Table: 2.

1: FOUNDATION BASEMENTS AND DAMP PROOF

COURSE
ELEMENT AND DEFECTS
CAUSES
Foundations
Excessive Settlement
Over loading of soil due
Inadequate width or depth required for bearing
capacity of subsoil and causing higher loading
than designed one.
Structural alterations such as building used for a
different purpose and formation of large
openings in supported walls causing
concentration of loading on adjacent
foundations
(Or)
Sinking of foundation

Deferential settlement

Inadequate bearing capacity

Local variations in soil under foundations
Adjoining construction activities
Over loading and quick sand phenomenon

Cracks and fracture in

Foundation

Differential settlement in foundation

Shrinkage of clay sub-soils due to
Withdrawal of ground water by prolonged drought
Growing trees nearby
Site drainage
Tunneling
Long time settlement of peat or made up ground
if present under foundation
Downhill creep of clay soils if present
Foundation of extension bays, screen walls laid
with shallower foundations than those of the main
buildings.
Dynamic loading on foundations due to earth
quake.
Vibrations from: Heavy traffic, Machinery, Pilling
operations and Tunneling operations etc.
Freezing of water in upper layers.
Non provision of expansion joints below DPC level
Vegetation-growth and thrust exerted by tree

ELEMENT AND DEFECTS

CAUSES
Disintegration of
Foundation
Chemical reaction such as sulphate attack on
cement concrete
Freezing and thawing

Basements:
Inward bulging of walls

Excessive lateral pressure due to combined effect

of active earth pressure and water pressure from
outside
Increased pressure on basement walls to
(a) Plugging of drains
(b)Excessive rain
(c) Inadequate design
(d)Submerged soil pressure
(e) Drainage quality of the sub-soil

Cracks in raft

Inadequate design
Construction joints not treated
Non provision of expansion joints

Vertical Cracks

Drying shrinkage
Excessive thermal stresses due to temperature
variations

Vertical or on an angle
Cracks in wall
Horizontal and diagonal

Deferential settlement of foundations

Cracks in wall

Lateral pressure and excessive shear force

Poor quality materials and continuous dampness or
alternative wetting and drying

Efflorescence
Damp Proof Course:

Rising dampness

Poor quality materials in DPC

Poor Construction practices
Non provision of damp proof membrane
Failure of damp proofing systems
DPC not wide enough to cover full wall width
Damage caused in DPC while providing service
pipes, etc.
Bridging of DPC due to,
(a) Inadequate plinth level i.e. less than 15cm from
DPC
(b)Continuous external rendering over foundation
and DPC
(c) Improper level of floor (floor level above DPC)
(d)Dropping and improper ties in cavity walls
Non provision of vertical DPC split level floors.

Table 2.2: WALLS

ELEMENT AND DEFECTS
Load Bending walls
Diagonal cracks
following
Horizontal and vertical
Joints in masonry

CAUSES

Settlement of foundation
Vegetation

Horizontal and vertical Thermal movement due to omission of expansion

joints in long walls
Foundation laid on shrinkable clay
Moisture movement due to expansion of freshly
used bricks in masonry
Sulphate attack on joint mortar
Corrosion of metal ties if used in wall masonry for
strengthening.

cracks

Splitting

Excessive horizontal movement because of

earthquake, Explosion, etc

Outward bulging of
walls

Displacement of wall through one or more of the

following
High slenderness ratio i.e. thickness of wall
insufficient in relation to height
Inadequate lateral support i.e. cross walls or floors
not built into the walls to restrain movement.
Overloading of structure
Vibrations from heavy traffic or machine

Movement of wall at
DPC
level

Irreversible expansion due to absorption of moisture

in new clay bricks and lack of mechanical key / bond
at DPC

Spreading

Spreading of beam bottom or rafter feet / ring

beam, exerting horizontal thrust on supporting walls
due to non existing of bearing plaster / Kraft paper.

