Curriculum Development process in Pakistan

Introduction
Education plays a vital role in nation building.
Federal Ministry of Education is responsible for the national cohesion, integration and preservation of the
ideological foundation of the states.
Responsibilities
Federal Ministry of Education is responsible in making of:
Curriculum
Syllabus
Planning
Policy
Education standards
National Bureau of Curriculum and Textbooks (NBTC)
Also known as curriculum wing.
Supervise curriculum and textbooks.
Approves and maintain curriculum standards from the primary to the higher secondary levels
Provincial curriculum Centre
Every province has a provincial curriculum centre
To ensure provincial collaboration.
Involve in all activities falling within the purview of the federation.
Each Province has its own Provincial Textbook Board (PTTB)
PTTBs are responsible for:
Preparing
Publishing
Stocking
Distributing
Marketing school textbooks
Curriculum Design and Development Process
Curriculum Design and Development
Evolution of curriculum objectives.

Development of scheme of studies.

Development of syllabus of each subject.
Development of textbook, instructional material.
Approval of textual material.
Teacher training.
Developing Objectives
Objectives are derived from
Recommendation of the National Education Policy
National Level Seminars
Forums of research studies
Inter Board Committee of Chairmen
NBCT prepares the draft of objectives.
Circulated in provincial institutions responsible for curriculum development.
Objectives are finalized.
Translated to the specific teaching objectives
Factors considered in finalizing the objectives
Be precise
Assist in the selection of teaching strategy
Produce a designated behavior pattern
Enables teachers to evaluate the quality and effectiveness of learning.
The studies scheme
It is based on three key factors:
The national education policy
Market demand
Global issues
Task work in this area is undertaken with the participation of:
Provincial government
Research organizations and experts
Feedback of the IBCC
Development of syllabi
It is based on objectives and scheme of study.
Subject specific syllabi is prepared in consultation with:

Subject expert
Psychologist
Serving teacher
Syllabi must satisfy the following conditions:
Based on the needs of learner.
Take into account the existing knowledge and the environmental experience of the learner.
The development level of the learner is considered in the cognitive, effectiveness and psycho-motor
domain.
Content should be focused on attaining the objectives.
Textbook Development
Provincial Text Book Boards (PTBB) are responsible for the development of the text-books according to
the approved syllabi.
How textbook is developed?
Establish a list of text book writers.
Invitation are sent to the writers to submit the material within the syllabus parameter.
Selection is made on the basis of relevance of material.
The selected material is transformed into a textbook.
Review the Approval
National review committee comprises on five or six members:
At least one expert form the syllabus Formulation Committee.
Two subject experts.
Two school teachers
Textbooks review parameter
The books truly reflects the curriculum.
It meets the objectives stated in the curriculum.
Book does not contain any material repugnant to Islamic and Pakistani ideology.
In case of approval, textbook is sent for publishing and distribution.
In case of objection, complaints are relayed with revision recommendations.

Teacher Training
Teacher training for curriculum implementation is the responsibility of the provincial government.
It is now stressed that each textbook must have a teacher's guide.
In some cases assistance in the training of the masters trainers is provided to provincial government.
Curriculum Development Pitfalls
There are several obstacles affecting the quality and effectiveness of curriculum development process in
Pakistan.
Lack of subject area expert.
Textbook often do not reflect the curriculum
Lack of follow-up of actual curriculum implementation in classroom practice.
Curriculum often different from the official curriculum documentation
Curriculum Development at Higher Education Level
Introduction
In 1973s constitution, Government placed education on the concurrent list.
Federal Government took the responsibility to determine the curriculum text boards, policy, planning and
standards of education
Higher Education Commission
In December, 1976 Federal Government appointed University Grant commission (now HEC ) as the
competent authority to look after the curriculum revision work at bachelor level and onwards
It also look after the degrees, certificates and diplomas awarded by degree colleges, universities and other
institutions of HEC.
Procedure to Review/ Revise Curriculum
In 45th meeting of Vice-Chancellors Committee its recommended that the UGC should review the
curriculum of a particular discipline after every three years.
HEC adopted a procedure to review/ revise curriculum
In ensure the quality of the updated curricula.

Steps Involved In Curriculum Review/Revision Process

PHASE-I Curricula under consideration.
PHASE II Circulation of the draft curriculum
PHASE-I
Step I
Constitution of National Curriculum Revision Committee (NCRC) in the subject.
The Vice-Chancellors of all public and private sector universities, R&D organizations, Directorate of
colleges and industries in relation to the subject under consideration, are requested to nominate their
representatives, for appointment of National Curriculum Review Committee (NCRC).
Step II
Assessment/Analysis of the existing Curriculum
The existing curricula is circulated amongst the members of NCRC to discuss it with their colleagues and
bring collective proposals for review and revision of existing curricula in relation to
objectives (of teaching the subject).
Scheme of studies
Course-content
Weight age
Reading materials
Teaching strategies
Methods of evaluation.
In this way participation of maximum number of subject experts is ensured
Step III
NCRC meeting-I:
Draft preparation.
The first meeting of the NCRC is organized at the HEC Headquarter Islamabad or one of its Regional
Centers at Peshawar, Lahore and Karachi.
Other universities at different places may also be chosen to serve the purpose.
The meeting draft of the revised curricula, after detail discussion and deliberation on the proposals
prepared by the NCRC members.
PHASE II
Circulation Of The Draft Curriculum
Step IV
Appraisal of the first draft.

The first draft prepared is circulated among the universities, institutions and organization and is viewed
for its further improvement.
The view/recommendations collected on the draft curriculum were deliberated upon to design and finalize
the curriculum of specific subject of study in a final meeting.
Step V
NCRC meeting-II:
Finalization of draft
The second meeting of the NCRC is held to finalize the draft of the revised curriculum in the light of
comments/suggestions/recommendations received from the college and university teachers and
institutions all over the country.
The meeting would again take 3 days to finalize a curriculum.
The draft so finalized support expertise of all faculty members of the subject under consideration, who are
directly or indirectly involved in this process.
Step VI
Approval of the revised curricula by the Vice-Chancellors Committee:
The final draft curriculum is submitted to the Vice-Chancellors Committee for approval.
Implementation
The curricula designed is printed and sent to universities/institutions for its adoption/implementation after
the approval of the Competent Authority.

