waves and Sound

Definitions
1.

Vibration

One complete round trip of a simple harmonic motion is called vibration.

or
If a body in periodic motion moves to and fro over the same path, this motion
is called Oscillation.
2.

Time Period (T)

The time required to complete vibration is known as time period.

3.

Frequency

It is the number of vibrations executed by an oscillating body in one second.

4.

Displacement

It is the distance of a vibrating body at any instant from the equilibrium

position.
5.

Amplitude

The maximum distance of the body on either side of its equilibrium position is
known as amplitude.
6.

wave Length

The distance between two consecutive crests and troughs is called

wavelength.
7.

Natural Frequency

The frequency at which an object will vibrate freely (without any external
periodic force or resistance) is known as natural frequency of that object.
8.

Audible Sound

Our ear can hear only those sounds whose frequency is between 20Hz and
20000Hz. This range is known as audible sound.

9.

Ultrasonic Sound

Sound with frequency greater than 20000 Hz is known as ultrasonic sound.

10.

Octave

The interval between a waveform and another of twice the frequency is

known as Octave.
Units
Frequency: Cycles per second (eps) or Hertz (hz)
wavelength: Meter
Intensity of Sound: Watt/meter2 or W/m2
Noise: Decibel (DB)

Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M)

Definition
To and fro motion of a body in which acceleration is directly proportional to
displacement and always directed towards mean position is known as Simple
Harmonic Motion.

Condition for S.H.M

The conditions for simple Harmonic Motion are given below:
Some resisting force must act upon the body.
Acceleration must be directly proportional to the displacement.
Acceleration should be directed towards mean position.
System should be elastic.
Examples
Following are the examples of S.H.M:
Body attached to a spring horizontally on an ideal smooth surface.
Motion of a simple and compound pendulum.
Motion of a swing.

Motion of the projection of a body in a circle with uniform circular motion.

Resonance
Definition
The large amplitude vibration of an object when given impulses at its natural
frequency is known as Resonance.
Experiment
Consider a long string stretched tightly between two pegs. Four pendulums A,
B, C and D of different lengths are fastened to the string. Another pendulum E
of same length as A is also fastened.
When pendulum E is set to vibrate, it will be observed that all the pendulums
start to swing but pendulum A begins to vibrate with larger amplitude, as
pendulum E is set into vibration. It imparts its motion to the string. This string
in turn imparts the same periodic motion to the pendulums. The natural
frequency of all other pendulums except A is different. Due to the same
natural frequency only A vibrates as the same vibration of E. This
phenomenon under which pendulum A begin to vibrate is called resonance.

Example
March of Soldiers while Crossing the Bridge
Each bridge has its own natural frequency and marching of soldiers is another
vibrating system. So there may occur a force on vibration in bridge. This may
damage the bridge. So, for safely precautions, it is written that soldiers must
march out of stop while crossing the bridge.

wave
Definition
A method of energy transfer involving some form of vibration is known as a
wave.

wave Motion
wave motion is a form of disturbance, which travels through a medium due to
periodic motion of particles of the medium about their mean position.

Example
We see that if we dip a pencil into a tap of water and take it out a pronounced

circular ripple is set up on the water surface and travels towards the edges of
the tub. However if we dip the pencil and take it out many times, a number of
ripples will be formed one after the other.
waves can also be produced on very long ropes. If one end of the rope is fixed
and the other end is given sudden up and down jerk, a pulse-shaped wave is
formed which travels along the rope.

Transverse wave
Definition
The wave in which amplitude is perpendicular to the direction of wave
motion is known as Transverse wave.

Examples
Radio waves
Light waves
Micro waves
waves in Water
waves in String

Longitudinal wave
Definition
The wave in which amplitude is parallel to wave motion is called longitudinal
wave.
Example
Sound waves
Seismic waves

Sound
Definition
A vibration transmitted by air or other medium in the form of alternate
compressions and rarefactions of the medium is known as Sound.

Production of Sound

Sound is produced by a vibrating body like a drum, bell, etc, when a body
vibrates. due to the to and fro motion of the drum, compressions and
rarefactions are produced and transmitted or propagated in air.

Propagation of Sound waves

When a body vibrates in air, it produces longitudinal waves by compressions
and rarefactions. These compressions and rarefactions are traveled by the
particles of the medium and transferred into the next particles. Due to this
transference, sound propagates in a medium.
Experiment
(Diagram)
Suspend an electric bell in a jar by its wires through a cork fixed in its mouth.
Switch on the bell, we will hear the sound of the bell. Now start removing air
from jar with the help of an exhaust (vacuum) pump. The sound will
decrease, although the hammer is still seen striking the bell. This experiment
shows that air or any other medium is necessary for the propagation of
sound.

