Selected Topics in heat and Mass

Transport
..A compilation of selected presentations

2011

Jundika Candra Kurnia

Agus Pulung Sasmito
Sachin Vinayak Jangam
Hee Joo Poh

PREFACE
This e-book consists of selected topics to be covered as part of the postgraduate
course entitled ME6203 Mass Transport in the Mechanical Engineering Department of
the National University of Singapore, given by Professor A. S. Mujumdar.

For the benefit of wider audience interested in the themes covered, this e-book is
being offered freely. It contains handouts of the PowerPoint presentations made by the
authors. We hope that this compilation will be useful to research students as well as
researchers in academia and industrial R&D. Professor Mujumdar recommended and
provided guidance to the authors of various chapters included in this e-book.
The authors would be happy to hear from readers about any related matter they
wish to discuss or seek clarification on.
Jundika Candra Kurnia
Agus Pulung Sasmito
Sachin Vinayak jangam
Hee Joo Poh
Singapore

Index

Presentation Title / Author names

No
01
02
03
04
05
06

Heat Transfer in Square duct

Jundika C. Kurnia
Computational Study of Energy-Efficient Thermal Drying Using
Intermittent Impinging Jets
Jundika C. Kurnia
Mass transport in a micro-channel T-Junction with coiled-base
channel design
Agus P. Sasmito
Mass Transport Considerations in PEM Fuel Cell Modeling
Hee Joo Poh
Heat Transfer in Fluidized Beds-An Overview
Sachin V. Jangam
Mass Transfer in Fluidized Beds - An Overview
Sachin V. Jangam

Heat Transfer in
Square duct

ME 6204: Convective Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer in Square Duct

Prof. Arun S. Mujumdar

[email protected]

Mathematical formulation
Governing equations:
Conservation of mass
Conservation of momentum
Conservation of energy

( u) = 0

( u u) = P + u + ( u )

c p u T = k 2T

Constitutive equation (air)

Density
Dynamic viscosity
Thermal conductivity
Specific heat

=
k=

Pabs
RspecificT

6
, = 2.67 10

R
15 R 4 c p M 1
+ , cp = .

M
4 M 15 R
3

For water, properties are set

as constant
Nomenclature:

= fluid density
= fluid viscosity
u = fluid velocity
T = fluid temperature
kt = fluid thermal conductivity

MT

(T )

Pabs = Absolute pressure

Rspecific= Specific gas constant
cp = specific heat
= Collision diameter
= Collision integral
M = molecular weight

Mathematical Formulation
Turbulent model used in this simulation is k-
model

k
+ ( uk ) = + t k + t G ,
t
k

C G

2
+ ( u ) = + t + 1 t
C2 ,
t
k
k
k

u 2 v 2 w 2 u v 2 u w 2 w v 2
+
+
G = 2 + + + + + +
,
x y z y x z x y z

k2
t = C ,

Nomenclature:
u, v, w = component velocity
t= turbulent viscosity
k = turbulent kinetic energy
= turbulent dissipation
G = turbulent generation rate

C1 = 1.44
C2 = 1.92
C = 0.09
k = 1.0
= 1.0

Mathematical Formulation
Nusselt number calculation
Tmean =
V=
h=

1
Ac

1
VAc

TudA ,
c

Ac

udA ,
c

Ac

Q&
,
Tsurface Tmean

Nu =

hD
k

Nomenclature:

Tmean = mixed mean temperature

Tsurface
Ac

h
Q&

= surface temperature
= cross-section area
= convective heat transfer
= heat flux

Nu = Nusselt number
D = Hydraulic diameter
k = Conductive heat transfer
V = mixed mean velocity

Geometry
The flow configuration considered is full tube
flow inside square duct, as illustrated in figure

Schematic representation of flow in a) square duct and b) development

of a momentum boundary layer

Numerics
Finite-volume based solver: Fluent 6.3.
Mesh independence study ~10000 cells.
Pressure velocity coupling: SIMPLE (Semi-Implicit
Method for Pressure-Linked Equation).
Second-order upwind discretization.
Algebraic Multi-grid Method (AMG).
Relative residual ~10-6.
It took around one minute to converge in Quad-core 2.83
GHz with 8 GB RAM.
CFD analysis was carried out by Agus Pulung Sasmito
and Jundika Candra Kurnia (ME, NUS)

LAMINAR FLOW
7

Boundary condition
Air

Water

Case 1: Constant heat flux at

wall

Case 3: Constant heat flux at

wall

Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T

air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; Q = 30 watt/m2.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 1000.

Case 2: Constant wall

temperature
Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T
air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 1000.

Inlet: water velocity = 0.1 m/s;

T water = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; Q = 2870
watt/m2.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 1000.

Case 4: Constant wall

temperature
Inlet: water velocity = 0.1 m/s;
T water = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 1000.

Velocity in the middle channel

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Temperature in the middle of the channel

Air (Case 1)

Air (Case 2)

Water (Case 3)

Water (Case 4)

10

Temperature in the wall of the channel

Air (Case 1)

Water (Case 3)

11

Heat flux at the wall

Air (Case 2)

Water (Case 4)

12

Nusselt Number

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Nusselt number asymptotic

Case 1: 2.8
Case 2: 2.7
Case 3: 2.7
Case 4: 2.2

13

Wall and Mean temperature

Air (Case 1)

Air (Case 2)

Water (Case 3)

Water (Case 4)

14

TURBULENT FLOW WITH

RE=20000

15

Boundary condition
Air

Water

Case 1: Constant heat flux at

wall

Case 3: Constant heat flux at

wall

Inlet: air velocity = 30 m/s; T

air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; Q = 497 watt/m2.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 20000.

Case 2: Constant wall

temperature
Inlet: air velocity = 30 m/s; T
air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 20000.

Inlet: water velocity = 2 m/s; T

water = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; Q = 170370
watt/m2.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 20000.

Case 4: Constant wall

temperature
Inlet: water velocity = 2 m/s; T
water = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 20000.

16

Velocity in the middle channel

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

17

Temperature in the middle of the channel

Air (Case 1)

Air (Case 2)

Water (Case 3)

Water (Case 4)

18

Temperature in the wall of the channel

Air (Cases 1)

Water (Cases 3)

19

Heat flux at the wall

Air (Cases 2)

Water (Cases 4)

20

Nusselt Number

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Nusselt number asymptotic

Case 1: 45
Case 2: 34
Case 3: 623
Case 4: 127

21

Wall and Mean temperature

Air (Case 1)

Air (Case 2)

Water (Case 3)

Water (Case 4)

22

TURBULENT FLOW
WITH Re=60000

23

Boundary condition
Air

Water

Case 1: Constant heat flux at

wall

Case 3: Constant heat flux at

wall

Inlet: air velocity = 80 m/s; T

air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; Q = 1272
watt/m2.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 60000.

Case 2: Constant wall

temperature
Inlet: air velocity = 80 m/s; T
air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 60000.

Inlet: water velocity = 6 m/s; T

water = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; Q = 433879
watt/m2.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 60000.

Case 4: Constant wall

temperature
Inlet: water velocity = 6 m/s; T
water = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 60000.

24

Velocity in the middle channel

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

25

Temperature in the middle of the channel

Air (Case 1)

Air (Case 2)

Water (Case 3)

Water (Case 4)

26

Temperature in the wall of the channel

Air (Cases 1)

Water (Cases 3)

27

Heat flux at the wall

Air (Cases 2)

Water (Cases 4)

28

Nusselt Number

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Nusselt number asymptotic

Case 1: 105
Case 2: 67
Case 3: 1700
Case 4: 314

29

Wall and Mean temperature

Air (Case 1)

Air (Case 2)

Water (Case 3)

Water (Case 4)

30

Summary of heat transfer calculation

Air (Laminar)

Water(Laminar)

Air (Turbulent Re 20000)

Water (Turbulent Re 20000)

31

LAMINAR FLOW WITH VARIABLE T

and Q BOUNDARY condition

32

Boundary conditions-Variable T,Q

Air
Constant heat flux at wall
Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T
air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; Q = 30 watt/m2.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 1000.

Constant wall temperature

Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T
air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 1000.

33

Temperature distribution

Distance from entrance: 5 cm

Distance from entrance: 25 cm

34

Temperature distribution

Distance from entrance: 50 cm

Distance from entrance: 100 cm

35

LAMINAR FLOW WITH

HEATING/COOLING

36

Boundary condition
Case 1: Heating

Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T air = 25 C.

Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 C, 100 C, 200 C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 1000.

Case 2: Cooling
Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T air = 50 C, 100 C,
200 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 25 C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 1000.
37

Nusselt number distribution in entry length

Heating

Cooling

38

LAMINAR FLOW WITH BOUYANCY

39

Boundary condition
Laminar flow (Air)
Boundary conditions
Inlet: air velocity = 0.15 m/s;
T air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 200 C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 100.

Case 1: No gravity force

Case 2: Horizontal placement
Case 3: Tilted 45
Case 4: Vertical placement
Gravity force is applied for
case 2, 3 and 4.

40

Velocity at entry region (z=2.5 cm)

Case 1

Case 3

Case 2

Case 4

41

Temperature at entry region (z=2.5 cm)

Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

Case 4

42

Velocity at z= first 10 cm

Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

Case 4

43

Temperature at z= first 10 cm

Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

Case 4

44

Nusselt number

45

TAPERED DUCT

46

Boundary condition
Laminar flow (Air)
Case 1: Divergent duct

Inlet: air velocity = 16

m/s;
T air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50
C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm;
Q=0.
Re 1000.

Case 2: Convergent duct

Inlet: air velocity = 0.16

m/s; T air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50
C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm;
Q=0.
Re 1000.

47

Velocity in the middle channel

Divergent duct (Case1)

Convergent duct (Case 2)

48

Temperature in the middle channel

Divergent duct (Case1)

Convergent duct (Case 2)

49

Nusselt number

50

POWER LAW FLUID

51

Boundary condition
Power law fluid
u

=K
where:

K = flow consistency index (Pa s n )

u
= shear rate or the velocity gradient (s 1 )
y
n = flow behaviour index
u

n 1

eff = K

eff = apparent or effective viscosity (Pa s )

n

Type of fluid

<1

Pseudoplastic

Newtonian

>1

Dilatant

Laminar flow (Air)

Case 1 (Pseudoplastic n=0.5)
Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T
air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.

Case 2 (Dilatant n=1.5)

Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T
air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.

52

Velocity in the middle channel

Pseudoplastic (Case1)

Dilatant (Case 2)

53

Temperature in the middle channel

Pseudoplastic (Case1)

Dilatant (Case 2)

54

Nusselt number

55

PULSATING FLOW

56

Boundary condition
Case 1 (Frequency = 5 Hz)
Inlet: air velocity = Vin; T air =
25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 200 C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 1000.

Case 2 (Frequency = 10 Hz)

Inlet: air velocity = Vin; T air =
25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 200 C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 1000.

57

Velocity in the middle channel

0s

0.05 s

0.1 s

0.15 s
Case 1 (frequency 5 Hz)

58

Temperature in the middle channel

0s

0.05 s

0.1 s

0.15 s

59

Case 1 (frequency 5 Hz)

Velocity in the middle channel

0s

0.01 s

0.02 s

0.03 s
Case 2 (frequency 20 Hz)

60

Velocity in the middle channel

0.04 s

0.05 s

61

Case 2 (frequency 20 Hz)

Temperature in the middle channel

0s

0.01 s

0.02 s

0.03 s
Case 2 (frequency 20 Hz)

62

Temperature in the middle channel

0.04 s

0.05 s

63

Case 2 (frequency 20 Hz)

Average Nusselt number

64

Summary
Flow inside square duct has been simulated for variety of
BCs and for buoyancy effect.
Several cases - laminar and turbulent flow are
considered
Cooling/heating, buoyancy effect, power law fluid,
tapered duct and pulsating inlet flow have also been
simulated; no analytical solution possible
Heat transfer distributions are calculated

65

References
W. Kays, M. Crawford, B. Weigand, Convective
heat and mass transfer 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill,
2005.
S. Kakac and Y. Yener, Convective Heat
Transfer, Hemisphere Pub, 1982.
A. Bejan, Convection heat transfer, Wiley, 2004.
F. P. Incropera and D. P. Dewitt, Fundamentals
of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th Edition, Wiley,
2001.
J. H. Leinhard IV and J. H. Leinhard V, A Heat
Transfer Textbook, 3rd edition, 1980.
66

Computational Study of
Energy-Efficient Thermal
Drying Using Intermittent
Impinging Jets

ME 6203 Mass Transport

Computational Study of Energy-Efficient

Thermal Drying Using Intermittent
Impinging Jets
Prof. Arun S. Mujumdar
Email: [email protected]
Tel: +65-6516-4623, Fax: +65-6777-6235
2011

Guest lecturer
Jundika Candra Kurnia
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National University of Singapore

Outline
Overview of drying
Physical model
Problem description
Key assumptions

Numerical methodology
Selected results

Case study
Velocity
y contours
Temperature contours
Drying kinetics

Summary
Q&A

Overview
Drying
Widely known as the most common way to preserve food
Essential operation in chemical, agricultural, biotechnology, food,
polymer ceramics,
polymer,
ceramics pharmaceutical,
pharmaceutical pulp and paper
paper, mineral
processing and wood processing industries
Involves simultaneous transport process

Transport processes in drying:

Mass transfer
Heat transfer
Flow
Occur simultaneously both internally and externally

Induces deformation:
Shrinkage
Cracking
(Not modeled here)

Impinging jet drying

Various drying methods are available for
different material
p g g jjet drying
y g
One of this method is impinging
Offer high transport rate (mass and energy)
Effective for drying of continuous sheets (paper
drying); discrete flat/curved objects.

Impinging jets, however, have several

drawbacks
Non-uniform drying
High energy consumption compare to parallel flow

Further study in impinging jet drying is required

Pulsating jet is proposed to speed up drying kinetics
Not commonly used yet

Physical Model
An orifice nozzle is used in this study- Axisymmetric case

Substrate dried is a potato chip. It is placed in a drying chamber under one

impinging jet. Pulsating and intermittent flow is applied on the inlet

Physical model
The aforementioned condition can be brought into computational domain as follows

Drying chamber

Inlet

L 0.4 m

Tin 45 C

z 0.02 m

Substrate dimension (chip)

Ls 30mm

Vin fixed pulsating and intermitent H s 0.5 and 5mm

RH in 17.5%

What phenomena occur during drying?

Transport mechanism of mass? Energy?

Physical model
Basic mechanisms
moisture diffusion from the inner drying
substrate towards its surface,
surface where it
evaporates
conductive heat transfer within the drying
substrate
evaporation and convection of the vapor
from the surface of the drying substrate
into the drying air
convection heat transfer from drying air to
8
the surface of the drying substrate

Why do we need assumptions?

What are the key assumptions?
Comment on validityy of assumptions?
p

Assumptions
In developing the mathematical model, several assumptions are
made- some for simplicity
The drying substrate is compact and homogeneous with uniform
initial temperature and moisture content.
Within the drying substrate, the diffusivity of water vapor is 100
times larger than the diffusivity of liquid water.
The thermophysiscal properties of the drying substrate are
temperature and moisture content-dependent and isotropic (equal in
all directions).
Variations in dependent variables in span wise direction are
negligible since width of the drying substrate is much larger than its
negligible,
height (reduction in dimensionality from three to two dimensions).
The shape of the drying substrate remains constant. No shrinkage
or deformation is accounted for.
Newtonian fluid
10

 How to translate these physical phenomena into

mathematical model?
What conservation equations do we need to model
th physical
h i l phenomena?
h
?
the
Do we need more information?

11

Conservation equations
For drying substrate (chip)
Conservation of
mass:
Liquid water
Water vapor

Transient term (time dependent)

Diffusion

cl
Dlbcl Kcl ,
t
cv
Dvb cv Kcl ,
t
Evaporation
Diffusion
Transient term (time dependent)

Conservation of
energy Transient term (time dependence; heat capacity)
Conduction

T
b c pb
kbT q
t

Cooling due to
evaporation

12

Conservation equation
For drying air (Impinging jet) unsteady case

u 0,

Mass

Inertia/net rate

Viscous

u u p u - a u ' ,
t

Momentum
Energy

For incompressible fluid

Pressure gradient

uT ka T a c pa u ' T ' ,
t

a c pa

Mass
M
off
water vapor

Advection/bulk motion

Conduction

Turbulent
T
b l t
heating

cv
Dva cv u cv ,
t
Convection

Transient term (storage)

Diffusion

13

What is a turbulence model?

Why do we need one?
What is Reynolds averaging?
Basic /popular turbulence models

14

Turbulence model
A turbulence model is a model which is used to approximates the
physical behavior of turbulent flows*
Turbulence model are necessary in numerical simulation due to
impracticality in computing all scales of turbulent motion. Therefore,
approximate
i t methods
th d (turbulence
(t b l
models)
d l ) are introduced
i t d
d to
t simplify
i lif
and reduce computational cost.
Reynolds averaging refers to the process of averaging a variable or
an equation in time. For example, if we have time dependent
variable , we can decompose this variable into an average part
and fluctuating part in the following way:

1
(t )dt , ' .

TT

where T has to be long enough to phase out fluctuation part on (t).

Aside from time averaging, Reynolds averaging also deals with
space averaging and Ensemble averaging**
*J.J. Bertin, J. Periaux, J. Ballmann, 1992, Advances in hypersonics v2: Modeling hypersonic flows, Birkhauser, Cambridge
**J. Sodja, 2007, Turbulence model in CFD, Ljubljana, Slovenia (http://www-f1.ijs.si/~rudi/sola/Turbulence-models-in-CFD.pdf)

15

Turbulence model
Various turbulence models have been developed. They
can be categorized as*:

Algebraic/Zero-equation models
One equation models
Two equation models
Second-order closure models

Among these models,

k-, k-, LES (Large Eddy Simulation), RSM (Reynolds
Stress Model) are among the most popular turbulence
model used in computational fluid dynamics.
In this study, Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) is used as it
has been shown to be superior to k- and k- turbulence
models in steady impinging jets
16
*D. C. Wilcox, 2006, Turbulence modeling for CFD, DCW Industries, La Canada, Clifornia
** P. Xu, B. Yu, S. Qiu, H. J. Poh and A. S. Mujumdar. Turbulent impinging jet heat transfer enhancement due to intermittent pulsation. International Journal of
Thermal Science, 49 (7): 1247-1252, 2010.