(Outward displacement of
wall at top)
Efflorescence

Horizontal cracking of

Presence of soluble salts in construction material

Alternative wetting and drying

Sulphate attack causing expansion of mortar in

joints of outer leaf

Inner leaf
Browing of external
leaf of
Cavity walls

Insufficient wall ties or poor quality ties

Penetration of rain
water

Bridging of cavity
Mortar debris in cavity
Wall ties wrongly positioned / installed

Instability

Incorrect specifications
Corrosion or absence of wall ties

Efflorescence on
external

Alternate wetting and drying

Presence of soluble salts

Face
Opening in walls Lintel &
Weather (shades)

Cracks in lintel soffit

Opening of sill frame

Joints
Cracks in concrete /
mortar

Inadequate design
Construction fault
Inadequate bearing
Concrete lintel upside down with reinforcement at
top instead of bottom (In pre cast lintel)

Alternate wetting and drying in case of wooden

frames
Shrinkage
Impact damage

Non Load Bearing Walls in fill panels

Cracks at head and
sides

Drying shrinkage in light weight concrete block /

panel
Inadequate support at base
Deflection of upper floor joints
New portion build on old floor
Differential movement between partition and

Brick panels
Outward bowing
Concrete panels

Differential movement between concrete frame and

brick panels

Uneven weathering
and
dirt streaks

Inadequate projections to keep rain water clear off

surface

Rust strains

Inadequate cover to reinforcement or poor quality

porous concrete

Sulphate attack
Weathering
Physical damage
Surface disintegration
Glass panels
Cracks and Fixing
defects

Parapet walls
Cracks

Failing of holding material VIZ, putties, sealant etc

Natural calamity
Erroneous fixing and alignment
Improper edges and corners
Physical impact.

Moisture penetration
Sulphate attack
Deflection and tilt due to wind / earth quake force.

Over sailing of parapet with

Over all movement due to
Or without cracks
Moisture expansion of bricks
Frost attack of the bricks / mortar
Sulphate attack of mortar
Thermal movement of roof

Boundary walls

Lateral stability not considered in design

Inadequate foundation
Poor bonding of mortar
Height / thickness ratio high
Natural calamity VIZ, floods, earth quake etc

Collapse

Masonry
disintegration

Unsuitable brick and mortar

Sulphate attack
Rising dampness

Wall leaning

Inadequate foundation and lateral support

Cracks

Differential settlement of foundation

Moisture movement
Vegetation

Expansion of metal work due to corrosion in RCC

coping and iron fencing
Penetration of moisture
Vegetation
Splitting of coping and
lifting of top surface

Table 2.3: WALL FINISHES

Plaster
Crazing of surface

Large cracks

Continuous cracks in

Drying shrinkage
Shrinkage of substrate light weight concrete
partitions
Differential movement of structural members
Cracking of substrate due to settlement of
foundations and external vibrations

Non provision of groove in plaster

Rotation of junction and deflection of roofs slab /
beam
plaster at junction of slab /

beam and wall

Cracks at the junction
of

Different thermal movement of backing materials

subjected to high temperature variations.
Differential shrinkage due to material properties and
time of construction

different substrate material

(e.g. lintels, Columns and
embedded pipes)
Pitting or browning in

Inadequate slaking and maturing of lime mortar

lime plaster
Flaking

Differential shrinkage of top and bottom coats

Flaking of finishing
coat

Inadequate bond to under coat

Excessive shrinkage of final coat
Delay in final coat

Unsoundness and de-

Plaster material not strong enough to resist

movement of substrate
Excessive absorption of water from plaster by
porous substrate
Inadequate key to substrate due to smooth surfaces
Differential thermal movement of plaster and
substrate

bonding

Powdering of plaster

Improper setting and hardening o plaster

Inadequate curing

Bulging of ceiling
plaster

Excessive deflection / vibration in substrate

De-bonding due to moisture penetration at the
interface of substrate

Efflorescence

Alternative wetting and drying

Presence of soluble salts in plaster mix

Pointing
Hollowness and
erosion of

Un racked joints
Poor workmanship
Inadequate curing
Joints not filled with mortar
Weak / poor mortar mix
Severe climate-wind driven rainstorm, floods etc
Detachment of earlier pointing from the substrate
Freezing and thawing
Long term aging of mortar

Inadequate bound to wall face

Weak / mortar
Differential movement of substrate
Transfer of cracks from substrate
Shrinkage rendering of mortar
Contamination resulting in high shrinkage

mortar

Rendering

De bonding and cracks in

rendering

Horizontal and
Vertical

Sulphate attack
Alkali aggregate reaction in background material

Cracks in rendering

Cladding
Displacement and
cracking

Inadequate bond / adhesion with base

Differential movement of substrate
Shortening of individual beams and columns of RC
frame due to shrinkage, creep and loading
Loss of adhesion due to bending of base structure

of cladding

Table 2.4: CHMNEY STACK AND SHAFTS

Chimney stacks
Cracking, splitting and Condensation of the water vapour in the flue gases
resulting in water migrating in to the walls of the
stack causing mortar expansion
bending

