Towed Side-Scan SONAR System

Operator's Manual
V1.1.0
Procedures for using and maintaining side-scan SONAR
towed systems to collect, process, view, and analyze
data

Part Number SSS-2TOM-0001

This product was designed and developed by a team of engineers at Marine Sonic Technology,
Ltd.
© 2011 Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd., All Rights Reserved.

Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd.

5508 George Washington Memorial Highway
P.O. Box 730, White Marsh, VA 23183-0730
(804) 693-9602
(800) 447-4804

Technical Support
For technical support call (800) 447-4804 or visit our web site at http://www.marinesonic.com.

Copyright
This manual and the software described in it are copyrighted with all rights reserved. Under the
copyright laws, neither this manual nor the software may be copied, in whole or in part, without the
written consent of Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd., except in the normal use of the software or to make
backup copies. This exception does not allow copies to be made for others.

Limitations on Warranty & Liability

Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. warrants that the disk(s) on which this software is recorded is free
from defects in materials and workmanship under normal use for 90 (ninety) days after the date of
original purchase.

Please refer to this product's Warranty for further information concerning the limitations on warranty
and liability of this product and its associated software.

Trademarks
Contents
Introduction 1
Overview ................................................................................................................................... 1
Marine Sonic Technology,
..........................................................................................................................................................
Ltd. Products and Services 1
The Nature of This
..........................................................................................................................................................
Manual 2
The Sections of
..........................................................................................................................................................
This Manual 2
Contact Information
.......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Other References
...................................................................................................................................
for Related Information 3
Advisories ................................................................................................................................... 4
Planning .......................................................................................................................................................... 6
Advance Preparation
......................................................................................................................................................... 6
Unpacking ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
Cleaning Procedures
......................................................................................................................................................... 7
Notices, Patches,
...................................................................................................................................
and Updates 7
Description of...................................................................................................................................
a Software-Based Towed System 8
SONAR Software..........................................................................................................................................................
Capabilities 8
Understanding
..........................................................................................................................................................
SONAR 10
Side-Scan Systems
.......................................................................................................................................................... 10
Towed-System
...................................................................................................................................
Components 14
The Topside Box
.......................................................................................................................................................... 15
Topside Processor
..........................................................................................................................................................
(Computer) 15
Tow Cable .......................................................................................................................................................... 15
Navigational Aid
..........................................................................................................................................................
(GPS) 16
Power Source.......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Towfish .......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Peripherals .......................................................................................................................................................... 19
The Depressor
.........................................................................................................................................................
Vane 19

Operational Procedures 21
Boat Handling
................................................................................................................................... 21
Boat Tow Points
................................................................................................................................... 23
Cable Handling
................................................................................................................................... 24

Search Methodology 29
Site/Feature...................................................................................................................................
Location 29
Safety ................................................................................................................................... 29
Operation ................................................................................................................................... 30
Site/Feature...................................................................................................................................
Identification 31

System Features 32

Contents
 User Settings
................................................................................................................................... 32
SONAR Interface
.......................................................................................................................................................... 32
SONAR Display .......................................................................................................................................................... 32
Color Map .......................................................................................................................................................... 32
Inverting the
.........................................................................................................................................................
Color Map 33
Moving through..........................................................................................................................................................
the Data 34
Scrolling ......................................................................................................................................................... 34
Channel ......................................................................................................................................................... 34
Measurements .......................................................................................................................................................... 34
Height ......................................................................................................................................................... 34
Length ......................................................................................................................................................... 35
Area ......................................................................................................................................................... 36
SONAR Control
................................................................................................................................... 37
Power .......................................................................................................................................................... 37
Range Delay .......................................................................................................................................................... 37
Frequency .......................................................................................................................................................... 38
Speed Control.......................................................................................................................................................... 38
Image Adjustment
................................................................................................................................... 39
Gain .......................................................................................................................................................... 39
Navigation and
...................................................................................................................................
Fathometer Interface 40
Markers and...................................................................................................................................
Waypoints 41
Markers .......................................................................................................................................................... 41
Waypoints .......................................................................................................................................................... 41
Managing a ...................................................................................................................................
Survey 42
Survey Folder..........................................................................................................................................................
Organization 42

Image Interpretation Tips 43

Overview ................................................................................................................................... 43
Key Approaches
...................................................................................................................................
to Locating Objects 43
Shadows .......................................................................................................................................................... 43
Size .......................................................................................................................................................... 44
Shape .......................................................................................................................................................... 44
Conditions That
...................................................................................................................................
Complicate Interpretation 45
Ghosting .......................................................................................................................................................... 45
Crosstalk .......................................................................................................................................................... 45
Thermoclines..........................................................................................................................................................
and Haloclines 46
Distortion during
..........................................................................................................................................................
Turns 47
Surface Scattering
.......................................................................................................................................................... 48
Propeller Wash
.......................................................................................................................................................... 49
Noise .......................................................................................................................................................... 50

Tools and Equipment Needed for Hookup and

Maintenance 52
Revision History 53

Contents
Glossary 54
Index 61

Contents
Introduction
Overview
Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. Products and Services
Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. specializes in small, compact, and rugged
High-Resolution SONAR systems. Our products set the industry standard for their high
resolution, portability, self-contained design, and low cost. They have been successfully
used in operations for search and recovery of—

Drowning Victims
Vehicles
Sunken Boats
Equipment
Weapons (Rifles, Pistols)
Homeland Security
Ship Hull Inspections
Bridge Inspections
Force Protection (Harbor and Ship security, Mine Detection)
Environmental Issues (Location of debris sites, hazardous waste)
Locating Old-Growth Timber
Insurance Fraud
Surveying (Pipe lines, wharfs, piers)
Artificial Reefs (Construction and Monitoring)
Marine Research (Monitoring of fish populations, oyster reefs, bottom
structure, biologics in the water)

Sea Scan® Survey is a user-friendly PC-based SONAR data collection program for
Windows™ operating systems. Sea Scan® Survey seamlessly communicates with the
Sea Scan® High-Definition SONAR (HDS) towed system hardware. Visit
www.marinesonic.com to download Sea Scan® Survey and experience its capabilities
and ease of use.

For information on our full product line, examples of images captured using Sea Scan®
HDS, or testimonials from satisfied clients, please see our website at
www.marinesonic.com; contact Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. customer service at (804)
693-9602; or use our toll-free number, (800) 447-4804.

Introduction
1
 The Nature of This Manual
Welcome to the Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. operator’s manual for towed side-scan
SONAR systems. This manual introduces first-time users, operators, and technicians to
the basics of Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. towed side-scan SONAR systems. The
operator is assumed to have little or no experience with towed SONAR systems and
software; therefore, the discussion is restricted to general guidelines and overviews. For
more detail or specific assembly, maintenance, or trouble-shooting instructions, please
refer to the operator’s manuals that accompany the products you are using.

The material in this manual is organized into discrete sections for easy acquisition of the
basics about how to perform a survey, collect data quickly, and interpret situational
anomalies that can present themselves in the data. A reference guide to abbreviations,
acronyms, and symbols commonly used in SONAR discussions is in the Glossary. As
an added feature, look for italicized words in the text, as these terms are defined in the
Glossary. More detailed information and discussions can be found at the Marine Sonic
Technology, Ltd. website, www.marinesonic.com.

The Sections of This Manual

This manual is organized into the following sections:

n Introduction

n Description

n Operational Procedures

n Features

n Image Interpretation Tips

n Tools and Equipment

n Revision History

n Glossary of Acronyms and Terms

n Index

Introduction
2
 Contact Information
Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. towed systems are thoroughly checked before shipping.
Any alteration of this product after shipment automatically voids the warranty. In
case of question regarding these issues, contact Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. at the
following address:

Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd.

5508 George Washington Memorial Highway
or
P.O. Box 730, White Marsh, VA 23183-0730

For technical support:

Phone: (804) 693-9602
Toll Free: (800) 447-4804
Web: www.marinesonic.com

Customer Support at Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. also welcomes your questions,
comments, and corrections about this manual. Please send your communication to the
above address.

Other References for Related Information

A wealth of information is available that presents the concepts and practical
information necessary to conduct a well-planned and executed maritime
search-and-recovery operation using side-scan SONAR. Among all the available
material, Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. highly recommends the following documents
as invaluable reference material for the library of any sincere and dedicated
individuals wishing to understand and work with side-scan systems.

Introduction to Sea Scan® Software

A thorough explanation of the functions, features, and use of the Sea Scan
software can be found in the Sea Scan Software Manual, Version 2.0.0, produced
and distributed by Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. Please see that document for
how to use the Sea Scan® Survey PC-based software for side-scan SONAR data
collection, processing, viewing, and analysis.

Introduction
3
 Chapman Piloting & Seamanship, 64th Edition
This reference volume by Elbert S. Maloney is a comprehensive guide to small
boat handling. It contains detailed explanations of every aspect of safe
boat-handling procedures for the novice or experienced boater. The Coast Guard
Auxiliary uses this book as a reference tool for their courses, along with
applicable Coast Guard publications. It is widely available commercially.

The American Practical Navigator, an Epitome of Navigation

This voluminous text by Nathaniel Bowditch and the National Imagery and
Mapping Agency details all aspects of boat navigation. It has been updated
repeatedly since originally published in 1802; the 1995 edition includes the latest
advances in electronic navigation and digital charting technology. It also covers
non-electronic navigation such as celestial, plotting, and dead reckoning. The
book contains numerous tables which have been valued for years by practicing
navigators. This invaluable reference book is carried on the bridge of every U.S.
Navy ship. It is widely available commercially.