Turbulence model for impinging jet drying

Reynolds stress model (5 equations)

Rij
t

Cij Pij Dij ij ij ij

Accumulation
A
l ti
Convective

Rij

ui'u 'j

t
t
Cij a ui' u 'j U

Production

U j

U i
R jm
Pij Rim

xm
xm

Rotation

ij 2k u 'j um' eikm ui' um' e jkm

k2
Dij t Rij with t C , C 0.09 and k 1.0

2
ij ij
Dissipation
3

2
2

C1 Rij k ij C2 Pij P ij
ij
Pressure strain
3
3
k

interaction
with C1 1.8 and C2 0.6

Diffusion

To solve this model, k- turbulence model is required

17

Governing equations
k- turbulence model

k
uk t
t
k

k t G ,

C G

2
u t 1 t
C2 ,
t
k
k
k

u 2 v 2 w 2 u v 2 u w 2 w v 2

,
G 2
x y z y x z x y z

k2
t C ,

Nomenclature:
u, v, w = component velocity
t= turbulent viscosity
k = turbulent kinetic energy
= turbulent dissipation
G = turbulent generation rate

C1 = 1.44
C2 = 1.92
C = 0.09
k = 1.0
= 1.0

18

Constitutive relations
Density air

air 1.076 105 Tair2 1.039 102 Tair 3.326

Dynamic viscosity of air

air 5.211015 Tair3 4.077 1011Tair2 7.039 108 Tair 9.19 107

Conductivity of air

kair 4.084 1010 Tair3 4.519 107 Tair2 2.35 104 Tair 0.0147

Specific heat of air

c p , air 4.647 106 Tair3 4.837 103 Tair2 1.599Tair 1175

Heat evaporation

h fg 1000 2.394(T 273.15) 2502.1

Density of substrate

b ,ref 1 X

1 SbX

0.049
0
049
47
1
1 0.611
0 611X
X
Conductivity
C d ti it off substrate
b t t kb
exp

3
1 X
8.3143 10 Ts 273.15 335.15 1 X
Specific heat of substrate c 1750 2345 X
p ,b

1 X
Diffusivity of water vapor and
2044
0.0725
Dvb Dlb 1.29 106 exp

exp
X

Ts 273.15
liquid water inside substrate
19

Constitutive relations
Heat of wetting (heat to evaporate

H w 8.207 106 X 4 4.000 106 X 3 6.161105 X 2

2.368 104 X 1163 for 0.01 X 0.2

bound water)

hevap h fg H w

Total heat of evaporation

Moisture content

mass of water
l
mass of dry product s

X
mass of water

l
mass of wet product s l b 1 X

Dry basis
Wet basis

Equilibrium moisture content

(GAB model)
Free moisture content

Xe

X mCKAw

1 KAw KAw CKAw

X m 0.0209, K 0.976, C 4.416

X free X X e

(free to be removed)

Cooling rate due to evaporation q hevap M l Kcl

Rate of water evaporation

Diffusivity of water vapor in air

Ea

K K 0 e RT

20

Dva 2.775 106 4.479 108 T 1.656 1010 T 2

10

Constitutive relations

Relation of moisture content to concentration of water inside substrate

w W b ,
w

b ,ref 1 X
X

,
1 X
1 SbX

M w cw

b ,ref X X 2

1 SbX X SbX 2

SbX 2 Sb 1 X 1

b,ref

M w cw

X X ,
2

b,ref 2
b ,ref

Sb
X Sb 1
X 1 0,
M w cw
M wcw

can be solved analytically for X and by neglecting wrong root the solution is
b b 2 4ac
,
2a
where
X

b ,ref

a Sb
,
M wcw

b,ref

b Sb 1
,
M w cw

c 1.

21

Correlations
Calculation of h, Nu, Nu distributions in impinging jets
Local Nusselt number

Nu ( x, t )

hx D jet

along the target surface

Local heat transfer
coefficient
Local heat transfer flux
Time
Ti
averaged
d llocall
Nusselt number

hx

k fluid

qx
T
jet Twall

qx k fluid

T ( x)
y
t

Nuavg ( x)

1
Nu ( x, t )dt
t 0
x

Time averaged Nusselt

number

y 0

Nuavg

1 1
Nu ( x, t )dtdx
x 0 t 0
22

11

Nomenclature
cl

concentration of liquid water [mol m-3]

Pressure [Pa]

cv

concentration of water vapor [mol m-3]

Dva

diffusivity of vapor on the drying air [m2 s]

Dlb

diffusivity of liquid inside the drying substrate [m2 s]

dynamic viscosity of the drying air [Pa s]

Dvb

diffusivity of vapor inside the drying substrate [m2 s]

density of the drying air [kg m-3]

temperature [K]

cpa

specific heat of the drying air [J kg-1 K-1]

cooling rate due to evaporation [W m-3]

ka

thermal conductivity of the drying air [W m-2 K-1]

production of water vapor mass per unit volume

Ea

activation energy [kJ mol-1]

-3

density of the drying substrate [kg m ]

universal gas constant [J K1 mol1]

cpb

specific heat of the drying substrate [J kg-1 K-1]

Ml

molecular weight of water [kg kmol-1]

kb

thermal
h
l conductivity
d i i off the
h drying
d i substrate
b
[W m-22 K-11]

hhevap

totall heat
h off evaporation
i [J kg
k -11]

-1

mean velocity [m s ]

moisture content (dry basis) [kg kg-1]

fluctuate velocity [m s-1]

moisture content (wet basis) [kg kg-1]

23

Initial and boundary conditions

Initial conditions:

where

Substrate
T T0 , cl cl 0,b , cv cv 0,b ,

cl 0.b

Drying air

cv 0,b 0,
0

T T0 , cl cl 0, a , cv c v 0, a , u v 0,

Boundary conditions:

W b ,0
Ml

cl 0.a 0,
cv 0,a 1000

Drying chamber inlet

RH a ,0

1 RH M l

u 0, v vin , T Tin , RH RH in , cv cv 0,,a .

Drying chamber outlet

p pout , n Dcv 0, n k T 0.
Drying chamber wall

u v 0, n Dcv cv u 0, n (k T ) 0.

24

12

Boundary conditions and parameters

Parameters needed to solve
the model are

Inlet velocity for various cases

Steady laminar jet

b ,ref 1420 kg m 3 ,

vin = 2 m s-1

Pulsating
g laminar jjet
vin = 1+1sin(2ft) m s-1

Tin

45C ,

Ml

0.018 kg mol 1 ,

X0

4.6,

Intermitent laminar jet

vin= 2 m s-1(on),0 m s-1(off)

a ,45C 1.110 kg m 3 ,

Steady turbulent jet

a ,45C 1.934 105 kg m 1 s 1

vin = 20 m s-1

Pulsating turbulent jet

vin = 10+10sin(2ft)
10+10 i (2 ft) m s-11

Intermitent laminar jet

vin= 2 m s-1(on),0 m s-1(off)

8.314 J K 1 mol 1 ,

Ea
Sb

48.7 kJ mol 1 ,
1.4

1
Hz
120
25

Numerics
Gambit: creating geometry, meshing,
labeling boundary condition
Fluent: solver based on finite volume
method
Domain is discretized onto a finite set of
control volumes (or cells).
General conservation (transport)equations
for mass, momentum, energy, species, etc.
are solved on this set of control volumes.

dV V dA dA S dV
t V
A
A

V

Unsteady

Convection

Diffusion

Generation

Partial differential equations are discretized

into a system of algebraic equations.
All algebraic equations are then solved
numerically to render the solution field.
26

13

Numerics
Flow chart of computational fluid dynamics (CFD)*

27
*http://progdata.umflint.edu/MAZUMDER/Fluent/Intro%20Training/L-1%20Introduction%20to%20CFD.pdf

Numerics
User Defined Scalars: solving for water liquid and vapor
User Defined Functions Macros
DEFINE_SOURCE, DEFINE_DIFUSIVITY, DEFINE_FLUX,
DEFINE UNSTEADY DEFINE
DEFINE_UNSTEADY,
DEFINE_PROFILE,
PROFILE ETC

Three different mesh sizes of 2000, 4000, 8000 elements

were implemented and compared in terms of velocity,
temperature and moisture content to ensure a meshindependent. We found that the result from the mesh
size 2000 deviates 5% and 4000 deviates 1% from 8000
elements Therefore
elements.
Therefore, a mesh of around 4000 was
chosen.
Relative residual 10-6 for all dependent variable.
It took around 30-50 min to converge in Quadcore 1.8
GHz with 8 GB RAM for 5 to 8 h drying time
28

14

SELECTED RESULTS
29

Contours of velocity
Laminar steady jet

Turbulent steady jet

30

15

Contours of temperature
Laminar steady jet

Turbulent steady jet

31

Temperature contours in substrate

32

16

Moisture profile in substrate

33

Drying kinetics (0.5 mm substrate)

Impinging jet is not recomended

especially when drying cost is
considered (energy cost).
Effect of the pulsating and
intermittent flow can be seen on this
case
Frequency and velocity have no
effect on this case, most likely due
to the thin substrate

34

17

Drying kinetics (5 mm substrate)

Velocity slightly affect drying

kinetics. It is clearer compare to
that for thin substrate.
Effect of the pulsating and
intermittent flow can be seen in this
case
Frequency has no effect
35

Conclusion
Simple physical model to show how one
can use a math model consisting of
conservation equations and relevant
boundary conditions
For gas-side, we use continuity,
momentum, energy and species equations
On drying material side we consider
simple diffusion model for both water and
vapor. For low temperature only liquid
diffusion model is adequate.

36

18

References
[1] M. V. De Bonis, G. Ruocco, 2008, A Generalized Conjugate Model for
Forced Convection Drying Based on An Evaporative Kinetics, Journal of
Food Engineering, Vol. 89, pp: 232-240
[[2]] M. R. Islam,
s a , J.
J C
C. Ho,
o, A. S
S. Mujumdar,
uju da , 2003,
003, Convective
Co ect e Drying
y g with
t Timee
Varying Heat Input, Drying Technology, Vol. 21(7), pp: 1333-1356
[3] J. Srikiatden a, J. S. Roberts, 2008, Predicting moisture profiles in potato
and carrot during convective hot air drying using isothermally measured
effective diffusivity, Journal of Food Engineering, Vol. 84, pp: 516-525
[4] W. Kays, M. Crawford, B. Weigand, 2005, Convective Heat and Mass
Transfer 4th ed., McGraw Hill, Singapore
[5] F. P. Incropera and D. P. Dewitt , 2001, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer 5th Edition
Transfer,
Edition, Wiley
[6] P. Xu, B. Yu, S. Qiu, H. J. Poh, A. S. Mujumdar, 2010, Turbulent Impinging
Jet Heat Transfer Enhancement Due to Intermittent Pulsation, International
Journal of Thermal Sciences. doi:10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2010.01.020
[7] H. J. Poh, K. Kumar, A. S. Mujumdar, 2005, Heat transfer from a pulsed
laminar impinging jet, International Communications in Heat and Mass
Transfer, Vol. 32, pp:13171324
37

For Self-Study
How would you model
Case where jet temperature is 200 C?
The jet is superheated steam at atmospheric
pressure and 200 C?
The drying chamber is at very low (but finite)
pressure and dried by superheated steam
Will drying time be reduced if the slab is
flipped after some time? Why?

38

19

Mass transport in a microchannel T-Junction with

coiled-base channel design

ME 6203 Mass Transport Guest Lecture

Mass transport in a micro-channel

T-Junction with coiled-base channel design
Prof. Arun S. MUJUMDAR
Email: [email protected]
Tel: +65-6516-4623, Fax: +65-6777-6235

Guest lecturer
Agus Pulung SASMITO
Minerals Metals Materials Technology Center
National University of Singapore

2011

Outline
Overview of micro-channel T-Junction
Physical model
Problem description
Key assumptions

Numerical methodology
Selected results
Mass transport enhancement
Concluding remarks
2

Overview
Micro-channel T-Junction
Widely used in industry, especially pharmaceutical, for mixing
and reaction processes
Relatively easy to control the reactions, especially for highly
exothermic reaction
Involves simultaneous transport process

Transport process in T-Junction:

Momentum transfer
Mass transfer
Heat transfer
Occur simultaneously

Main phenomena:
Mixing
Surface reactions
3

Micro-Channel T-Junction
Passive mixing for various chemical reaction; it
does not require additional energy for mixing
processes
Micro-channel T-Junction, however, has several
drawbacks
Poor mixing, especially at short channel and high
Reynolds number
High pressure drop due to impingement effect

Various innovative designs are proposed to

improve mixing and reactions
Coiled channel
Channel with fins
Impinging jet channel

Typical geometry
Example case of mixing and reaction of
methane oxidation in platinum surface

A typical micro-channel Tjunction is used to mix methane

and air; the channel surface is
coated with catalyst (platinum)
Inlet

O2
N2
T = 300K

Tin = 300 K
Ptsurface;T1290K

h
Ptsurface;T1290K

Vin Re 500
Micro-channel T-junction
CO
CO2
H2O

L = 120 mm
h = 1 mm
Gas species: CH 4 , O 2 , H 2 , H 2 O,

CO 2 , HO 2 , N 2
Surface species: Pt(s), H(s), O(s),

CH4
H2
T = 300K

OH(s), H 2 O(s), H3 (s),

CH 2 (s), CH(s), C(s),
CO(s), CO 2 (s)

Solid species: Pt(b)

Innovative coiled-base design

Coiled-base channel design is
proposed to enhance heat and
mass transfer.
Coiled-base channel design
has been widely used in
industrial applications due to
compact structure, ease of
manufacture, higher heat and
mass transfer.
The presence of secondary
flow induced by coil curvature
and complex temperature and
concentration profiles caused
by curvature-induced torsion
are among significant
phenomena observed in
coiled-base channel.
Length is kept constant for
comparison purpose.

Typical straight T-junction

Conical T-junction

Helical T-junction
In-plane spiral T-junction
6

Physical model
Basic mechanisms

Convective heat and mass transfer

Mixing in the opposing jet at T junction
Surface reactions at the channel wall which include
mass consumptions and generation,
heat release due surface reaction,
multi-step surface reactions including adsorption
reaction, surface reaction, and desorption reaction.
Surface species are calculated from site balance
equations
Surface reactions create sources of bulk phase, which
determines its deposition rate on a surface.

Assumptions
In developing the mathematical model, several assumptions are
taken:
The flow is steady-state, laminar, newtonian flow and
species mixture is follows ideal gas law.
There are three types of species: gas, surface (site) and
solid species. The model treats chemical species
deposited on surfaces as distinct from the same
chemical species in the gas
Thermo-physical properties of species mixture follows
mixing law of ideal gas with temperature dependent
effect.
Gas phase reaction are closely coupled with surface
reactions.
8

 How to translate this physical phenomena into a

mathematical model?
What conservation equations do we need to interpret
the physical phenomena?

Conservation equations
u = 0

Mass

Compressible
flow

Momentum

viscous

Effect of volume
dillatation

2
T

u u = p + u + ( u ) ( u ) I
3

Pressure
Inertia/net rate

Species

gradient

( ui ) = ( Dii ) + Ri
convective

Energy

diffusive

reaction

i: CH 4 , O 2 , H 2 , H 2 O, CO 2 , HO 2

( cpuT ) = ( keff T ) + S temp

convective

conductive

Heat due to
reactions

Detailed reactions
Theory: consider the rth wall surface reaction written in general forms
Ng

Nb

Ns

Ng

Nb

Ns

i =1

i =1

i =1

Kr

gi'',r Gi + bi'', r Bi + si'',r Gi

g Gi + b Bi + s Gi
i =1

'
i ,r

'
i ,r

i =1

i =1

'
i ,r

where Gi, Bi, and Si represents the gas phase species, the solid species, and the
surface-adsorbed (or site) species, respectively. g, b, s are the stoichiometric
coefficients for each reactant species; g, b, and s are the stoichiometric coefficients
for each product species; and Kr is the overallNreaction rate constant.
g

i ,r
i ,r
r = k f ,r [Gi ]wall
[ Si ]wall

The rate of rth reaction is

g'

s'

i =1

The net molar rate of production or consumption of each species i is

N
given by
R =
g '' g '
i = 1, 2,3,..., N

(
rxn

i ,gas

i ,r

i ,r

Ri ,bulk = ( bi'',r bi',r )r

i = 1, 2,3,..., N b

r =1

N rxn

r =1

N rxn

Ri ,site = ( si'',r si' ,r )r

i = 1, 2,3,..., N s

r =1

Reaction rate constant is computed using Arrhenius expresion

k f , r = Ar T r e Er / RT

Wall surface reaction boundary conditions

It is assumed that, on the reacting surface, the mass flux of each gas
species is balanced with its rate of production/consumption

wall Di

i ,wall
n

m depi,wall = M w,i Ri,gas

[ Si ]wall
t

= Ri,site

i = 1, 2,3,..., N g
i = 1, 2,3,..., N s

The mass fraction at the wall is related to concentration by

[Gi ]wall =

walli,wall
M w ,i

mdep is the net rate of mass deposition or etching as a result of surface

reaction
Nb
m dep = M w,i Ri ,bulk
i =1

[Si]wall is the site species concentration at the wall, and defined as

where

[ Si ]wall = site zi
site is the site density and
zi is the site coverage of species i

Multi-step reaction mechanism

Ar

H2 + 2Pt(s) => 2H(s)

4.36e7

0.5

2H(s) => H2 + 2Pt(s)

3.7e20

6.74e7

No

Reaction

Er (J/kmol)

O2 + 2Pt(s) => 2O(s)

1.8e17

-0.5

O2 + 2PT(s) => 2O(s)

2.01e14

0.5

2O(s) => O2 + 2Pt(s)

3.7e20

2.13e8

H2O + Pt(s) => H2O(s)

2.37e8

0.5

H2O(s) => H2O + Pt(s)

1e13

4.03e7

OH + Pt(s) => OH(s)

3.25e8

0.5

OH(s) => OH + Pt(s)

1e13

1.93e8

10

H(s) + O(s) => OH(s) + Pt(s)

3.7e20

1.15e7

11

H(s) + OH(s) => H2O(s) + Pt(s)

3.7e20

1.74e7

12

OH(s) + OH(s) => H2O(s) + O(s)

3.7e20

4.82e7

13

CO + Pt(s) => CO(s)

7.85e15

0.5

14

CO(s) => CO + Pt(s)