Philosophical & Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS:
Based upon fundamental beliefs that arise from one's philosophy of Education, curricular decisions
involve consideration of several topics and issues. Precisely for this reason, we consider philosophy one
of the major foundation areas in curriculum. In this section, we shall explore several different
philosophies of education that influence curricular decisions.
Philosophy and Curriculum
Studying philosophy helps us deal with our own personal systems of beliefs and values, i.e., the way we
perceive the world around us and how we define what is important to us. As philosophical issues have
always influenced society and institutions of learning, a study of the philosophy of education in terms of
Curriculum development is essential.
In essence, a philosophy of education influences, and to a large extent determines, our educational
decisions and alternatives. Those who are responsible for curricular decisions, therefore, should be clear
about what they believe. If we are unclear or confused about our own beliefs, then our curricular plans
are bound to be unclear and confusing. One important step in developing a personal philosophy of

education is to understand the various alternatives that others have developed over the years. Here we
shall look into the following four major philosophical positions that have, hitherto, influenced
curriculum development.
i ) Idealism
ii) Realism
iii) Pragmatism
iv) Existentialism
i ) Idealism
The doctrine of idealism suggests that matter is an illusion and that reality is that which exists mentally.
It emphasizes moral and spiritual reality as the chief explanation of the world and considers moral
values absolute, timeless and universal.
If we apply this view to education what would be the implications for the role of teachers and
curriculum in education?
Obviously, teachers would act as role models of enduring values. And the school must be highly
structured and ought to advocate only those ideas that demonstrate enduring values. The materials used
for instructions, therefore, would centre on broad ideas particularly those contained in great works of
literature and/or scriptures. Since it is based on broad ideas and concepts, idealism is not in line with the
beliefs of those who equate learning with acquisition of specific facts from various Proponents of
realism view the world in terms of objects and matter. They believe that human behavior is rational
when it conforms to the laws of nature and is governed by social laws. Applied to education, those ideas
begin to reveal a second possible philosophy of education.
ii) Realism
What kind of philosophy will that be? 'Realists' consider Education a matter of reality rather than
speculation. Application, The paramount responsibility of the teacher, then, is to impart to learners the
knowledge about the world they live in. What scholars of various disciplines have discovered about the
world constitutes this knowledge. However, like the idealists, the realists too stress that education
should reflect permanent and enduring values that have been handed down through generations, but
only to the extent that they do not interfere with the study of particular disciplines. Clearly, unlike the
idealists who consider classics ideal subject matter for studies, the realists view the subject expert as the
source and authority for determining the curriculum.
iii) Pragmatism
In contrast to the traditional philosophies, i.e., idealism and realism, Pragmatism gives importance to
change, processes and relativity, as it suggests that the value of an idea lies in its actual consequences.
The actual consequences are related to those aims that focus on practical aspects in teaching and
learning (Nash, 1995).
According to pragmatists, learning occurs as the person engages in transacting with the environment.
Basic to this interaction is the nature of change. In this sense, whatever values and ideas are upheld
currently would be considered tentative since further social development must refine or change them.
For instance, at a particular period of time it was generally believed that the earth was flat which was
subsequently disproved through scientific research.
To consider, therefore, what is changeless (idealism) and inherited the perceived universe (rea1ism) and
to discard social and/or perceptual change is detrimental to the overall development and growth of
children. You can now visualize how pragmatism would have influenced the framing of curriculum.
Curriculum, according to the pragmatists, should be so planned that it teaches the learner how to think
critically rather than what to think. Teaching should, therefore, be more exploratory in nature than
explanatory. And, learning takes place in an active way as learners solve problems which help them
widen the horizons of their knowledge and reconstruct their experiences in consonance with the
changing world. What then might be the role of the teacher? The role is not simply to disseminate
information but to construct situations that involve both direct experience with the world of the learner

and opportunities to understand these experiences.

Having seen three basic philosophical positions that have influenced curriculum development, let us
now look at the fourth one.
iv) Existentialism
This doctrine emphasizes that there are no values outside human beings, and thus, suggests that human
beings should have the freedom to make choices and then be responsible for the consequences of those
choices.
According to this philosophy, learners should be put into a number of choice-making situations, i.e.,
learners should be given freedom to choose what to study. It emphasizes that education must centre on
the perceptions and feelings of the individual in order to facilitate understanding of personal reactions or
responses to life situations. Of primary concern in this process is the individual. Since life is based upon
personal meanings, the nature of education, the existentialists would argue, should be largely
determined by the learner. Individual learners should not be forced into pre-determined programmes of
study. Whatever the learner feels he/she must learn should be respected and facilitated by the system.
An existentialist curriculum, therefore, would consist of experiences and subjects that lend themselves
to philosophical dialogue and acts of making choices, stressing self-expressive activities and media that
illustrate emotions and insights. The teacher, then, takes on a non-directive role. The tender is viewed as
a partner in the process of learning. As a professional, the teacher serves as a resource facilitating the
individual's search for personal meaning rather than imposing some predetermined values or interests on
learners.
Existentialism has gained greater popularity in recent years. Today, many educationists talk about
focusing on the individual, promoting diversity in the curriculum and emphasizing the personal needs
and interests of learners. Here, perhaps, we can recall the philosophy that underlies the open distance
education system. Learner-autonomy, which the existentialists seem to suggest, has been and remains
the prime characteristic feature of the distance mode of teaching-learning. Because of the explosion in
knowledge and tremendous growth in information technology, the curriculum of the past seems to be
obsolete.
To plug the gap between the needs of the learner, the society and the curriculum content, rethinking in
the area of curriculum development appears to be unavoidable. What might have been relevant in a
particular situation need not necessarily always be so. In essence, social changes demand changes in the
existing pattern of education. The inherent potentiality of the system of distance education enables it to
accommodate and cater to these changes. It should be clear from the above discussion that by and large,
in operational terms, both pragmatism and existentialism find ample expression in open distance
education.
.
Each of the four major philosophies just described begins with a particular view of human nature and of
values and truths, and then proceeds to suggest what such a view implies for curriculum development.
Before we conclude our discussion on the philosophical foundations of curriculum, we should make
note of a few educational philosophies in order to reinforce what has been said so far.
Educational philosophies:
Although aspects of educational philosophy can be derived from the roots of idealism, realism,
pragmatism and existentialism, a common approach is to provide a pattern of educational philosophies
which derives from the major schools of philosophy some of which have been touched upon above.
Here, we shall be looking into the following four educational philosophies for their implications in the
area of curriculum development.
i) Perennialism
ii) Progressivism
iii) Essentialism, and
iv) Reconstructionism