Velocity of Sound
It is a matter of common experience that the flash of lightning is seen earlier
than hearing the thunder of cloud. Similarly when a gun is fired its sound is
heard a little after seeing its flash. The reason is that light is faster than
sound. Due to its slow velocity sound lags behind.
Experiment
Select two stations at a distance of 8 km (or any more distance) such that
there is no obstacle between them. Fire a gun at station A and note the time
of sound taken for such distance. Repeat the process and note the time taken
by the sound to travel from B to A. If we substitute the mean of the two times
recorded and distance S (8km) in the formula V = S/t, we will get the velocity
of sound.
Factors Effecting Velocity of Sound
The factors are given below:
Velocity of air or any other medium.
Density of the medium.
Temperature of the medium.

Nature of the medium

Characteristics of Sound
The characteristic properties of sound by which we can distinguish between
noise and music, shrill and grave sounds or sound of men and women are
known as characteristics of sound. The properties of sound are given below:
1.Loudness
Definition
Loudness is the magnitude of auditory sensation produce by sound.
Intensity can be defined as the energy carried by the sound waves through a
unit area placed perpendicular to the direction of waver per second.
Factors Effecting Loudness of Sound
Loudness depend on following factors:

Area of Vibration of Body: Greater will be the surface area more will be the
loudness.

Amplitude of Motion of Vibrating Object: Greater will be the amplitude, more

will be the loudness.

Density of Medium: Loudness is directly proportional to the density of

medium.

Motion and Direction: If source of sound is moving towards the listener

loudness will be greater or if wind supports the velocity of sound the loudness
will be greater.
2.

Pitch

Definition
The sensation that a sound produces in a listener as a result of its frequency
is known as Pitch.
This is the property of sound by virtue of which we can distinguish between a
shrill and grave sound.
Factors Effecting Pitch of Sound
Pitch depends on following factors:

Frequency of Vibrating Body: The greater the fundamental frequency, more

shrill will be the sound.
Relative Motion of Sound: If source and listener both are coming closer pitch
will increase.
3.

Quality or Timbre or Tone

Definition
The characteristic of a musical note that is determined by the frequency
present is known as Quality or Timbre or Tone of that sound.
This is the property of sound by virtue of which it is possible to identify a
sound of the same loudness and pitch but originating from different
instrument.
Factors Effecting Quality
Quality depends upon the following factors:
Phase of the Sound wave.
Shape of waves

Harmful Effects of Sound (Noise)

Nowadays noise is considered as a great pollution, which is very dangerous
for us. Some of them are as follows:
Continuous noise damages hearing and can result in complete deafness.
Noise has become a great cause for depression and blood pressure.
Mental system shows less efficiency due to noise.
Consequently it is harmful in all respects for living body.

Musical Sound
The sound producing pleasing effect on our ears are called musical sounds.
Difference Between Longitudinal and Transverse waves
Longitudinal waves
1. In longitudinal waves, particles of the medium vibrate in the direction of
the waves.

2. The portion of wave in which particles of medium are very close to each
other is called compression.
3. Examples of longitudinal waves are sound wave and seismic waves.

Distance between the centre of two compressions and

rarefactions is called wavelength.
4.

1. In longitudinal waves, particles of the medium vibrate in the direction of

the waves.
2. The portion of wave in which particles of medium are very close to each
other is called compression.
3. Examples of longitudinal waves are sound wave and seismic waves.
4. Distance between the centre of two compressions and rarefactions is
called wavelength.

Transverse waves
1. In transverse waves, particles of the medium vibrate in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of wave.
2. The portion in which particles of medium are higher than their normal
position is called crest.
3. Examples of transverse wave are microwaves and radio waves.
4. Distance between two crests and troughs is called wavelength

Electronics
Electronics
Electronics is a branch of Physics, which deals with the development of
electron emitting devices, their utilization and controlling electron flow in
electrical circuits designed for various purposes.

2. Semi Conductor

Substances whose electrical resistance lies between those of conductors and

insulators are known as semi-conductors.

3.

Doping

Mixing of any tetravalent element into a trivalent or pentavalent element so

that its electrical conductivity increases is called dopping.

4.

n-Type Substance

A pure semiconductor with a valency of three, doped with a pentavalent

element is called n-type semiconductor.
5.

p-Type Substance

A pure semiconductor with a valency of three doped with a trivalent element

is called n-type semiconductor.
6.

Diode

The common boundary of n-type and p-type regions in a semiconductor is

called p-n junction diode. It allows the current to flow in only one direction.
7.

Forward Biased

If the p-type material of a semi conductor diode is at a positive potential and

the n-type material is at a negative potential then the diode is forward
biased. It has a very low electrical resistance.
8.