1e13

1.25e8

15

CO2(s) => CO2 + Pt(s)

1e13

2.05e7

16

CO(s) + O(s) => CO2(s) + Pt(s)

3.7e20

1.05e8

17

CH4 + 2Pt(s) => CH3(s) + H(s)

2.3e16

0.5

18

CH3(s) + Pt(s) => CH2(s) + H(s)

3.7e20

2e7

19

CH2(s) + Pt(s) => CH(s) + H(s)

3.7e20

2e7

20

CH(s) + Pt(s) => C(s) + H(s)

3.7e20

2e7

21

C(s) + O(s) => CO(s) + Pt(s)

3.7e20

6.28e7

22

CO(s) + Pt(s) => C(s) + O(s)

1e17

1.84e8

23

OH(s) + Pt(s) => H(s) + O(s)

1.56e18

1.15e7

24

H2O(s) + Pt(s) => H(s) + OH(s)

1.88e18

1.74e7

25

H2O(s) + O(s) => OH(s) + OH(s)

4.45e20

4.82e7

Constitutive relations
Mixture density
= pM / RT
Mean molecular mass

M = CH4 / M CH4 + H2 / M H2 + O2 / M O2 + H2O / M H2O + OH / M OH + CO2 / M CO2 + CO / M CO + N2 / M N2

Mixture viscosity
=

x
x ,

with , = CH 4 , H 2 , O 2 , H 2 O, OH, CO, CO 2 , N 2

1 M
=
1 +
8 M

1/ 2

1
1

(g) 2
1 + M 4
(g) M

Effective thermal conductivity; heat capacity

keff = ki i
cp = i cp,i
i

Constitutive relations (Contd)

Figure of Merit is used to evaluate the effectiveness of the
mixing and reaction rate in the micro-channel T-Junction. It
defined as reactant conversion rate over pumping power
required. Since the mass flow rate is kept constant; hence

in out

FoM =
V=

Mean velocity

Mixed-mean temperature

Mixed-mean mass fraction

1
Ac

udA ,
c

Ac

Tmean =

1
VAc

i ,mean =

TudA ,
c

Ac

1
VAc

udA
i

Ac

Boundary conditions
At the air inlet

Uin = 5 m/s (Re~500)

Tin = 300K
O2 = 0.21
N2 = 1- O2

At the methane
inlet

Uin = 5 m/s (Re~500)

Tin = 300K
CH4 = 0.9
H2 = 0.1

At the walls
No-slip condition
No species flux
Twall = 1290 K

At the outlet
Pout = 101325
T = i = 0

Numerics
AutoCad for creating geometries
Gambit for meshing and labeling boundary conditions:
fine structured mesh near wall to resolve boundary layer;
increasingly coarser mesh to the middle of the channel to reduce
computational cost
Mesh independence test were carried out for three different
mesh sizecoarse, medium, finein terms of velocity, pressure,
temperature and species.

Fluent for discretization and solving dependent variables

Based on finite volume discretization method
Pressure-velocity coupling is solved by well-known SIMPLE
method
Overall, it requires ~300 MB memory and 2 h solving time on
workstation with Quadcore 2.63 GHz processor for convergence
criteria 10-6 for all dependent variables.

ChemKIN for reaction kinetics

To set up details multi-step reaction mechanism and thermophysical properties of gas species.

Flow chart for numerical solver

Results and discussion

Velocity profiles at channel length 50mm

m/s

Fully developed
flow exists in
the straight
channel
Secondary flow
is developed in
the coiled base
channel.
Higher velocity
intensity exists
in the outer wall
of the coiled
base channel

Oxygen mass fraction at channel length 50mm

Straight channel has
higher oxygen mass
fraction means that
lesser oxygen is
consumed for
reactions.
Among the coiled
base channel design,
helical coil gives
better conversion
rate.
Secondary flow
enhance mass
transport in the
surface reaction

Methane mass fraction at channel length 50 mm

At straight channel, the
methane concentration
is higher at the right
side of the wall, it
means that the
methane is not mixed
well with air.
Helical coil yields the
best mixing and
reaction among others
The presence of
secondary flow
improve the mixing rate
of reactant species

Oxygen mass fraction along channel

0.18
helical
straight
in plane spiral
conical

Oxygen mass fraction

0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Length / mm

Helical coil gives the best conversion rate among other designs.
Straight T-junction yields the lowest conversion rate due to poor
mixing.

Mixed mean temperature along channel

1300
1200
1100
Temperature / K

1000
900
800
700

conical
in plane spiral
helical
straight

600
500
400
300
0

20

40

60
Length / mm

80

100

120

Coiled base channel also gives higher heat transfer rate as

compared to straight channel
Coiled base channel is suitable for highly exothermic/endothermic
reaction to control the desired environment/temperature.

Effect of Reynolds number

Re 100
Re 500
Re 1000

0.17

Oxygen mass fraction

0.15

Re increasing

0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
0

20

40

60

80

100

Length / mm

Lower mass flow rate performs better conversion rate

This is due to longer residence time of the species

120

Effect of coil diameter

0.18
r4
r3
r5

Oxygen mass fraction

0.16
0.14
diameter increasing
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Length / mm

Smaller coil diameter produces slightly better conversion rate.

This is due to higher secondary flow produced in smaller coil
diameter.

Pressure drop
20000
straight
conical
in-plane
helical

18000
16000
14000
p / pa

12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

Reynolds

Straight channel requires the lowest pressure drop;

whereas, the helical coil has the highest pressure drop
Pressure drop increses as the mass flow increasing

Figure of Merit
3.50E-04
straight
conical
in-plane
helical

3.00E-04

Figure of Merit

2.50E-04
2.00E-04
1.50E-04
1.00E-04
5.00E-05
0.00E+00
100

500
Reynolds

1000

Straight channel has the highest figure of merit among other

designs; however, for industrial application where space is limited
and pumping power is not an issue, such as in pharmaceutical
industry, coiled base channel design can be a desirable choice

Concluding remarks

Coiled base channel design can improve heat

and mass transfer as compare to straight Tjunction channel.
This improvement is due to the presence of
secondary flow.
However, higher pressure drop is required for
coiled base channel design.
For industrial application where space is limited,
conversion rate is the most important, and
pumping power is not an issue, coiled base
channel design can be a desirable choice

Nomenclature
= density, kgm 3

= rate of rth reaction

u = velocity, ms 1
p = pressure, pa

k f ,r = reaction rate constant using Arrhenius expression

Ar = pre-exponential factor

= dynamic viscosity, Pas

i = mass fraction of species i
Di = diffusivity of species i, ms

r = temperature exponent
Er = activation energy for the reaction, Jkgmol
2

Ri = reaction rate of species i, kgm 3

c p = specific heat, Jkg 1K 1

R = universal gas constant, Jkg -1mol-1K -1

M = mean molecular mass
m dep = net rate of mass deposition, kg
x = mol fraction

T = temperature, K
keff = effective thermal conductivity, WmK 1
S temp = heat release due to reactions, Wm -3
Gi = gas species, mol
Bi = bulk/solid species, mol
Si = surface-adsorbed/site species, mol
gi' , gi'' = stoichiometric coefficient for gas reactant, and product
bi' , bi'' = stoichiometric coefficient for bulk reactant, and product
si' , si'' = stoichiometric coefficient for site reactant, and product

References
[1] O. Deutschmann, L.i. Maier, U. Riedel, A.H. Stroemman, R.W. Dibble,
Hydrogen Assisted Catalytic Combustion of Methane on Platinum,
Catalysis Today 59,141--150 (2000).
[2] V. Kumar, M. Paraschivoiu, K.D.P. Nigam, Single phase fluid flow and
mixing in microchannel, Chemical Engineering Science, 2011, in press.
[3] S. Vatisth, V. Kumar, K.D.P. Nigam, A review on the potential application
of curved geometries in process industry, Industrial Engineering Chemistry
Research 47, 3291-3337 (2008).
[4] J.C. Kurnia, A.P. Sasmito, A.S. Mujumdar, Evaluation of heat transfer
performance of helical coils of non-circular tubes, J. Zhejiang University
Science: A, 2011, in press.
[5] J.C. Kurnia, A.P. Sasmito, A.S. Mujumdar, Laminar convective heat
transfer in coils of non-circular cross-section tube: a computational fluid
dynamics study, Thermal Science, 2011, accepted.
[6] J.C. Kurnia, A.P. Sasmito, A.S. Mujumdar, Numerical investigation of
laminar heat transfer performance of various cooling channel designs,
Applied Thermal Engineering, 2011, in press.
[7] Fluent user guide documentation, http://www.fluent.com
30

For Self Study

How can one reduce pressure drop in the coiled

base channel design?
What happens if the channel is not in square
cross-section, e.g. circular, triangle, star-shape
etc?
Will reaction and mixing rate improve if we add
fins inside the channel?
What if the reactant species are in different
phase, e.g. gas and liquid? Is the model
presented still valid?

Mass Transport
Considerations in PEM
Fuel Cell Modeling

ME6203 Mass Transport

Mass Transport Considerations
in PEM Fuel Cell Modeling

Prof. Arun S. Mujumdar, ME, NUS

Dr. Poh Hee Joo, IHPC

March 2010
1

Outline - Part 1 (Handout)

Fuel Cell Introduction

Fuel cell Mass Transport

Diffusive transport in electrode

Convective transport in flow structures

Analytical Modeling with MATLAB

Summary

Why PEMFC Modeling in Mass

Transport course?
Fuel cells are becoming important in academic
and industrial R&D. Some already
commercialized. Much more development is
needed to enhance performance cost-effectively
Excellent industrial illustration of a case where
math modeling of transport phenomenaincluding mass transport is critically important
It is an excellent illustration of how very complex
transport processes can be modeled and what
are the different levels of math models which are
possible
3

Why PEMFC model?

In ME6203 one objective is to look at advanced mass
transport problems of real interest and examine how a
model can be developed based on fundamentals
It is also an example of complex interaction between
various transport phenomena. Illustrates need for
significant information needed for such a model
Due to time limitation, different levels of modeling e.g.
1D, 2D,2.5D, 3D steady/unsteady, single phase/ two
phase models etc are not discussed. Model is only as
good as assumptions made- they must be realistic.
4

Mass Transport and PEMFC

Whenever there is species movement causing
concentration changes there is mass transport
Mechanisms are: diffusion, convection, electro-osmosis
etc
PEMFC includes flow in channels, flow in porous media
Involves proton and electron transfer, catalytic chemical
reactions, heat transfer etc
An excellent-but complex-example for study of transport
phenomena
Here, please focus on the technique of math modeling
rather than the complex details which are beyond the
scope of this course.
Suitable for Term Paper Projects e.g. 1D analytical
modeling of different types of fuel cells
5

Preamble
With this preamble , let us proceed to fuel cells..
Numerous resources are available on the web for
self-study
Advanced models are being worked on at hundreds
of labs around the world-useful for innovation!
Several excellent textbooks available as well
No need to go beyond what is in this PPT-except for
those who choose to work on term papers on this
subject.
Poh Hee Joo will be happy to provide relevant
resources and ideas to those interested
Caution: Some aspects are complex and are
included only for completeness of coverage. You do
not need to get into those details.
6

What is a Fuel Cell ?

A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical
reaction taking place at two electrodes (anode and cathode)

Backing layer

Backing layer

Physical Description of a PEMFC

PEMFC Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

Anode bipolar plate

Anode gas channel
Anode gas diffusion layer
Anode catalyst layer

MEA Membrane
Electrode
Assembly

Membrane

Cathode catalyst layer

Cathode gas diffusion layer
Cathode gas channel
Cathode bipolar plate
8

Basic Fuel Cell Operation

1. Reactant transport
Efficient delivery of reactants by using flow field plates in
combination with porous electrode structures.
2. Electrochemical reaction
Choosing right catalyst and carefully designing reaction
zones
3. Ionic (and Electronic) Conduction
Thin electrolyte for ionic conduction, without fuel cross over
4. Product Removal
Flooding by product water can be major issue in PEMFC
9

Applications of fuel cells

Transportation
Stationary Power Generation
Residential
Portable Power Generation
Space and Defense

10

Fuel Cells: Classification

PEM fuel cell

Solid oxide fuel cell

Polymer membrane

Ceramic membrane

800C

At Anode

Characterized by
Electrolyte materials
Operating temperature
Fuel used

600 10000C

PEM Fuel Cell

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell

2H2 4H+ + 4e

At Cathode
O2 + 4e + 4H+ 2H2O
O2 + 2e O2-

H2 + O2-CO2 + H2O + 2e
CH3OH + H2O CO2 + 6H+ + 6e

3/2O2 + 6H+ + 6e 3H2O

11

Fuel Cells: Some Advantages

Replacement for IC Engines in

transportation

Higher energy efficiency

Zero or ultra-low emission

Replacement for batteries in portable

electronics

Higher energy density

Nearly zero recharge time
Independent scaling between power
(determined by fuel cell size) and capacity
(determined by fuel cell reservoir)
12

Fuel Cells: Some Limitations

High cost of fuel cell

Low volumetric power density comparing to I.C.
engines and batteries
Safety, Availability, Storage and Distribution of
pure hydrogen fuel
Alternative fuels (e.g. methanol, gasoline)
difficult to use directly and require reforming
Susceptibility to environmental poisons
Operational temperature compatibility concerns
13

Challenges to Fuel Cell Commercialization

Simple question, but difficult answer
Prototype developed by SERC-PEMFC for
2W portable battery charger fuel cell of
NOKIA mobile phone cost about $300

14

Fuel cells: Interdisciplinary field of

science and engineering:

Thermodynamics
Electrochemistry
Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
Fluid Mechanics
Heat and Mass Transfer
Material Science (metallurgy) and materials engineering
Polymer Science and specifically ionomer chemistry
Design, manufacturing and engineering optimization
Solid mechanics and mechanical engineering
Electromagnetism and electrical engineering
Etc etc
15

PEMFC (Interdisciplinary!)
Membrane Science

High temperature
cation membrane
Reduce CO poisoning
of catalyst)

Catalysis
and
Electrochemistry
Alternative catalyst
(reduce cost)
High catalyst utilization
(reduce catalyst loading)

Membrane for DMFC

Improved performance
(prevent methanol crossover)
(electro-oxidation/Reduction)
Anion membrane
(use of low cost catalyst)

Measurement and
Characterization
(relate performance to
electrochemical processes)

Thermofluids
and
Component Design

System Integration

Transport phenomena System design & configuration

(molecular diffusion, (reduce cost, improved efficient)
ion migration,
convection)
Interconnection
(increase power o/p)
Multi-phase physics
(water management) Heat and water management
(operational stability)
Heat transfer
(performance stability)
Fluid dynamics
(flow channel design)
Courtesy of SERC Fuel Cell Project 16

Schematic of a cross sectional view of PEM

Fuel Cell unit
Load

Cathode
Catalyst
Cathode
Bipolar Plate

Air
channel

Cathode
Electrode
(GDL)

O2

O2 + 2H+ + 2e H2O

e-

Anode
Catalyst

Membrane

H+

Anode
Anode
Electrode Bipolar Plate
(GDL)

H2

H2
channel

H2 2H+ + 2e

17

Role of Each Component

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Cathode/Anode Bipolar plate

Electronic Conduction
Heat Transport
Air/H2 channel
Reactant Transport & Product Removal (Mass Transfer)
Heat Transport
Cathode/Anode GDL
Ionic and Electronic Conduction
Reactant Transport & Product Removal (Mass Transfer)
Heat Transport
Cathode/Anode Catalyst
Electrochemical reaction (Mass Transfer reactant consumption and
product generation)
Ionic and Electronic Conduction
Membrane
Ionic conduction
Water transport
18

Water Management in PEMFC

Cathode

Electrolyte
membrane

Anode

Water produced
within cathode
Water is dragged from
anode to cathode sides by
protons moving through
electrolyte (electro-osmotic
drag)

Water is back diffused from

cathode to anode, if cathode side
holds more water

Water is supplied by
externally humidifying
air/O2 supply

Water is supplied by
externally humidifying
hydrogen supply

Water is removed by
O2 depleted air
leaving the fuel cell

Water is removed by
circulating hydrogen
19

Why Mass Transfer is Important in PEMFC

Component

Mass Transport Implication

Where mass transport

limitation exists

Air/H2 channel

To provide homogenous distribution

of reactants across an electrode
surface while minimizing pressure
drop and maximizing water removal
capability

Reactant depletion for

downstream channel
Impurity contamination, e.g.
N2

Cathode/Anode GDL

Porous electrode support to

reinforce catalyst, allow easy gas
access to catalyst layer, and
enhances electrical conductivity

Liquid water flooding block the

pores for gas diffusion into
catalyst layer

Cathode/Anode Catalyst

Electrochemical reaction takes

place at the catalyst layer,
consume reactant (H2 and O2) and
generate product (H2O)

Poor total reaction surface

area (catalyst loading) for
optimal electrochemical
performance

Membrane

To separate the air and H2 while

allowing liquid water and ionic
transport across membrane

Membrane dry-out at high

temperature, and loss of its
proton conducting capability
20

10

Fuel Cell : Mass Transport

To produce electricity, fuel cell must be continually

supplied with fuel and oxidant. At the same time,
products must be continuously removed so as to
avoid strangling the cell. The process of
supplying reactants and removing products is
termed fuel cell mass transport.

Why is it important? Poor mass transport can lead

to significant fuel cell performance loss, as the
reactant depletion and/or product accumulation
within catalyst layer (not at the fuel cell inlet) will
adversely affect performance. This is called
concentration or mass transport loss, and can be
minimized by careful optimization of mass
transport in the fuel cell electrodes and fuel cell
flow structures
21

Transport in Electrode vs. Flow

Structure

Difference between mass transport in fuel cell electrode and fuel

cell flow structures in one of length scale, and this lead to
difference in transport mechanism

For fuel cell flow structures, dimensions are generally on the

millimeter or centimeters scale. Flow pattern typically consisted of
well-defined channel arrays. Gas transport in the channel is
dominated by fluid flow and convection.

For fuel cell electrodes, it exhibit structure and porosity on the

micrometer and nanometer length scale. The tortuous geometry
of electrodes insulated gas molecules from convective forces
present in flow channel. Gas transport within electrodes is
dominated by diffusion.