Let us discuss each one of these in this very order.

i) Perennialism
It advocates the permanency of knowledge that has stood the test of time and values that have moral and
spiritual bases. The underlying idea is that education is constant, absolute and universal. Obviously,
"perennialism" in education is born of "idealism" in general philosophy.
The curriculum of the perennialist is subject-centered. It draws heavily on defined disciplines or
logically organised bodies of content, but it emphasizes teaching leaming of languages, literature,
sciences and arts. The teacher is viewed as an authority in a particular discipline and teaching is
considered an art of imparting inforrnation knowledge and stimulating discussion. In such a scheme of
things, students are regarded immature as they lack the judgement required to determine what should be
studied, and also that their interests demand little attention as far as curriculum development is
concerned.
There is usually only one common curriculum for all students with little room for elective subjects.
According to this point of view putting some students through an academic curriculum and others
through a vocational curriculum is to deny the latter genuine equality of educational opportunity. Such
views appeal to those educators who stress intellectual meritocracy. Their emphasis is on testing
students, enforcing tougher academic standards/programmes, and on identifying and encouraging
talented students.
ii) Progressivism
This emerged as a protest against perennialist thinking in education. It was considered a contemporary
reformist movement in educational, social and political affairs during the 1920's and 30's. According to
progressivist thought, the skills and tools of learning include problem solving methods and scientific
inquiry. In addition, learning experiences should include cooperative behaviour and self- discipline, both
of which are important for democratic living. The curriculum, thus, was interdisciplinary in nature and
the teacher was seen as a guide for students in their problem-solving and scientific projects.
Although the progressive movement in education encompassed many different theories and practices, it
was united in its opposition to the following traditional attributes and practices: the authoritarian
teacher; excessive dependence on textbook methods; memorization of factual data and learning by
excessive drilling; static aims and materials that reject the notion of a changing world; and attempts to
isolate education from individual experiences and social reality.
Although the major thrust of progressive education waned in the 1950's with the advent of
"essentialism", the philosophy has left its imprint on education and educational practices of today.
Contemporary progressivism is expressed in several movements including those for a socially relevant
curriculum, i.e., a match between subjects taught and student needs which is one of the theoretical bases
of distance education.
iii) Essentialism
This philosophy, rooted partly in idealism and partly in realism, evolved mainly as a critique of
progressive thought in education. Yet, the proponents of essentialism do not totally reject progressive
methods as they do believe that education should prepare the learner to adjust to a changing society.
Thus, in essentialism learning should consist in mastering the subject matter that reflects currently
available knowledge in various disciplines. Teachers play a highly directive role by disseminating
information to students. According to this viewpoint, the main arms of the institution (be it a school or a
college) get sidetracked, when, at the expense of cognitive needs, it attempts to pay greater attention to
the social and psychological problems of students.
In recent years, the essentialist position has been stated vociferously by critics who claim that
educational standards softened during the 1960s and early 1970s. The most notable achievements of the
essentialists have been the widespread implementation of competency based programmes, the
establishment of grade-level achievement standards, and the movement to reemphasize academic
subjects in schools/colleges. In many ways, the ideas of essentialism lie behind attacks on the quality of
education by the media and by local pressure groups, which includes, to a good extent, attaces on

distance education.
iv) Reconstructionism
It views education as a means of reconstructing society. The reconstructionists believe that as
school/college is attended by virtually all youth, it must be used as a means to shape the attitudes and
values of each generation. As a result, when the youth become adults they will share certain common
values, and thus the society will have reshaped itself.
As for the curriculum, it must promote new social, economic and political education. The subject matter
is to be used as a vehicle for studying social problems which must serve as the focus of the curriculum.
The following gives you a view of the reconstructionist programme of education: critical examination of
the cultural heritage of a society as well as the entire civilization; scrutiny of controversial issues;
commitment to bring about social and constructive change; cultivation of a planning-in-advance attitude
that considers the realities of the world we live in; and enhancement of cultural renewal and
internationalism.
Stemming from this view, reconstruction expands the field of curriculum to include intuitive, personal,
mystical, linguistic, political and social systems of theorizing. In general, the curriculum advocated by
reconstructionists emphasizes the social sciences-history, political science, economics, sociology,
psychology and philosophy-and not the pure sciences. The thrust is on developing individual selfrealization and freedom through cognitive and intellectual activities, and thus, on liberating people from
the restrictions, limitations and controls of society. The idea is that we have had enough of disciplinebased education and narrow specialization, and that we don't need more specialists now, we need more
"good" people if we want to survive.
Before we proceed further, let us ask ourselves a question. What insights do we gain from the discussion
on the philosophical foundations of curriculum'? Foundations of Curriculum Ideas about curriculum and
teaching do not arise in a vacuum. As curriculum development is heavily influenced by philosophy,
those involved in such planning should be clear about contemporary, dominant philosophy.
If we are unclear about our philosophy of education,our curriculum plans and teaching procedures will
tend to be inconsistent and confused. This being so, we should be aware of the fact that development
and awareness of a personal philosophy of education is a crucial professional responsibility. Further, we
need to be constantly open to new ideas and insights that may lead to a revision or refinement of our
philosophies. Our position should be that no single philosophy, old or new, should serve as the exclusive
guide for making decisions about curriculum. What we, as curriculum specialists, need to do, is to adopt
an eclectic approach, in which there is no emphasis on the extremes of subject matter or sociopsychological development, excellence or quality. In essence, what we need is a prudent philosophy-one
that is politically and economically feasible and that serves the needs of students and society. It is here
that open distance education comes forth with its promises for the future.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
By providing a basis for understanding the teaching/learning process, educational psychology deals with
how people learn. By implication, it emphasizes the need to recognize diversity among learners.
However, it is also true that people share certain common characteristics. Among these are basic
psychological needs which are necessary for individuals to lead a full and happy life. In this section, we
shall be talking about the major learning theories and their contribution to curriculum development.
Besides, we shall touch upon the basic psychological needs of individuals and reflect on their translation
into curriculum.
We shall at this juncture remind ourselves that our main thrust will be on the contributions made by the
theories of learning for curriculum development. Let us therefore make it clear that we are not, right
now, interested in studying the theories of learning in detail, which has already been done to some