Reverse Biased

If the p-type material of a semi-conductor diode is at a negative potential and

the n-type material is at a positive potential then the diode is reverse biased.
It has a very high electrical resistance.
9.

Rectification

The process of conversion of alternating current into direct current is known

as rectification.
10.

Rectifier

A rectifier is a device that converts Alternating current into Direct current.

11.

Transistor

A transistor is a semiconductor, which consists of a thin central layer of one

type of semiconductor material sandwiched between two relatively thick
pieces of the other type of semiconductor. The central part is known as the
base (b) and the pieces at either side are called the emitter (e) and the
collector (c).
12.

npn Transistor

The npn transistor has a thin piece of p-type substance sandwiched between
two pieces of n-type semiconductors.
13.

pnp Transistor

The pnp transistor has a thin piece of n-type substance sandwiched between
two pieces of p-type semiconductors.

Telegraph
Introduction
A telegraph is a device that is used to send and receive messages between
two distant points.
Construction
An electric telegraph consists of a battery that is connected to a buzzer
through the tapping key. There is only one wire between the buzzer and the
tapping key. The circuit is completed by connecting the other terminal to the
ground few feet below. The earth being moist acts as a good conductor.
Working
When the tapping key is pressed, the receiver produces a buzzing sound. The
interval between two buzzing sounds can be controlled by the interval
between pressing the tapping key. The international Morse Code, which is a
combination of dots and dashes is used to send and receive messages with
the help of telegraph.

Radio
Introduction

A radio is a device for receiving and sending speech or music over large areas
by electromagnetic signals.
Information is sent out into the atmosphere from a transmitting station. When
someone speaks in the microphone at the radio station, sound waves are
converted into electrical fluctuating current. This current is converted into
high frequency alternating current, which is allowed to pass in the
transmitting antenna. The transmitting antenna produces radio waves with
fluctuating amplitude. These waves are known as modulated carrier waves.
When the modulated carrier waves meet a receiving aerial, they generate
fluctuating alternating current in it. This AC is converted into DC with the help
of a rectifier. An earphone or a speaker is connected to the receiver. The DC
energizes the electromagnet of the speaker and causes the diaphragm to
vibrate. This produces the sound of same frequency as that at the radio
station.

Radar
Introduction
Radar stands for Radio Detection and Ranging. It is used to detect and find
out the distance of distant object with the help of radio waves.
Construction
It consists of a transmitter, a receiver and several indicating devices.
Working
1. Transmission: The transmitter generates very high frequency
electromagnetic waves in the desired direction with the help of a concave
antenna.
2. Receiving: These rays after striking an object are reflected back and
are received by the radar antenna. The antenna feeds these rays in the
indicating devices.
3. Processing: The indicating devices measure the time taken by the
waves to return. They calculate the wave velocity and finally the distance of
the object.
Radar waves can penetrate fog, clouds, haze and smoke.

Telephone

A telephone is a device by which two persons at distant places can directly

talk to each other through electric current carrying wires.
Construction
A telephone system consists of a microphone and a receiver.
1. Microphone: The microphone consists of a diaphragm suspended in
front of packing of carbon granules.
2. Receiver: The receiver has an electromagnet and a diaphragm made of
magnetic alloy in front of it.
1. Transmission: When someone speaks in front of the microphone, the
diaphragm vibrates due to the sound waves. The compressions and
rarefactions of the sound waves cause the diaphragm to increase and
decrease the pressure on carbon granules. This results in the increment and
decrement in the resistance offered by the granules and hence generates
fluctuating current.
2. Receiving: At the receiver, the electromagnet receives fluctuating
current, which generates a fluctuating magnetic field. The diaphragm in front
of the electromagnet also vibrates with different amplitudes and generates
sound of same frequency as spoken at the other end.

TV Camera
For the purpose of TV Transmission, TV Camera focuses on object to be
televised. The convex lens of the TV Camera produces an image on the thin
sensitive plate known as mosaic screen. The mosaic screen is fixed in the
camera and has the ability to emit electrons. When light is stronger, more
electrons are given out the material making positive at this location. The
beam of electrons from the electron gun in the camera tube is meant for
scanning the back surface of the mosaic screen along the successive
longitudinal lines in it. Special magnetic deflection system achieves this
purpose. As soon as the beam hits on an area with high positive charge, few
of the negative charges are repelled. If the positive charge is less, more of
the electrons are emitted. After the collection of these electrons it is
converted into voltage pulse known as video signal. The video signals that
have been amplified are utilized to manufacture very high frequency. This
frequency is received by a television antenna, which reverses the process
and gives us a clear animated picture on the screen