Velocity scale could also affect transport

mechanism
*

22

11

Transport in Electrodes: Diffusive

Transport
Flow
Structure

Anode
Electrode

Reactants (R) In

Catalyst
Layer

Electrolyte

JR
jrxn

Products (P) Out

Concentration

An electrochemical
reaction on catalyst layer
side of an electrode and
convective mixing on the
other flow channel side of
the electrode set up
concentration gradients,
leading to diffusive
transport across the
electrode.

Flow
channel

JP

c Ro

c *P

c Po

c R*

Reaction in catalyst
layer consumes R,
generates P

Schematic of mass transport situation within

typical fuel cell electrode
23

Faradays Law

From Faradays Law : current i evolved by an

electrochemical reaction is a direct measure of

the rate of electrochemical reaction i = dQ = nF dN
dt

n is the number of electrons transferred,

F is Faradays constant, 96,485 C/mol,
dN
is the rate of electrochemical reaction, mol/s.
dt

*The

dt

current density

j=

i
1 dN
= nF
= nFJ
A
A dt

J is the molar flux, mol/cm2s.

24

12

Transport in Electrode: Diffusive Transport

At steady state, the diffusion flux of reactants and

products down the concentration gradient across the
electrode (diffusion layer) will exactly match the
consumption/production rate of reactants and products
at the catalyst layer.
Diffusion flux (kmol/m2s) of reactants to the catalyst
layer may be described by
dc J = D eff c *R c Ro
J diff = D
diff

dx

*
o
eff c R c R
j
=

nFD
From Faradays Law

Using the flux balance equation, one can solve for

reactant concentration in the catalyst layer
j
*
0

cR = cR

25

nFD eff

Transport in Electrode: Diffusive

Transport

jL = nFD

cR0

Limiting Current Density, jL

Limiting current density of fuel cell will be encountered

when reactant concentration in the catalyst layer drops
all the way to zero.
Fuel cell mass transport design strategies focus on
increasing the limiting current density by:
1.
2.

eff

Ensuring a high reactant concentration at flow channel by

designing good flow structures that even distribute reactants
Ensuring that effective diffusivity is large and diffusion layer
thickness is small by carefully optimizing fuel cell operating
conditions, electrode structure, and diffusion layer thickness.

Theoretical typical jL are on the order of 1-10A/cm2

26

13

Question 1
1. Discuss the factors that determine jL,
limiting current density. List three ways to
increase jL.

27

Answer for Question 1

Answer
c
The limiting current density is given by j = nFD
Factors determining the jL are reactant concentration at flow
channel, effective diffusivity and diffusion layer thickness. We
could increase jL by
Ensuring a high reactant concentration at flow
channel by designing good flow structures that
even distribute reactants
Ensuring effective diffusivity is large;
Ensuring diffusion layer thickness is small
by carefully optimizing fuel cell operating
conditions, electrode structure, and diffusion
layer thickness
eff

0
R

28

14

Typical process of reactant

transport to reactant sites

If considering the convection mass transfer across electrode surface,

how is the limiting current density being derived?
x=H

o
R

Convection, hm

Diffusion

Diffusion and
reaction

c Rs

Reactant molar
flux, JR

Flow channel

c *R

HE

x=0
Gas Diffusion
Layer (porous)

Catalyst Layer
(porous)

29

Process of reactant transport to reactant sites

Convection mass transfer at the electrode surface

J = hm c Ro c Rs

(1)

Diffusion mass transport through the Gas Diffusion Layer

c s c R*
J = D eff R
HE

(2)

Combining Equation 1 & 2

J=

c Ro c R*
Rm

H
1
+ effE
hm D

(3)

From Faradays Law, current density is proportional to the rate of

electrochemical reaction
1
H
i
1 dN
+ effE (C Ro C R* ) (4)
j = nF
j = = nF
= nFJ
h
A
m D
A dt
Limiting current density

1 H
jL = nF + effE
hm D

o
CR

(5)

30

15

Transport in Electrode: Diffusive

Transport

Concentration affects fuel cell performance through reaction

kinetics.
This is because reaction kinetics also depend on the reactant and
product concentration at the reaction sites.
Reactant depletion/product accumulation in the catalyst layers
lead to fuel cell performance loss.
This is called fuel cell concentration (or mass transport) loss.

conc =

RT 1 jL
1 +
nF jL j

conc - Voltage loss due to reactant depletion in the catalyst layer

Increasing jL can greatly extend a fuel cells potential operating

range; therefore mass transport design is an active area of
current fuel cell research.

31

Question 2
2.

Using the limiting current density equation, calculate

the limiting current density for a fuel cell cathode
running on air at 1 Atm and 25C. Assume only O2 and
N2 and ignore the presence of water vapor. Mass
fraction of O2 in air is 0.23. Assume the diffusion layer
is 500m and has a porosity of 40%.

Hint* : Using Chapman-Enskog theory (Chp 5, Cussler)

to find the binary diffusion coefficient, and
Bruggemann correction to account for the effective
diffusivity in porous structure. Molar concentration for
O2 can be obtained by mole fraction of O2 multiply by
the total molar concentration for the air mixture. n is
the number of electrons consumed per mole of the
reactant consumed. Molecular weight for N2 and O2
are 28 and 32, respectively
32

16

Answer for Question 2

In the H2-O2 fuel cell, the electrochemical reaction at

the cathode is given by O2 + 4H+ + 4e H2O. Hence
n = 4. F is the Faraday constant, 96,485 C/mol. The
binary diffusion coefficient is given by ChapmanEnskog theory.O2 = 3.467. N2 = 3.798. O2-N2 =
3.6325. From the necessary calculation, = 0.9186.
Therefore, Dij = 2x10-5 m2/s. From Bruggemann
correction Dij,eff = 5.06 x 10-6 m2/s. From the ideal gas
equation, total molar concentration for the mixture is =
40.9 mol/m3. Molecular weight for the mixture O2-N2 is
= 28.92. Mole faction of O2 = = 0.20786. Therefore,
molar concentration of O2 = 8.5015 mol/m3. Limiting
current density = 33,204 A/m2 = 3.32A/cm2
33

Transport in Flow Structure:

Convective Transport
Fuel cell flow structures are designed to distribute
reactants across fuel cell
One could possibly use single-chamber structure, and
encapsulate the entire fuel cell collector in a single
compartment. Unfortunately, this would make reactants
tend to stagnant inside the chamber, leading to poor
reactant distribution and high mass transport losses;
hence poor fuel cell performance
Conversely, employing intricate flow structure containing
many small flow channels keeps the reactants constantly
flowing across fuel cell, encouraging uniform convection,
mixing and homogenous reactant distribution.
34

17

Convective Transport Contd

Analyzing convective gas transport in the
complex real world flow structures is only really
possible with numerical methods. A common
technique is to use CFD modeling
However, basic analysis of simple flow scenarios
is still possible with the principle of fluid
mechanics, which can still yield great insight into
fuel cell mass transport and flow structure
design
35

Transport in Flow Structure:

Convective Transport
Inlet

Outlet
u

x
y

Dh
JC
Convection transfer at surface
JD
Diffusion

Electrode

Membrane

Pressure difference between inlet and outlet drives the fluid flow.
Although gas flowing in stream-wise direction along flow channel,
convective mass transport can also occur in transverse direction from
flow channel into (or out of) electrode. This happens when
concentration of species i is different at the electrode surface versus
the flow channel bulk.
36

18

Transport in Flow Structure:

Convective Transport
Mass flux (kg/m2s) due to convective mass transfer
may be estimated by

J C ,i = hm i , s i

Mass transfer convection coefficient, hm, is dependent

on the channel geometry, the physical properties of
species i and j, and the wall conditions. It can be found
from the nondimensional Sherwood number
hm = Sh

Dij
Dh
37

Transport in Flow Structure:

Convective Transport
Gas is depleted along flow channel
As hydrogen or air is consumed continuously along
a flow channel, the reactants tend to become
depleted, especially near the outlet. Depletion poses
adverse effect on fuel cell performance, since
concentration losses increase as reactant
concentrations decrease.
A simple 2D mass transport model for fuel cell
cathode is developed. This is to determine how the
oxygen concentration decreases along flow channel
using macro-scale mass flux balance.
*
Refer to Note 1 for O2 mass concentration profile
along cathode catalyst layer.
* important

38

19

Transport in Flow Structure: Convective

Transport
Gas is depleted along flow channel

To find oxygen concentration profile along the catalyst

layer
Electrolyte
C

J O2

RXN

J O2

uin

J O2
2

y =C

Cathode catalyst layer

DIFF
y=E

Gas diffusion layer

HE

CONV
y=E

O
Cathode flow channel

HC
x

Schematic of a 2D fuel cell transport model including diffusion and convection

39

Convective Transport in Flow Structure :

Assumptions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Steady state and isothermal operation

Flow channel has a square cross section.
The catalyst layer is infinitely thin.
Water exists only in vapor form.
Diffusive mass transport dominates in
the diffusion layer. Furthermore, only ydirection diffusion is considered.
6. Convection mass transport dominates in
the flow channel
40

20

Transport in Flow Structure:

Convective Transport

From Faradays Law, if fuel cell is producing a current density at location X,

then the O2 mass flux (kg/cm2s) that is consuming is given by
^

J O2

rxn

x = X , y =C

= M O2

j( X )
4F

(1)

The O2 flux consumed by the electrochemical reaction must be provided by

diffusion in the gas diffusion layer, described by Ficks law
diff

J O2

x= X , y=E

= DOeff2

x = X , y =C

O2

x= X , y=E

(2)

HE

O2 mass flux due to mass transport through the gas diffusion layer is provided
by convective mass transport between the flow channel and gas diffusion layer
^

J O2

conv

x= X , y=E

= hm O2

x= X , y=E

O2

x = X , y = channel

(3)
41

Mass flux balance between convective transport in flow

structure and diffusion transport in GDL

1. O2 mass flux consumed by the

electrochemical reaction at the catalyst
layer
2. O2 mass flux due to diffusion mass
transport through the gas diffusion layer
3. O2 mass flux provided by convective
mass transport between the flow channel
and gas diffusion layer surface.
Mass flux 1 = Mass flux 2 = Mass flux 342

21

Transport in Flow Structure:

Convective Transport
To maintain the flux balance, O2 mass flux in equations 1, 2 & 3 must be same
rxn

J O2

diff

= J O2

x = X , y =C

x= X , y= E

conv

= J O2

(4)

x= X , y= E

The following relations can be derived

diff

J O2

x= X , y=E

x = X , y =C

= M O2
= O2

x= X , y=E

j(X )
4F

x= X , y=E

= O2

(5)

M O2

x = X , y = channel

j( X ) H E
4 F DOeff2

M O2

(6)

j(X ) 1
4 F hm

(7)
43

Transport in Flow Structure:

Convective Transport
Couple y direction O2 mass transport in the diffusion layer to the x direction O2
mass transport in the flow channel by considering the overall flux balance in
the control volume (dotted box)

u in H C O2

x = 0 , y = channel

u in H C O2

x = X , y = channel

= J O2
0

conv

dx (8)
y=E

O2 leaving out of the top of the control volume can be related to the current
density produced by fuel cell.

J O2

conv

y=E

dx = M O2
X

j (x )
dx
4F

(9)

Combining equations 6, 7, 8 & 9

O

x = X , y =C

= O2

x = X , y = channel

M O2 j ( X ) H E j ( X ) X j (x )

+
+
dx (10)
eff

0
4 F hm
u in H C
DO2

44

22

Transport in Flow Structure:

Convective Transport
Assume current density is constant along the x direction
O

= O2

x = X , y =C

x = X , y = channel

M O2

H
j 1
X
+ E +
4 F hm DOeff2 u in H C

(11)

hm can be determined based on constant-flux Sherwood number

hm =

ShF DO2
(12)

HC

Final expression for oxygen concentration profile along the catalyst layer
O

x = X , y =C

= O2

x = X , y = channel

M O2

H
j H C
X
+ E +
4 F ShF DO2 DOeff2 u in H C

(13)

Linear profile

45

Transport in Flow Structure:

Convective Transport
Three terms that affect O2 concentration profile at the
reaction site for fuel cell are
1.Inlet flow velocity, uin

Supplying more O2 improves mass transport, thus

increasing O2 concentration at the catalyst layer

2.Diffusion layer thickness, HE

Decreasing diffusion layer thickness also increases the

O2 concentration at the catalyst layer.

3.Channel size, HC

A little tricky as HC appears in both numerator of the

first term and denominator of third term in the
parentheses. However, with constant volume flow rate,
uinHC is constant. Therefore, decreasing channel size
will increase the O2 concentration.
46

23

Transport in Flow Structure:

Convective Transport

Flow Structure Pattern

Flow plate typically contain dozen or even
hundreds of fine channels (or groves) to
homogenously distribute gas flow over the fuel
cell surface. The shape, size and pattern of
flow channels can significantly affect fuel cell
performance.
In PEMFCs, flow field design effort often focus
on the water removal capability of cathode
side.

47

1.

Transport in Flow Structure:

Convective Transport
Three basic flow structure patterns are
Outlet

Parallel flow

2.

Serpentine flow

3.

Low overall pressure drop between gas inlet and

outlet
However, when the width of the flow field is relatively
large, flow distribution in each channel may not be
uniform

Outlet

Excellent water removal capability, as only one flow

path exists in the pattern and liquid water is forced to
exit the channel
However, in large area cell, serpentine design leads
to large pressure drop

Interdigitated flow

Inlet

Promotes forced convection of the reactant gases

through the gas diffusion layer.
Far better water management, leading to improved
mass transport
Significant pressure drop, but possible to be
overcome by employing extremely small rib spacing.

Inlet
Outlet

Inlet

48

24

Analytical Modelling with MATLAB

Motivation
Shorter turnaround time
Accessibility
Working with basics: enhancing understanding
Issues:
Oversimplification
Disregard for physical factors
Incapable of complex reality simulations
Way out:
Compare results with numerical methods
49

Analytical Modelling with MATLAB

Working directly with equations :
parametric study
Basics:

Conservation of Momentum
Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Species
Conservation of Charge
50

25

Modelling different components

Cathode gas flow field
Cathode: rate determining reaction
Falls first in the flow of events taking place in
the fuel cell
Can define the inlet conditions and assess the
resulting effects without considering other
components
Single channel flow field for simplicity
51

Cathode Gas flow channel

(b)

Charge Conductor
(a)

Gas Diffusion Layer

(c)

Flow Channel
Figure 6 (a): PEM Fuel Cell Structure; (b): GDL and Current Conductor assembly;
(c): Flow Channel dimensions w=width, d=depth, L=length

52

26

Limiting current density

theoretical maximum value of the current density
calculated by assuming zero concentration of oxygen at
the GDL/cathode catalyst layer interface
i L = nFhm [

(C m ,in C m ,out )
]
C m ,in
ln(
)
C m ,out

hm = Sh

Di , j
Dh

C m,out
C m ,in

= exp

hm L
vm d

Dh = [

4d w
]
2( d + w)

53

Assumptions

The fuel cell system is assumed to be operating at a constant temperature

Fuel cell operating pressure is assumed to be constant
Velocity in the gas flow channel is assumed to be constant
The cell is in steady state operation
The current density is assumed to be constant on the electrode surface
Chamber gases are assumed to be of uniform composition
Ideal gas properties are observed by all gases
Incompressible and laminar flow in flow channel
Isotropic and homogeneous membrane and electrode structures
Negligible ohmic potential drop in solid components
The mass and energy transport is modeled from macro-perspective using volumeaveraged conservation equations

Any model is only as good as the assumptions it is based upon are valid Franco Barbir

54

27

(Analytical) Procedure
Eqn in question: i L = nFhm [

(C m ,in C m ,out )
]
C m ,in
ln(
)
C m ,out

Two cases: Square and Rectangular cross section

Range: L 10cm-30cm; w 1mm-5mm; d 1mm-5mm
for loop and data point for iL for every 10m of channel
depth/width, and for every 100mm of channel length
for i=100:500
d(i) = i/100000;

*Refer

for i=100:500
w(i) = i/100000;

for i=1000:3000
channel_length(i) = i/10000;

to Appendix for MATLAB code

55

Square cross section

56

28

Square cross section

10
9.5

85

80

8.5

75

8
70
7.5
65
7
60

6.5

55

50

5.5

45
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

5
0.35

Channel Length (L) / m

Maximum Limiting Current Density

(iLmax) / Acm-2

Channel Lenght/Channel Depth (L/d)

90

L/d
(iLmax)

57

Rectangular cross section: iL v. d

w=1mm

w=3mm

w=5mm

58

29

14

80

13

70

12

60

11
50
10
40
9
30
8
20

10

6
5

0
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

Channel Lenght/Channel Depth (L/d)

Maximum Limiting Current Density

(iLmax) / Acm-2

Rectangular cross section

iLmax (w=3mm)
iLmax (w=5mm)
L/d (w=3mm)
L/d (w=5mm)

Channel Length (L)/ m

59

Rectangular cross section: iL v. w

d=1.5mm

d=3mm

d=5mm

60

30

Rectangular cross section: iL v. L

d=1 mm

d=3mm

d=5mm

61

Analytical Approach - Discussion

Square cross section: There exist optimum channel depths (widths)

Rectangular cross section:

o channel length

iL

o channel width

iL

for lower depths (d< ~ 1-2.5mm depending upon L),

channel width

iL

for higher channel depths

o channel depth

iL

for a very narrow channel,

There exist optimum channel depths for channels wider than ~ 1.5mm

62

31

Closing Remarks
Mass transport is critical for enhanced fuel
cell performance solution could be
obtained through simple analytical or more
complicated computational fuel cell
dynamics simulation
All fuel cell model necessarily incorporates
assumptions - accuracy is strongly
dependent on validity of assumptions
63

Analytical Approach - Conclusion

Establish the relation between geometric parameters and corresponding

performance of the fuel cell (in terms of current density)

Analytical and numerical studies did not coincide, mainly due to the
assumptions with which the analytical study is carried out

Numerical trend for change in values for current density v. channel depth
was similar to the analytical one a big positive!