Damp penetration

Exposed stacks not weather proof

Flues open to roof space / flu opening not covered
DPC in chimney absent or wrongly placed
Roof plastering incorrectly detailed

Staining of chimney
breast

Service shafts

In sanitary condition

Flues not vented and condensation leaking from flue

in to brick work
Room ventilation inadequate
High differential temperature inside and outside
Masonry and flue liner not jointed properly
Flue terminal unsuitable

Design fault Lack of drainage

Misuse of access
Lack of suitable access
Birds and insect breeding
Human factor throwing of litter
In-sanitation and damp condition

Table 2.5: COLUMNS AND BEAMS

Columns
Cracks

Shrinkage cracks
Differential temperature
Corrosion
Excessive loading

Spalling

Corrosion-Carbonation or Chloride attack

Physical damage

Crushing of columns

Excessive loading beyond compressive strength of

concrete

Buckling

Inadequate design
Excessive slenderness ratio

Defective lift joints

Poor workmanship

Joint failures

Inadequate design
Excessive beam reaction / shear force
Bearing failure

Beams
Cracks

Lateral physical impact

Shrinkage
Inadequate design
Thermal movements

Spalling

Corrosion of reinforcement

Crushing of bearing

Inadequate bearing surface

Design or construction failure

Excessive span / effective depth ratio

Excessive loading
Loading pattern and load positions
Excessive deflection

Lateral bulging

Deflective workmanship
Excessive lateral loading unaccounted in design
Poor form work

Table 2.6: ROOF AND ROOF TERRACES

Flat Roof

Cracking

Shrinkage in concrete
End / support conditions
Incorrect placement of reinforcement
Inadequate design
Improper mix design
Inadequate compaction and curing
Delay in providing weather proofing course
Differential expansion of hidden conduit pipes

Spalling

Freezing and thawing

Corrosion of reinforcement
Sulphate attack

Deflection

Over loading
Improper design-high span / depth ratio
Improper construction practices i.e. Poor form work
of Excessive cover provided

Crushing of bearing

Inadequate bearing area

Inadequate reinforcement at bearing
Simply supported bearing against continuous
support conditions

Shearing failure

Inadequate design details for shear force

Corner lifting

Inadequate design
Harsh initial drying
Excessive bending and deflection

Ponding

Inadequate slope and drainage

Inadequate design of rain water pipe
Blockage of the drainage system

Pitched roof
Sagging / and
deformation

Inadequate design of frame and its joints

Deterioration in strength of structural members
Failure and excessive bending of purlins
Overloading
Load of the roof causing the spread of the outer
walls
Horizontal movement at feet of rafters
Bearing wall plates not properly secured to the wall
Removal of support purlins and internal struts

Sagging of purlins and Under of fixing

Over loading and point loads on roof
rafters
Slipping roof tiles and
slates

Failure of fixing
Loosening of fixing due to frost action
Damage and corrosion of frames and fixtures
Atmospheric pollution attack on slates
Too steep slopes

Failure of welding, riveting, nailing, bolts etc. due to

inappropriate design and poor workmanship

Joint failures

Mould growth,
corrosion

Inadequate provision for ventilation

Leakage and dampness
Passage of water vapour and gases into the roof
space from inside
Condensation in roof space

and rot in roof spaces

Ceiling plaster
Cracks

Loss of adhesion

Shrinkage
Deflection of structural substrate panels
Physical impact

Weak undercoat
Too smooth substrate of roof slab
Absence of mechanical key

Cementitious water proofing Systems

Improper bond

Poor surface preparation

Improper primer and bonding material

Cracks

Transmission of substrate cracks

Poor crack bridging capacity
Excessive deformation and stresses in substrate

Deterioration

Ultra violet (UV) effect

Liquid Membranes
Blistering

Entrapment of air and / or moisture

Poor breathing capacity
Substrate moist

Deterioration

Ageing / UV effect

Factory produced membranes

Folding and ridging /

Incorrect layout
Incorrect use of bonding media (adhesive)
Improper storage of membranes

Ripping

Blistering

Expansion of entrapped air or moisture by solar

heat.