Sound Underwater Images, A Guide to the Generation and Interpretation

of Side Scan SONAR Data
For in-depth explanations of SONAR and side-scan systems, this book by John P.
Fish and H. Arnold Carr is invaluable. The novice will come to understand the
technology and experienced users will appreciate the depth of coverage. This
spiral-bound text may have to be special ordered.

Black Laser Learning, Second Edition, Not in the Manual Guide® To

Side Scan Sonar Image Interpretation
More than 90 minutes of critical SONAR training information is presented on
DVD. This highly recommended guide covers every aspect of side-scan SONAR
image creation and interpretation. It includes dozens of detailed examples, as well
as training animations to explain hard-to-understand concepts.

Advisories
WARNING Observe standard safety precautions and wear
proper safety gear to prevent personal injury
during installations.
CAUTION Turn off power before disconnecting any
component from cables. Disconnecting the
component without turning off power may cause a
sudden over current or voltage condition that can
damage the components.

Introduction
4
CAUTION Electro-static-sensitive devices can be damaged
by excessive levels of voltage and/or current. To
protect these devices, bring the device and
everything that comes in contact with it to ground
potential by providing a conductive surface and
discharge paths.

THE FOLLOWING PRECAUTIONS MUST BE FOLLOWED:

Keep the computer case and topside box as dry as possible. If either one gets
wet, thoroughly dry all surfaces, crevices, etc.

NEVER attach the connectors when the power is on.

NEVER PLUG OR UNPLUG THE TOW CABLE FROM THE TOPSIDE BOX
WHEN THE POWER IS ON. DOING SO MAY RESULT IN DAMAGE TO THE
TOWFISH AND/OR THE TOPSIDE ELECTRONICS.

Ensure that the connectors are CLEAN AND DRY before they are mated to one
another.

New tow cables should be uncoiled and all twists removed from the line before
wrapping it into a “figure eight” that is approximately 0.9 m (3 ft) wide on each
side. If used directly from the coil, the cable has a strong tendency to develop
small loops, which can damage the cable under strain.

Take care of the tow cable. Do not step on it, roll heavy equipment over it, or
press it between hatch covers, as this may damage the cable. It is strongly
advised that the cable be wound onto a cable reel and retained there when not in
use. Otherwise, stow the tow cable by coiling it loosely and replace it in the cable
box that was provided. If the foregoing is not practical, coil it loosely and hang it
off the floor.

Do not bend the tow cable beyond its minimum (12.7-cm or 5-inch) bend radius
limit. Internal damage is likely if the bend radius limit is exceeded. If the bend
radius limit is exceeded while the cable is under load, cable strength will be

Introduction
5
 adversely affected.

Check the tow cable for cuts and abrasions from damage to the insulation any
time you pay out or bring in the cable. Run your fingers along the length of the
cable to feel for breaks in the shielding and punctures through the jacket.

Clean the tow cable after each use. If the system has been used in salt water,
wash the towfish and tow cable in fresh water while still connected to prevent
corrosion of the components.

Thoroughly dry all components, then stow them in their packing cases in between
uses.

Planning
Advance Preparation
Review industry-established practices and procedures for installation of electronic
equipment before handling the Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. towed system.
Those practices include reviewing the procedures in this manual; carefully
choosing the equipment locations aboard the vessel; checking for adequate
space around connectors, cabling, and the towfish; and ensuring that the target
location is free of fluids such as water, salt spray, or lubricants.

Unpacking
The Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. towed system comes packed in rugged
shipping cases. These cases contain the following:

The topside box and accessories

Tow cables and depressor vane
The towfish
Remove the topside box, tow cable, towfish, and cable accessories from the
shipping cases.

Check the packing slip to ensure all components are included.

Check each item for external damage.

Retain the packing cases for equipment storage when not in use and for returning
an item to Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. for repair or replacement.

Introduction
6
 Store the packing cases in a safe, dry location.

Cleaning Procedures
Soak the connectors in distilled water or alcohol for 5 minutes or more if the
contacts have been exposed to salt water.

Blow the connectors clear and dry with compressed air. If compressed air is
unavailable, employ commercially available canned air.

Use a water-repellant lubricant such as WD-40™ to reduce friction and expel

moisture from connectors.

Check the o-rings when hooking up or packing away the equipment to ensure
they remain dry and well seated.

Wipe down the tow cable to dry it.

If it has been used in saltwater, wash the tow cable in fresh water and dry it
completely to prevent corrosion of the components.

To clean and dry the towfish, wash it with fresh water and dry all connectors.

Re-attach all protective connector caps before stowing the equipment.

Wipe down the exterior of the topside equipment (computer, topside box) after
each use.

Check the interior of the topside equipment (computer, topside box) for any
splashes or pooled water. Carefully dry any moisture with either compressed air
or a soft cloth.

Notices, Patches, and Updates

Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. engineers continually review and improve upon the
company’s hardware, firmware, and software procedures and capabilities.
Revisions and updates may be frequent and can significantly streamline
operation. Contact Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. Customer Service to inquire
about updates, patches, and notices.

Introduction
7
Description of a Software-Based Towed System
SONAR Software Capabilities
Software-based side-scan SONAR systems like Sea Scan® HDS use a computer
for data display, system control, and data storage. The software allows an
operator to control the SONAR data-collection process, view, analyze, and save
the SONAR image with all related navigational information. The program also
features a Navigation Plotter to plot location and estimated acoustic coverage.

The basic function of the software is to display the SONAR image on the screen.
Each time the SONAR transducer pings, the reflection data is recorded and
incremented as horizontal lines on a waterfall display screen.

As the towfish passes over the seafloor, it continuously transmits pings

perpendicular to the direction the boat is traveling, which are reflected back to the
towfish transducers by objects on the bottom and in the water column. These
pings fan out in a cone shape that would appear very narrow if viewed vertically
and ever widening if viewed horizontally. For a typical system, this might be a
0.5º horizontal beam and a 40º vertical beam.

The seafloor image builds as the reflection data is added line by line. The data is
recorded directly to a streaming data file. The application then reads and indexes
the streaming data file in real time. After the data is indexed, it is displayed in the
waterfall display. Only a small segment of data can be viewed in the SONAR
waterfall at any one time because of the practical limit of the computer to keep up
with the incoming data.

The Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. Sea Scan® Survey software features a
wide-dynamic-range data-collection system. The time-varied gain is software
controllable and can be set during data collection and/or during post-processing.
Also, Sea Scan® Survey is compatible with Microsoft Windows™ operating
systems.

Figure 1 graphically shows the components that make up a software-based

SONAR system.

Introduction
8
 · Figure 1. The basic components of a Sea Scan® system

Figure 2 shows the side-scan SONAR in operation. The operator can view wide
tracts of the seafloor because the transducers ping along the swath width and the
software records the strength of the echoes from the sea bottom. The towfish is
towed just above the seafloor bottom. The sound pulses pass through the water
but are reflected from the seafloor and objects, such as wreck sites that sit on the
seafloor. The computer records the echo signal strengths as they return and
draws the entire SONAR record line on the screen. Thus, an image is built, line
by line, as the SONAR record line from each ping returns and is drawn on the
screen.

Introduction
9
 ·
Figure 2. Basic Side-Scan SONAR Operation

Understanding SONAR
SONAR is a coined word derived from the phrase, SOund Navigation And R
anging. SONAR generally refers to the system that uses acoustic (sound) energy
transmitted through water. At the heart of that system is the transducer, the
device that converts electrical energy to sound and is responsible for generating
the sound pulse. That same transducer is also used to receive the echo that
reflects off objects encountered along its path. Thus, SONAR is a system that
determines the position of unseen underwater objects by transmitting sound
waves and measuring the time it takes for their echo to return after hitting the
object.

Side-Scan Systems
Because of their innate flexibility, side-scan systems can be used in many
applications, some of which involve highly sophisticated remotely operated
vehicles (ROVs), autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), or unmanned surface
systems. But the most common side-scan systems are towed behind a surface
vessel and comprise three elements:

n the control unit containing the software

n the towfish with transducers mounted on each side

n the tow cable that connects the towfish to the surface vessel, which follows

Introduction
10
 a prescribed track or course through the water

Side-scan SONAR is used extensively for many commercial, military, and leisure
applications. Some examples include search-and-recovery operations, homeland
security, law enforcement, pipeline and cable-route surveys, mine detection, fish
finding, shipwreck and treasure hunting, marine archeology, and geological
surveys.

The transducer assembly, also known as the towfish, is towed on a straight

heading and at a constant depth through the water. As it is towed, the assembly
emits sound pulses at precise and regulated intervals. The system receives the
returning echoes from the water column and seafloor shortly after emitting a
pulse. This continues for a short period until the next pulse is transmitted, thus
beginning a new cycle. The returning echoes from one pulse are displayed on
the SONAR window as one single line, with dark and light portions of that line
representing weak or strong echoes. The stronger the SONAR’s returning signal,
the brighter the mark that appears on the SONAR window or waterfall. The
resulting accumulated lines then form a coherent picture of the seafloor.

The two transducers provide information unique to their particular side of the
towfish. In between them is the boat’s track immediately below the towfish. That
center display or water column loosely relates to the boat’s track. It
communicates details about objects encountered before the first bottom return
and can include things such as surface returns, debris, fish, and objects
protruding from the seafloor.