64

32

Acknowledgements
Erik Birgersson, Department of Chemical
and Bio-molecular Engineering, NUS
Rina Lum, IHPC
Agus Pulung Sasmito, NUS
Narissara Bussayajarn, SIMTech
Xing Xiuqing & Wu Yanling, IHPC
Gaurav Pundir, NUS
65

33

APPNDIX B: MATLAB CODE [SQ CS LCD v CD]

% Square cross section, limiting current density v channel depth for diff lengths
T=25;
% Fuel Cell operating temperature in degrees
C
air_velocity = 2;
% Air velocity (m/s)
temperature = T+273;
% Temperature in K
reference_temperature = 273;
% Reference Temperature
meu = 15.89e-6;
% Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
D_O2_N2_at_reference = 1.84e-5; % Diffusion coefficient
Sh=4.86;
% Sherwood no (uniform surface concentration)
X_O2 = 0.21;
% Mole fraction of
Oxygen
R=8.314;
% Ideal Gas Constant
P=101.325;
% Pressure (kPa)
n=4;
% Number of electrons transferred per mol of
reactant consumed
F=96487;
% Faraday's constant
% Define different channel lengths
channel_length1=0.1;
channel_length2=0.11;
channel_length3=0.12;
channel_length4=0.13;
channel_length5=0.14;
channel_length6=0.15;
channel_length7=0.16;
channel_length8=0.17;
channel_length9=0.18;
channel_length10=0.19;
channel_length11=0.20;
channel_length12=0.21;
channel_length13=0.22;
channel_length14=0.23;
channel_length15=0.24;
channel_length16=0.25;
channel_length17=0.26;
channel_length18=0.27;
channel_length19=0.28;
channel_length20=0.29;
channel_length21=0.30;
% Convective Mass Transfer Coefficient
D_o2_n2 = D_O2_N2_at_reference*(temperature/reference_temperature)^1.5;
% The concentration of oxygen at channel inlet
C_O2_in = 1000*X_O2*P/(R*temperature);
for i=100:500
d(i) = i/100000;
% Hydraullic diameter equal to 2LW/(L+W)
D_k(i) = d(i);
% Calculate Reynold's number
RE(i) = air_velocity*D_k(i)/meu;
% Binary diffusivity coefficient
h_m(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k(i);
% Channel outlet O2 concentration and limiting current density for different
channel lengths
C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length1/(d(i)*air_velocity));

limitng_current_density1(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out1(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out1(i))/10000;

C_O2_out2(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length2/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density2(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out2(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out2(i))/10000;
C_O2_out3(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length3/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density3(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out3(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out3(i))/10000;
C_O2_out4(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length4/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density4(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out4(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out4(i))/10000;
C_O2_out5(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length5/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density5(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out5(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out5(i))/10000;
C_O2_out6(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length6/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density6(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out6(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out6(i))/10000;
C_O2_out7(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length7/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density7(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out7(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out7(i))/10000;
C_O2_out8(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length8/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density8(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out8(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out8(i))/10000;
C_O2_out9(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length9/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density9(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out9(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out9(i))/10000;
C_O2_out10(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length10/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density10(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out10(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out10(i))/10000;
C_O2_out11(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length11/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density11(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out11(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out11(i))/10000;
C_O2_out12(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length12/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density12(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out12(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out12(i))/10000;
C_O2_out13(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length13/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density13(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out13(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out13(i))/10000;
C_O2_out14(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length14/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density14(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out14(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out14(i))/10000;
C_O2_out15(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length15/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density15(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out15(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out15(i))/10000;
C_O2_out16(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length16/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density16(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out16(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out16(i))/10000;

C_O2_out17(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length17/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density17(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out17(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out17(i))/10000;
C_O2_out18(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length18/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density18(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out18(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out18(i))/10000;
C_O2_out19(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length19/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density19(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out19(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out19(i))/10000;
C_O2_out20(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length20/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density20(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out20(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out20(i))/10000;
C_O2_out21(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length21/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density21(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out21(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out21(i))/10000;
end
% Plot limiting current density v channel depth
plot(d(100:500), limitng_current_density1(100:500), d(100:500),
limitng_current_density2(100:500), d(100:500), limitng_current_density3(100:500),
d(100:500), limitng_current_density4(100:500), d(100:500),
limitng_current_density5(100:500), d(100:500), limitng_current_density6(100:500),
d(100:500), limitng_current_density7(100:500), d(100:500),
limitng_current_density8(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density9(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density10(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density11(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density12(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density13(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density14(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density15(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density16(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density17(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density18(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density19(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density20(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density21(100:500), '--')

APPNDIX C: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS LCD v CD (W = ?mm)]

% Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel depth for diff lengths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel width (in mm) before running the
code
T=25;
degrees C
air_velocity = 2;
temperature = T+273;
reference_temperature = 273;

% Fuel Cell operating temperature in

% Air velocity (m/s)
% Temperature in K
% Reference Temperature

meu = 15.89e-6;
D_O2_N2_at_reference = 1.84e-5;
Sh=4.86;
(uniform surface concentration)
X_O2 = 0.21;
Oxygen
R=8.314;
P=101.325;
w=?e-3;
n=4;
F=96487;

% Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

% Diffusion coefficient
% Sherwood number
% Mole fraction of
% Ideal Gas Constant
% Pressure (kPa)
% Channel width (m)
% Number of electrons transferred per mol of
reactant consumed
% Faraday's constant

% Define different channel lengths

channel_length1=0.1;
channel_length2=0.11;
channel_length3=0.12;
channel_length4=0.13;
channel_length5=0.14;
channel_length6=0.15;
channel_length7=0.16;
channel_length8=0.17;
channel_length9=0.18;
channel_length10=0.19;
channel_length11=0.20;
channel_length12=0.21;
channel_length13=0.22;
channel_length14=0.23;
channel_length15=0.24;
channel_length16=0.25;
channel_length17=0.26;
channel_length18=0.27;
channel_length19=0.28;
channel_length20=0.29;
channel_length21=0.30;
% Convective Mass Transfer Coefficient
D_o2_n2 = D_O2_N2_at_reference*(temperature/reference_temperature)^1.5;
% The concentration of oxygen at channel inlet
C_O2_in = 1000*X_O2*P/(R*temperature);
for i=100:500
d(i) = i/100000;
% Hydraullic diameter equal to 2LW/(L+W)
D_k(i) = 2*w*d(i)/(w+d(i));
% Calculate Reynold's number
RE(i) = air_velocity*D_k(i)/meu;
% Binary diffusivity coefficient
h_m(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k(i);
% The concentration of oxygen at channel outlet
C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length1/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density1(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out1(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out1(i))/10000;
C_O2_out2(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length2/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density2(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out2(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out2(i))/10000;

C_O2_out3(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length3/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density3(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out3(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out3(i))/10000;
C_O2_out4(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length4/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density4(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out4(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out4(i))/10000;
C_O2_out5(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length5/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density5(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out5(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out5(i))/10000;
C_O2_out6(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length6/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density6(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out6(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out6(i))/10000;
C_O2_out7(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length7/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density7(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out7(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out7(i))/10000;
C_O2_out8(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length8/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density8(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out8(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out8(i))/10000;
C_O2_out9(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length9/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density9(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out9(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out9(i))/10000;
C_O2_out10(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length10/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density10(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out10(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out10(i))/10000;
C_O2_out11(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length11/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density11(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out11(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out11(i))/10000;
C_O2_out12(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length12/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density12(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out12(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out12(i))/10000;
C_O2_out13(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length13/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density13(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out13(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out13(i))/10000;
C_O2_out14(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length14/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density14(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out14(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out14(i))/10000;
C_O2_out15(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length15/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density15(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out15(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out15(i))/10000;
C_O2_out16(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length16/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density16(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out16(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out16(i))/10000;
C_O2_out17(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length17/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density17(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out17(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out17(i))/10000;
C_O2_out18(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length18/(d(i)*air_velocity));

limitng_current_density18(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out18(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out18(i))/10000;

C_O2_out19(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length19/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density19(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out19(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out19(i))/10000;
C_O2_out20(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length20/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density20(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out20(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out20(i))/10000;
C_O2_out21(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length21/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density21(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out21(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out21(i))/10000;
end
% Plot limiting current density v channel depth
plot(d(100:500), limitng_current_density1(100:500), d(100:500),
limitng_current_density2(100:500), d(100:500), limitng_current_density3(100:500),
d(100:500), limitng_current_density4(100:500), d(100:500),
limitng_current_density5(100:500), d(100:500), limitng_current_density6(100:500),
d(100:500), limitng_current_density7(100:500), d(100:500),
limitng_current_density8(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density9(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density10(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density11(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density12(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density13(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density14(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density15(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density16(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density17(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density18(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density19(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density20(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density21(100:500), '--')

APPNDIX D: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS LCD v CD (L = ?m)]

%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel depth for diff widths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel length (in m) before running the
code
T=25;
% Fuel Cell operating
temperature in degrees C
air_velocity = 2;
% Air velocity (m/s)
temperature = T+273;
% Temperature in K
reference_temperature = 273;
% Reference Temperature
meu = 15.89e-6;
% Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
D_O2_N2_at_reference = 1.84e-5; % Diffusion coefficient
Sh=4.86;
% Sherwood number
(uniform surface concentration)
X_O2 = 0.21;
% Mole fraction of
Oxygen
R=8.314;
% Ideal Gas Constant
P=101.325;
% Pressure (kPa)

n=4;
F=96487;
channel_length=?;

% Number of electrons transferred per mol of

reactant consumed
% Faraday's constant
% Channel Length (m)

% Define different channel widths

w1=1e-3;
w2=1.5e-3;
w3=2e-3;
w4=2.5e-3;
w5=3e-3;
w6=3.5e-3;
w7=4e-3;
w8=4.5e-3;
w9=5e-3
% Convective Mass Transfer Coefficient
D_o2_n2 = D_O2_N2_at_reference*(temperature/reference_temperature)^1.5;
% The concentration of oxygen at channel inlet
C_O2_in = 1000*X_O2*P/(R*temperature);
for i=100:500
d(i) = i/100000;
% Hydraullic diameter equal to 2LW/(L+W)
D_k1(i) = 2*w1*d(i)/(w1+d(i));
% Calculate Reynold's number
RE1(i) = air_velocity*D_k1(i)/meu;
% Binary diffusivity coefficient
h_m1(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k1(i);
% The concentration of oxygen at channel outlet
C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m1(i)*channel_length/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density1(i) = n*F*h_m1(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out1(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out1(i))/10000;
D_k2(i) = 2*w2*d(i)/(w2+d(i));
RE2(i) = air_velocity*D_k2(i)/meu;
h_m2(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k2(i);
C_O2_out2(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m2(i)*channel_length/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density2(i) = n*F*h_m2(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out2(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out2(i))/10000;
D_k3(i) = 2*w3*d(i)/(w3+d(i));
RE3(i) = air_velocity*D_k3(i)/meu;
h_m3(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k3(i);
C_O2_out3(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m3(i)*channel_length/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density3(i) = n*F*h_m3(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out3(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out3(i))/10000;
D_k4(i) = 2*w4*d(i)/(w4+d(i));
RE4(i) = air_velocity*D_k4(i)/meu;
h_m4(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k4(i);
C_O2_out4(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m4(i)*channel_length/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density4(i) = n*F*h_m4(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out4(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out4(i))/10000;
D_k5(i) = 2*w5*d(i)/(w5+d(i));
RE5(i) = air_velocity*D_k5(i)/meu;

h_m5(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k5(i);
C_O2_out5(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m5(i)*channel_length/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density5(i) = n*F*h_m5(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out5(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out5(i))/10000;
D_k6(i) = 2*w6*d(i)/(w6+d(i));
RE6(i) = air_velocity*D_k6(i)/meu;
h_m6(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k6(i);
C_O2_out6(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m6(i)*channel_length/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density6(i) = n*F*h_m6(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out6(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out6(i))/10000;
D_k7(i) = 2*w7*d(i)/(w7+d(i));
RE7(i) = air_velocity*D_k7(i)/meu;
h_m7(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k7(i);
C_O2_out7(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m7(i)*channel_length/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density7(i) = n*F*h_m7(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out7(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out7(i))/10000;
D_k8(i) = 2*w8*d(i)/(w8+d(i));
RE8(i) = air_velocity*D_k8(i)/meu;
h_m8(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k8(i);
C_O2_out8(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m8(i)*channel_length/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density8(i) = n*F*h_m8(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out8(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out8(i))/10000;
D_k9(i) = 2*w9*d(i)/(w9+d(i));
RE9(i) = air_velocity*D_k9(i)/meu;
h_m9(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k9(i);
C_O2_out9(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m9(i)*channel_length/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density9(i) = n*F*h_m9(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out9(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out9(i))/10000;
end
% Plot limiting current density v channel depth
plot(d(100:500), limitng_current_density1(100:500), d(100:500),
limitng_current_density2(100:500), d(100:500), limitng_current_density3(100:500),
d(100:500), limitng_current_density4(100:500), d(100:500),
limitng_current_density5(100:500), d(100:500), limitng_current_density6(100:500),
d(100:500), limitng_current_density7(100:500), d(100:500),
limitng_current_density8(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density9(100:500), '--')

APPNDIX E: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS LCD v CW (D = ?mm)]

%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel width for diff lengths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel depth (in mm) before running the
code
T=25;
% Fuel Cell operating temperature in degrees
C
air_velocity = 2;
% Air velocity (m/s)
temperature = T+273;
% Temperature in K
reference_temperature = 273;
% Reference Temperature
meu = 15.89e-6;
% Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
D_O2_N2_at_reference = 1.84e-5; % Diffusion coefficient
Sh=4.86;
% Sherwood number
(uniform surface concentration)
X_O2 = 0.21;
% Mole fraction of
Oxygen
R=8.314;
% Ideal Gas Constant
P=101.325;
% Pressure (kPa)
d=?e-3;
% Channel depth (m)
n=4;
% Number of electrons transferred per mol of
reactant consumed
F=96487;
% Faraday's constant
% Define different channel lengths
channel_length1=0.1;
channel_length2=0.11;
channel_length3=0.12;
channel_length4=0.13;

channel_length5=0.14;
channel_length6=0.15;
channel_length7=0.16;
channel_length8=0.17;
channel_length9=0.18;
channel_length10=0.19;
channel_length11=0.20;
channel_length12=0.21;
channel_length13=0.22;
channel_length14=0.23;
channel_length15=0.24;
channel_length16=0.25;
channel_length17=0.26;
channel_length18=0.27;
channel_length19=0.28;
channel_length20=0.29;
channel_length21=0.30;
% Convective Mass Transfer Coefficient
D_o2_n2 = D_O2_N2_at_reference*(temperature/reference_temperature)^1.5;
% The concentration of oxygen at channel inlet
C_O2_in = 1000*X_O2*P/(R*temperature);
for i=100:500
w(i) = i/100000;
% Hydraullic diameter equal to 2LW/(L+W)
D_k(i) = 2*w(i)*d/(w(i)+d);
% Calculate Reynold's number
RE(i) = air_velocity*D_k(i)/meu;
% Binary diffusivity coefficient
h_m(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k(i);
% The concentration of oxygen at channel outlet
C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length1/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density1(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out1(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out1(i))/10000;
C_O2_out2(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length2/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density2(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out2(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out2(i))/10000;
C_O2_out3(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length3/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density3(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out3(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out3(i))/10000;
C_O2_out4(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length4/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density4(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out4(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out4(i))/10000;
C_O2_out5(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length5/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density5(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out5(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out5(i))/10000;
C_O2_out6(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length6/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density6(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out6(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out6(i))/10000;
C_O2_out7(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length7/(d*air_velocity));

limitng_current_density7(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out7(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out7(i))/10000;

C_O2_out8(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length8/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density8(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out8(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out8(i))/10000;
C_O2_out9(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length9/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density9(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out9(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out9(i))/10000;
C_O2_out10(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length10/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density10(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out10(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out10(i))/10000;
C_O2_out11(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length11/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density11(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out11(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out11(i))/10000;
C_O2_out12(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length12/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density12(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out12(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out12(i))/10000;
C_O2_out13(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length13/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density13(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out13(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out13(i))/10000;
C_O2_out14(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length14/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density14(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out14(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out14(i))/10000;
C_O2_out15(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length15/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density15(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out15(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out15(i))/10000;
C_O2_out16(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length16/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density16(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out16(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out16(i))/10000;
C_O2_out17(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length17/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density17(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out17(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out17(i))/10000;
C_O2_out18(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length18/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density18(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out18(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out18(i))/10000;
C_O2_out19(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length19/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density19(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out19(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out19(i))/10000;
C_O2_out20(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length20/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density20(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out20(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out20(i))/10000;
C_O2_out21(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length21/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density21(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out21(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out21(i))/10000;
end
% Plot limiting current density v channel width

plot(w(100:500), limitng_current_density1(100:500), w(100:500),

limitng_current_density2(100:500), w(100:500), limitng_current_density3(100:500),
w(100:500), limitng_current_density4(100:500), w(100:500),
limitng_current_density5(100:500), w(100:500), limitng_current_density6(100:500),
w(100:500), limitng_current_density7(100:500), w(100:500),
limitng_current_density8(100:500), ':', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density9(100:500), ':', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density10(100:500), ':', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density11(100:500), ':', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density12(100:500), ':', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density13(100:500), ':', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density14(100:500), ':', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density15(100:500), '--', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density16(100:500), '--', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density17(100:500), '--', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density18(100:500), '--', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density19(100:500), '--', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density20(100:500), '--', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density21(100:500), '--')

APPNDIX F: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS LCD v CW (L = ?m)]

%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel width for diff depths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel length (in m) before running the
code
T=25;
C
air_velocity = 2;
temperature = T+273;
reference_temperature = 273;
meu = 15.89e-6;
D_O2_N2_at_reference = 1.84e-5;
Sh=4.86;
(uniform surface concentration)
X_O2 = 0.21;
Oxygen
R=8.314;
P=101.325;
n=4;
F=96487;
channel_length=?;

% Fuel Cell operating temperature in degrees

% Air velocity (m/s)
% Temperature in K
% Reference Temperature
% Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
% Diffusion coefficient
% Sherwood number
% Mole fraction of
% Ideal Gas Constant
% Pressure (kPa)
% Number of electrons transferred per mol of
reactant consumed
% Faraday's constant
% Channel Length (m)

% Define different channel depths

d1=1e-3;
d2=1.5e-3;
d3=2e-3;
d4=2.5e-3;
d5=3e-3;
d6=3.5e-3;
d7=4e-3;
d8=4.5e-3;
d9=5e-3
% Convective Mass Transfer Coefficient
D_o2_n2 = D_O2_N2_at_reference*(temperature/reference_temperature)^1.5;

