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Chapter 2.
The OSI Model and TCP IP Protocol Suite

The OSI Model

Introduction
1. An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems
to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
2. The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication
between different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the
underlying hardware and software.
3. The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems
that allows communication between all types of computer systems.
4. It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part
of the process of moving information across a network.

Layered Architecture in OSI

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1. The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers.

2. In developing the model, the designers identified which networking
functions had related uses and collected those functions into discrete
groups that became the layers.
3. The OSI model allows complete interoperability between otherwise
incompatible systems.
4. Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the
layer just below it. Layer 3, for example, uses the services provided
by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4.
5. Between machines, layer x on one machine logically communicates
with layer x on another machine, this communication is governed by
an agreed-upon series of rules and conventions called protocols.

How Layer-to-Layer Communication take place in OSI

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i) The layers involved when a message is sent from device A to device B,

as the message travels from A to B, it may pass through many
intermediate nodes, these intermediate nodes usually involve only the
first three layers of the OSI model.
ii) At the sending site, the message is moved down from layer 7 to layer 1.
iii) At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form that can be
transferred to the receiving site and at the receiving site, the message is
moved up from layer 1 to layer 7.
Interfaces between Layers
(a) The passing of the data and network information down through
the layers of the sending device and back up through the layers of
the receiving device is made possible by an interface between
each pair of adjacent layers.
(b) Each interface defines what information and services a layer must
provide for the layer above it.
(c) As long as a layer provides the expected services to the layer
above it, the specific implementation of its functions can be
modified or replaced without requiring changes to the
surrounding layers.
Organization of the Layers
a) The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three
subgroups. Layers 1, 2, and 3physical, data link, and
networkare the network support layers; they deal with the
physical aspects of moving data from one device to another
(such as electrical specifications, physical connections, physical
addressing, and transport timing and reliability).

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b) Layers 5, 6, and 7session, presentation, and applicationcan

be thought of as the user support layers; they allow
interoperability among unrelated software systems.
c) Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups and
ensures that what the lower layers have transmitted is in a
form that the upper layers can use.
d) The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in
software; lower layers are a combination of hardware and
software, except for the physical layer, which is mostly
hardware.
Encapsulation in OSI

a) Above a packet at level 7 is encapsulated in the packet at level 6; the

whole packet at level 6 is encapsulated in a packet at level 5, and so
on.
b) In other words, the data part of a packet at level N is carrying the
whole packet (data and overhead) from level N + 1.

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c) The concept is called encapsulation because level N is not aware

what part of the encapsulated packet is data and what part is the
header or trailer(indicate the end of data).

Layers in the OSI Model

1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for moving individual bits from one
(node) to the next.
The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and media : The physical layer
defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and
the transmission media, it also defines the type of transmission
media
2. Representation of bits : The physical layer data consists of a stream
of bits (sequence of 0s or 1s) with no interpretation. To be
transmitted, bits must be encoded into signalselectrical or optical.
The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0s and 1s are
changed to signals).
3. Data rate : The transmission ratethe number of bits sent each
secondis also defined by the physical layer.
4. Synchronization of bits : The sender and receiver must not only use
the same bit rate but must also be synchronized at the bit level. In
other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be
synchronized.
5. Line configuration : The physical layer is concerned with the
connection of devices to the media.
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6. Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are

connected to make a network.
7. Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or fullduplex.
2. Data Link Layer
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a
reliable link. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer
(network layer).
Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
1. Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data units called frames.
2. Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on
the network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the
sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system
outside the senders network, the receiver address is the address of the
connecting device that connects the network to the next one.
3. Flow control. If the rate at which the data is absorbed by the receiver is less
than the rate produced at the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow
control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver.
4. Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by
adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It
also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is
normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
5. Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link,
data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has
control over the link at any given time.
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3. Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a
packet, possibly across multiple networks (links).
If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for
a network layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different
networks (links) with connecting devices between the networks (links),
there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-todestination delivery.
Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:
1 Logical addressing
a. The physical addressing(MAC Address) implemented by the data link
layer handles the addressing problem locally.
b. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system to help distinguish the source and destination
systems.
c. The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the
upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical
addresses(IP Addresses) of the sender and receiver.
2 Routing
a. When independent networks or links are connected together to
create internetworks (network of networks) or a large network, the
connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the
packets to their final destination.
b. One of the functions of the network layer is to provide this
mechanism.

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4. Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the
entire message.
The transport layer, ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in
order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the source-todestination level.
Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
1 Service-point addressing :
a. Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this
reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from
one computer to the next but also from a specific process (running
program) on one computer to a specific process (running program)
on the other.
b. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address
called a service-point address (or port address).
2 Segmentation and reassembly
a. A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment
containing a sequence number.
b. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the
message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify
and replace packets that were lost in transmission.