The quality of the SONAR data will depend on operator management and the
data-gathering process, which involves vessel course, tow speed, towfish altitude
above the bottom, sea conditions, and range settings. For example, a higher
range setting yields a larger data sample with more of the seafloor displayed; but
the data will not have as high a resolution.

Figure 3 provides an indication of the objects a towfish can reveal on a seafloor.

Figures 4–6 typify actual objects observed with the Marine Sonic Technology,
SONAR systems.

Introduction
11
Figure 3. Side-scan operation provides insight into features or objects on the seafloor
(figure courtesy of the USGS)

Introduction
12
· Figure 4. Sample view of a Sea Scan® Survey waterfall, here showing a shipwreck site

· Figure 5. Two upside-down submerged cars (identified with Sea Scan® PC)

Introduction
13
 ·

Figure 6. Navy PB4Y-2 Privateer Aircraft (identified with

Sea Scan® PC)

Towed-System Components
The minimum components required for an operation include—

A topside unit
A topside processor (computer)
A tow cable
A navigation aid (GPS)
A towfish
A power source
Peripherals

Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. manufactures and sells Sea Scan® HDS, a complete
system that can be customized to meet varying conditions or requirements. The
complete system comprises all the components discussed here plus other options or
configurations.

Introduction
14
The Topside Box
The Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. topside unit is a ruggedized box that
communicates between the towfish, power unit, and topside computer running a
side-scan SONAR program such as Sea Scan® Survey. It can be mounted on a
bulkhead, if desired.

Topside Processor (Computer)

A ruggedized rack mount or laptop computer is needed to run a side-scan
SONAR program such as Sea Scan® Survey to collect, display, process, and
store the SONAR data during and after an operation.

The laptop or personal computer will significantly streamline data acquisition and
assessment during an operation when placed strategically for optimal operator
viewing and guidance to the vessel’s pilot. The computer must be linked to the
topside box by means of a USB cable. Once connected, the full capacity of the
software is at hand during an operation and intra-communication among the
attached devices is seamless and transparent.

Any such unit requires the following capacity to run the Sea Scan® Survey or
similar software programs:

Intel-based Windows™ Operating XP, Client ,

System Client 2003, Vista, Windows 7
Hard drive space 100 MB + data storage
512 MB minimum;
Available RAM
1 GB or more recommended

Processor Speed 1.6 GHz or better

Other Features USB 2.0 port

Screen Resolution 1024 x 768 minimum or higher

Tow Cable
The Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. standard tow cables are 328 ft (100 m) and
98.4 ft (30 m) long (custom cable lengths are available upon request). They
feature flexible sheathing that protects the twisted-pair internal wiring and have a
750-lb. safe working load.

Introduction
15
Navigational Aid (GPS)
Every search-and-recovery operation should have at least one Global Positioning
System (GPS) unit onboard at all times. A GPS uses the Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS) developed by the United States Department of Defense.
It uses a constellation of 24 to 32 medium-Earth-orbit satellites that transmit
precise microwave signals; these signals enable GPS receivers to determine their
current location, the time, and their velocity (including direction).

An enhancement to the basic GPS signal, known as Differential GPS (DGPS),

provides much higher precision and increased safety in its coverage areas for
maritime operations. Many nations use DGPS for operations such as buoy
positioning, sweeping, and dredging. This enhancement also improves harbor
navigation. Differential GPS uses beacons on the shore as guides to give
corrected position information.

Another approach at automatic correction is the Wide-Area Augmentation System

(WAAS). This system was developed for commercial airlines flying over land,
thus was limited to terrestrial use. This system is now available beyond the airline
industry and can be used in terrestrial waters.

A third approach is with satellite correction. A private subscription service uses

geostationary satellites to transmit correction signals to receivers on the ground.
Base stations constantly communicate with available GPS satellites and calculate
correction values. The base stations also correct for atmospheric interference
locally in their immediate territory. The stations then transfer the correction data to
a network control center, which checks the data, compresses it, and relays it on to
the company’s geostationary satellite. Access to this method for accurate
positioning requires a prepaid contractual arrangement.

Experiment in advance with the device to determine the best placement of the
GPS for optimal communication with overhead satellites. The accuracy of the
data from the GPS will greatly influence the data-collection process, especially if
sea conditions are rough and/or you are unable to establish land-based
line-of-sight reference points to corroborate site locations.

Introduction
16
 Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. recommends highly that a GPS unit be used at all
times during a survey operation. The topside unit and side-scan SONAR
software programs can operate without a GPS, but the side-scan software will not
be able to monitor speed over ground, which is important for ensuring optimal
data collection; further, locations of sites may not be accurate enough for
purposes of documentation, retrieval, or return visits.

Because GPS accuracy is critical during an operation, Sea Scan® HDS indicates
the quality of the incoming GPS signal. This information on the accuracy of the
signal is presented at the bottom of the waterfall display throughout an operation.

Power Source
The computer, topside box, and towfish all require power to operate. Generally,
this power is in the form of a battery unit to which you connect the components.
Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. strongly recommends that a separate power
source be dedicated to operating the Sea Scan® HDS system and equipment
during an operation. The use of a dedicated power source protects the boat or
vessel batteries from being unduly taxed or even depleted during a survey.
Follow the recommendations that accompany the Sea Scan® HDS system as to
battery requirements and output.

Towfish
Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. designs and configures towfish to suit many
situations or needs. They can be simple units with built-in transducers or
sophisticated models with multiple-frequency transducers, internal weighted
keels, temperature sensors, and depth gauges. These units are towed near the
bottom of a seabed while their transducers transmit and receive the returning
pings. The strength of the returning signals is then interpreted by the side-scan
control software.

A towfish is a cylinder with nose cone and fin assembly. Some towfish designs
are modular so that they can be reconfigured easily to replace transducers, insert
weights, or add multiple transducers for different angles or resolutions. Generally,
there will be a tow rail at the top as well as a cable connector and a shear pin
release for connecting a snag release line at the shackle.

A variable-angle bracket may be on some towfish designs to allow the transducer

angle to be altered (useful for viewing atypical areas such as the underside of a
bridge or vessel rather than the sea floor).

Introduction
17
A towfish may have a safety release at the top of the tow rail behind the handle
that is a secondary tow cable connection point. If the towfish were to become
entangled on the seafloor and the force against the tow cable became excessive,
this release mechanism would engage; this action would shift the towpoint,
causing the towfish to flip, nose over, which generally frees it.

The fin assembly may have a similar safety release. The shear bolts on the
assembly break if the towfish were to snag hard at its fin.

Standard transducers are mounted on each side of the towfish. These

transducers produce a very specifically defined acoustic signal. Viewed from
above, the signal is very narrow; viewed from the side, the signal is wide. This
shape of acoustic sound allows the transducers to view a very narrow section
perpendicular to their paths of motion. As the out-going acoustic signal travels
through the water, the signal strength at the wave front weakens by a variety of
influences, such as absorption by the water, wave-front spreading, and scattering.
These are known physical effects of acoustic energy traveling through a “lossy”
medium. As a result, the amount of energy available to reflect from an object
reduces as the outgoing acoustic wave travels away from the source. That is, the
reflection from a distant object is not as strong as that from a like object closer to
the transducer (source of the acoustic wave).

Depending upon the software selected, some programs compensate for ping rate
versus Speed over Ground (SOG). For example, the Sea Scan® Survey software
maintains a constant geo-referenced 1:1 aspect ratio for the SONAR image. This
is possible by setting the ping rate based on the current range and the SOG. The
spacing of each vertical line on the screen is equivalent to a known distance for
each of the ranges. Sea Scan® Survey sets the transducers to ping at these
interval distances, so the resulting image has a 1:1 aspect ratio. The time
between each of these known distance intervals depends on the SOG. The time
interval is set based on current speed.

Depending on the operating requirements and towfish configuration, Marine Sonic

Technology, Ltd. can configure the towfish with low- and/or high-frequency
transducers. The low-frequency transducer provides a lower axial resolution but
the pings travel farther than from the high-frequency transducer. Likewise,
although not able to extend as far, the high-frequency transducer will provide very
high-resolution imaging at closer ranges.

The following table can serve as a guide for basic starting range and frequency
for different seafloor topologies.

Introduction
18
 · Table 1. Suggested Frequency and Range Settings for Coverage of a
Search Area (all ranges listed in meters/feet)

Frequency Average Maximum Target Size

(kHz) Range
150 400 / 1312 10 / 33
300 200 / 656 5 / 16
600 75 / 246 1.5 / 5
900 40 / 131 1.2 / 4
1200 25 / 82 0.5 / 1.6
1800 15 / 49 0.3 / 1.0

All maximum ranges are those detectable by the SONAR system at the listed
frequency. These are typical but conservative maximum ranges that are
attainable with the particular SONAR frequency in salt water with a soft, silt
bottom. Longer ranges may be attainable in fresh water or harder bottoms such
as sand or gravel. Some factors that affect the maximum range of the SONAR
are bottom type, water salinity, water depth, water temperature, particulates,
electromagnetic noise, and acoustic noise.

The target size is the smallest target size that will be identifiable at that range and
frequency of SONAR. Much smaller objects can easily be detected; however,
targets smaller than those listed will be more difficult to identify.