% The concentration of oxygen at channel inlet

C_O2_in = 1000*X_O2*P/(R*temperature);
for i=100:500
w(i) = i/100000;
% Hydraullic diameter equal to 2LW/(L+W)
D_k1(i) = 2*w(i)*d1/(w(i)+d1);
% Calculate Reynold's number
RE1(i) = air_velocity*D_k1(i)/meu;
% Binary diffusivity coefficient
h_m1(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k1(i);
% The concentration of oxygen at channel outlet
C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m1(i)*channel_length/(d1*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density1(i) = n*F*h_m1(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out1(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out1(i))/10000;
D_k2(i) = 2*w(i)*d2/(w(i)+d2);
RE2(i) = air_velocity*D_k2(i)/meu;
h_m2(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k2(i);
C_O2_out2(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m2(i)*channel_length/(d2*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density2(i) = n*F*h_m2(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out2(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out2(i))/10000;
D_k3(i) = 2*w(i)*d3/(w(i)+d3);
RE1(i) = air_velocity*D_k3(i)/meu;
h_m3(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k3(i);
C_O2_out3(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m3(i)*channel_length/(d3*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density3(i) = n*F*h_m3(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out3(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out3(i))/10000;
D_k4(i) = 2*w(i)*d4/(w(i)+d4);
RE4(i) = air_velocity*D_k4(i)/meu;
h_m4(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k4(i);
C_O2_out4(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m4(i)*channel_length/(d4*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density4(i) = n*F*h_m4(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out4(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out4(i))/10000;
D_k5(i) = 2*w(i)*d5/(w(i)+d5);
RE5(i) = air_velocity*D_k5(i)/meu;
h_m5(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k5(i);
C_O2_out5(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m5(i)*channel_length/(d5*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density5(i) = n*F*h_m5(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out5(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out5(i))/10000;
D_k6(i) = 2*w(i)*d6/(w(i)+d6);
RE6(i) = air_velocity*D_k6(i)/meu;
h_m6(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k6(i);
C_O2_out6(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m6(i)*channel_length/(d6*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density6(i) = n*F*h_m6(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out6(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out6(i))/10000;
D_k7(i) = 2*w(i)*d7/(w(i)+d7);
RE7(i) = air_velocity*D_k7(i)/meu;
h_m7(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k7(i);
C_O2_out7(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m7(i)*channel_length/(d7*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density7(i) = n*F*h_m7(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out7(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out7(i))/10000;

D_k8(i) = 2*w(i)*d8/(w(i)+d8);
RE8(i) = air_velocity*D_k8(i)/meu;
h_m8(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k8(i);
C_O2_out8(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m8(i)*channel_length/(d8*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density8(i) = n*F*h_m8(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out8(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out8(i))/10000;
D_k9(i) = 2*w(i)*d9/(w(i)+d9);
RE9(i) = air_velocity*D_k9(i)/meu;
h_m9(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k9(i);
C_O2_out9(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m9(i)*channel_length/(d9*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density9(i) = n*F*h_m9(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out9(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out9(i))/10000;
end
% Plot limiting current density v channel width
plot(w(100:500), limitng_current_density1(100:500), w(100:500),
limitng_current_density2(100:500), w(100:500), limitng_current_density3(100:500),
w(100:500), limitng_current_density4(100:500), w(100:500),
limitng_current_density5(100:500), w(100:500), limitng_current_density6(100:500),
w(100:500), limitng_current_density7(100:500), w(100:500),
limitng_current_density8(100:500), '--', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density9(100:500), '--')

APPNDIX G: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS LCD v CL (d = ?m)]

%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel length for diff widths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel depth (in mm) before running the
code

T=25;
% Fuel Cell operating temperature in
degrees C
air_velocity = 2;
% Air velocity (m/s)
temperature = T+273;
% Temperature in K
reference_temperature = 273;
% Reference Temperature
meu = 15.89e-6;
% Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
D_O2_N2_at_reference = 1.84e-5; % Diffusion coefficient
Sh=4.86;
% Sherwood number
(uniform surface concentration)
X_O2 = 0.21;
% Mole fraction of
Oxygen
R=8.314;
% Ideal Gas Constant
P=101.325;
% Pressure (kPa)
d=?e-3;
% Channel width (m)
n=4;
% Number of electrons transferred per mol of
reactant consumed
F=96487;
% Faraday's constant
% Define different channel width
w1=1e-3;
w2=1.5e-3;
w3=2e-3;
w4=2.5e-3;
w5=3e-3;
w6=3.5e-3;
w7=4e-3;
w8=4.5e-3;
w9=5e-3;
% Convective Mass Transfer Coefficient
D_o2_n2 = D_O2_N2_at_reference*(temperature/reference_temperature)^1.5;
% The concentration of oxygen at channel inlet
C_O2_in = 1000*X_O2*P/(R*temperature);
for i=1000:3000
channel_length(i) = i/10000;
% Hydraullic diameter equal to 2LW/(L+W)

D_k1 = 2*w1*d/(w1+d);
% Calculate Reynold's number
RE1 = air_velocity*D_k1/meu;
% Binary diffusivity coefficient
h_m1 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k1;
% The concentration of oxygen at channel outlet
C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m1*channel_length(i)/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density1(i) = n*F*h_m1*(C_O2_in C_O2_out1(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out1(i))/10000;
D_k2 = 2*w2*d/(w2+d);
RE2 = air_velocity*D_k2/meu;
h_m2 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k2;
C_O2_out2(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m2*channel_length(i)/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density2(i) = n*F*h_m2*(C_O2_in C_O2_out2(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out2(i))/10000;
D_k3 = 2*w3*d/(w3+d);
RE3 = air_velocity*D_k3/meu;
h_m3 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k3;
C_O2_out3(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m3*channel_length(i)/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density3(i) = n*F*h_m3*(C_O2_in C_O2_out3(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out3(i))/10000;
D_k4 = 2*w4*d/(w4+d);
RE4 = air_velocity*D_k4/meu;
h_m4 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k4;
C_O2_out4(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m4*channel_length(i)/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density4(i) = n*F*h_m4*(C_O2_in C_O2_out4(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out4(i))/10000;
D_k5 = 2*w5*d/(w5+d);
RE5 = air_velocity*D_k5/meu;
h_m5 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k5;
C_O2_out5(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m5*channel_length(i)/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density5(i) = n*F*h_m5*(C_O2_in C_O2_out5(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out5(i))/10000;
D_k6 = 2*w6*d/(w6+d);
RE6 = air_velocity*D_k6/meu;
h_m6 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k6;
C_O2_out6(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m6*channel_length(i)/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density6(i) = n*F*h_m6*(C_O2_in C_O2_out6(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out6(i))/10000;
D_k7 = 2*w7*d/(w7+d);
RE7 = air_velocity*D_k7/meu;
h_m7 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k7;
C_O2_out7(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m7*channel_length(i)/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density7(i) = n*F*h_m7*(C_O2_in C_O2_out7(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out7(i))/10000;
D_k8 = 2*w8*d/(w8+d);
RE8 = air_velocity*D_k8/meu;
h_m8 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k8;
C_O2_out8(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m8*channel_length(i)/(d*air_velocity));

limitng_current_density8(i) = n*F*h_m8*(C_O2_in C_O2_out8(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out8(i))/10000;

D_k9 = 2*w9*d/(w9+d);
RE9 = air_velocity*D_k9/meu;
h_m9 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k9;
C_O2_out9(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m9*channel_length(i)/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density9(i) = n*F*h_m9*(C_O2_in C_O2_out9(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out9(i))/10000;
end
% Plot limiting current density v channel length
plot(channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density1(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density2(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density3(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density4(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density5(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density6(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density7(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density8(1000:3000), ':',
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density9(1000:3000), ':')

APPNDIX H: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS LCD v CL (w = ?m)]

%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel length for diff depths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel width (in mm) before running the
code

T=25;
% Fuel Cell operating temperature in
degrees C
air_velocity = 2;
% Air velocity (m/s)
temperature = T+273;
% Temperature in K
reference_temperature = 273;
% Reference Temperature
meu = 15.89e-6;
% Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
D_O2_N2_at_reference = 1.84e-5; % Diffusion coefficient
Sh=4.86;
% Sherwood number
(uniform surface concentration)
X_O2 = 0.21;
% Mole fraction of
Oxygen
R=8.314;
% Ideal Gas Constant
P=101.325;
% Pressure (kPa)
w=?e-3;
% Channel width (m)
n=4;
% Number of electrons transferred per mol of reactant
consumed
F=96487;
% Faraday's constant
% Define different channel depth
d1=1e-3;
d2=1.5e-3;
d3=2e-3;
d4=2.5e-3;
d5=3e-3;
d6=3.5e-3;
d7=4e-3;
d8=4.5e-3;
d9=5e-3;
% Convective Mass Transfer Coefficient
D_o2_n2 = D_O2_N2_at_reference*(temperature/reference_temperature)^1.5;
% The concentration of oxygen at channel inlet
C_O2_in = 1000*X_O2*P/(R*temperature);
for i=1000:3000
channel_length(i) = i/10000;
% Hydraullic diameter equal to 2LW/(L+W)
D_k1 = 2*w*d1/(w+d1);
% Calculate Reynold's number
RE1 = air_velocity*D_k1/meu;
% Binary diffusivity coefficient
h_m1 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k1;

% The concentration of oxygen at channel outlet

C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m1*channel_length(i)/(d1*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density1(i) = n*F*h_m1*(C_O2_in C_O2_out1(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out1(i))/10000;
D_k2 = 2*w*d2/(w+d2);
RE2 = air_velocity*D_k2/meu;
h_m2 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k2;
C_O2_out2(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m2*channel_length(i)/(d2*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density2(i) = n*F*h_m2*(C_O2_in C_O2_out2(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out2(i))/10000;
D_k3 = 2*w*d3/(w+d3);
RE3 = air_velocity*D_k3/meu;
h_m3 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k3;
C_O2_out3(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m3*channel_length(i)/(d3*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density3(i) = n*F*h_m3*(C_O2_in C_O2_out3(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out3(i))/10000;
D_k4 = 2*w*d4/(w+d4);
RE4 = air_velocity*D_k4/meu;
h_m4 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k4;
C_O2_out4(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m4*channel_length(i)/(d4*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density4(i) = n*F*h_m4*(C_O2_in C_O2_out4(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out4(i))/10000;
D_k5 = 2*w*d5/(w+d5);
RE5 = air_velocity*D_k5/meu;
h_m5 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k5;
C_O2_out5(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m5*channel_length(i)/(d5*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density5(i) = n*F*h_m5*(C_O2_in C_O2_out5(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out5(i))/10000;
D_k6 = 2*w*d6/(w+d6);
RE6 = air_velocity*D_k6/meu;
h_m6 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k6;
C_O2_out6(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m6*channel_length(i)/(d6*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density6(i) = n*F*h_m6*(C_O2_in C_O2_out6(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out6(i))/10000;
D_k7 = 2*w*d7/(w+d7);
RE7 = air_velocity*D_k7/meu;
h_m7 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k7;
C_O2_out7(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m7*channel_length(i)/(d7*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density7(i) = n*F*h_m7*(C_O2_in C_O2_out7(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out7(i))/10000;
D_k8 = 2*w*d8/(w+d8);
RE8 = air_velocity*D_k8/meu;
h_m8 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k8;
C_O2_out8(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m8*channel_length(i)/(d8*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density8(i) = n*F*h_m8*(C_O2_in C_O2_out8(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out8(i))/10000;
D_k9 = 2*w*d9/(w+d9);
RE9 = air_velocity*D_k9/meu;
h_m9 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k9;
C_O2_out9(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m9*channel_length(i)/(d9*air_velocity));

limitng_current_density9(i) = n*F*h_m9*(C_O2_in C_O2_out9(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out9(i))/10000;

end
% Plot limiting current density v channel length
plot(channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density1(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density2(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density3(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density4(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density5(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density6(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density7(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density8(1000:3000), ':',
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density9(1000:3000), ':')

Heat Transfer in Fluidized

Beds-An Overview

1/13/2011

Special Topic in ME6204 Convective Heat

Transfer:
Heat Transfer in Fluidized Beds-An Overview

Professor A. S. Mujumdar
ME Department, NUS, 2011

Contents
Introduction
Particle Characterization
Flow past spheres, non-spheres
Heat transfer from spheres under large Re range
Fluid Beds Concept and modifications
Geldarts Classification
Heat Transfer
Bed to Immersed Surface Heat Transfer Correlations
Sample Calculations
FB Drying Plug flow vs Well-mixed
Fluid be combustion (Simple Model)
Example of Fluid Bed Calculation
Closing Remarks

1/11/2011

Introduction
fluidized bed describes a finely granulated layer of solid material (referred to as the
mass) that is loosened by fluid flowing through to such an extent that the particles
of solid material are free to move to a certain degree
It is called fluidized because the solid material takes on properties similar to those
of a fluid (liquid)
Fluidized beds are used widely in engineering for applications such as combustion,
reactors, drying, gasification of coal/biomass, thermal treatments of metal and
powder coating, granulation, heat transfer etc
Gas-solid fluidized systems are characterized by temperature uniformity and high
heat transfer coefficients, due to the intense mixture of the solid material by the
presence of gas bubbles
Liquid- solid fluidized beds have also been used for wide applications
Heat transfer in fluid beds can be from Fluid Particle, Particle Fluid, Wall Fluid
and to immersed surfaces, if any- care needed in calculation method used!

1/11/2011

Particle Characterization
Particle Size
6Vp 13
dv =

Volume Diameter (dV)

Surface Diameter (dS)
Surface-Volume Diameter (dSV)
Sieve Diameter

S p 1 2
d S =

6V p d 3v
dSv =
=
S p d 2s

18U t
d st =
p s g

Stokes Diameter (dst)

Free Falling Diameter
Drag Diameter
Projected Area Diameter
Feret Diameter
Martin Diameter .etc

Commonly used for applications in packed and fluid bed

VP Volume of the particle; SP Surface area of the particle;
Ut terminal settling velocity of the particle

Particle Characterization

contd

Shape

Equivalent particle diameter, dp = dsv = 6/as

Sphere

dp = diameter of sphere

Cylinder with length (ly) equal to

diameter (dy)

dp = dy , the diameter of cylinder

Cylinder dy ly

6dy
dp =

4 + 2 dy ly

Ring with outside diameter of do, and

inside diameter of di
Mixed sizes

Irregular shapes with = 0.5 to 0.7

dp = 1.5do di

dp =

1
i xi dpi

dp = dv ; dv dA

Table: Suggested equivalent particle diameters for catalysts in catalytic reactor application

1/11/2011

Particle Characterization

contd

Particle Shape
Sphericity ()
Surface area of volume equivalent sphere
=
Surface area of particle

Circularity ()

Circumference of a circle having same

cross sectional area as the particle
=
Actual Perim eter of the cross section

Operational Sphericity and Circularity

Heywood Shape Factor
Particle Density

Vp
k= 3
da

d a =4A p

da Projected area diameter; AP Projected area; Vp Volume of particle

Methods for Direct Characterization

Sieve Analysis
In U.S. Taylor sieve size and U.S. Sieve size
In Europe British standard and German DIN sieve size
Mesh Number number of parallel wires per inch
Imaging Techniques: Direct measurements using enlarged photographic or electronic images
of microscope
Optical microscope (1m to 150 m)
Scanning electron microscope (SEM, 5m to 0.01 m)
Transmission electron microscope (TEM , 5m to 0.01 m)
Gravity and Centrifugal Sedimentation
Characterization by Elutriation
Cascade Impaction Technique
Resistivity and Optical Zone Sensing Techniques
Coulter Counter

1/11/2011

Particle size ranges for various methods

Particle sizing method

Applicable particle
size (mm)

Measured Dimension

Sieving
Dry
Wet

>10
2 500

Sieve diameter

Microscopic examination
Optical
Electronic

1.0 100
0.01 500

Length, Projected Area

Statistical diameter

Zone Sensing
Resistivity
Optical

0.6 1200
1.0 800

Volume

Elutriation
Laminar Flow
Cyclone

3 75
8 50

Stokes diameter

Gravity Sedimentation
Pipette and hydrometer
Photoextinction
X-ray

1 100
0.5 100
0.1 130

Stokes diameter

Mechanical Properties of Particles

Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI)
Higher the HGI higher the grindability of material

Attrition Index
Important in fluidization, can affect entrainment and elutriation

Solids impaction on plate

Abrasiveness Index
factor used to determine the effective rate of wear of the
aforementioned consumables
Erosiveness Index

1/11/2011

Dimensionless numbers
Dimensionless numbers of interest
Significance

For FB Heat Transfer

Flow passed over a single particle

Drag force resisting very slow steady relative motion between a
rigid particle (sphere) of diameter dP and a fluid of infinite extent of
viscosity is composed of two components

Total drag force resisting motion

Where ur is the relative velocity

This is known as the stokes law and is valid mainly for
This also hold true up to

with some error

ReP = Ur dP f /

1/11/2011

Flow passed over a single particle

Particle Drag Coefficient
Ratio of force on the particle and the fluid dynamic
pressure caused by the fluid times the projected
area of the particle
F
C D =

12 f U 2r A P

Ur

AP

1
F = CD f Ur2 AP
2

Drag Coefficient CD is a function of particles Reynolds number

Three different regimes based on the magnitude of ReP
For the Stokes Regime
0.3 < (Re)P
The Intermediate Regime
Dallavalle (1948)

CD = ReP

0.3 < (Re)P < 500

Schiller & Naumann 1933

The Newtons Law Regime

CD = 0.44

(Re)P > 500

Drag coefficient for different shapes

Drag Coefficient against Reynolds Number (Re)

1/11/2011

Particle falling under gravity through a fluid

The general force acting on particle are gravity, buoyancy, drag
Gravity

Buoyancy -

Drag =

Acceleration Flow

For spherical particle (for acceleration = 0)

Fb
Now

So equation becomes

Ut is called as terminal settling velocity of the particle

On solving for CD

Particle falling under gravity through a fluid

For Stokes law Regime

Hence
In stokes law regime the terminal settling velocity is proportional to the squere of the
particle diameter
In the Newtons Law Regime

CD = 0.44

In the Newtons law regime the terminal settling velocity is proportional to the square
root of particle diameter and independent of viscocity

1/11/2011

Multiple particle system

The motion of each particle is affected by the presence of others
Simple analysis for the fluid particle interaction is not valid but can be adopted to
model the multiple particle system
For suspension of particles the stokes law is assumed to apply but an effective
suspension viscosity and effective average suspension density is assumed
Effective suspension viscosity e = / f()
Average suspension density = ave = f + (1-) P
where is the voidage or volume fraction occupied by fluid
For suspension of particles the drag coefficient in stokes law regime becomes
where
And Ur is the relative velocity of particle

Multiple particle system

Under terminal velocity condition for a particle falling under gravity in a suspension the
force balance

Substituting e and ave

Urel,t is known as the particle settling velocity in presence of other particles or Hindered
Settling Velocity

1/11/2011

Multiple particle system

f() was shown theoretically by Einstein to be

For uniform sphere forming a suspension of solid column fraction less than 0.1
Or (1-) < 0.1,
Richardson and Zaki have given the values of f()
for stokes regime to be

For Newtons Regime

Characterization of Multiple Particle System

Different definitions of average particle diameter
Arithmetic Mean
Surface Mean
Volume Mean
Volume Surface Mean
Weight Mean
Length Mean

2

=

3 3

=

3

2

= =

4

3

Where =
3

10

1/11/2011

Fluid Beds - Basics

Fluidized beds: Particle

suspended in an upward gas
stream

11

1/11/2011

Pressure drop in fixed beds

Pressure drop through packed bed / fixed bed of uniform
sized solids is correlated by Ergun equation

It has two factors, viscous force and the kinetic energy force
At low Reynolds number only viscous losses predominate

At high Reynolds number only kinetic energy losses need to be considered

Pressure drop & Minimum Fluidization Velocity

At the onset of fluidization, the gravity force on the particles in the bed must be
balanced by the drag, buoyancy, and pressure forces.