Embrittlement of the

Ultra violet radiation

Atmospheric oxidation of the bitumen
Excessive differential movement between the
membrane and the substrate

membrane and tearing

effect

Loss of adhesion
Leakage

Improper application (during cold / wet or windy

day)
Damp substrate

 Pressure on blister or folded surface resulting in

cracks and openings
Inadequate provision to isolate felt from building
movement
Deterioration / mechanical damage of membrane

Polymer Roofing
Leakage

Inadequate bonded joints

Puncture of polymer sheet

Splitting

Mechanical damage by dropping of stones, nails and

tools on Polymers.

Ferrocement
Cracks

Shrinkage (Rich cement mortar)

Corrosion due to improper cover
Inadequate curing

Day joints

Non provision of bonding agent

De-bonding

Poor surface preparation

Brick bat Coba

Cracks

Improper detailing of construction / day joints

Shrinkage of mortar
Inadequate curing

 Non provision of fillet

Cracks along the periphery
Lime terracing
Cracks

Blisters
Mudfuskha
Opening of surface
joints

Non provision of fillet at junctions

Inadequate maturing of lime
Inadequate provision of supplementary materials
like fenugreek powder, Gur water, fibers etc.

Inadequate slacking of limes

Shrinkage and thermal movements
Abrasion
Human activities

Ponding

Improper drainage slope

Improper maturing and compaction of mud
Inadequate supplementary materials like natural
fibers, crude oil etc

Lifting of tiles

Ingress of water below tiles

De-bonding of tiles with base mud mortar
Evaporation of locked moisture
Tile joints not sealed with proper mortar

Deterioration of tiles

Chemical action due to environmental pollution

IPS/ Mosaic / Stone

Flooring (Used for
accessible Terraces)
Cracks and opening of

Thermal movement (Expansion / Contraction)

Shrinkage
Mechanical impact
Poor compaction of bed mortar

Joints

Breaking of floor
separators

Human activities
Alternative wetting and drying

Table 2.7: FLOORS AND FLOOR FINISHES

Slab on grade

Bulging

Swelling of soils

Cracks

Joints edge breaking

Deterioration of floor separators / strips

Shrinking of floor /

Design failure
Improper compaction of sub-base

Incorrect specification of mix

Inadequate thickness of screed
Deformation of base and sub-bas e
Inadequate curing
Slab subjected to harsh initial drying
Non provision of contraction and isolation joints
Large size floor panels

Collapsing
Wetting of floor

Leakage in buried pipes

Improper mix uses
Inadequate curing

Lifting / curing

Sulphate attack
Floor laid in too large bays
Poor workmanship
Defective / deteriorated lean sub-base concrete

Upper Floors
Deflection in slab

Inadequate design (Large span / depth ratio)

Springy floors

Incorrect joint length

Perimeter support omitted

Unaccepted sound

In sufficient insulating media, inadequate isolation /

resilience against impact and sound

Transmission through floor

Floor granite finishes

Granolithic
Cracking and lifting

Poor bond to base concrete especially when old

concrete not been cleaned, hacked and wetted
before laying floor finish
Shrinkage in finish material

Dusting

Unsuitable materials in mix such as dust, clay etc

Poor workmanship
Excessive bleeding and drying

Terrazzo
Cracking and lifting

Poor bond key to base

Omission of movement joints
Panels laid in large sizes

De-bonding of top
layer

Inadequate substrate preparation and poor

mechanical key

Spalling at joints

Disintegration of floor

Abrasion
Poor quality material
Ageing

Abrasion
Improper level at joints
Corner lifting
Concrete disintegration

Separators

Linoleum
Irregular surface

Inadequate preparation of base slab

Poor workmanship in laying

Flexible PVC
Lifting of edges and
Surface bubbles
Brown stains on
surface

Alkaline moistures from screed attacking adhesive

at edges
Entrapped air or moisture bubbles in primer or

Tar from adhesive diffusing through micro holes and

cracks in PVC

De-bonding

Poor surface preparation

Improper use of bonding material

Scuff marks on
surface

Black rubber in foot wear, caster wheels / tyres

Rubber
Surface deterioration

Contact with oil flats and greases

Mechanical deterioration
Weathering effect

Cement concrete / Terrazzo Stone / Ceramic tiles

Arching and lifting

Drying shrinkage of base screed

Expansion of tiles due to moisture absorption
Differential thermal movement of concrete base and
tiles

De bonding

Proof surface preparation

Improper use of bonding material

Surface deterioration

Attack of solvent based cleaners and chemicals

Physical wear and tear

Wood ties

Staining and lifting of

tiles

Rising damp from floors causing expansion of tiles

Omission of expansion strip around perimeter of
area
Inadequately seasoned tiles
Unsuitable moisture content and shrinkage