Peripherals
Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. ships supporting equipment and materials to support the
use and operation of each unit or component. These peripherals may comprise extra
pigtails, tie wraps, spanners, or other relevant supplies.

The Depressor Vane

A depressor vane can be useful in situations when the towfish lifts while being
towed or when the operator wants to achieve deeper depths without having to

Introduction
19
attach weights. The depressor vane attaches to the tow cable, sometimes at the
towfish and sometimes approximately 32.8 to 65 m (10 to 20 ft) above the towfish
. Third-party depressor vanes are available. Contact Marine Sonic Technology,
Ltd. for recommendations.

Introduction
20
Operational Procedures
This chapter presents tips and guidelines for an individual trained by Marine Sonic
Technology, Ltd. personnel. Basic explanation is provided for operating the Standard
Topside Unit. This information is coupled with rudimentary procedures for equipment
handling, site identification, and data interpretation. For an in-depth explanation of how
to use your SONAR-interpretation software, please see the software manual that
accompanies that software. In addition, for some suggested readings pertaining to
related aspects of boat operation and SONAR functions, please see the section, Other
References for Related Information.

Boat Handling
A myriad of resources are available that explain every aspect of safe boat operation
and handling. It is important to review such texts beforehand to ensure safe boat
operation as well as how to deal with current, drift, drag, towing procedures, and the
correlation between boat speed and helm control. Those issues are out of the scope
of this document.

For purposes of this manual, it is assumed that the operator understands the basic
rules of the road, rudimentary boat-handling techniques, and the unique
characteristics of the vessel that will be used. With that background of
understanding in mind, an operator should consider the following practices when
towing the side-scan SONAR system.

Before beginning any operation, ensure that the line of communication between the
vessel’s pilot, the SONAR operator, and all personnel will be unrestricted and clear.

Before deploying the towfish, consider running the boat around the area with the
depth sounder on to define the perimeter of the area to be examined and to get a
sense of the bottom configuration. As you do so, set waypoints for the perimeter in
the navigation plotter of the software you are using or mark the latitude and longitude

Operational Procedures
21
of landmarks on a chart. Then reduce boat speed, deploy the towfish, and proceed
with the operation. By defining the boundaries in advance, you can now stay within
the specific area of interest.

When evaluating an area of interest during towfish deployment, a slow boat speed
may be required. Maintain as slow and steady a speed as possible that ensures
forward motion and helm control. Remember, crew and vessel safety is paramount in
any operation.

The shallower the water, the shorter amount of tow cable that’s paid out; the result is
a correlation between the boat and the towfish. As a result, if the vessel is bouncing
in heavy seas, the cable will jerk also and may cause towfish movement, thereby
adversely affecting image quality. In addition, the towfish might be adversely affected
by the towing vessel’s propeller wash in very shallow water. In this instance, it might
be advisable to tow from amidships or the bow, thereby reducing jerks on the cable
while keeping the towfish away from the propeller wash.

Follow a steady course over the area being surveyed while maintaining overlapping,
parallel lanes to ensure that the area of interest is well covered. Determine the lane
spacing by the requirement of the operation, but make sure the lane spacing is less
than the SONAR swath width to ensure overlap.

Operational Procedures
22
 Avoid excessive electronic interference, engine noise, or propeller wash, as these
can adversely affect image quality.

Cross-currents or debris such as seaweed snagged onto the towfish body can cause
the towfish to roll and/or yaw and result in distorted data.

When turning, the towfish tends to drop in the water column. Make smooth, wide
turns while the towfish is deployed to avoid hitting the towfish on the bottom and
possibly causing damage or outright loss of the towfish. When doing a search
pattern, it is best to disregard the data during turns and plan accordingly to get those
areas on other passes when the boat is going straight and true.

Try to maintain a straight, steady course during the search operation, as even small
navigational corrections can adversely affect the SONAR data. When corrections
need to be made, the SONAR operator and boat pilot should communicate constantly
to maintain constant awareness of the towfish location and altitude. The pilot should
be aware of the towfish layback and wait an appropriate amount of time after passing
the target before making course adjustments.

Avoid backing when the tow cable is deployed, as the cable could become ensnared
around the rotating propeller shaft, thereby jeopardizing boat safety; or the propellers
could sever the tow cable, causing the towfish to be lost.

Boat Tow Points

The individual vessel design must be taken into consideration when determining the
best onboard location from which to deploy the towfish and attach the cable. If a
cable winch is permanently affixed to the vessel, that hardware location (generally at
the bow or stern) generally will dictate the deployment location. However, alternate
locations can include an outrigger or mid-vessel arrangement. Some of the following
considerations can help in selecting the best boat tow point:

Consider the layout on deck; it is important to avoid interference from boat hardware
or equipment that could snag lines or impede safe operation.

Ensure that a hard point (cleat, stanchion, reinforced handle, etc.) is nearby for

Operational Procedures
23
 attaching and securing lines and that an area on deck can be cleared for the towfish,
cable, and other equipment.

Evaluate the noise and vibration from the boat engines when choosing a tow point
and whether that noise could be conducted down the tow cable.

Note the location and angle of the propeller(s). An offset propeller can generate
significant “prop wash” that interferes with the transducers if the cable is deployed off
that side.

Avoid towing the towfish close to the boat hull because the displacement of water
from the hull and propeller turbulence could adversely affect towfish stability.

Cable Handling
At least one individual in addition to the vessel’s pilot generally is required to oversee
a towing operation because full-time vigilance and caution are required any time a
vessel tows an object. For purposes of this manual, it is assumed that the cable
handler understands the operation of towing equipment as well as cable-handling
techniques. With that background of understanding in mind, a cable handler must
consider the following practices when towing the side-scan SONAR system:

If the tow cable is new, uncoil and wrap it into “figure-eight” loops of about 0.9 m (3 ft)
on each side to remove the natural twist, as shown in Figure 7. If used directly from
the coil, the cable has a strong tendency to develop small loops, which can damage
the cable when it is under strain.

Operational Procedures
24
 · Figure 7. Typical Figure-8 Configuration for the Tow Cable

Secure the tow cable to the vessel at hard points (stanchions, cleats, etc.) and attach
with line. If hard points are unavailable, (particularly a concern on an inflatable) find
someplace secure (e.g., a handrail or line pass-through) to use as tie-off points.

Operational Procedures
25
 · Figure 8. Cable Stopper Strap (note over/under weave)

The connectors on each end of the tow cable are unique so there is little chance of
error. However, take special care when attaching the connectors because
misconnection or forcing can damage the pins, the cable’s internal conductors,
and/or the topside box.

Take care of the tow cable. Do not step on it, roll heavy equipment over it, or pass it
between closed hatch covers.

Do not bend the tow cable beyond its minimum 12.7-cm (5-in.) bend radius limit.
Bending beyond this limit will cause the internal shielding to rupture, puncture the
jacket, and expose the internal conductors to sea water.

Operational Procedures
26
If a winch is used as part of a cable-handling system, do not exceed its loading
capacity or the rating of the tow cable (listed on the side of the cable).

Pre-check cable integrity before mounting the cable onto a winch or cable reel.
Check it for visible breaks and damage by running your fingers along the length of
the cable to feel for breaks in the shielding and/or punctures through the jacket.

Towfish deployment is easier with two personnel, one to lower the towfish, the other
to pay out cable. Deploy the towfish as far away from the propeller as possible.
Never stand in a way that a snagged towfish will pull you overboard. Stand and hold
the cable in a manner that you could immediately let go of the cable if you feel it snag
the bottom.

Pay out cable slowly, all the while monitoring progress and watching for any
indication of damage to the cable shielding that may have been missed during
inspection. If any damage is found, repair or replace the cable before continuing with
the operation.

Periodically check the cable during the towing operation to ensure that it’s not
tangling or excessively rubbing against the side of the boat.

If the water is deep and a significant amount of cable is paid out, be aware of the
resulting catenary effect against it (the significant resistance of water, causing the
cable to bow). This pressure can affect towing speed and complicate cable retrieval.
The faster the boat is travelling, the greater this effect will be and the towfish depth
will not significantly increase with additional cable payed out. The boat must be
slowed if you are having trouble with towfish depth.

Monitor towfish location, drift, and descent as the cable pays out. If the bottom
configuration is unknown, proceed more slowly and observe the waterfall display to
determine the nature of the seafloor before sending the towfish toward the bottom.
Otherwise, pay out cable as slowly as conditions allow, monitoring in case the towfish
snags or hangs up. If this occurs, try retrieving using the winch or maneuvering the
vessel from differing angles to extract the towfish.

Maintain minimum forward speed while retrieving the cable until the towfish is a safe

Operational Procedures
27
distance off the bottom. Slowing the boat too abruptly when the towfish is at
surveying altitude will result in a bottom strike and possible damage to the towfish.
After the towfish is at a safe altitude, the boat can be stopped to ease retrieval.

Use the same slow method for retrieving the towfish as when deploying it, monitoring
for debris or seaweed that might have become attached before the cable reaches the
winch. Watch also for any damage or punctures to the shielding.

Take great care when hauling the towfish out of the water; never risk falling
overboard during its retrieval. Always lift the towfish out of the water with the thumb
of the gripping hand pointed up. This ensures that the tow cable does not bend
excessively over the handler’s hand when it is pulled up over the gunnel.