12

1/11/2011

Pressure drop & Minimum Fluidization Velocity

The umf, the superficial velocity at minimum fluidizing condition is found by using
expression for p/L

In a simplified form

For small particles (ReP < 20)

Or

Pressure drop & Minimum Fluidization Velocity

for larger particles the simplified form is
or

Wen and Yu have found for variety of systems

and
for small particles the simplified form is

For larger particles (ReP > 20)

For whole range of Reynolds number

13

1/11/2011

Geldarts Classification

A: Aeratable (Umb > Umf) Material has significant deaeration time (FCC Catalyst)
B: Bubbles Above (Umb = Umf) 500 micron sand
C: Cohesive (Flour, Fly Ash)
D: Spoutable (wheat, 2000 micron polyethylene pellets)

Geldarts Classification

contd

Group

Characteristics and Properties

Good fluidization quality, aeratable, easily fluidized, smooth at low

velocity and bubbling at higher velocity and slug at high velocity, bed
expands, Good solids mixing
Small mean particle size, low density, typically 30< dp <100m and
<1400 kgm-3.

Good fluidization quality, sand-like particles, vigorous bubbling, slug

at high velocity, small bed expansion, good solids mixing in bubbling
Typically 40m<dp<500m, 1400kgm-3<<4000kgm-3

Bad fluidization quality, cohesive due to strong interparticle force,

severe slugging and agglomeration, may generates electrostatic
charges, poor solids mixing.
Fine and ultra-fine particles
Poor fluidization quality, spoutable, difficult to fluidize in deep bed
depth, large bubbles, severe channeling, relatively poor solids mixing
Large and/or dense particles, typically dp >500m, >1400kgm-3

14

1/11/2011

Geldarts Classification

contd

Geldarts Classification

contd

15

1/11/2011

Fluidization Regimes

Velocity Increasing

Fluidization Regimes: Description

Velocity range

Regime

Fluidization Features and Appearance

0 U Umf

Fixed Bed

Particles are quiescent; gas flows through interstices

Umf U Umb

Particulate
Regime

Bed expands smoothly and homogeneously with small-scale particle

motion; bed surface is well defined

Umb U Ums

Bubbling Regime

Gas bubbles form above distributor, coalesce and grow; gas bubbles
promote solids mixing during rise to surface and breakthrough

Ums U UC

Slug flow Regime

Bubble size approaches bed cross section; bed surface rises and falls
with regular frequency with corresponding pressure fluctuation

UC U Uk

Transition to
turbulent
Fluidization

Pressure fluctuation decrease gradually until turbulent fluidization

regime is reached

Uk U Utr

Turbulent Regime

Small gas voids and particle clusters and streamers dart to and fro;
bed surface is diffused and difficult to distinguish

U Utr

Fast Fluidization

Particles are transported out of the bed and need to be replaced and
recycled; normally has a dense phase region at bottom coexisting
with a dilute phase region on top; no bed surface

U Utr

Pneumatic
Conveying

Usually a once-through operation; all particles fed are transported

out in dilute phase with concentration varying along the column
height; no bed surface

16

1/11/2011

Fluidization Regimes: Description

Transition between regimes
Equations have been published for transition lines
between various regimes. This map can be used to
identify the type of flow regime that will exist for a
given particle under specific flow conditions.
Smooth or particulate fluidization

Bubbling or aggregative fluidization

Slugging criteria

Design of distributor in fluidized beds

Uniform gas sparging is govern by the effective design of gas distribution
system and is very important to have uniform heat transfer
Parameter affecting performance of Gas distribution system comprise of;

Gas Sparger geometry

Gas chamber geometry

Pressure drop across the gas distribution system

A good distributor should;

Obtain a spatially uniform gas distribution, without stagnant zones

Prevent solids loss by leakage

Minimize solid erosion

Avoid choking of the distributor

Have a definite and non-changing (with time) pressure drop for the gas

17

1/11/2011

Design of distributor in fluidized beds

Pressure Drop across the Distributor
The pressure drop across the distributor Pd is used as the criterion for
design, and Pd, values varying from 0.01 to 1.0 times the pressure drop
across the bed Pb have been suggested.
Siegel (1986):
Pd/Pb = 0.14 - 0.22 [Galileo number (1 - 10,000)]
Kunii & Levenspiel (1991):
Pd/Pb = 0.1 0.3

Siegel, M. H., Merchuk, J.C., Schugerl, K., 1986. Air-Lift Reactor Analysis: Interrelationships between Riser,
Downcomer and Gas-Liquid Separator Behavior, including Gas Recirculation Effects. AIChE Journal 32(10),
1585-1595

Kunni, D., Levenspiel, O., 1991. Fluidization Engineering, 2nd Ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston.

Design of distributor in fluidized beds

Nozzle Position (Litz, 1972)
Side entry:

H = 0.2D + 0.5D noz

H = 18D noz

, when

D noz > D 100

Dnoz < D 100

, when

Bottom entry:

H = 3(D D noz )

H = 100D noz
Where,

, when

, when

D noz > D 36

D noz < D 36

D - diameter of gas distribution chamber

Dnoz - diameter of the nozzle
H - distance between the nozzle centerline and the
distributor plate

Litz, W. J., 1972. Design of gas distributors. Chemical Engineering 13, 162-166.

18

1/11/2011

Different types of fluid beds / modifications

Example
A packed bed is composed of cubes 0.02 m on a side. The bulk density
of the packed bed, with air, is 980 kg/m3. The density of the solid cubes is
1500 kg/m3.
Calculate the void fraction () of the bed.
Calculate the effective diameter (Dp) where Dp is the diameter of a sphere
having the equivalent volume.
Determine the sphericity of the cubes.
Estimate the minimum fluidization velocity using water at 38 C and a tower
diameter of 0.15 m.
Void Fraction
We know : Vbed = V fluid + Vsolids

and Wbed = W fluid + Wsolids

bedVbed = fluidV fluid + solidsVsolids

solidsVsolids >> fluid V fluid

19

1/11/2011

Example

contd..

bedVbed solidsVsolids

Effective diameter
3

a =

kg
980 3
m
= 1
kg
1500 3
m

bed
solids

and

Vbed

Vbed
= 0.35

3
p

(0.02)3 = D 3p
6

bedVbed
solids

D p = 0.025m

Sphericity
6
(6 )1 3 a = 1 3 = 0.81
s =

6
6
a

Mimimum Fluidization Velocity

f )g =

2
150(1 mf )

f umf
+ 1.75
3
s D p mf
s D p umf f

kg
kg
m
kg

994
1500
9.80 2 = 4959 2 2
m3
m3
s
m s

Example

contd..
3
s mf
=

1
mf = 0.445
14

2
1.75 f umf
3
s D p mf

kg
2
umf
kg
2
m3
= 9.748 105 2 2 umf
0.81 0.025 (0.445)3
m s
1.75 994

150 (1 mf ) umf
2

3
s D p mf

= 1597

kg
u mf
150 (1 0.445) (0.693 cp ) 0.001
m
s

=
2
2
3
(0.81) (0.025 m ) (0.445)

kg
umf
m2s 2

0 = 9.748 105

umf = 0.071

kg
kg
kg
2
u mf
+ 1597 2 2 u mf 4959 2 2
m s
m s
m2 s 2

m
s

20

1/11/2011

Heat Transfer in fixed and Fluidized beds

Main advantage of fluidized beds is the extremely large area of solid surface
exposed to the fluidizing media
High solid surface area greatly facilitates solid-to-gas heat transfer
Because of the solids mixing generated within the bulk of a bubbling gas
fluidized bed, temperature gradients are reduced to negligible proportions
High rates of heat transfer are obtainable between the fluidizing solids and
the immersed transfer surface
Particle-to-gas heat transfer
Bed-to-surface heat transfer
Use of immersed surfaces

21

1/11/2011

Heat Transfer in Fixed Beds

Heat transfer in fixed bed consists of following mechanisms
(1) conduction heat transfer between particles,
(2) convective heat transfer between particles and fluid,
(3) interaction of both (1) and (2),
(4) Radiative heat transfer between particles and the flowing gas
(5) Heat transfer between bed wall and bed particles

(1) Particle to fluid heat transfer

Heat transfer to single particle can be expressed as
Heat transfer coefficient can be evaluated as

(2) Heat transfer through wall (one dimensional model)

For homogeneous model, temperature of fluid and of bed are assumed identical

for

and

Heat Transfer in Fixed Beds

(3) Heat transfer through wall (two dimensional model)
For homogeneous model,
temperature of fluid and of bed are assumed identical

for

and

(4) Effective radial thermal conductivity

for

and

22

1/11/2011

Heat Transfer in Fluid beds

Heat transfer in a bubbling fluidized bed
Gas to particle heat transfer coefficients are typically small, of the order of 5 - 20 W/m2K
However, because of the very large heat transfer surface area provided by a mass of small
particles, the heat transfer between gas and particles is rarely limiting in fluid bed heat
transfer
One of the most commonly used correlations for gas-particle heat transfer coefficient is that
of Kunii and Levenspiel (only for low particle Reynolds numbers)

for
Gas to particle heat transfer is relevant where a hot fluidized bed is fluidized by cold gas
While following are the correlation suggested based on experimental data*

for
for
*Chen,

J.C., Heat Transfer in handbook of fluidization and fluid systems, 2003

Analysis of Gas-particle heat transfer

The energy balance across the element gives

Integrating with boundary conditions Tg = Tg0 at L = 0

23

1/11/2011

Analysis of Gas-particle heat transfer

The distance Ln, in which the gas-to-particle temperature falls by a factor

Is given by,

The distance over which the temperature distance is reduced to half its initial value,
L0.5 is then

Analysis of Gas-particle heat transfer

A bed of 450m particles is operating at 150C. The temperature and superficial velocity
of the incoming gas are 550C and 0.4 m/s, respectively. Approximately how far will
the incoming gas have penetrated into the bed before it is cooled to 350C
Gas physical properties can be estimated at average temperature over the specified
range. In this particular case the average temperature is 450C. Hence the physical
properties of air

Gas velocity at 450C for an inlet velocity of 0.4m/s at 550C will be 0.35m/s

24

1/11/2011

Heat Transfer in Fluid beds

Bed to surface heat transfer
In a bubbling fluidized bed the coefficient of heat transfer between bed and immersed
surfaces (vertical bed walls or tubes) can be considered to be made up of three additive
components
The particle convective component hcp, which is dependent upon heat transfer
through particle exchange between the bulk of the bed and the region adjacent to
the transfer surface (heat transfer due to the motion of packets of solids carrying heat
to and from the surface)

The interphase gas convective component hgc, by which heat transfer between
particle and surface is augmented by interphase gas convective heat transfer
The radiant component of heat transfer hr
Thus,
Approximate range
of significance

40m

1mm

> 800 m and at

higher static
pressure

Higher temperatures
(> 900 K) and
difference

Heat Transfer in Fluid beds

Particle convective heat transfer
On a volumetric basis the solids in the fluidized bed have about one thousand times the
heat capacity of the gas and so, since the solids are continuously circulating within the
bed, they transport the heat around the bed. For heat transfer between the bed and a
surface the limiting factor is the gas conductivity, since all the heat must be transferred
through a gas film between the particles and the surface

Heat transfer from bed particles to an immersed surface

25

1/11/2011

Heat Transfer in Fluid beds

Particle convective heat transfer
The particle-to-surface contact area is too small to allow significant heat transfer.
Factors affecting the gas film thickness or the gas conductivity will therefore influence
the heat transfer under particle convective conditions.
Decreasing particle size, for example, decreases the mean gas film thickness and so
improves hpc. However, reducing particle size into the Group C range will reduce
particle mobility and so reduce particle convective heat transfer. Increasing gas
temperature increases gas conductivity and so improves hpc.
Particle convective heat transfer is dominant in Group A and B powders. Increasing
gas velocity beyond minimum fluidization improves particle circulation and so
increases particle convective heat transfer.
The heat transfer coefficient increases with fluidizing velocity up to a broad maximum
hmax and then declines as the heat transfer surface becomes blanketed by bubbles.

Heat Transfer in Fluid beds

Bed to surface heat transfer

Range of fluidized bed-to-surface heat transfer coefficients

26

1/11/2011

Heat Transfer in Fluid beds

Bed to surface heat transfer

Effect of fluidizing gas velocity on bed surface heat transfer coefficient

Heat Transfer in Fluid beds

Particle convective heat transfer
The maximum in hpc occurs relatively closer to Umf for Group B and D powders
since these powders give rise to bubbles at Umf and the size of these bubbles
increase with increasing gas velocity
Group A powders exhibit a non-bubbling fluidization between Umf and Umb and
achieve a maximum stable bubble size.
Zabrodsky (1966) has given correlation for hmax for group B particles

Khan (1978) has given correlation for hmax for group A particles

27

1/11/2011

Heat Transfer in Fluid beds

Gas convective heat transfer
Gas convective heat transfer is not important in Group A and B powders where the flow of
interstitial gas is laminar but becomes significant in Group D powders, which fluidize at
higher velocities and give rise to transitional or turbulent flow of interstitial gas
In gas convective heat transfer the gas specific heat capacity is important as the gas
transports the heat around.
Gas specific heat capacity increases with increasing pressure and in conditions where gas
convective heat transfer is dominant, increasing operating pressure gives rise to an improved
heat transfer coefficient hgc.
Baskakov and Suprun (1972) has given correlation for hgc

where Um is the superficial velocity corresponding to the maximum overall bed heat transfer
coefficient

Heat Transfer in Fluid beds

Gas convective heat transfer to immersed surfaces
Several approaches have been used to estimate hc
The most common approach assigns thermal resistance to a gaseous boundary layer at the
heat transfer surface, the enhancement of heat transfer is then attributed to the scouring
action of the solid particles on the gas film, decreasing the effective film thickness
Lavas correlation (1952) for vertical surfaces, for larger particles, is

Wender and Coopers correlation (1958) for vertical tubes,

for
Where
Where r is the radial position of the heat transfer tube and Rb is the radius of the bed

28

1/11/2011

Heat Transfer in Fluid beds

Gas convective heat transfer to immersed surfaces
Vreedenbergs correlation (1958) for horizontal tubes,

Changed
Equation
for
and

for
Where

Heat Transfer in Fluid beds

Radiative heat transfer
For temperatures beyond 600oC radiative heat transfer plays an increasing role
and must be accounted for in calculations
For rule of thumb estimate, the radiative heat transfer component can be
estimated using absolute temperatures and an adaptation of the stefen Boltzman equation in the form

where r is the reduced emissivity to take into account the different emissivity properties of
surface s and bed b and is given by

An alternative correlation given by Panov et al. (1978) for approximate estimate is

29

1/11/2011

Application of Fluidized Beds

Industrial Processes
Physical

Dominating
Mechanism

Applications

Chemical

Heat and/or
mass transfer
between
gas/particles

Heat and/or mass

transfer between
particle/particle
or particle/surface

Heat transfer
between
bed/surface

Gas/gas reactions
in which solid acts
as catalyst or a
heat sink

Gas/solid reactions
in which solids are
transformed

Solids Drying
Absorption of
solvents
Cooling of
fertilizer prills
Food Freezing

Plastic coating of
surfaces
Coating of
pharmaceutical tablets
Granulation
Mixing of solids
Dust Filtration

Heat treatment of
textile fibres,
wires, rubber,
glass, metal
components
Constant
temperature baths

Oil cracking,
reforming
manufacturing of
Acrylonitrile
Phthalic Anhydride
Polyethylene
Chlorinated
hydrocarbons

Coal combustion
Coal gasification
Roasting of nickel and
zinc sulphides
Incineration of liquid
and solid waste
Catalyst Regeneration
Decomposition of
limestone

More about applications in Mass Transport PPT

30

Mass Transfer in Fluidized

Beds - An Overview

1/13/2011

SpecialtopicsinME6203MASSTRANSPORT

MassTransferinFluidizedBedsAnOverview
ProfessorA.S.Mujumdar
MEDepartment,NUS
[email protected]

GuestLecturer
SachinV.Jangam
Minerals,MetalsandMaterialTechnologyCentre
NUS,Singapore(2011)

Contents
IntroductionApplications Why M T is important, reactions etc
Approaches in mass transfer in Fluidized beds
Homogeneous bed Approachlimitations
Mass transfer to single particles, fixed beds and fluidized
beds Empirical correlations
Bubbling bed approach
Kunii Levenspiel Model
An example calculation
Modeling a fluid bed dryer
Key references (given at the end)

1/13/2011

Introduction
Main applications of fluidized beds Fluidized catalytic cracking; Combustion and
Gasification;Drying;Granulation;

The performance of fluidized beds in all the above processes is affected by the
interfacemasstransfer

Manytimesthemasstransferinfluidizedbedsisapotentialratecontrollingstepin
fluidizedbedreactors