3 Connection control
a. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connectionoriented.
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b. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an

independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the
destination machine.
c. A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection with the
transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the
packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is
terminated.
4 Flow control
a. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow
control, however, flow control at this layer is performed end to end
rather than across a single link.
5 Error control
a. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control, however, error control at this layer is performed process-toprocess rather than across a single link.

5. Session Layer
The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains,
and synchronizes the interaction between communicating systems.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
1 Dialog control
The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows
the communication between two processes to take place in either
half duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time)
mode.

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2 Synchronization
The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints
(synchronization points) into a stream of data. For example, if a
system is sending a file of 2,000 pages, it is advisable to insert
checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit
is received and acknowledged independently.

6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems.
Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following
1 Translation
a. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually
exchanging information in the form of character strings, numbers,
and so on.
b. The information should be changed to bit streams before being
transmitted. Because different computers use different encoding
systems, the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
between these different encoding methods.
c. The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from
its sender-dependent format into a common format.
d. The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the
common format into its receiver-dependent format.

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2 Encryption
a. To carry sensitive information a system must be able to assure
privacy.
b. Encryption means that the sender transforms the original
information to another form and sends the resulting message out
over the network.
c. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message
back to its original form.
3 Compression
a. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information.
b. Data compression becomes particularly important in the
transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.

7. Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to
access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail,
remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and other
types of distributed information services.
Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:
1 Network virtual terminal
a. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal
and allows a user to log on to a remote host.
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b. To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a terminal

at the remote host.
c. The users computer talks to the software terminal, which, in turn,
talks to the host, and vice versa.
2 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM)
a. This application allows a user to access files in a remote host (to make
changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use
in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote
computer locally.
3 E-mail services
a. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
4 Directory services
a. This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model.
Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not match exactly with those
in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software
layers built upon the hardware. Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a fivelayer model with the layers named similarly to the ones in the OSI model.
Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP Protocol Suite
1. Two layers, session and presentation, are missing from the TCP/IP protocol
suite. These two layers were not added to the TCP/IP protocol suite after
the publication of the OSI model.
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2. The application layer in the suite is usually considered to be the

combination of three layers in the OSI model. Two reasons were mentioned
for this decision.
a. TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer protocol, Some of the
functionalities of the session layer are available in some of the
transport layer protocols.
b. The application layer is not only one piece of software. Many
applications can be developed at this layer. If some of the
functionalities mentioned in the session and presentation are needed
for a particular application, it can be included in the development of
that piece of software.

Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Introduction :
1. An internet is made up of several small networks, which we call links, A link
is a network that allows a set of computers to communicate with each
other.

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2. For example, if all computers in an office are wired together, the

connection makes a link.
3. different links are connected together by devices called routers or switches
that route the data to reach their final destinations.
4. Following figure shows imaginary internet which have six links and four
routers (R1 to R4) and only two computers, A and B.

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1. Physical Layer

1. TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the physical layer rather it
supports all of the standard and proprietary protocols.
2. The communication is between two hops or nodes which can be either a
computer or router.
3. The unit of communication is a single bit and when the connection is
established between the two nodes, a stream of bits is flowing between
them.
4. The physical layer, however, treats each bit individually.
5. In above figure we are assuming that the two computers have discovered
that the most efficient way to communicate with each other is via routers
R1, R3, and R4.
6. If a node is connected to n links, it needs n physical-layer protocols, one for
each link, i.e..different links may use different physical-layer protocols.

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7. In above representation each computer involves with only one link; each
router involves with only two links.
8. The journey of bits between computer A and computer B is made of four
independent short trips.
a. Computer A sends each bit to router R1 in the format of the protocol
used by link 1.
b. Router 1 sends each bit to router R3 in the format dictated by the
protocol used by link 3. And so on.
9. The layer connected to link 1 receives bits according to the format of the
protocol used by link 1; the layer connected to link 3 sends bits according to
the format of the protocol used by link 3.
10.The responsibility of the physical layer, in addition to delivery of bits,
matches with what mentioned for the physical layer of the OSI model, but it
mostly depends on the underlying technologies that provide links.