extent in earlier courses on distance education.

Learning theories and curriculum
For the sake of convenience we have classified the major theories of learning into the following groups:
i) Behaviorist theories which deal with various aspects of stimulus- response and reinforcement scheme;
ii) Cognitive theories which view the learner in relationship with the total environment; and
iii) Phenomenology which emphasizes the affective domain of learning.
Let us take up each of them in the given order and examine its contribution to curriculum development.
i) Behaviorism and curriculum
The behaviorist school, which represents traditional psychology, is rooted in a corresponding
philosophical speculation about the nature of learning. It has particularly dominated psychology in the
first half of the twentieth century. After a few decades of being in the wilderness lt has recently gained
currency once again with the advent of individualized education.
Without going into the details we shall touch upon the main, characteristic features of the behaviorist
school of thought.
Essentially, learning is considered a habit-formation and teaching is regarded as arranging learning
experiences in such a way as to promote desirable behavior. Further, behaviorism maintains that what is
learnt in one situation can be transferred to other situations as well.
Broadly, behaviorists advocate that: behavior is likely to be influenced by the conditions under which
learning takes place; attitudes to and abilities of learning can change or improve over time through the
application of proper stimuli; learning experiences can be designed and controlled to create desired
learning; selective reinforcement is essential; and rote learning and memorization of knowledge are
unnecessary.
Having thus touched upon the crux of behaviorism, we shall now turn our attention to its contribution to
curriculum development. It provides the following significant guidelines.
A curriculum, according to behaviorists, should be based on the following concerns:
i) Remedial measures, acquisition of skills, considerations of basic or advanced learning;
ii) Well-defined, short-term and long-term objectives;
iii) Appropriate instructional materials and media to suit the learner's abilities;
iv) Shaping behavior through prescribed tasks, phase by phase activities, close supervision of activities
and positive reinforcement; and The Field of Curriculum
V) Diagnosing, assessing and reassessing the learners needs, objectives, activities, tasks and instruction
with a view to improving the curriculum.
We can observe manifestations of these guidelines in the theories, principles or trends related to:
individualized education (and to some extent, open system of education); instructional design and
systems; teacher-training techniques such as simulation teaching, microteaching, competencyperformance based teacher education; educational technology including programmed instruction (which
provides, with modifications, a base for self- instructional materials in use in the distance mode of
teaching/learning).
ii) Cognitivism and curriculum
Today most psychologists explain the phenomenon of human growth and development in cognitive,
social, psychological and physical terms. They also note that learning is primarily cognitive in nature.
Growth and development refer to changes in the structure and function of human characteristics. Most
cognitivists believe that growth and development occur in progressive stages. One example is Piaget's
(Piaget, 1950) description of cognitive development in terms of stages from birth to maturity. Most
curriculum specialists tend to show greater adherence to cognitivism than to behaviorism. This might be
because the cognitive approach leads to logical methods for organizing and interpreting learning; and
the cognitive approach is rooted in the tradition of teaching based on subject matter.
Even contemporary behaviorists incorporate cognitive processes in their theories of learning. Because
learning in schools/colleges emphasizes the cognitive domain, it follows that most educationists feel
that learning is synonymous with cognitive development. As a corollary, a problem solving approach in

teachingllearning gains currency.

But, if we take an actual teaching/learning situation into consideration we tend to realize that this
learning model is incomplete and that something is lost in its processes of actual transfer in the
classroom. In reality, the teaching/learning process boils down to the teacher talking predominantly and
students mostly responding to what is said by the teacher.
What should be of concern to the curriculum specialists?
They should be aware of the fact that a school/college should be a place where students are not afraid of
asking questions, making mistakes, taking cognitive risks and playing with ideas. Further
colleges/schools should be more humane places where students can explore and fulfill their human
potentials. Obviously, curriculum has to play a vital role to actually realize this objective.
iii) Phenomenology and curriculum
Phenomenologist point out that the way we look at ourselves is crucial for understanding our behavior
and that we respond to an organization or pattern of stimuli and not to an isolated stimulus.
It emphasizes that learning must be explained in terms of the "wholeness" of the problem. Here you can
draw a parallel with cognitivism. But what differentiates phenomenology from cognitivism is that the
former stresses the affective and the latter the cognitive aspects of learning.
Because each individual has specific needs and interests related to his or her self-fulfillment and selfrealisations, there can't be a generally prescribed humanistic curriculum. Humanistic learning may
enhance the mental health of the learners, harmonize personal feelings among students and teachers, and
improve various aspects of human awareness among students, teachers, and curriculum specialists, yet
its processes rely mainly on personal experiences and subjective interpretations that leave them open to
criticism. Therefore, there is a great need to examine and understand what is relevant in humanistic
curricula.
Please note that most textbook writers tend to be cognition-oriented. However, one should propose that
behaviourist components are needed for planning and developing a sound curriculum. Further,
humanistic components of teaching and learning must also be incorporated into the curriculum. Let us
say, therefore, that each theory of learning has something significant to contribute towards explaining
various aspects of human behavior and learning.
Basic human needs and curriculum
Physical well-being and health are generally recognized and frequently dealt with through various
programmes such as those on fitness, nutrition and health problems. Mental health needs such as those
pertaining to acceptance, belonging, security and status have been widely studied but little emphasized
in the area of curriculum.
In this sub-section, we shall touch upon just two points which concern the topic under consideration:
i) Self-actualization; and
ii) Developmental tasks.
Here, we shall discuss these and draw inferences as to how each one contributes to the enrichment of a
curriculum.
i Self-actualization
The notion of self-actualization characterizes individuals need for self- fulfillment in life by
actualizing/achieving their own potential. A curriculum should therefore provide learning activities that
allow students to identify themselves with those things they can do well. It should also assist them to
succeed in other activities that are difficult for them. Learners are thus helped to find personal meaning
in the learning experience.
Those responsible for curriculum development must pay attention to the concept of self-actualization.
We all recognize the importance of school/college and community based goals for learners. Selfactualization on the other hand includes satisfying the desire to know and understand in relation to
personal needs and interest. Moreover it has been noticed that when personal purposes are ignored,
learners seem to be less successful in meeting the set goals. If curricular plans reflect a balance between
institutional and personal needs, the impact on both may be substantially enhanced.