Clean the tow cable after each use. If the system has been used in salt water, wash
the towfish and tow cable with fresh water while still connected to each other to
prevent corrosion of the components. Dry all connectors, spray with a water-repellant
lubricant like WD40™, then cover with their protective caps.

Store the tow cable by coiling it loosely onto a cable reel and hanging the figure-8 off
the floor. Otherwise, replace the loosely coiled figure-8 in the cable box that was
provided and stow it out of harm’s way.

Operational Procedures
28
Search Methodology
A standard search involves several stages—from pre-cruise planning to site feature
identification. The instructions in this manual assume that you have defined a search
area, planned search lanes, set up, and deployed the towfish. We recommend the
following scenario.

Site/Feature Location
The initial stage of the search involves finding a site/feature location. You may already
have a marked latitude/longitude (l/l) position. This position is presented in
degrees:minutes:decimal minutes. In that case it should be a simple matter to locate the
site. Otherwise, the search area should be methodically scanned in a straight,
predetermined search pattern, as exemplified in
Figure 9.

Figure 9. A Recommended
Search-and Survey Pattern

Safety
Any action that involves towing a device at the end of a cable at sea has an inherent
danger involved. Many of the problems that occur at sea can be averted with common
sense, good boat handling, and experience.

Search Methodology
29
Operation
During a search, you can monitor progress because the survey vessel's position and
estimated acoustic coverage are shown on the software’s navigation plotter. When you
see a feature of particular interest in the SONAR record, mark it on the navigation plotter
as a waypoint or marker. Then, if possible, throw a weighted acoustic target attached to
a buoy with marine line off the stern on the same side of the vessel where the feature
was identified. The buoy will serve as a visual frame of reference for the pilot when
returning to the site. The acoustic target will show up in the image and allow the
SONAR operator to relay the buoy position relative to the target to the boat pilot for
successive passes.

When navigational information is available, each SONAR record line can be associated
with l/l and swath coverage. Thus, any feature in the SONAR record can be associated
with a known l/l position and location within the swath. Nonetheless, as a matter of good
log keeping, also write the site l/l position in a logbook and make multiple passes to
ensure that both transducers cover the objects so that the data can be reviewed later
with the SONAR software.

Search Methodology
30
Site/Feature Identification
When you have the site location, you can adjust the SONAR software to capture the
feature at a higher resolution.

If you are using Sea Scan® HDS, which features the state-of-the-art application, Sea
Scan® Survey, you can set the acoustic range to a shorter setting. The target of interest
will appear larger and have greater resolution. Sea Scan® Survey can provide
very-high-resolution imaging with a frequency of 600 kHz or greater and a range of 40 m
(131 ft) or less.

Make a closer pass by the target of interest for a detailed image. However, the towfish
should not pass directly over the target on the seafloor; rather, it should pass to one side
of the target. Guide the ship's pilot so that the target will appear on either the left or right
side of the SONAR record.

Mark the target for future review on a chart or in the software navigation plotter and
assign a distinct name or description to it.

Search Methodology
31
System Features
Sea Scan® Survey contains extremely powerful, yet user-friendly software features
and capability. By understanding how to optimize these tools, an operator can make
the most effective use of Sea Scan® Survey and thereby achieve optimal results.
The overview below is intended to maximize software utilization and benefit.

User Settings
A number of settings are available to you for modifying the user interface. Select
those that are comfortable for your level of expertise or your operational
requirements. These are discussed below.

SONAR Interface
When you turn on the SONAR, the transducers automatically communicate their settings
to the Sea Scan® Survey software. The program then resets itself accordingly based on
that intercommunication and it presents that information in an easy-to-read display on
the computer screen. The sophisticated communication process requires no user
intervention; it communicates seamlessly among the SONAR, topside box, GPS, depth
sounder, or any other connected equipment. That information also is immediately
accessible in the display area or in convenient drop-down menus.

SONAR Display
The SONAR display has been designed for optimal viewing and data interpretation.
The waterfall display consumes the majority of the computer screen because this is your
primary workspace. Here, you can access all the tools and menus you require—
adjusting color, zooming in on an area of interest, checking markers, adjusting the
frequency, or monitoring SOG, to name a few. As soon as Sea Scan® Survey initiates
and SONAR is activated, the waterfall display will begin to build a line-by-line image of
the seafloor that you can enhance to identify targets or collect data. Using the various
tools and capabilities of the software that are presented to you in the display area, you
can direct the operation, collect and notate targets of interest, and gather data for
immediate or later review. The entire process is easy and convenient.

Color Map
Color choice can dramatically affect your interpretation of the SONAR image data, as
different colors bring out different features in the SONAR record. Marine Sonic
Technology, Ltd. recommends the gold, bronze, or brown color maps to maximize the
user’s ability to distinguish the various shades in the image.

System Features
32
Inverting the Color Map
Any color map may be inverted in Sea Scan® Survey to make the high-intensity
returns dark and the low-intensity returns light. This has been the display setting
for traditional SONAR systems since they applied black ink for acoustic returns
onto light-brownish or white paper. The higher the intensity of the acoustic return,
the more black ink was used. The dark-ink-on-light-paper process required that
a SONAR operator had to reverse the natural intensity visualization we are used
to when we see.

In the normal mode (as opposed to the inverted mode), any high-intensity returns
are brighter than the darker background. This provides a view of the seafloor like
illuminating the dark seafloor with light and viewing from above. Objects appear
brighter than the background and shadows are black. In the inverted mode,
objects are darker than the background and shadows are white or light, as shown
in the following figure.

· Figure 10. Sample Sea Scan® Survey Image Before and After
Inverting the Color Map

System Features
33
 Moving through the Data
Scrolling
The SONAR image is recorded directly into a streaming data file. The indexed
data is then displayed in sequence in the Sea Scan® Survey waterfall display. Not
all of the data can be displayed concurrently because of screen size limitations
and/or computer speed, but you can scroll backward or forward through all the
data, much the same way that you might fast-forward through a video tape to a
particular location or scene.

Channel
Sea Scan® Survey allows you to display either the left channel only, the right channel
only, or both the left and right channels simultaneously in the waterfall display.

Depending on the operating requirements, you may want to view both channels at
standard axial resolution or only one of the channels at double the axial resolution.
When viewing only one of the channels, you have twice as many horizontal pixels on the
screen. Thus, for any given range, twice the axial resolution may be displayed on the
screen since you are displaying only one channel; bear in mind, however, that the image
will be distorted in the axial direction (that is, the image will appear stretched
horizontally).

Measurements
Height
The height of a feature in the SONAR image can be measured if there is a
discernible shadow behind the feature. Defining the geometry of the towfish, the
object, and the object’s shadow is the means for measuring an object’s height, as
exemplified in the following figure.

System Features
34
 Figure 11. Object Height Calculation with the Shadowed Area That the Sound
Cannot Reach
An accurate height measurement requires that the object cast a visible acoustic
shadow. This may be a problem in some situations, such as the object’s
proximity to the transducer. Further, the end of the shadow must be visible on
the SONAR image. If the shadow extends off the side of the image, then the
object is either near the same height as the towfish altitude or is higher, which
might indicate a hazard to the towfish on subsequent passes of the search. The
height calculation assumes an ideal geometry. That is, the acoustic path from
the transducer to the top of the object to the end of the shadow is assumed to be
straight and the seafloor is assumed to be level.

The first assumption of a straight acoustic path is valid, considering that

conditions where you see the acoustic path “bend” are not common at the
operating depths and ranges of the Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. towed system.
However, the second assumption of a level seafloor typically is not the case.
Therefore, you must compensate based on your knowledge of the seafloor level.
The acoustic shadow for an object upslope from the transducer will be abnormally
shortened. Similarly, the acoustic shadow for an object downslope from the
transducer will be abnormally lengthened.

Length
The Sea Scan® Survey waterfall length tool allows you to measure any feature in
the SONAR image data with the mouse pointer. The length is presented as a
total length, which is a combination of horizontal (axial) and vertical (transverse)
lengths. The lengths are measured using the user-specified length units. The
range and ping separation distance for each SONAR record line is sufficient to
calculate the length of features in the SONAR record accurately. Figure 12
shows how easily a length measurement can be taken.

Transverse length is the distance measured in a line parallel to the towfish track.
Measuring the transverse length with Sea Scan® Survey depends completely on
the apparent SOG because the apparent SOG (the SOG provided by a GPS or
estimated by the pilot) determines the ping separation distance. Typically, the

System Features
35
 apparent SOG matches the true SOG. If the apparent and true SOGs were not
matched, the transverse length will be inaccurate because the ping separation
distance is inaccurate.

The extent of the error depends entirely on the disparity between the apparent
SOG and the true SOG. For example, if the apparent SOG is set at 3.6 knots and
the true SOG is 4.0 knots, there is a 10% error. Thus, the ping separation
distance also will be off by 10%. In fact, the pings will be 10% too short because
SONAR software programs base their calculations on the boat’s moving at
3.6 knots rather than the 4.0 knots the towing vessel is actually moving. The
transducers will not ping fast enough to maintain the 1:1 aspect ratio for the
SONAR image, so the under-sampling will foreshorten features. Thus, when
measuring the transverse length, a shortened feature will be 10% too short in the
given example.

Area
The Area button in the waterfall toolbar allows you to measure the area of a
feature by tracing the outline of the SONAR waterfall image with the mouse
pointer. The area is measured in units that you designate (for example, feet,
meters, nautical miles). The range and ping separation distance for each SONAR
record line is sufficient to calculate the area of features in the SONAR record.