2. Data Link Layer

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1. TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the data link layer either, it
supports all of the standard and proprietary protocols.
2. At this level, the communication is also between two hops or nodes, the
unit of communication however, is a packet called a frame.
3. A frame is a packet that encapsulates the data received from the network
layer with an added header and sometimes a trailer.
4. The head, among other communication information, includes the source
and destination of frame, the destination address is needed to define the
right recipient of the frame because many nodes may have been connected
to the link while the source address is needed for possible response or
acknowledgment as may be required by some protocols.
5. When the frame is received by router R1, this router passes the frame to
the data link layer protocol shown at the left.
6. Then the frame is opened, the data are removed, the data are then passed
to the data link layer protocol shown at the right to create a new frame to
be sent to the router R3, the reason is that the two links, link 1 and link 3,
may be using different protocols and require frames of different formats.
7. Note also that the figure does not show the physical movement of frames;
the physical movement happens only at the physical layer. The two nodes
communicate logically at the data link layer, not physically. In other words,
the data link layer at router R1 only thinks that a frame has been sent
directly from the data link layer at computer A. What is sent from A to R1 is
a stream of bits from one physical layer to another. Since a frame at A is
transformed to a stream of bits, and the bits at R1 are transformed to a
frame, it gives this impression to the two data link layer that a frame has
been exchanged.

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3 .Network Layer

1. At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP
supports the Internet Protocol (IP).
2. The Internet Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the
TCP/IP protocols, IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of
which is transported separately.
3. Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence
or be duplicated, IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for
reordering datagrams once they arrive at their destination.
4. Communication at the network layer is end to end while the
communication at the other two layers are node to node.
5. The datagram started at computer A is the one that reaches computer B,
the network layers of the routers can inspect the source and destination of
the packet for finding the best route, but they are not allowed to change
the contents of the packet.
6. Of course, the communication is logical(using IP), not physical. Although the
network layer of computer A and B think that they are sending and
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receiving datagrams, the actual communication again is done at the

physical level.
7. The unit of communication at the network layer is a datagram.

4. Transport Layer

1. All nodes in a network need to have the network layer, only the two end
computers need to have the transport layer.
2. The network layer is responsible for sending individual datagrams from
computer A to computer B while the transport layer is responsible for
delivering the whole message, which is called a segment, a user datagram,
or a packet, from A to B.,A segment may consist of a few or tens of
datagrams.
3. Since the Internet defines a different route for each datagram, the
datagrams may arrive out of order and may be lost.

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4. The transport layer at computer B needs to wait until all of these datagrams
to arrive, assemble them and make a segment out of them.
5. The two transport layers only think that they are communicating with each
other using a segment; the communication is done through the physical
layer and the exchange of bits.
6. Traditionally, the transport layer was represented in the TCP/IP suite by
two protocols: User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP). A new protocol called Stream Control Transmission
Protocol (SCTP) has been introduced in the last few years.
7. The unit of communication at the transport layer is a segment, user
datagram, or a packet, depending on the specific protocol used in this
layer.

5. Application Layer

1. The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session,

presentation, and application layers in the OSI model.

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2. The application layer allows a user to access the services of our private
internet or the global Internet.
3. Many protocols are defined at this layer to provide services such as
electronic mail, file transfer, accessing the World Wide Web, and so on.
4. The communication at the application layer, like the one at the transport
layer, is end to end. A message generated at computer A is sent to
computer B without being changed during the transmission.
5. The unit of communication at the application layer is a message.
ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP
protocols:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Physical address
Logical address
Port address
Application-specific address.

1. Physical Addresses
a. The physical address, also known as the link address, is the address
of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN.
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b. It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.

c. It is the lowest-level address.
d. The physical addresses have authority over the link (LAN or WAN).
e. The size and format of these addresses vary depending on the
network.
f. If a frame must be sent to a group of recipients or to all systems, the
multicast or broadcast address must be simulated using unicast
addresses.
2. Logical Addresses
a. Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that
are independent of underlying physical networks.
b. Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork environment
where different networks can have different address formats.
c. A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can be
identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical network.
d. The logical addresses are designed for this purpose, a logical address
in the Internet is currently a 32-bit address that can uniquely define a
host connected to the Internet.
e. No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have
the same IP address.
f. The logical addresses can be either unicast (one single recipient),
multicast (a group of recipients), or broadcast (all systems in the
network).

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3. Port Addresses
a. The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity
of data to travel from a source to the destination host.
b. However, arrival at the destination host is not the final objective of
data communications on the Internet, a system that sends nothing
but data from one computer to another is not complete.
c. Today, computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the
same time, hence the end objective of Internet communication is a
process communicating with another process.
d. For example, computer A can communicate with computer C by
using TELNET. At the same time, computer A communicates with
computer B by using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
e. For these processes to receive data simultaneously, we need a
method to label the different processes. In other words, they need
addresses.
f. In the TCP/IP architecture, the label assigned to a process is called a
port address.
g. A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.
4. Application-Specific Addresses
a. Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for
that specific application.
b. Examples include the e-mail address (eg. [email protected]) and
the Universal Resource Locator (URL) (for example, www.mhhe.com).

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c. The first defines the recipient of an e-mail; the second is used to find
a document on the World Wide Web.
d. These addresses, however, get changed to the corresponding port
and logical addresses by the sending computer.

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