ii) Developmental tasks

We can define a developmental task as a task which arises in relation to a certain period in the life of an
individual, success in which leads to his/her happiness and to success in later tasks, while failure in it
leads to unhappiness in the individual and difficulties in subsequent tasks. This fact is regarded as one
of the most specific considerations in organizing tasks. The needs of individuals are governed by the
stage of development and age they have reached, and also grow out of their need to respond to societal
expectations. The implication is that educators/curriculum planners should understand behaviors
manifested by a learner indicating her/his readiness and need to deal with a particular developmental
task.
As we facilitate the learners' success in these need tasks, their overall success can be ensured.
Further, in developing a curriculum, the development of an environment in which learners feel
genuinely secure should be ensured. When a curriculum develops such an environment, learning takes
place smoothly because the needs of students and what has been provided by the curriculum are
complementary to each other.
In our discussion of the psychological foundations, we dealt with the contribution made by learning
theories towards curriculum and also tried to see how much more effective a curriculum may be framed
if we consider the nature of basic human need while forming it.
TRENDS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
To understand contemporary curricular problems and proposals, it is ideal that we acquaint ourselves
with the history of curricular thought and practice that stretches back to antiquity. However, let us start
this section with the assumption that we rarely find histories that focus exclusively on curriculum and,
therefore, turn to an overview of general histories of education in an effort to get a few glimpses of the
history of curriculum.
The curriculum field may be viewed as a formal area of academic inquiry, but as a basic human interest,
its concerns are perennial. Parents and other members of society throughout history have wondered how
best to help their young ones grow and mature. Their response to this problem constitutes an unwritten
history of informal curricular thought and action. As societies became more formal and as institutions
developed within them to meet specialized needs, schools/colleges evolved to help students grow more
efficiently, to introduce them to the ways of their society and to help them acquire an understanding of
their cultural heritage.
If we recall the earlier sections, curriculum has always been and continues to be influenced by
educational philosophers, besides societal needs. In the ancient times, though a formal curriculum (of
the shape it has obtained today) did not exist; young people were oriented towards meeting cultural and
social demands. Depending on the influence of educational philosophies, however, curriculum-content
for such orientations varied from one period to the other. Tracing the historical antecedents of
curriculum may give us a framework of its gradual growth. However, for our immediate purposes we
shall restrict ourselves to an overview of the twentieth century curriculum and a speculation of the
possible future trends in curriculum development.
Twentieth century curriculum
Early 20th century curriculum affirmed the shift in emphasis from sectarian education to liberal
education. Traditionally, curriculum was confined to religion-related orientations and classics.
Gradually, more and more subjects were added to the curriculum. As the focus was on mental discipline,
social needs, student interest or capabilities were given little emphasis. Further, during this period,
compartmentalization and not interdisciplinary subject matter was considered the norm. There was an
unwillingness to recognize the values of arts, music, physical and vocational education. This was based
on the theory that these subjects had little mental or disciplinary value. If we pause for a moment here
and think, we shall realize that even though we offer vocational, industrial and/or technical programmes
now, there is a tendency to consider traditional academic programmes superior to them.
Gradually, demands were made for curricular changes. Industrial development led a growing number of
educators to question changes, as well as the authenticity of the traditional curriculum and its emphasis