As with Length, measuring Area depends completely on the apparent SOG, which
determines the ping separation distance. Thus, if the apparent SOG does not
match the true SOG, the transverse length will be inaccurate because the ping
separation distance is not accurate. Here, also, the extent of the error depends
entirely on the disparity between the apparent SOG and the true SOG.

System Features
36
SONAR Control
Sea Scan® Survey has been designed to give easy access to the important
parameters you require during an operation. These are discussed next.

Power
Turn the power on to start the data collection process. As the transducers ping, the
incoming reflection data is recorded and displayed in the software waterfall.

Range Delay
The most common use for range delay is to remove the water column; that is, the
section of the SONAR record that displays the acoustic returns is removed in the
channel immediately beneath the towfish. Typically, you are not interested in the
acoustic returns produced as the SONAR beam passes through the water column.
Thus, set the range delay to the same distance as the towfish distance from the bottom
to “ignore” any acoustic returns as the SONAR beam passes through the water column.
The software will then start collecting the acoustic returns when the SONAR beam
reaches the range delay that you have set.

System Features
37
The other use for the range delay is to extend the view of the SONAR, beyond the
current range setting. For example, you may want to view the area from 75 to 175 m
(246 to 574 ft) but are not particularly interested in the first 1 to 74 m (3.3 to 243 ft).
With zero range delay, you would lose resolution at a range of 200 m (656 ft) and you
would collect data for everything from 0 to200 m (656 ft). However, if you were to set
the range to 100 m (328 ft) and the range delay to 75 m (246 ft), you could focus on the
area of interest at a higher resolution because of the shorter range.

Frequency
Depending on the size of the target, you may have the opportunity to use either the low-
or high-frequency transducers. But this choice will depend on whether the towfish you
are using has multiple-frequency transducers. If so, the low-frequency transducers
provide a lower axial resolution but the sound travels farther through the water than from
the high-frequency transducers. Likewise, although not able to extend as far, the high-
frequency transducers will provide very-high-resolution imaging at closer ranges.

Speed Control
The ping rate of SONAR software is based on the current range and the SOG. The
spacing of each vertical line on the screen is equivalent to a known distance for each of

System Features
38
 the ranges. The time between each of these known distance intervals depends on the
SOG. The time interval is set based on current speed. This SOG is automatically
adjusted correctly with the GPS. If you are not using a GPS, Sea Scan® Survey allows
you to enter the SOG manually.

Image Adjustment

Gain
The Sea Scan® HDS transducers produce a very specifically defined acoustic signal.
Viewed from above, the signal is very narrow; viewed from the side the signal is wide.
This shape of acoustic sound allows the transducer to view a very narrow section
perpendicular to its path of motion. As the out-going acoustic signal travels through the
water, the signal strength at the end of the cone shape weakens; this weakening is
caused by a variety of influences, such as absorption, wave-front spreading, and
scattering. These are known physical effects of acoustic energy traveling through a “
lossy” medium. As a result, the amount of energy available to reflect from an object
reduces as the outgoing acoustic wave travels away from the source. That is, the
reflection from a distant object is not as strong as that from a like object closer to the
transducer (source of the acoustic wave). That is why gain is so important during a
survey or operation. It is similar in concept to the volume adjustments on a hearing aid
that are used when the sound is coming from farther away.

The amount of gain required to adjust for signal loss is strongly proportional to, but not
entirely dependent on, range. Range may be thought of as time because it takes a
known time for a signal to return from any given range. Therefore, by adjusting the gain,
you can give a target 150 m (492 ft) away the same echo strength as a like target that is
50 m (164 ft) away.

The transducer receives the acoustic signal that was reflected off the seafloor and any
objects there. The transducer converts this acoustic signal, which is mechanical energy,
into an analog electrical signal that is then amplified and digitized.

System Features
39
 You can approach the image adjustment process in two ways. You can permit Sea
Scan® Survey to apply a calculated amount of gain compensation. This action sets the
gain settings automatically to optimal settings for the current operating environment.
The automatic gain process adjusts the amount of gain at each point in the active range
until it has determined that the gain settings are at optimal levels. It does this by
evaluating the intensity of the background signal in the active range, much as cameras
set to automatic adjustment will do.

Sea Scan® Survey adjusts the gain settings so that there is a constant background level
throughout the entire active range, although the outcome depends on the current
operating environment. The automatic gain process samples the current SONAR record
line. First, it determines the intensity of the background in the active range. Then it
determines the required gain adjustment change to bring the background level to an
optimal level. The gain is then adjusted.

Sea Scan® Survey displays the latest SONAR record line in A-mode. This viewing mode
provides a strong visual reference of the acoustic returns on a single SONAR record
line. This A-mode “bar chart” view exemplified in Figure 14 below displays the acoustic
return intensity in the vertical axis versus range in the horizontal axis.

· Figure 14. Typical Sea Scan Survey® A-mode image.

The vertical lines along the horizontal axis represent the intensity of the acoustic returns
at the respective positions along the SONAR record line. In other words, a short vertical
line represents a low-intensity acoustic return. Likewise, a long vertical line represents a
high-intensity acoustic return.

The A-mode view of the signal response provides an accurate visual reference for the
effect of Time-Varied Gain (TVG) on the raw signal. Changes to any of the image
adjustment parameters can be monitored by watching the immediate effect on the signal
response.

Navigation and Fathometer Interface

A baud rate of 4800 is the NMEA standard. The Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. Sea
Scan® Survey reads the following NMEA standard strings for the GPS interface:

RMC, GGA, GLL, VTG, HDT, HDG, DPT, DBT, DBS, DBK, and ZDA.

System Features
40
 The definitions for these strings can be found in most GPS manuals.

Any one of the following minimum NMEA strings will enable the minimum set of data:

(1) RMC
(2) GGA, VTG
(3) GLL, VTG

Any additional strings to the above three combinations will add redundancy and/or
extra information.

Markers and Waypoints

Markers
Markers are invaluable for marking targets of interest during a survey. When you mark
an item in the Sea Scan® Survey waterfall display or navigation plotter, the software
“takes a snapshot” of the image, sequentially numbers the marker, and notes location
information. The sequentially numbered markers you insert will be listed and become
part of the survey record until you delete them.

Waypoints
Waypoints are useful for marking navigational positions (l/l) in a survey route. These
waypoints are especially practical for identifying predefined sites, landmarks, or buoys.
The l/l can be inserted manually or Sea Scan® Survey can automatically add that
information to the markers and waypoint management list. The sequentially numbered
waypoints you insert will be listed and become part of the survey record until you delete
them.

System Features
41
Managing a Survey
Survey Folder Organization
The key to organizing and keeping survey folders accessible is to name each distinctly.
This opportunity is available when starting a new survey; of course, an operator can
rename a survey folder at a later time.

Another important action is to add a detailed description to the survey folder. When
numerous SONAR runs have been done, such information will be invaluable in
determining which survey to revisit.

System Features
42
Image Interpretation Tips
Overview
The ocean floor contains a great variety of structures, debris and natural features.
Some areas are covered with miles of flat mud, while others contain precipitous rock
outcrops. Flat, desert-like sand deposits occur in some areas, while clay, gravel, or
round stones blanket others. Side-scan SONAR is an ideal tool for mapping these
areas. In a standard towing configuration, side scan delineates even the smallest
change in the seabed, whether it is a very slight incline, a small depression or
sinkhole, or a change in sediment deposition due to a change in the bottom
structure.

The structure of the seabed will affect the acoustic signal. As sound travels outward
from the transducers, it can be deflected in many different directions. It may
encounter an uneven water surface, air bubbles, fish, suspended sediments, or a
rough bottom.

In some instances—a muddy bottom, for example—the signal is partially absorbed; in

others, such as a rocky bottom or one cluttered with debris or gravel, the returning
signal will be stronger because hard objects are better reflectors.

Key Approaches to Locating Objects

Skill in interpreting SONAR data comes only from experience. Quite simply, it takes
time to become perceptive enough to sort out what are real bottom features or
targets and what may be anomalies. As you gain more experience with side-scan
SONAR systems, three basic approaches will yield the most reliable results. These
approaches are, in order of importance: shadows, size of objects, and the shape or
appearance of objects.

Shadows
An acoustic shadow is an area near an object on the opposite side of the object from
the towfish that the sound cannot reach because the object blocks it. Shadows cast by

Image Interpretation Tips

43
objects are a function of the angle at which the SONAR beam strikes the objects. Thus,
just as your body blocks the sunlight from shining immediately behind you, so does an
object on the seabed block the sound wave from hitting the immediate back part of that
object.

Shadows are extremely important in locating objects as well as in their analysis, so

attention must be paid to shadow position, shape, and strength in the waterfall display
when on a search-and-recovery mission. The shadows cast by objects are a function of
the angle at which the SONAR beam strikes objects as well as the shape of the objects
casting them. Thus, detailed inspection of the shape of a shadow is helpful in
determining the nature of the object. The location of a shadow relative to the object
creating it is also an important feature of the object. Shadows that touch the object
imply that the object is touching the seafloor. Shadows that are separated from their
corresponding object imply that the object is above the seafloor. Also, as stated before,
a shadow that reaches out beyond the edge of the image implies an object with a height
that is near or above the altitude of the towfish and might pose a hazard on subsequent
passes of the search or survey.