Industrial floor finishes

Concrete floors
Finishing started before the base concrete has
stiffened
Floating and toweling far too soon.
The surface was sealed too early
Entrap air and water continue to rise during
finishing
The air and water formed voids between the surface
Blistering

Crazing

Shrinkage of the cement paste on the surface

caused due to too high or too low w/c ratio in mix
Excessive bleeding and rapid drying

Curling and wavy

surface

Top concrete cools while the lower layer remains

warm
Rapid shrinkage a top than at bottom due to
different rate of dryings
The concrete beneath the surface was not hardened
before finishing
Rapid drying due to Sun, Wind or low humidity
A cold sub-grade or a retarder delayed setting
below the surface
The cracks bulged from beneath as the power
trowel is moved across the slab
The concrete surge ahead of the screed was not
kept uniform
Addition of water at the job site to increase the

Dusting

Excessive presence of free lime in concrete matrix

Chemical action
Concrete surface dries without hardening

Disintegration

Abrasion
Impact damage
Freezing and thawing

Plastic shrinkage
cracking

Rapid evaporation of water from the surface due to

Low humidity
High wind velocity
High concrete temperature
Moderate to high air temperature

(Cracks that occur before

the concrete sets)

Uneven colour (light

and

Variation of mix, slump, Finishing and curing

Excessive bleeding producing lighter surface
Low water cement ratio producing dark surface
Change in cement brand
Early toweling on wet surface
A toweled surface or a boomed surface
Plastic sheets in contact leave a mottled
appearance

Scaling

Air entrained concrete is not used

Poor quality
Too soon and too much toweling
Curing not done properly

Uncontrolled
shrinkage

Shrinkage during drying and cooling causes

uncontrolled crack especially in large panels

dark areas)

cracking

Indentation

Concentrated loads applied to the finish for an

appreciable peri of time

Slipperiness

Excessive presence or unsuitable polish

Uneven wear

Excessive traffic such as in aisle

Poor workmanship

Popouts

Internal pressure from absorptive particles near

surface
Excessive presence of soluble salts

Settlement

Inadequate soil compaction under the substrate

Table 2.8: JOINERY WORK

Frames
Surface damage /

Inadequate protection to timber

Use of inappropriate grade of timber
Moisture ingress into timber

deterioration

Distortion

Cracking of glass

Varying moisture content causing expansion and

contraction
Opening up of partly formed joints / poor
workmanship
Extreme temperature and humidity
Inadequate lintel design (lintel load transferred on
frame)
Improper fixing with adjoining masonry

Corrosion of steel screws, clips and frame

Excessive deflection of lintel causing distortion of
frame

Loosening /
Deterioration

Excessive pressure on joint fixtures-jointing failures

Poor workmanship
Excessive moisture content in wooden members

of individual members

Cracking & softening

Dry and wet rot

Nailing or Physical impact

Deterioration

Non provision of protective coating especially on the

face in contact with masonry
Dry and wet rot in timber
Insect / termite attack
Corrosion on steel frames
Bimetallic action on aluminium frame exposed to
environment

Window and doors

Door sticking

Warping of thin or insufficiently seasoned wood

Inadequate hinge support or loosening of hinges

Pin holes

Beetle infestation and wet / dry rot

Decayed window
boards

Damp penetration under sill

Omission of DPC under sill
Condensation

De-lamination of
plywood

Inadequate protection against moisture

Inappropriate specifications

panel

Table 2.9: DECORATIVE / PROTECTIVE FINISHES

Paint film
Blistering

Entrapped moisture forces the paint into little

bubbles or blisters

Bleeding

The resinous deposits of the sub-surface coming to

the surface of paint cause bleeding

Blooming

Mist haze or milkiness due to presence of moisture

or chilling of surface glassy coat

Chalking

Powdering of the surface paint due to external

exposure and lack of paint binder

Crazing

Irregular cracking of surface due to use of hard

drying paint with thick consistency

Curtaining and
sagging

Un even application of paint

Too much application of paint

Flaking / peeling and

cissing

Lifting up and peeling away of the paint due to loss

of adhesion
Incomplete preparation of surface
Incomplete application of primer coat