on mental discipline. This shift was also influenced by the scientific movement in child psychology
(which focused on the whole child and learning theories in the 1900s).
The argument that classics had no greater disciplinary or mental value than other subjects eventually
appeared and meant that mental discipline (which emphasized drill and memorization) was no longer
considered conducive for the overall growth and development of children. In essence, societal changes
and the emerging demands there from; the stress on psychology and science; and the concern for social
and educational reform made evident the need for a new curriculum. Thus, the aims of education went
hand in hand with the particular type of society involved: conversely, the society that evolved
influenced the aims of education.
Thus, the early twentieth century was a period of educational reform characterized by the following:
i) Idea of mental discipline was replaced by utilitarian modes of thought and scientific inquiry.
ii) Curriculum tended not to be compartmentalized but to be interdisciplinary.
iii) Curriculum tended not to be static but dynamic-changing with the changes in society.
iv) Needs and interest of students came to be considered of primary importance. And now curriculum is
viewed as a science with principles and methodology not just as content or subject matter.
Possible future trends
Keeping in view the prevalent political, economic and academic climate, it is not difficult for us to
visualize (of course, only to a certain extent) future trends and the influence they may have on
education, particularly on curriculum development. (However, we should also confess here that such a
speculation is fraught with risks that normally go with it.)
Although in this Unit we have been underlining the fact that social changes will have a vital role in
determining a curriculum. If the present day growth of information is any indication the information
flow will increase rapidly in the future. Clearly, the increasing flow of information negates the
traditional notion of content-mastery. Students, therefore, will need to acquire critical thinking, and
problem solving abilities rather than static and/or absolute knowledge and skills of factual recall.
Further, in the 21st centuries, the need for change will accelerate. For example, it took us more than one
century to shift from an agricultural society to an industrial one. But it took hardly two decades to shift
from an industrial to an information society.
What are the implications of these observations?
Job patterns will constantly change dramatically and so workers will be moving frequently from one job
to another. Accordingly, to keep them abreast with each task/job that they take up, we will need to give
them periodic training. The speed of change we have been referring to suggests not only that fields will
be dynamic, but also that new ones will emerge. By implication, education and orientation will, of
necessity a lifelong process. In essence, unlike the past, we cannot consider our education complete just
because we have attended schools/colleges or graduated from an educational institution. Nor will we be
able to enter a job or profession and expect to remain in it for life without regular training.
Traditionally, organizations have followed hierarchical structuring with power and communication
flowing in a pattern from top to bottom. Increasingly, however, centralized institutions are being
replaced by smaller decentralized units. Much of the impetus for this change has come from the
inability of hierarchical structures to effectively solve problems. Rigid and efficient organizations are no
longer as efficacious as fluid and flexible ones in which experimentations and autonomy call thrives.
Applied to education, this kind of decentralization gives recognition to an individuals need for selfdetermination and ownership in the decision making processes.
What are the implications of the above discussion?
In the main, there will be radical changes in the socio-academic ecology of school/college environment.
Barring a few, if any, schools/colleges have so far been functioning as bastions of autocracy with little
importance given to students' needs and teachers' competence. Because of the changing societal needs
and greater awareness of the need for purpose-oriented education, the needs of every individual in the
school/college will have to be recognized. In other words, there will be a change in the treatment of
students as a homogeneous entity. Rapid growth in information will result in the emergence, every now

and then, of varied curricula for purposes of reeducation and retaining. The number of consumers will
obviously be more than the programmes available. In such a situation, the mode of the teaching/learning
process cannot be the one which is prevalent now, i.e., face-to-face. Obviously, a viable alternative
mode is distance education.
Important Topics regarding Education paper
dear aspirants,
here is some important topics about education paper 1 & paper 2
paper 1.
1.the education policy in pakistan
2.education system and aims of eduaction
3.role of globalization and role of NGO s and philamthro[ists
4.philosophical, psychological and sociological foundations of education
5. islamic concept of education
6.curriculum development process in pakistan
7.learning theories
8.class room communications
paper 2
1.philosphy of education by sir syed ahmed khan, shah waliullah, allama iqbal
2.asseessment and evaluation
3.types of research, preparing research proposal
4. difference b.w research proposal and report
5.national technical and voccational education authority (NTVEA)
6.higher education commision (HEC)
Educational Policy Of Pakistan 1998 To 2010
EDUCATIONAL POLICY OF PAKISTAN 1998 TO 2010
INTRODUCTION
According to the constitution of 1973, article 25
1. All citizens are equal before law and are entitled to equal protection of law.
2. There shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex alone.
3. Nothing in this constitution shall present the state from making any special provision for the
protection of women and children.
For the normal and non-lawyer persons there is no relation in this article and its sub-clause with EP
but for law fraternity it has impact that might be left on whole state policy. Especially where according
to law and constitution we donot discriminate among students and institution on the basis of sex, gender,
and cast.
Justice Muhammad Nassem chuhdry in his famous commentary of constitution of 1973stated that:
Educational institution Allegation of discrimination in making of answer books by specified papers to

appear in court on fixed date of hearing along with answer book of all other examinees marked by
them .Validity leave to appeal was granted to examine whether high court was right in summoning
examines as well as the answer books to find out if they had been corrected making.
#1996-schr-676
Reasonable classification has always been considered permissible ,provided that such classification is
based on reasonable and rational categorization .such classification must not be arbitrary or artificial, it
must be evenly applicable to all persons or goods similarly situated or placed (justice m.naseem
chuhdry 1973 const /p-89)
And the other article of constitution that cast shadow over educational policy is Article-31, with article
31, we have one other article that is 227 that also stress on Islamic sharia applicability over the whole
system of state.
So in the process of making E-policy ,publishing E-policy, propagating E-policy, while preparing for
curriculum ,we drive not only light and guide ness from constitution generally and objective
Especially but also we take guide ness from Islamic sharia .
According to the constitution No law will be made by legislature that is contradictory and against the
Islamic ideologies so this article clearly makes link with educational policy of state.
Pakistan is a federal Islamic cum parliamentary state by the faith of country law and Regulation, even
though researcher such As Dr.poly dada said that Pakistan is not an Islamic state but its a state of
Muslims. But majority believes that its an Islamic state.
This is the point that left lot of flaw and gap while making and implementing state Educational policy.
Pakistani educational system has converted and splitted in class education such like. Upper class school,
upper middle school, lower middle school, lower private schools and maddarsahs based system run by
wafaq-ul madaris and tanzeem-ul-madarees.and government yellow wall schools.
And higher education is also seems devided in same pattern, till yet 3 major educational policies,
reformation and, recommendation has been made that are coming below.
1. Policy presented by justice S.M.Shareef on the 26 August of 1959.
2. the Educational policy and reformation that was made by the Z.A.bhutto made commission on the 15,
March of 1972.
3. The educational policy made for the period of 1998 till 2010 .
Salient Features of National Education Policy 1998-2010
Aims and objectives of Education and Islamic Education
Education and training should enable the citizens of Pakistan to lead their lives according to the
teachings of Islam as laid down in the Qur'an and Sunnah and to educate and train them as a true
practicing Muslim. To evolve an integrated system of national education by bringing Deeni Madaris and
modern schools closer to each stream in curriculum and the contents of education. Nazira Qur'an will be
introduced as a compulsory component from grade I-VIII while at secondary level translation of the

selected verses from the Holy Qur'an will be offered.