Size
The size of an object is the second most critical consideration. If you know the basic
size of the object for which you are searching, you can focus primarily on matching
found objects to that size. While searching for an object of known size, always keep in
the back of your mind how big that object would look on the screen at the current range
setting. This will allow your eye to look for certain objects while partially ignoring the
other clutter of the seabed.

Shape
The third approach in search-and-recovery missions is to focus on the shape of the
object for which you are conducting the search. You will see the shape in the waterfall
display and it will be distinguishable from the background in most cases. An exception is
a debris-filled waterway or seabed. In this instance, an object or body lying among
clutter may be hard to distinguish. In such a case, shadow and size may be the
determining factors.

Image Interpretation Tips

44
Conditions That Complicate Interpretation
Ghosting
The outgoing pings from the transducers do not stop or dissipate at the end of the
scanned range; rather, they continue out into the environment. Ghosting occurs when
the acoustic signal travels beyond the designated range and bounces off distant
surfaces or even the surface of the water itself (recall the ever-widening “cone shape” of
the outgoing signal). The resulting return may cause anomalous shapes in the waterfall
display that are usually of low intensity.

When operating in shallow water and channels, you may experience ghosting caused by
acoustic returns from previous SONAR pings still bouncing between targets and the
SONAR receivers. To reduce these effects, use a larger range on the SONAR display,
which should slow the ping rate and allow time for these echoes to dissipate.

You may also see distortion on long-range targets, caused by multi-path phenomena
(surface waves and chop) where sound takes a longer path by bouncing off the surface
on its way back to the transducer. The effect manifests itself as multiple targets
appearing close together, as shown in Figure 15.

· Figure 15. Sea Scan® Survey Waterfall Display Showing the Multipath Phenomenon

Crosstalk
Crosstalk occurs when a target returns such a strong echo that it passes through the

Image Interpretation Tips

45
towfish body to the transducer on the opposite side and reverberates there. The
resulting image in the waterfall display will show a mirror image on both sides; however,
the false image will not be as strong. In the figure that follows, the crosstalk image is on
the left.

· Figure 16. Sea Scan® PC Waterfall Display Showing the Effect of Crosstalk

Thermoclines and Haloclines

Thermoclines are a frequent cause of SONAR path distortion; they occur where
different levels of salinity meet. That juncture results in abutting layers of water
that are of different temperatures. The upper layer will be warmer than the lower
layer. Temperature differentials can distort the SONAR image.

Haloclines can be experienced where mixing of fresh water with seawater occurs
(for example, where a river feeds into the ocean). The SONAR path distortion
causes echoes from different parts of the seafloor to arrive back at the towfish
transducer at the same time. These complex echoes from different locations on
the seafloor can corrupt the side-scan image and mask and hide small targets.
Refraction effects can be minimized at times by simply changing the depth at
which the towfish is being towed or changing the frequency of the transducers.

Image Interpretation Tips

46
 · Figure 17. Sea Scan® PC Waterfall Display Showing the
Effect of a Thermocline

Distortion during Turns

Vessel turns while taking data with side-scan SONAR will result in a distorted view in
the waterfall display. During a turn, the transducers no longer scan the seabed in a
consistent, straight line. The transducer on the inside of the turn is sending out pings
and recording reflections from a much smaller area of the seabed than the transducer
on the outside, thus the image on the inside of the turn is stretched and the image on
the outside of the turn is compressed and distorted. The effect of such conditions is
exemplified in Figure 18.

Image Interpretation Tips

47
 · Figure 18. Sea Scan® Survey Waterfall Display Showing Distortion During a
Turn to the Left

Therefore, it is important not to make course changes while the search-and-recovery

target is being scanned. Turn the vessel well after the waterfall display reveals the full
image.

Surface Scattering
Surface scattering occurs when sound waves bounce back from the surface of
the water as well as from the sea floor. The shallower the water, the greater the
potential for surface scattering because the SONAR may reverberate off multiple
surfaces multiple times before returning to the transducers. The surfaces may be
the sea floor, the surface (especially if the surface is wind whipped and turbulent),
debris, schools of fish, thermal conditions, as well as targets of interest.

Image Interpretation Tips

48
 Wind-generated white caps on the surface also are a very good acoustic reflector,
so much so that the surface return clutter from the white caps can significantly
affect the returning data. These turbulent conditions may deflect the path for the
outgoing pulse as well as the returns, causing them to follow a distorted or curved
path, as shown in Figure 19 below.

· Figure 19. Sea Scan® Survey Waterfall Display Showing Surface Scattering

Propeller Wash
Propeller wash shows up as bubbles in the water column and can be the result of gases
in the vessel’s wake. These bubbles are a strong reflector of the SONAR signal, even to
the point of masking the target. This situation can be particularly problematic in a busy
waterway where many powercraft are traversing through the survey area while you are
conducting a search-and-recovery operation.

Normally, the wake or propeller wash of the towing vessel does not distort the waterfall
display image because of the downward tilt of the transducers on the towfish. However,
in surveys where the towing vessel is navigating lanes in shallow water and/or other
powered watercraft are in the area, turbulence may show up in the SONAR image. In
this case, slow the vessel to reduce the bubbles from the propeller wash. Figure 20
exemplifies the effect of propeller wash.

Image Interpretation Tips

49
 · Figure 20. Sea Scan® Survey Waterfall Display Showing Bubbles
in the Water Column (worse on the right side)

Noise
Noise is unwanted interference in the waterfall display. It can be either electrically
generated or acoustic in nature. The noise might appear as flecks of bright speckles,
streaks, continuous lines, or bands. When noise problems occur from electronics, it
often helps to change subcomponents or power sources, reroute cables, or re-secure
the system ground.

Some acoustic noise comes from the underwater environment. It may be caused by
some biologics in the water (dolphins, snapping shrimp, etc.), but most comes from the
electronics on your own or other vessels. This noise can be from electronic depth
sounders, fish finders, or other SONARs operating nearby. In Figure 21, the multiple
bright speckles in the right column are a result of noise.

Image Interpretation Tips

50
· Figure 21. Sea Scan® Survey Waterfall Display Showing the Effect of Acoustic Noise
(in this case from depth sounder interference)

Image Interpretation Tips

51
Tools and Equipment Needed for Hookup
and Maintenance
Spanner
O-rings
Fuses
Water-repellant lubricant (WD40™)
Vice grips
Side cutters
Nut drivers
Nuts
Bolts
Shackles
Shear pins
Brass screws
Cable stopper Straps
Wrenches
Screws
Aerosol cans
Spare pigtails
Spare lines
Electrical tape
Duct tape
C-clamps
Cable ties/Zip ties
Screwdrivers (Phillips and Standard)
Multimeter
Spare batteries

Tools and Equipment Needed for Hookup and Maintenance

52
Revision History
Version Comments Issue Date

1.1.0 Fixed some errors and updated the Topside Box June 2011
information. Updated the contact information.

1.0.0 Initial release January 2009

Revision History
53
Glossary
absorption The diminishment of the returning pulse caused by
the impact of the acoustic signal against objects,
materials, or the sea bottom
acoustic shadow Literally, the shadow an object on the bottom casts to
its side in relation to the transducer; the transducer
must “see” this entire shadow so that the height of
that object can be calculated
acoustic signal The fan of sound emitted from the transducer
active SONAR A system that transmits an acoustic signal through
the water that reflects off objects, then is returned
angle of incidence The angle between the SONAR pulse path to an
object and the bottom
AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle
axial layback The offset distance from the position of the towfish to
the navigation antenna
backscatter Unwanted echoes
baud rate A unit for measuring data transmission speed, where
one unit equals 1 bit per second
beam spreading The widening angle of a SONAR beam as it moves
farther from the transmitter
BMP Bitmap, a graphic file format commonly used in
Microsoft Windows© applications
Bow The front section of a boat or other vessel
buffer To load, as in loading a file. Also, pulling information
from a file and putting it into memory
Catenary The curve on a tow cable moving through the water
as a result of the forces of water drag on the cable
CD compact disk

Glossary
54
channel Another term used to describe the transducer
acoustic track from either side of the towfish that
appears in the SONAR window. The left channel
refers to the left (port) transducer track; the right
channel refers to the (starboard) track.
COG Course Over Ground
color look-up table A way of mapping data by assigning an artificial color
contrast stretching An operation that remaps the color look-up table
based on the lower and upper threshold limits the
operator elects from the histogram
crosstalk A strong return that passes through the towfish body
to the transducer on the opposite side and
reverberates there
CSV Comma-Separated Values; in computers, a CSV file
contains the values in a table as a series of ASCII
text lines organized so that each column value is
separated by a comma from the next column's value
and each row starts a new line. A CSV file is a way
to collect the data from any table so that it can be
conveyed as input to another table-oriented
application such as a relational database or
spreadsheet application.
decibel The unit of sound intensity used to describe the
strength of transmitted and received underwater
sound
DGPS Differential Global Positioning System
DL Data Loss
ENC Electronic Navigation Chart
EULA End User License Agreement
ETE Estimated Time Enroute
fathometer An acoustic device that measures the water depth
FAQ Frequently Asked Questions
frequency The number of sound waves that pass any specific
point in one second
FS Frequency Switch