Grinning

Surface not cleaned

Paint partly applied
Poor capacity of the paint film

Gilling

Formation of unstable gelly due to unstable thinners

or long storage

Loss of gloss

Porous under coat or moisture on the surface

Alkaline material left on wood

Mould

Damp conditions

Uneven drying

Surface not properly cleaned

Residues of paint removers
Finish applied before undercoat dried

Resin coming through

Knots not properly treated

Very resinous knots not cut out

Sticky film

Alkali attack by salts in backing

Table 2.10: SERVICES

Pipe work

Leaking pipes

Corrosion
External damage due to vibrations and bumping
Freezing and thawing

Leaking joints

Water hammer

Sudden increase in pressure in the system

Water hammer in cold pipes caused by loose washer
plates in valves
Knocking in hot water pipes caused by
obstructions in the flow in return pipes
Sudden closing of traps

Rupture of pipe

Freezing of water in pipes resulting in volume

increase

Taps and Stopcocks

Wearing out of gland

External damage
Poor installation
Bimetallic corrosion when dissimilar metals used
Chemical action of fluxes
Thermal expansion / contraction due to hot and cold
water circulation

Water leaks around

top of

Faulty gland packing

Defective handles of stem
The washer has deteriorated or broken
The seat is worn and pitted
Loosening of washer from the seat

spindle

Drips when closed or

Faulty washer or worn valve seating

Threads of spindle worn out

vibrates when opened

Ball valves
Discharge from
overflow

Valve fails to close properly due to faulty washer, or

eroded seating or presence of grit or lime deposits

Sticking in closed
position

Usually follows a period of no use during which dirt

and lime dry out in the working parts

Inadequate flows

Use of high pressure instead of low pressure valve

Hissing noise

High pressure feed

Storage cistern

Overflow

Plunger washer worn out

Float valve broken or deteriorated
Float valve defective

Water flowing
continuously

Flush valve defective

Deformation of rubber valve or valve not seating
properly

Water not flowing

Bell / siphon type arrangement out of alignment

Operating lever defective

Cistern fails to fill

Defective float valve (plunger jam)

Rust pitting of
galvanised

Electrolytic action due to iron filling from drilling

holes left in tank or deposition of copper from water
into sides of tank

steel cisterns
Corrosion of fittings

Bimetallic action with fittings of brass or other

copper bearing alloys.

attached to cistern
Distortion of PVC
cistern

Inadequate base support

Drainage
Water pipe
Softening and
distortion

Blocking

Ageing
Reaction with chemical cleaners

Internal corrosion
Household waste

Traps
Leakage

Faulty plumbing
Body crack

Clogging

Accumulation of grease, dirt and other materials i.e.

hair and lint etc

Foul smell

Water seal broken due to evaporation and drying

Underground pipes
Blockage

Poor layout (pipe runs not in straight line between

access points of laid with insufficient slope to clear
soil)
Drain fractured by settlement, heavy traffics or
trees roots
Accumulation of builders rubbishs during
construction

Failure under tests

Defective joints at:

Base of soil pipe
Entry to manhole
Intermediate point
Drain fractured
Cracked flaunting in manholes

Tanks
Overhead / Underground
Overflow / no flow

Float valve not functioning

Leakage

Faulty plumbing,
Cracks in tank body
Alternate wetting and drying

Septic tanks
Floating sludge

Sludge decomposition due to long travel

Foul smell

Septicisation of sewage due to long travel time in

sewer line
Presence of sewage solids and plant growths

Detergents used in the household washing causes

frothing

Table 2.11: MATERIALS

Timber
Deformation

Seasonal moisture movement of timber at the end

Rot in structural
timber

Dry rot due to ingress of water through defective

coverings or condensation
Wet rot when moisture content of timber is more
than 30%

Decay / deterioration

Insect / termite attack

Continuous dampness

Bricks
White powdering
deposit

Efflorescence caused by crystallization of soluble

salts in bricks or mortar
Sulphate attack

Staining of bricks

Efflorescence
Dampness
Absorption of chemical salts

Decay (Disintegration) Crystallization of salts formed below the surface in

the brick crevices, these cause surface erosion and
known as Crypto florescence. When crypto
florescence continues identified it leads to the
decay of bricks

Stone
Staining (organic)

Presence of alkali in mortar, cement and hydrated

lime

Staining (metallic)

Metals attached to stone

Pitting and staining of

Continuous dampness

limestone
Decay of sandstone

Continuous dampness

Delamination of
surface

Penetration of rain water with subsequent disruption

of surface of freezing
Sulphate attack from soluble salts in backing or
bedding mortar

layers

Erosion of surface

Weathering effect (stone soluble in rain water

containing carbon Dioxide and sulphur dioxide)