Literacy and Non-Formal Education
Eradication of illiteracy through formal and informal means for expansion of basic education through
involvement of community. The current literacy rate of about 39% will be raised to 55% during the first
five years of the policy and 70% by the year 2010 Functional literacy and income generation skills will
be provided to rural women of 15 to 25 age group and basic educational facilities will be provided to
working children. Functional literacy will be imparted to adolescents (10-14) who missed out the
chance of primary education. The existing disparities in basic education will be reduced to half by year
2010.
Elementary Education
About 90% of the children in the age group (5-9) will be enrolled in schools by year 2002-03. Gross
enrolment ratio at primary level will be increased to 105% by year 2010 and Compulsory Primary
Education Act will be promulgated and enforced in a phased manner. Full utilization of existing
capacity at the basic level has been ensured by providing for introduction of double shift in existing
school of basics education. Quality of primary education will be improved through revising curricula,
imparting in-service training to the teachers, raising entry qualifications for teachers from matriculation
to intermediate, revising teacher training curricula, improving management and supervision system and
reforming the existing examination and assessment system.
Integration of primary and middle level education in to elementary education (I-VIII). Increasing
participation rate from 46% to 65% by 2002-3 and 85% 2010 at middle level. At the elementary level, a
system of continuous evaluation will be adopted to ensure attainment of minimum learning
competencies for improving quality of education.
Secondary Education
One model secondary school will be set up at each district level. A definite vocation or a career will be
introduced at secondary level. It would be ensured that all the boys and girls, desirous of entering
secondary education, become enrolled in secondary schools. Curriculum for secondary and higher
secondary will be revised and multiple textbooks will be introduced. The participation rate will be
increased from 31% to 48% by 2002-03. The base for technical and vocational education shall be
broadened through introduction of a stream of matriculation (Technical) on pilot basis and establishment
of vocational high schools. Multiple textbooks shall be introduced at secondary school level.
Teacher Education
To increase the effectiveness of the system by institutionalizing in-service training of teachers, teacher
trainers and educational administrators through school clustering and other techniques. To upgrade the
quality of pre-service teacher training programmes by introducing parallel programmes of longer
duration at post-secondary and post-degree levels i.e. introduction of programs of FA/FSc education and
BA/BSc education . The contents and methodology parts of teacher education curricula will be revised.
Both formal and non-formal means shall be used to provide increased opportunities of in-service
training to the working teachers, preferably at least once in five years. A special package of incentives
package shall be provided to rural females to join the teaching profession. A new cadre of teacher
educators shall be created.

Technical and Vocational Education

To develop opportunities for technical and vocational education in the country for producing trained
manpower, commensurate with the needs of industry and economic development goals. To improve the
quality of technical education so as to enhance the chances of employment of Technical and vocational
Education (TVE) graduates by moving from a static, supply-based system to a demand-driven system.
Revision and updating of curricula shall be made a continuing activity to keep pace with changing needs
of the job market and for accommodating the new developments. Development of technical
competence, communication skills, safety and health measures and entrepreneurial skills etc. shall be
reflected in the curricula. Institution-industry linkages shall be strengthened to enhance the relevance of
training to the requirements of the job market. Emerging technologies e.g. telecommunication,
computer, electronics, automation, petroleum, garments, food preservation, printing and graphics,
textile, mining, sugar technology, etc. greatly in demand in the job market shall be introduced in
selected polytechnics. A National Council for Technical Education shall be established to regulate
technical education.
Higher Education
Access to higher education shall be expanded to at least 5% of the age group 17-23 by the year 2010.
Merit shall be the only criterion for entry into higher education. Access to higher education, therefore,
shall be based on entrance tests. Reputed degree colleges shall be given autonomy and degree awarding
status. Degree colleges shall have the option to affiliate with any recognized Pakistani university or
degree awarding institution for examination and award of degrees. To attract highly talented qualified
teachers, the university staff will be paid at higher rates than usual grades. Local M.Phil. And Ph.D
programs shall be launched and laboratory and library facilities will be strengthened. Split PhD
programs shall be launched in collaboration with reputed foreign universities and at the minimum, 100
scholars shall be annually trained under this arrangement. All quota/reserve seats shall be eliminated.
Students from backward areas, who clear entry tests, would compete amongst themselves. In order to
eliminate violence, all political activities on the campus shall be banned.
Information Technology
Computers shall be introduced in secondary schools in a phased manner. School curricula shall be
revised to include recent developments in information technology, such as software development, the
Information Super Highway designing Web Pages, etc
Library and Documentation Services
School, college and university libraries shall be equipped with the latest reading materials/services.
Internet connection with computer shall be given to each library. Mobile library services for semi-urban
and remote rural areas shall be introduced.
Private Sector in Education
Encouraging private investment in education. There shall be regulatory bodies at the national and
provincial levels to regulate activities and smooth functioning of privately-managed schools and
institutions of higher education through proper rules and regulations. A reasonable tax rebate shall be
granted on the expenditure incurred on the setting-up of educational facilities by the private sector.
Matching grants shall be provided for establishing educational institutions by the private sector in the