Glossary
55
gain Amplification of a signal
Gaussian smoothing A widely used effect in graphics software, typically to
reduce image noise. It is a spatial low-pass filter that
reduces the sharpness of image detail
GB GigaByte (1,000,000,000 Bytes)
A high-resolution image format that transfers readily
to other geographic applications
ghosting False returns from acoustic signals that extend
beyond the designated range and bounce off distant
surfaces
GHz GigaHertz (1,000,000,000 Hertz)
GIS Geographic Information Services
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
GPS Global Positioning System
Hertz A unit of measure representing one cycle per second
HDS High-Definition SONAR
halocline Layers of waters having different salinities
histogram A graph that displays the number of pixels of each
color in a range
home state The indicator to the operator that the newest SONAR
line is immediately visible on the screen
HTML hypertext markup language, a set of tags and the
rules for using them in developing hypertext
documents
hydrophone An instrument that transforms an underwater sound
wave into an electrical signal
intensity The strength of the returning acoustic signal
interference Erroneous signals caused by acoustic or electronic
sources
l/l Latitude/Longitude
latitude An imaginary horizontal line joining points on the
Earth’s surface that are all of equal distance north or
south of the equator

Glossary
56
lane The straight track the surface vessel follows while
towing the towfish
lateral layback The offset distance to the left (port) or (starboard)
between the navigation antenna and the towfish
layback The x-y coordinate distance between the
navigational device and the towfish
longitude The angular distance east or west of the prime
meridian that stretches from the North Pole to the
South Pole and passes through Greenwich, England
lossy medium A local condition where absorption by the water,
wave-front spreading, or scattering causes physical
degradation of the acoustic signal
LUT Look-Up Table
magnetometer An external device that measures the current total
magnetic field
marker A tag that the operator can apply on the computer to
a target of interest to save it for further review
MB MegaByte (1,000,000 Bytes)
MRU Most Recently Used
nadir A point along the swath that is directly beneath the
towfish
NMEA The National Marine Electronics Association
NMEA Protocol 0183 A standardized protocol that allows electronic marine
instruments to transmit and receive information. This
communication is based on a block transmission or
groups of NMEA 0183 sentences, which are
transmitted over the serial cable. Each sentence has
a header that uniquely identifies the source of the
data and the information contained in the data
string.
noise Extraneous acoustic sound or electrical waveforms
that interfere with the SONAR signal
null point The location of the antenna of the external
navigation device
OTG Over The Ground

Glossary
57
overlap The bottom area covered more than once as the
towfish travels a predetermined pattern or grid
PC Personal Computer
ping A single pulse of a SONAR system
Plotter A software module that shows track position and
acoustic coverage
port (side) The left side of an object or ship
projector An device that transforms electrical signals into
sound waves
pulse length The length of time that a SONAR unit is transmitting
one pulse
PW Power
RAM Random Access Memory
range The maximum distance from the transducers that the
SONAR signal can detect usable signals; also,
distance to a target
range delay The distance (or range) the Sea Scan Survey
software is told to delay after pinging before it starts
to look at acoustic returns
range marker A scale reference line shown in the SONAR window
reflectivity The strength of the SONAR return off an object or
material
RGB Red/Green/Blue
ROV Remotely Operated Vehicle
sea clutter The reflections from the sea surface (waves,
bubbles, wakes, etc.)
scattering The diffusion of a SONAR beam in many directions
because of sea conditions; as a result, the amount of
energy available to reflect off an object reduces as
the outgoing acoustic wave travels away from the
source
SDS SONAR data stream

Glossary
58
shadow The area that the sound wave cannot reach behind
an object because of the object’s protrusion above
the sea floor; used to determine the height of the
submerged object
side-scan SONAR An acoustic imaging device used to provide
wide-area, large-scale images of the bottom of a
body of water
signal statistic Statistical information on a ping, typically an average,
minimum, or maximum level
slant range The straight-line distance from the towfish to an
object at any given location
SOG Speed Over Ground
SONAR SOund Navigation And Ranging
starboard (side) The right side of an object or ship
swath The total side-to-side coverage of the SONAR signal
on each sweep of the seabed; also called a line
thermocline Layers of waters having different temperatures
topside processor The control unit an operator uses on the towing
vessel to collect and observe the incoming data from
the transducers
towfish The device that is towed through the water on which
the transducers are mounted
transducer The projector and hydrophone that make up an
active SONAR system
true range (ground The horizontal distance from the towfish to the object
range) or bottom location
TVG Time-Varied Gain; a process where amplifier gain is
changed based on time and matched with returning
signals between outgoing pulses of the side-scan
SONAR
.sds SONAR Data Stream, the extension that the
software attaches to the names of data files
USB Universal Serial Bus

Glossary
59
UTM Universal Transverse Mercator, a coordinate
mapping system that maps to a grid rather than to
latitude/longitude
Universal Length Unit A standard for measurement of areas in
user-specified units
WAAS Wide-Area Augmentation System
water column The track along the bottom immediately beneath the
towfish; this track provides supplementary
information to the operator, such as the altitude of
the towfish relative to the water’s depth or the
presence of sea clutter
waterfall A term used to describe a display that puts the
newest data at the top and scrolls the data down like
a waterfall
wavelength The distance between acoustic waves
waypoint A position of interest made and displayed on the
navigation Plotter
XTE Cross-Track Error

Glossary
60
Index -E-
Earth-orbit satellites
-A- microwave signals 16
Effects on SONAR range
Anomalies 43 acoustic noise 17
autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) 10 bottom type 17
electromagnetic noise 17
particulates 17
-B- water depth 17
water salinity 17
Basic search approaches
water temperature 17
shadows 43
Electro-static-sensitive devices 4
shape or appearance of objects 43
size of objects 43
battery unit 17 -G-
Black Laser Learning, Second Edition, Not in the
Manual Guide® To Side Scan Sonar Image general guidelines 2
Interpretation 3 Ghosting
bulkhead 15 anomalous shapes 45
low intensity 45
-C- Global Navigation Satellite System 16
Global Positioning System 16
Chapman Piloting & Seamanship, 64th Edition 3 Glossary
Crosstalk abbreviations 2
mirror image 45 acronyms 2
reverberation 45 italicized words 2
symbols 2
ground potential
-D- conductive surface 4
discharge paths 4
Department of Defense 16
depressor vane 19
Differential GPS -H-
buoy positioning 16
dredging 16 Haloclines
harbor navigation 16 echoes 46
sweeping 16 refraction effects 46
discrete sections 2 high-frequency transducers 17
distilled water or alcohol 7 High-Resolution SONAR system 1
Distortion during Turns 47

Index
61
 boat wake 49
bubbles 49
-I- busy waterway 49
Intel-based Windows™ Operating System
Client 15 -R-
Client 2003 15
Vista 15 remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) 10
XP 15 Routine maintenance
Introduction to Sea Scan® Software 3 compressed air 7
connector caps 7
O-rings 7
-L- ruggedized box 15
laptop computer 15
lossy medium -S-
absorption 17
scattering 17 salt water 7
wave-front spreading 17 satellite correction
low-frequency transducers 17 base station 16
geostationary satellites 16
network control centers 16
-M- private subscription service 16
Sea Scan® High-Definition SONAR (HDS) 1
Microsoft Windows™ 8
Sea Scan® Survey 1
search and recovery
-N- Artificial reefs 1
Bridge inspections 1
Noise drowning victims 1
acoustic 50 Environmental protection 1
electronically generated 50 equipment 1
Force protection 1
-O- Homeland Security 1
Insurance fraud 1
Ocean floor marine research 1
debris 43 Old-growth timber 1
natural features 43 sunken boats 1
structures 43 Surveying 1
Vehicles 1
Weapons 1
-P- shackle 17
Side-scan system elements
pings
control unit 10
cone shape 8
tow cable 10
perpendicular to boat direction 8
towfish 10
Propeller wash

Index
62
signal strength 17 swath width 8
Software-based SONAR system
acoustic coverage 8
analyze 8
-T-
plot location 8
Targets 43
save 8
The American Practical Navigator, an Epitome of
streaming data file 8 Navigation 3
time-varied gain 8 Thermoclines
view 8 salinity changes 46
SONAR applications SONAR path distortion 46
commercial 10 Tools and Equipment 52
leisure 10 tow cable
military 10 750-lb. safe working load 4
sophisticated towfish models figure eight 4
depth gauges 17 minimum bend radius limit 4
internal weighted keels 17 punctures 4
multiple-frequency transducers 17 shielding 4
temperature sensors 17 twisted-pair internal wiring 4
SOund Navigation And Ranging towfish
acoustic (sound) energy 10 cable connector 17
transducer 10 nose cone 17
Sound Underwater Images, A Guide to the shear bolts 17
Generation and Interpretation of Side Scan SONAR shear pin release 17
Data 3
tailfin assembly 17
sound wave absorption 43
tow rail 17
sound wave deflection 43
Speed over Ground 17
Supporting equipment -U-
other relevant supplies 19
pigtails 19 unmanned surface systems 10
spanners 19 USB cable 15
tie wraps 19
Surface Scattering
debris 48
-V-
schools of fish 48
variable-angle bracket 17
sea floor 48
targets of interest 48
thermal conditions 48 -W-
wind whipped and turbulent surface 48
wind-generated white caps 48 water column
Survey basics debris 10
collecting data quickly 2 fish, 10
interpreting situational anomalies 2 objects 10
performing a survey 2 surface returns 10
waterfall display 8

Index
63
water-repellant lubricant 7
Wide-Area Augmentation System 16

Index
64