Dependingonthetypegassolidinteractions,theratecontrollingmechanismcanbe

1. Particlegasmasstransfer(Gasfilmdiffusion)control
2. Porediffusioncontrol
3. Surfacephenomenoncontrol

VariousIndustrialApplications

Fluidizedbedreactor

Fluidbeddryer

Fluidbedcatalyticcracker

1/13/2011

Masstransferinfluidizedbeds
There are two approaches that can be used for prediction of mass
transferratesinfluidizedbeds

Homogeneousbedapproachconsidersfluidizedbedbehaving
asafixedbedreactorandcorrelatethemasstransfercoefficient
influidizedbedinsimilarmannertothatinafixedbedbasedon
plugflowmodel

Bubbling bed approach Considers fluidized bed to consist of

twophases,abubbleandanemulsionphase,thegasinterchange
betweenthetwophasesconstitutestherateofmasstransfer

UsefulDimensionlessNumbers
SherwoodNumberratioofconvectivetodiffusivemasstransport

Convective mass transfer coefficient

k L
Sh
Sh

Diffusive mass transfer coefficient

SchmidtNumberratioofmomentumtomassdiffusivity

Momentum diffusivity
Sc

Sc

Mass Diffusivity

ReynoldsNumberComparisonofInertialforcetoviscousforce

ReynoldsNumberComparisonofgravitationalandviscousforce

1/13/2011

HomogeneousBedApproach
Transferbetweensinglesphereandsurroundinggas

Rate of mass transfer between welldispersed sphere and surrounding air can be

writtenas

Concentrationof
Ainthebulkgas
stream
Transferrateof
Afromparticle
togas

Masstransfer
coefficientof
singleparticle

Concentrationof
Aatparticlegas
interphase

The single particle mass transfer coefficient can be obtained from well established
correlation(Froessling,1938)

Eq(2)
whereparticleReynoldsnumberandSchmidtnumbercanbedefinedas

Themasstransfercoefficientisproportionaltodiffusioncoefficientofgasandinversly
proportionaltodiameterofparticle

HomogeneousBedApproach
Transferbetweensinglesphereandsurroundinggas

Fornonsphericalparticlethesievediameter(dp)willreplacethediameterof
theparticleandtheequationbecomes

whereparticleReynoldsnumberis

1/13/2011

HomogeneousBedApproach
Transferbetweenfixedbedparticlesandflowinggas

Rateofmasstransferbetweenfixedbedofparticlesandsurroundinggascanbewritten
inthesamefashionastheoneforsingleparticle

Combinedmass
transferrate
fromallthe
particles

Averagemass
transfer
coefficientof
particles

Totalexterior
surfaceofall
individual
particles

Concentrationof
Aatparticlegas
interphase

Concentrationof
Ainthebulkgas
stream

HomogeneousBedApproach
Transferbetweenfixedbedparticlesandflowinggas

Thecorrelationfortheaveragemasstransfercoefficientkg,bedwasgivenbyRanz(1952)

Volumeofbes
TotalparticleexteriorsurfacesSex,particles
Bedvoidage
segment

MethodofKunniLevenspiel
Particlesurfaceto
particlevolumeratio
Hencetheequationfortotalexteriorparticle
surfacesbecomes
Sphericityofbed
particles

1/13/2011

HomogeneousBedApproach
Transferbetweenfluidizedbedparticlesandfluidizinggas

Therateofparticletogasmasstransferinthedifferentialsegmentoffluidizedbedcan

bewrittenas

Averagemass
transfercoefficient
associatedwith
fluidizingparticles

Totalexterior
surfacesofthe
fluidizedparticlesin
thesegmentofbed

Kg,bedforfluidizedbedsisalwayshigherthanthatforfixedbeds

HomogeneousBedApproach
Averagemasstransfercoefficientforfluidizingparticles

Themasstransfercoefficientforfluidizedbedparticlescanbelowerorhigherthanthat

ofsingleparticles

GenerallyforlowReynoldsnumbersthemasstransfercoefficientforsingleparticlesis
higher than for fluidizing particles however, reverse is true for higher particle
Reynoldsnumbers(>80)

Resnick and White (1949) reported the average mass transfer coefficient for the
fluidizingparticles(forairsystemwithSc=2.35)

1/13/2011

HomogeneousBedApproach
Averagemasstransfercoefficientforfluidizingparticles

HomogeneousBedApproach
Particlegasmasstransfercoefficientforfluidizedbedparticles

UsingShequationfor
singleparticleEq(2)

particlegasmasstransfercoefficientfor
fluidizedbedparticles

UsingShequationfor
singleparticleEq(2)

Comparisonofmasstransfercoefficientfor
fluidizedbedandfixedbed

Itshouldbenotedthatthesamecorrelationscanbeusedforfluidizedbedsandfixedbeds
ShforsamegroupofparticlescontinuestoincreasewiththeparticleReynoldsnumbereven
duringthetransitionfromfixedbedtofluidizedbedoperations

1/13/2011

HomogeneousBedApproach
LimitationsofHomogeneousbedapproach
Theexperimentallymeasuredcoefficientvaluesforthebedparticlesunderfixedbedor

fluidized bed conditions can be lower or higher than the theoretically estimated
values
For fine particles the mass transfer coefficients were found to be well below the
estimatedvaluesfromcorrelations
Themeasuredmasstransfercoefficientbythisapproachshouldbetreatedasempirical
innature
UsingShequation
forsingleparticle
Eq(2)

Summary of particlegas mass

transfercoefficient

BubblingBedApproach
Takes in to account existence of a two phases: bubble phase and
emulsionphase

Bubblephaseconsideredassphericalbubblessurroundedbysphericalclouds

Bubble

Cloud

Therearethreedifferentmodelsavailablebasedonthisapproach
KunniandLevenspiel(bubbleemulsiontransfer)
PartridgeandRowe(cloudemulsiontransfer)
ChavarieandGrace(Empiricalcorrelationforbubbleemulsiontransfer)

1/13/2011

ModelofKunniandLevenspiel
ModelforvaporizationorsublimationofAfromallparticlesinbed

Assumptions:

Freshgasentersthebedonlyasbubbles

Equilibrium is established rapidly between CA at gasparticle interphase and

itssurroundings

These assumptions lead to the following equation in terms of bubbleemulsion mass

transfercoefficient(KGB)asfollows

Inthisapproachbothcloudandtheemulsionphasesareassumedperfectlymixed

ModelofKunniandLevenspiel
RelationbetweenKGBandKg,bed

The equation reported in last slide for mass transfer by Kunni and Levenspiel can be
derivedusingthemasstransferrateequationforhomogeneousbedapproach

Withtheassumptionthatfreshgasentersthe
bed only as bubbles the above equation
becomes

Where CA,b is the concentration of A in

bubblephase

1/13/2011

ModelofKunniandLevenspiel
RelationbetweenKGBandKg,bed

Thesolutionsofthepreviousequationsfinalyresultsinthefollowingrelationbetween
KGBandkg,bed

ThedefinitionofSherwoodsNumberbecomes

KGBforNonporousandNonadsorbingParticles
The particles dispersed in bubble phase will not contribute to any additional mass
transferandhence;hencetransferacrossthebubblecloudboundarythereforeisthe
onlysourceofmasstransfer

Hence

WhereKbcisthebubblecloudinterchangecoefficientderivedbyDavidsonandHarrison
as

KGBforhighlyadsorbingparticles

Forsingleparticle
SotheKGBequationbecomes

10

1/13/2011

KGBforhighlyadsorbingparticles
Forhighlyadsorbingparticles,bothparticlesdispersedinbubbleandthebubblecloud
gasinterchangecancontributetotheparticlegasmasstransferandtheexpression
forKGBbecomes

Forsingleparticle

SotheKGBequationbecomes

HencetheSherwoodnumberforbedbecomes

KGBforPorousorPartiallyAdsorbingParticles
Forporousorpartiallyadsorbingparticles,KunniandLevenspielderivedthefollowing
equation

Where,

And

mistheadsorptionequilibriumconstantdefinedas

CAsistheconcentrationoftracerAwithintheparticleinequilibriumwiththe
concentrationCiAoftracergasatthegasparticleinterphase.

11

1/13/2011

ModelofPartidgeandRowe
Thecloudsurroundingthebubbleisconsideredastheprimarymasstransferboundary
andthebubbleandtheclodphasesareconsideredasperfectlymixedsinglephase
asshowninthefollowingfigure

Themasstransferequationis

Volumeofgas
inthebubble
cloudphase

Cloud
emulsionmassCloudexterior
surface
transfer
coefficient

ModelofPartidgeandRowe
Partidge and Rowe have given a correlation for mass transfer coefficient in terms of
Sherwoodnumberasfollows

whereScistheSchmidtnumberasdefinedearlierwhileRecisdefinedas

Diameterof
Relativevelocity

spherewith
betweenrising

thesame
cloudand
emulsion

volumeasthe
cloud

12

1/13/2011

ModelofChavarieandGrace
Measurement of mass transfer rates for bubble containing ozone injected into an air
fluidizedtwodimensionalbedandproposedfollowingempiricalequation,

Tableshowsthemodelsforkgcgivenbyvariousresearchers

ModelofChavarieandGrace
Tableshowingsomemoremodelsforkgcgivenbyvariousresearchers

13

1/13/2011

Relationbetweenmassandheattransfercoefficient
Thecorrelationsforparticletogasmassandheattransfercoefficientarecloselyrelated
when the Sherwood number (Sh) is equivalent to Nusselt number (Nu) and the
Schmidtnumber(Sc)isequivalenttoPrandtlnumber(Pr)

Forexample,thecorrelationforNusseltnumberforparticlesinafixedbedisexpressed
as

ThecorrespondingcorrelationequationfortheSherwoodnumberhastheform

HencethecorrelationsobtainedforNu(heattransfer)canbeconvertedtoSherwood
numbertoobtainmasstransfercoefficient,providedShNuandScPr

SomeConcludingRemarksonMassTransferinFB
Fluidizedbedsareveryimportantforsolidfluidcontactforvariousimportant
industrialapplications

Heataswellasmasstransferisimportantfordesignconsiderations

Whenkineticprocessessuchasmasstransferarecarriedoutwithfluidized
bedstheparticlesdispersedinbubblephaseshouldbetakenintoaccount

Masstransfercoefficientmeasuredforthebedasawhole(kgbed)ismodel
dependent

Forlargeparticles(cloudlessbubblebed)theplugflowmodelcloselymatches
thebedconditionsinthebedandthemasstransfercoefficientforbedshould
beequaltosingleparticlemasstransfercoefficient

Forfineparticleskgbed<<kgsingle

14

1/13/2011

ApplicationofFluidizedBeds
IndustrialProcesses
Physical

Dominating
Mechanism

Heatand/or
masstransfer
between
gas/particles

Applications SolidsDrying

Absorptionof
solvents
Coolingof
fertilizerprills
FoodFreezing

Chemical

Heatand/ormass
transferbetween
particle/particle
orparticle/surface

Heattransfer
between
bed/surface

Gas/gasreactions
inwhichsolidacts
ascatalystora
heatsink

Gas/solidreactions
inwhichsolidsare
transformed

Plasticcoatingof
surfaces
Coatingof
pharmaceuticaltablets
Granulation
Mixingofsolids
DustFiltration

Heattreatmentof
textilefibres,
wires,rubber,
glass,metal
components
Constant
temperaturebaths

Oilcracking,
reforming
manufacturingof
Acrylonitrile
PhthalicAnhydride
Polyethylene
Chlorinated
hydrocarbons

Coalcombustion
Coalgasification
Roastingofnickeland
zincsulphides
Incinerationofliquid
andsolidwaste
CatalystRegeneration
Decompositionof
limestone

15

1/13/2011

Applications
Fluidizedbeddrying
Fluidizing with hot air is an attractive means for drying many moist powders and
granularproducts

The technique has been used industrially for drying crushed minerals, sand,
polymers, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, crystalline materials and many other
products.

Themainreasonforitspopularityis

Efficient gassolids contacting leads to compact units and relatively low capital cost
combinedwithhighthermalefficiency

Veryhighheatandmasstransferandhencereduceddryingtimes

The absense of moving parts, low maintenance cost and possibility of using
continuousmode

The main limitation is the material to be dried should be fluidizable and should
havenarrowparticlesizedistribution

FluidBedDryer

16

1/13/2011

FluidizedBedDrying
Differentdesignsoffluidbeddryers

FluidizedBedDrying
Wellmixedfluidbeddryer

commonFBDusedinindustry.
bed temperature uniform, equal to the
productandexhaustgastemperatures.
particle residence time distribution is
wide
widerangeofproductmoisturecontent.
feed is continuously charged into FB of
relatively dry particles, this enhances
fluidizationquality.
a series of wellmixed continuous dryers
may be used with variable operating
parameters.

17

1/13/2011

FluidizedBedDrying
Plugflowfluidbeddryer

vertical baffles are inserted to

createanarrowparticleflowpath.
narrow particle residence time
distribution.
nearlyequalresidencetimeforall
particlesregardlessoftheirsize
uniformproductmoisturecontent.
lengthtowidth ratio from 5:1 to
30:1.
inlet region may be agitated or
apply backmixing, or use a flash
dryer to remove the surface
moisture.

ModelingFluidBedDryer
Diffusionmodel
Thismodelassumesthatthedryingofsingleparticleinthefluidizedbediscontrolled
bythediffusionofmoistureinsidetheparticle

Empiricalmodel
Inthisapproachthedryingprocessisdividedintodifferentperiodswheredrying
mechanismsineachdryingperiodaredifferent;
ThesolutionofFickslawofdiffusionexpressesthemoisturecontentintermsof
dryingtimebyexponentialfunction;
Experimental data obtained from fluid bed drying experiments can be correlated
usingexponentialfunction

Kineticmodel


SinglephasemodelExplainedlater

TwophasemodelExplainedlater

18

1/13/2011

ModelingFluidBedDryer
Singlephasemodel

Thefluidizedbedisregardedessentiallyasacontinuum

Heatandmassbalancesareappliedoverthefluidizedbed

Assumptionparticlesinthebedareperfectlymixed

Massbalance

Energybalance

ModelingFluidBedDryer
Twophasemodel

Twophasemodeloffluidizedbeddryingtreatsthefluidizedbedtobecomposedofa
bubblephase(dilutephase)andanemulsionphase(densephase)

gasinexcessofminimumfluidizationvelocity,umf,flowsthroughthebedasbubbles
whereastheemulsionphasestaysstagnantattheminimumfluidizationconditions
Massbalance

19

1/13/2011

ModelingFluidBedDryer
Twophasemodel
Massbalanceofliquidinthebubblephase

Massbalanceofliquidintheinterstitialgasinthedensephasegivesthefollowingng
equation

Massbalanceofliquidinthedensephaseparticles

Thecoupledmassandenergybalanceindensephasethatconsistsofparticlesand
interstitialgasphases

Fluidizedbedcombustionboilers
Fluidizedbedcombustionsystemsuseaheatedbedofsandlikematerialsuspended(fluidized)
withinarisingcolumnofairtoburnmanytypesandclassesoffuel.

Thistechniqueresultsinavastimprovementincombustionefficiencyofhighmoisturecontent
fuels,andisadaptabletoavarietyof"wastetypefuels.

Thescrubbingactionofthebedmaterialonthefuelparticleenhancesthecombustionprocess
bystrippingawaythecarbondioxideandcharlayersthatnormallyformaroundthefuel
particle.

Thisallowsoxygentoreachthecombustiblematerialmuchmorereadilyandincreasestherate
andefficiencyofthecombustionprocess

Particles(e.g.sand)aresuspendedinhighvelocityairstream:bubblingfluidizedbed

Combustionat840950C

Capacityrange0,5T/hrto100T/hr

Fuels:coal,washeryrejects,ricehusk,bagasseandagriculturalwastes

Benefits:compactness,fuelflexibility,highercombustionefficiency,reducedSOx&NOx

20

1/13/2011

Fluidizedbedcombustionboilers
AtmosphericFluidizedBedCombustion(AFBC)Boiler
MostcommonFBCboilerthatusespreheatedatmosphericairasfluidizationand
combustionair

Fluidizedbedcombustionboilers
PressurizedFluidizedBedCombustion(PFBC)Boiler
Compressorsuppliestheforceddraftandcombustorisapressurevessel
Usedforcogenerationorcombinedcyclepowergeneration

21

1/13/2011

Fluidizedbedcombustionboilers
CirculatingFluidizedBedCombustionunits

A Circulating Fluidized Bed Boiler commonly

abbreviated as CFB is a device for generating
steam by burning fossil fuels (coal) in a furnace
operated under a special hydrodynamics
conditions.

Bed material is heated upto the ignition

temperature of the coal with the help of natural
gasburner.Coalandlimestoneareinjectedatthe
bottomofthecombustor.

Total air required for combustion is split in to

primaryairandsecondaryair.

Circulatingsolidsaretransportedinthecombustor
at a velocity exceeding the terminal velocity of
averageparticles.

Recirculation of solids creating uniformity in the

temperature makes the combustor as an efficient
combustionsystem

Visitusat
http://serve.me.nus.edu.sg/arun/
http://www.mujumdar.net78.net/

22

1/13/2011

KeyReferences
Yang,W.C.;HandbookofFluidizationandFluidParticleSystems,MarcelDekker,USA,
2003

Kunni,D.;Levenspiel,O.FluidizationEngineering,1969

Mujumdar,A.S.HandbookofIndustrialDrying,3rdEd;CRCPress:BocaRaton,FL,
2006

Somequestionsforselfstudy
Fordryingofcertainproduct,theambientairof80%relativehumidityisheated
to70Cbeforeenteringthefluidbeddryerofuniformparticlesize.
Discussqualitatively,whatwillbetheeffectiftheairiscooleddownto5C
andreheatedbacktosametemperatureof70Cbeforeenteringthedryer.
Duringwhichdryingrateperiodwillthisbemoreuseful
Discusswhatwillbetheeffectonperformanceifthebedparticleshavewide
sizedistribution,Suggestimprovementstotacklethissituation.
Whatwillbetheeffectondryingifheatedinertsphericalparticlesofsame
sizeareaddedinabedofparticlestobedried?
Howcanoneenhancethedryingofanonsphericalparticlesinafluidized
bed?

Forcombustionofasingleparticle
Discusswhatwouldbethecombustionbehaviorofasinglecoalparticleof
samemasswithdifferentshapessuchasSphere,Cylinder(D=L),cube
Discussqualitativelythedifferenceincombustionofacoalparticleonewith
20%porosityandanotherwith60%porosity

23