rural areas or poor urban areas through Education Foundations. Existing institutions of higher learning
shall be allowed to negotiate for financial assistance with donor agencies in collaboration with the
Ministry of Education. Educational institutions to be set up in the private sector shall be provided (a)
plots in residential schemes on reserve prices, and (b) rebate on income tax, like industry. Schools
running on non-profit basis shall be exempted from all taxes. Curricula of private institutions must
conform to the principles laid down in the Federal Supervision of curricula, Textbooks and Maintenance
of Standards of Education Act, 1976. The fee structure of the privately managed educational institutions
shall be developed in consultation with the government.
Innovative Programes
The National Education Testing Service will be established to design and administer standardized tests
for admission to professional institutions. Qualifying these tests will become a compulsory requirement
for entry to professional education. This mechanism is expected to check the incidence of malpractice in
examinations. Likewise, standardized tests shall be introduced for admission to general education in
universities.
Implementation Monitoring and Evaluation
A comprehensive monitoring and evaluation system has been envisaged from grass-roots to the highest
level. The District Education Authority will be established in each district to ensure public participation
in monitoring and implementation. The education Ministers at the Federal and Provincial levels will
oversee monitoring committees, responsible for implementation at their levels. The Prime Minister and
Provincial Chief Ministers will be the Chief of National and Provincial Education Councils respectively
which will ensure achievements of targets. Existing EMIS at Federal and Provincial levels shall be
strengthened to make them responsive to the need of Monitoring and Evaluation System (MES).The
Academy of Educational Planning and Management (AEPAM) shall be strengthened and tuned up to
meet the emerging demands of MES and its obligations at national and provincial levels. Data collected
through Provincial EMISs and collated by AEPAM through National Education Management
Information System (NEMIS) shall be recognized as one source for planning, management, monitoring,
and evaluation purposes to avoid disparities and confusion. Databases of critical indicators on
qualitative aspects of educational growth shall be developed and maintained by AEPAM for developing
sustainable indicators of progress, based on more reliable and valid data to facilitate planning,
implementation and follow-up. A School Census Day shall be fixed for collecting data from all over the
country.
The total expenditure of the government on education will be raised from its present level of 2.2% to
4% of GNP by the year 2002-03 (p.132).
Analysis
If you will go through the Education policy of Pakistan from 1998 to 2010 you would have to know that
the policy is just consist on 15 points. And whole theme of policy move around these 15 points.
So in the very first Aim and objective point we may find there that Education and Training should
enable the citizens of Pakistan to lead their lives according to the teaching of Islam as laid down in the
quran and sunnah and to Educate, to train them as a true plasticizing Muslims .These lines are not a new
lines lined by the policy makers, we continuously keep on reading all these stuff for previous 60 years
from the Mouth of government and policy makers. And again the policy proved that it has been
unsuccessful what are the reasons? And what is the logic behind it? We dont have an enough time and
space to discuss here the answer may be asked to educators.

As clearly the clash between the deeni madersah students and modern school and institutions students is
going on and fight is being on in fata, and tribal Agencies, and again the battle among the Mr. and
Mullah is being fought due to un-unified, non-logic, non centralized policy. gap and gulf between these
both educational systems is clear to every body.
Now we turn our selves to the 2nd point where our policy makers shown there dream to achieve the
70% literacy rate from 39% till 70%.and it clearly seems us impossible ,even though the project such as
in province Punjab like parha likha Punjab didnt reach to the zenith .Basically they need
sincerity,professionalism,and hard working .in the statement of policy makers where they displayed
their concern over education through the policy that till 2010 disparities in basic education that will be
reduce to half by year 2010.
Policy makers in their 3rd stage relate it to the elementary education, and here they explained that they
till the 2002-3. 90% of the age of 5-9 will be enrolled in elementary education .they will also revise the
curriculum and stress will be given to teachers training, and improvement in the management and
supervision system will be made, and same formula will be apply to the existing examination and
assessment system.
Secondary stage:
After the elementary stage we have now the secondary education, the unique stuff in the secondary
stage is that, it insisted that there shall be one model school that will be setup in the district level and the
participation level rate will be increased from 31 % to 48% by 2002-03.one sharp feature of this stage is
about the Technical Education that will will be made to the part of secondary education and curricula
will be updated for particular task. Multiple text books will be introduced at secondary school level.
One of the novel things in the policy is about training of secondary teachers through workshops and
refreshment cources.Both the formal and non means shall be used to provide increased opportunities of
in-service training to the working teachers.
The commission also gave importance to the technical and vocational education in country for
producing trained manpower. But we see that the Government has been unsuccessful while chasing
target. Reasons are several and they cant be throughly explained. Basic the commission failed to
recognized that where world is going on? and on what lines the Asian tigers working? ,as usual ,few
discipline in science and technologies were given importance. Telecommunication progress mean the
advancement in service sector of telecom . No technology related to matter has been transferred to
Pakistan and no assistance to universities provided as compare to china, India and Malaysia ,where not
only micro processors and hardwares are being assembled but also technologies has been also provided
to these particular countries.
Even though the most progressive technical industry of Pakistan that is Automobiles have not been
provided fully assistance and technology to local market. The main CEO is pertaining to manufacturing
country. No collaboration to any technical and engineering university has been made.
Increasing fuel prices and high rise car price stresses the manufacture to manufacture the nano car for
common man as have been done in India by Tata group. Where local universities and foreign
collaboration made it happen. I think our policy makers are not technical they just makes policy for

groups and classes and for their own sake.

Higher education stage:
Three major successful and last stages are implementation of policy about the HE and HEC, and also
they stressed the need to develop the information technology structure or the library and documentation
structure to safe Your heritage and archives.
They are claimed to be competively successful phases for the policy makers and government all because
of Dr Ata-ul-rehamn self interest. HEC a successor of university grant commission in his guidance
lead this phase in right direction. And throughout they enhanced the standard of Higher education .That
worked for producing quality scholars; PhDs and they also worked to ban plagiarism.
This stage insist that access to the Higher Education shall be expanded to at least 5% of the age group
17-23 by the year 2010.Merit shall be the only criterion for entry to the higher Education .
Degree colleges shall have to affiliate with any recognized Pakistani university or degree awarding
institution for Examinination and award for degrees

The Novelty in this programme is that the split-PhD programme has been created through this
programme 100 researcher and desirous student will be sent to international university and institutions.
And annually we will have a trained upgraded researchers, scholars to assist our Higher education
system and standard will be only merit. I have confirmed this many of The persons from HEC about it,
and they accepted that HEC is the most reputable professional institute in this country, but few
complained have been received that few eligible low status student were not selected, this is a sad thing
and only God know that How much it keeps Reality.
In information Technology stage HEC tried to make PCs common, to common people. And used PCs
were imported in country at very low price. Few year of the policy announcement no tax was imposed
on computer hardwares.networking, bandwith low rate, intranet culture was developed here to make
information easy and accessible .thats why in elementary and secondary level computer classes were
conducted, IT course was included in the curriculum .
Policy makers in policy making stressed and took initiative that the setting up of private institution in
country will be encourage .and powers for education will flow fro central to district level.
The Expenditure of the Government on Education will be raised from present level 2.2% to 4% of total
GNP by The year 2002-03