Contour scaling

Repeated alternate repeated wetting and drying of

the stone which leads to differential conditions in
outer and inner layers

Blistering of surface

Atmospheric pollution-sulphur dioxide absorbed in

the rain water to form a weak acid solution which
attacks the natural binding medium of the stone

Concrete

Chemical reaction
Thermal expansion and contraction
Overloading or overstressing
Corrosion

Cracking
Popout

Excessive presence of soluble salts

Permeability

Poor mix design, higher W/C ration and improper

curing

Weathering of
concrete

Carbonation

Environment pollution
Porous concrete
Non provision of sealer coat

Discoloration

Environmental pollution
Wind driven rains

Surface damage

Concrete surface can be damaged by

Mechanical impact or abrasion
Unusual condition of exposure
Improper design or construction
Unsuitable materials

Deterioration

Atmospheric pollution rains and acid rains

Physical abrasior
Chemical attack
Solar radiation

Sulphate attack
Presence of destructive bacteria
Presence of waste water pollutants
Absence of protective lining material

Honey combing

Insecure from work which allows the leakage or

bleeding of plastic concrete, especially the cement
content
Improper compaction and insufficient consolidation
Over compaction or excess vibration

Spalling

Dusting /
delamination

Build up of water and air beneath a dense layer of

surface mortar resulting in de-lamination

Disintegration

R.C.C

Frost damage
Fire damage
Corrosion
Sulphate attack

Chemical reaction
Sulfhate attack
Faulty mix design
Impurities in materials
Incorrect construction practices

Failure of cover
concrete

Cover concrete weak and porous-unable to resist

expansion forces caused by
Corrosion of rebars
Differential thermal expansion
Moisture ingress
Frost action

Mild Steel
Rusting / Corrosion /
Pitting

Exposure to atmosphere
Exposed to moisture / polluted air

High Strength steel

Corrosion

Stress corrosion

Copper
Pitting Corrosion

Aluminium

Pitting Corrosion

Attack by flue gases containing sulphur dioxide

Contact of carbon with copper

Rain water draining from copper covered roofs and

depositing small particles of copper on aluminium
The presence of copper together with damp
conditions caused by heavy and repeated
condensation lead to serious corrosion

Chemical corrosion

Unprotected aluminium embedded in cement

mortar or concrete exposed to salt spray will also
lead to corrosion
Anodised layer disfigured by splashes of cement or

Bimetallic corrosion

Attack from lead

Contact with copper / Steel and presence of
dampness

Lead
Corrosion

Attack by free alkali present in concrete / mortar

Zinc
Corrosion

Exposure to sulphur gases and compounds

Asbestos Sheets
Cracking and breaking Subjected to more pressure due to overloading
Impact damage

Deterioration

Moss and lichen growth cause surface deterioration

Atmospheric pollution

Galvanized Iron Sheets

Deterioration
Corrosion of basic material
Ageing and atmospheric pollution
Corrosion of nails and wind action

Thatch

Ageing and atmospheric pollution

Heavy rains and winds
Rat eating and bird habitation
Termite attack

Deterioration of thatch

Ripping off

Heavy wind / storm

Improper securing of thatch

Fibre Reinforced Plastics Sheets

Cracks near J bolts

Less tearing strength

Deterioration

Ageing and Ultra violet effect

Glass
Cracking / breakage

Vandalism
Thermal stresses (Different coefficient of thermal
expansion of glass and frame material)

Table 2.12: DAMPNESS IN BUILDINGS

Foundation
Damp patches near
plinth

below DPC visible on

external during rainy
season
Basements

Absence / failure of vertical water proofing system

around foundation
Collection of water adjoining the foundation areas
and impervious soil strata
Failure water proofing equalities of foundations

 Penetration of water under pressure through

construction joints / Cracks / Porous structures
Moisture penetration from sub soil through cracked
basement walls / raft slab
Inadequate water proofing system
Failure of water proofing system due to
(i)
Deterioration with age
(ii)
Lack of continuity of water proofing system
e.g. not carried under stanchions and other
structural members which may penetrate the
water proofing system
(iii) Damage occurring during construction
Non provision of perforated pipe damage around the
perimeter of the basement
Condensation. This is likely to arise when heating is
used intermittently without adequate ventilation
Dampness is visible on
walls and floors. In serve
cases water may be leaking
or seeping through walls or
floors, or may be collecting
in low level areas

