(UNDER LIP RING).

CENTRIFUGAL
FLOW PATTERN
Liquid: continuous
(interrupted for discharge of solids)
Solids: batch

Flow pattern
Liquid: continuous
Solids: continuous

FIXED-BED TYPE FORCE**

Vertical axis
Manual unload
Container unload
Knife unload
Horizontal axis
Knife unload
Moving-bed type
Conical scree
Wide angle
Differential scroll
Axial vibration
Torsional vibration
Oscillating
Cylindrical scree
Differential
Reciprocating

m
1200
550
1800
1000
Centrifugal
force**

0.453
0.566
0.453
0.566
Solids capacity, ***
kg/h

2400
1800
600
600
600
600
600

68,000
136,000

36,000
27,000

* Reduce by 1/3 for volume of processed solids ready to be discharged.

** Nominal maximum centrifugal force (w.r/g) developed, usually less in larger sizes,
*** Nominal maximum capacity of largest sizes, subject to reduction as necessary to meet
required performance on a given application.
(to be continued)

29

July 1997

IPS-E-PR-895

APPENDIX C (continued)
C.1 CAPACITY CHECKING FOR SIZED HYDROCYCLONES
If the pressure differential for a hydrocyclone separation Unit is fixed by the process conditions and
a properly sized device has been selected, the capacity of the Unit can be determined as shown in
Fig. C.1. When a hydrocyclone does not have adequate capacity over the pressure range indicated
to handle a given problem, multiple hydrocyclones are manifolded in parallel.

HYDROCYCLONE CAPACITY
Fig. C.1

30