Walls
Dampness at or near ground level
Semi permanent
dampness

This type of dampness is due to one or more of the

following:
(i)
Lack of a damp proof course
(ii)
Bridging of the damp proof course
(iii) Failure of the damp proof course

can be seen on wall

surfaces from ground
level up to approximately
750mm or even higher in
severe cases. Decorations
may be damp, blistered and
discolored or dried out and pushed
off the wall by a salt deposit. There may
be rot in floor and skirting boards adjacent
to the deteriorated wall.
External solid walls
Visible damp stains
and

The wall cannot resist direct penetration of driving

rain high intensity
Deteriorating brick work joints or rendering
Defective gutter or rain water pipe
Carelessly made construction and lift joints
Loss of cement paste due to poor form joints
resulting in honey combing and continuous capillary
paths

mould growth on
decorative internal face

Cavity walls
Dampness on internal

decorative surface near

DPC, or lintel level

Excess mortar build up at various points in the

cavity
Wall ties put in wrongly they slope down towards
inner wall
Cavity bridged by injected foam
Absence or damage of DPC over lintel

Internal walls
Patchy damp areas
on

Leaking or possibly back filling overflow pipes

Leaking pipes embedded in the wall causing frost
damage or corrosion
Localised chemical action
Localised condensation over buried rising main

plaster work, accompanied

by peeling of wall paper,
discoloration or, surface
stains or mould growth
Patches of damp
occur

Condensation of water vapour in the air in contact

with cold surfaces
Condensation of moisture vapour with in the body of
the wall
Residual / construction water

particularly in kitchens and

cold bathrooms. Moisture
beads appear on the
surface of dense materials
Openings in walls
Damp patch over
head of

Inadequate design (Drip / throating missing or partly

constructed)
Absence of gola / fillet at intersection of wall and
lintel
Omission of cavity tray over opening incavity wall or
tray too short causing dampness in corners

opening

Damp patches around

Omission of vertical DPC at junction of inner and

outer leaves or window / door frame

window / door frames

Damp stain at still
level

Chimney
Dampness in upper
part of

Condensation running down on inner face to glass

Gap between frame and glass
Defective sealant incapable of accommodating
differential movement of different materials

Defective damp proofing of stack, gutter etc

Absence or defective damp proof course or flashing
in the chimney stacks

stack
Dampness in chimney

Defective chimney pot and / or bedding on the stack

allowing penetration of water
Chemical action due to flue gases
Condensation in unlined flue

breast or flue and

discolouration of
decoration
Internally below parapets
Dampness visible
on the

Absence of defective damp proofing in the parapet

Split at the junction of the roof finish and parapet
due to structural deformations
Condensation
Cracked, leaking or blocked gutter or spout behind
parapet
Internal plaster of the
upper parts of external
walls. Initially dampness
appears at the wall / ceiling

junction and then spreads

downloads, pronounced
after heavy rain or snow fall.
Underside of flat roofs
Condensation of water vapour passing from the
Damp patches
visible after
room below ceiling into the structural roof slab.
Residual construction water entrapped during roof
laying and drips slowly.
Direct rain penetration and it travels horizontally
between roof slab and felt.
Water dripping from cracks in ceiling or around
electric fittings
rain and in winters around
the perimeter of the roof.

Pitched Roofs
Damp patches
on

seen Inadequate laps or nailed through troughs instead of

crowns of corrugations
Defective tiles or slates
Defective battens to which tiles and slates are
attached (wood worm or fungal attack)
Defective parapet or valley gutters
Leaking water tank

False ceiling after raining or

snow fall

Solid ground floors

Persistently damp
floor

Absence or ineffective damp proof membrane

Base concrete and floor material porous /
permeable
Carpeting or linoleum may retain dampness which
would otherwise evaporate
Where the dampness is restricted to the perimeter it
may be due to non linking of the floor damp proof
membrane and wall damp proof course

except in very dry weather.

Mould growth on
underside of carpet.

Ceiling and Floors

Damp patches on
ceilings
or floors
External Joinery

Leak from broken appliances

Leaks from defective joints and pipes of services
Leaks due to inadequate laps in case of pitched
roofs

penetration Worn threshold or absence of water bar and

weather fillet
external doors
Note:
Dampness resulting from defective appliances, joints and pipes may well
show it self some Distance away from the source since small leaks will run
down along pipes and ductwork before dropping onto other surfaces and
becoming apparent.
Water
from